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Jos Alvarez and George H. Snyder2 1. This is EDIS document FE474, a publication of the Department of Food and Resource Economics, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, UF/IFAS, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL. Published May 2004. Reviewed August 2009. This publication is also part of the Florida Sugarcane Handbook, an electronic publication of the Department of Agronomy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL. For more information, contact the editor of the Sugarcane Handbook, Ronald W. Rice (firstname.lastname@example.org). Please visit the EDIS Web site at http://EDIS.ifas.ufl.edu. 2. Jos Alvarez, Professor, Department of Food and Resource Economics, and George H. Snyder, Distinguished Professor, Department of Soil and Water Science, Everglades Research and Education Center, Belle Glade, FL, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, UF/IFAS, University of Florida. In the Everglades Agricultural Area (EAA), south of Lake Okeechobee in Florida, approximately 445,000 acres (180,000 hectares) of land are devoted to sugarcane production. Sugarcane is generally harvested from October through April, and replanted from August through January, approximately every four years. Thus, more than 50,000 acres (20,000 hectares) of land, some flooded, are commonly idle from five to twelve months during the spring and summer. After being used as a cover crop for many years, rice was harvested for grain in the EAA for the first time in 1977, after it was demonstrated that rice could be incorporated into the sugarcane production cycle during the fallow period (Alvarez, et al., 1978). Since sugarcane is the principal crop in the rice-sugarcane rotation, researchers at the University of Florida's Everglades Research and Education Center (EREC) conducted experiments to determine the effect of rice production upon the sugarcane plant crop that followed the rice crop. This document summarizes two experiments. The first analysis was based on each producer's records (Alvarez and Snyder, 1984). The second was an experiment in commercial fields (Snyder, et al., 1986). In the absence of data from controlled experiments in the EAA, reliable information was obtained directly from the field records of four producers from 1977 through 1980. All fields were approximately 40 acres (16 hectares) and were scattered throughout the EAA. All soils were Histosols containing over 70 percent organic matter. Method of Analysis The rice effect was evaluated as follows: sugarcane plant crop yield data were collected from 82 fields in which a rice crop immediately preceded a sugarcane crop (termed rice fields). Similar data were also collected from nearby fields that were fallowed during the summer prior to the next sugarcane planting ( fallow fields). Since rice growers generally plant on more than half their available
The Rice Effect: Sugarcane Production in Florida Following Rice 2 fields, more observations were available from rice fields than from fallow fields. In some instances, due to their location in the middle of a large group of rice fields, fewer fallow fields were necessary for comparison purposes. It was not always possible to obtain fallow field data for the same sugarcane variety that was used in the planting that followed rice. Therefore, in addition to the yield data (gross tons and percentage of sucrose in normal juice), information was obtained on sugarcane variety, producing firm, planting and harvesting dates, and method of harvesting. Thus it was possible to derive equations to estimate the average sugarcane plant crop yield for rice fields and for fallow fields. The difference between these yields was termed the rice culture effect. Implicit in this analysis is the assumption that both sets of fields (which had an identical cropping sequence in the previous cycle; that is, fallow/sugarcane) would have produced approximately equal sugarcane yields in the absence of rice production in one set. To check the validity of this assumption, the plant crop data from the previous cycle in the same fields were collected and analyzed using regression analysis. Results and Discussion The yield comparisons between the fallow fields and the rice fields for the sugarcane plant crop of the previous cycle supported the hypothesis that approximately equivalent fields were chosen to estimate the rice culture effect. No significant differences were found in the equations for percentage of sucrose in normal juice (P > 0.91) and tons of sugar (P > 0.65). Since the fallow fields actually had higher production (1.09 net tons per acre) than the rice fields, any positive rice effect would be conservative with respect to net tons. The regression results of the rice culture effect show that in general all three models are statistically sound (Alvarez and Snyder, 1984, p. 318). The coefficients of the rice culture variable in the three models show a positive sign and a high statistical significance, indicating a beneficial effect of rice upon subsequent yields of sugarcane. All three intercepts were significant at the P=0.01 level. There was a significant variety of rice culture interaction. The sign of the interaction term was the same for all varieties in the three models, and only the magnitude of the coefficients varied with variety. Therefore, a mean value across varieties is used in all subsequent calculations. The adjusted coefficients of determination (R2) were very good for these types of cross-section data. The rice culture effect was substantial, with increases of 7.9 net tons of millable sugarcane per acre, 0.73 percent sucrose in normal juice per net ton of sugarcane, and 0.93 tons of sugar per acre. The second experiment was conducted on the Big B Farm property in the central region of the EAA during the1983 season (Snyder, et al., 1986). Method of Analysis Rice was produced in three fields at Location 1, in four fields at Location 2, and in eight fields at Location 3. An equal number of fallow fields were selected in Locations 1 and 3 on the basis of having been planted with the same varieties of sugarcane, on approximately the same dates, as were used in the rice fields. At Location 2, five fields were selected for comparison with the rice fields. The fields without rice production (termed check fields) were not flooded during the summer, whereas the rice fields were flooded for 150 days, for both the plant and ratoon crops, as part of the normal production system. Most fields were approximately 35 acres in size; the exception was the check fields at Location 3, which averaged 23 acres. Variety CP 72-1210 was planted at Location 1, and variety CP 70-1133 was planted at Locations 2 and 3. Results and Discussion Cropping with rice prior to planting substantially increased all measurements of production in the sugarcane plant crop at all locations, except for gross tons of sugarcane at Location 3. Although averages for quality factors (Brix, purity, sucrose, and 96o yield) at Location 1 were numerically greater in the rice fields as compared to the check fields, there were no significant differences between the two field types
The Rice Effect: Sugarcane Production in Florida Following Rice 3 at this location. Standard tons and recoverable sugar per acre (RSPA) were significantly greater for the rice fields at all three locations. The average increase in gross tons was only 8.9 percent (3.84 gross tons per acre), whereas the average increase in net standard tons (net tons adjusted for sugar content of the sugarcane) was 27.8 percent (11.95 standard tons per acre). This difference occurred because, on average, using rice culture prior to sugarcane increased Brix by 8.0 percent and purity by 5.6 percent, which resulted in an increase in sucrose of 14.3 percent. RSPA averaged 1.0 ton per acre greater in the rice fields. Quality factors, such as Brix and purity, were particularly increased by the rice cultures at Locations 2 and 3. Sugarcane at these latter locations was harvested after severe freezes on January 6 and 22, 1985. There are two potential economic benefits to sugarcane growers from a rice-sugarcane rotation instead of fallowing in the short run. The first benefit is the direct return from the rice crop to the grower and those servicing the industry. The second benefit is the returns from the extra yield in the subsequent sugarcane crop. In the long run, this is a soil conservation practice, which results in more years of farming, because it slows down the oxidation of the organic soils. The economic benefits, in terms of total net returns, can be calculated using the NR = (P x SRE) (HC x GRE) formula, where NR equals total net returns; P equals the price per pound of sugar; SRE is the rice culture effect in terms of pounds of sugar per acre; HC represents the extra harvesting, loading, and hauling costs per gross ton of sugarcane; and GRE is the rice culture effect expressed in gross tons of sugarcane per acre. The First Experiment The rice culture effect in the first experiment was estimated at 0.93 ton of sugar per acre. Harvesting, loading, and hauling costs for the 1983-84 season were $11 per gross ton of sugarcane. The average season price of sugar was around $0.20 per pound, New York spot price, with $0.126 going to the grower, reflecting the 63 percent share accruing to the producer of independent sugarcane. In terms of gross tons, assuming a three percent trash content, the rice culture effect was 8.14 gross tons per acre. Therefore, the rice effect equals a total net return of $145 per acre [($0.126 x 1,860 lbs) ($11 x 8.14 gross tons)]. Extra returns also accrue to the processors grinding the sugarcane and to both growers and processors from the additional molasses produced. The Second Experiment The rice effect was estimated at one ton of sugar per acre. Harvesting, loading, and hauling costs for the 1984-85 season were $12 per gross ton of sugarcane. The average season price of sugar was around $0.21 per pound, with $0.1323 going to the grower. In terms of gross tons, the rice culture effect was 8.6 tons per acre. Therefore, the rice effect equals a total net revenue of $161 per acre ($0.1323 x 2000 lbs) ($12 x 8.6 gross tons), excluding extra revenues from molasses. The existence of a rice effect increasing both biomass and sucrose yields in the subsequent sugarcane plant crop in a rice-sugarcane rotation was established in the first experiment and confirmed in the second experiment. Neither study provided any conclusive evidence as to the reason for the rice effect. A common factor in both experiments is that the summer fallow fields were not flooded, as opposed to the rice fields, which were flooded for an extensive period. Since the early times of rice production as a cover crop in the EAA, flooding has been shown to control a variety of plant pests such as soil-borne diseases, insects, and nematodes (Greene, 1953; Stoner and Moore, 1953; Thames and Stoner, 1953; Genung, 1970). However, the question of whether the rice effect is due solely to the extensive flooding associated with the crop was not resolved. First using a rice crop to recycle nutrients that might otherwise be leached from the soil by heavy summer rains could benefit the sugarcane crop that follows (Yadav and Singh, 1987, p. 600). Improvements in soil tilth, soil aeration, water infiltration and drainage following flooding and
The Rice Effect: Sugarcane Production in Florida Following Rice 4 stubble incorporation, and better water table control associated with the use of laser leveling may also have contributed to the higher sugarcane yields. There is one important implication derived from these results. Substantial average yield increases can be obtained by simply growing rice before replanting sugarcane fields. The actual magnitude of the rice culture effect for individual producers, as shown in both experiments, will depend upon a variety of factors. However, the unveiling of the existence of the rice effect in the EAA, later confirmed with field experiments on sandy loam soils in India (Yadav and Singh, 1987), could be of major economic importance to the sugarcane industry in south Florida and other areas of the world where rice can be grown in rotation with sugarcane. Alvarez, Jose, and George H. Snyder. 1984. Effect of Prior Rice Culture on Sugarcane Yields in Florida. Field Crops Research 9:315-321. Alvarez, Jose, Gerald Kidder, and George H. Snyder. 1978. The Economic Potential for Growing Rice and Sugarcane in Rotation in the Everglades. Proceedings of the Soil and Crop Science Society of Florida 38:12-15. Genung, W.G. 1970. Flooding Experiments for Control of Wireworms Attacking Vegetable Crops in the Everglades. Florida Entomologist 53:55-63. Greene, V.E., Jr. 1953. Rice Growing is Added to Everglades Agriculture. Crop Soils 6:14. Snyder, G.H., R.H. Caruthers, J. Alvarez, and D.B. Jones. 1986. Sugarcane Production in the Everglades Following Rice. Journal of the American Society of Sugar Cane Technologists 6:50-55. Stoner, W.N., and W.D. Moore. 1953. Lowland Rice Farming: A Possible Control for Sclerotina sclerotiorum in the Everglades. Plant Disease Reporter 37:181-186. Thames, W.H., Jr. and W.N. Stoner. 1953. A Preliminary Trial of Lowland Rice Culture in Rotation with Vegetable Crops as a Means of Reducing Root-knot Nematode Infestations in the Everglades. Plant Disease Reporter 37:187-192. Yadav, D.V., and R.D. Singh. 1987. Effect on Yield and Juice Quality of Sugarcane Following Rice. Journal of Agricultural Sciences 109:599-600. | <urn:uuid:611a909f-748e-400a-b600-074c0c6d328a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ufdc.ufl.edu/IR00003321/00001 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00139-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949639 | 2,990 | 3.234375 | 3 |
The National Museum of Ireland is the national museum in Ireland. It has three branches in Dublin and one in County Mayo, with a strong emphasis on Irish art, culture and natural history.
The Archaeology section on Kildare Street has displays on prehistoric Ireland, including early work in gold, church treasures and the Viking and medieval periods. There are special displays of items from Egypt, Cyprus and the Roman World, and special exhibitions are regularly mounted. This section includes famous examples of early medieval Celtic metalwork in Ireland such as the Ardagh Chalice, Tara Brooch, and the Derrynaflan Hoard. Prehistoric pieces include the Iron Age Broighter Gold and over 50 gold lunulas (not all on display), and other Bronze Age jewellery.
Decorative Arts and History:
Decorative Arts and History, including the Great Seal of the Irish Free State, is the part of the collection kept at the Collins Barracks site, a former military barracks named after Michael Collins in 1922. This site, opened in 1997 and also holds the Museum's administrative centre, a shop and a coffee shop. This section has displays of furniture, silver, ceramics and glassware, as well as examples of folk life and costume, and money and weapons. A Chinese porcelain vase from about 1300 AD, the Fonthill vase, is one of the features. Special exhibitions are mounted regularly, in summer 2007, for example, one of Irish High Crosses. The Soldiers & Chiefs exhibition features military artefacts and memorabilia tracing Ireland's military history from 1550 to the present.
Country Life is the most recent part of the museum to be opened. It is located just outside Turlough Village, on the N5 eight kilometres east of Castlebar, in County Mayo, and was opened in 2001. The museum is focused on ordinary life from the mid-19th century to the mid-20th century, with much of the material coming from rural Ireland in the 1930s. There are displays on the home, the natural environment, communities and forces for change.
Natural History Museum:
The Natural History Museum, which is part of the National Museum, although often thought of as distinct, is on Merrion Street in Dublin and houses specimens of animals from around the world. Its collection and Victorian appearance have not changed significantly since the early 20th century. | <urn:uuid:cd3f3162-3763-4a0c-b55f-5732e2d68882> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.touristlink.com/ireland/national-museum-of-ireland/overview.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00050-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958179 | 485 | 2.828125 | 3 |
It is a tradition for many schoolchildren to have a Valentine’s Day party in February. At these Valentine’s Day parties the children are encouraged to bring Valentine’s Day notes or treats for the other members of the class. These notes and treats are then placed into the cardholder or box that each child decorated and brought to class that day. In this article, you will read about some ideas for how you can make one of these card-holding boxes with your child.
A simple Valentine’s Day cardholder
You can use a shoebox, construction paper, scissors and glue to make a fun and festive (yet simple) Valentine’s Day cardholder for your child. When you use a shoebox most of the work is already done for you. All that you have left to do is to decorate the box in a festive manner. You can do this in many different ways. You could have a theme in mind when decorating your box.
Maybe you have a favorite animal or a favorite thing about Valentine’s Day that you would like to portray on your box. Feel free to use magazine clippings, photos or stickers to decorate your box. Either you can have the box open by the lid or you can cut a slit in the top of the box that is big enough to slide the valentines through.
Using a box to make something else
Valentine’s Day cardholders can be one of the most exciting parts of Valentine’s Day if you want to put that much effort into the project. You can transform a shoebox into a robot, an animal, virtually anything that you can think of! Be creative with how you decorate your box by thinking outside of the box. You can visit a hat store or shoe store and ask for boxes of unusual shapes or sizes. Or you could find a pattern on the Internet and make a box of your own (paper folding makes more things possible than you may realize). | <urn:uuid:8737eed8-1ff7-43fa-bd80-0765461856d3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.surfnetkids.com/valentinesday/1171/valentines-day-card-holders/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00065-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93566 | 411 | 2.546875 | 3 |
That the governments of the world finally united behind the goal of eradicating extreme poverty and hunger—and that they have not merely endorsed this goal in a vague and general way, but committed to a concrete plan with a very specific intermediate target—is surely cause for celebration. Some have even claimed that the Millennium Development Goals express the international community's commitment to set the terms of globalization so that it serves the interests of the poor.
In this paper, delivered at a Carnegie Council seminar in November 2003, Thomas Pogge argues to the contrary that:
- The celebrated first MDG (to cut world poverty in half by 2015) actually amounts to a dramatic cut-back in the poverty reduction the same governments had promised earlier (e.g., in the 1996 Rome Declaration on World Food Security).
- The method used to count the poor is deeply flawed and can be used to produce widely divergent estimates of the extent, distribution, and trend of world poverty.
- The planned poverty reduction is radically underambitious given that
about one third of all human deaths (some 18 million annually) are from poverty-related causes;
- the global poverty gap is only a minuscule fraction of the social products of the rich countries; and
- the global institutional order these countries impose plays a major causal role in the persistence of poverty.
- about one third of all human deaths (some 18 million annually) are from poverty-related causes;
- The first MDG and its public celebration among the affluent hides the largest (though not the gravest) crime against humanity ever committed.
Download: The First Millennium Development Goal (PDF, 48.80 K) | <urn:uuid:8113b1c4-90da-4eb3-a0a3-38ddc98c0a33> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.carnegiecouncil.org/publications/articles_papers_reports/1076.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398209.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00049-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.916451 | 337 | 3.4375 | 3 |
Methamphetamine is a stimulant
drug chemically related to amphetamine but with stronger effects on the central
nervous system. Street names for the drug include "speed," "meth,"
"crystal," and "crank." Methamphetamine is used in pill
form, or in powdered form by snorting or injecting. Crystallized methamphetamine
known as "ice," "crystal," or "glass," is a smokable
and more powerful form of the drug.
has three patterns: low intensity, binge, and high intensity. Low-intensity
addiction describes a user who does not have psychological addiction to the
meth but uses methamphetamine on a casual basis by swallowing or snorting it.
Binge and high-intensity abusers have a psychological addiction to meth and
prefer to smoke or inject methamphetamine to achieve a faster and stronger high.
Binge abusers use methamphetamine more than individuals with low-intensity meth
addiction but less than individuals with a high-intensity meth addiction.
symptoms included but are not limited to:
- long, disturbed periods
- intense hunger
- moderate to severe depression
- psychotic reactions
Meth withdrawal, length and severity
of depression is related to how much and how often Meth was used. Withdrawal symptoms including, cravings,
exhaustion, depression, mental confusion, restlessness, insomnia, deep or disturbed
sleep, may last up to 48 hours. | <urn:uuid:1b412e0b-2c2c-4290-aa9a-96999d31aeb1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.drug-withdrawal.com/meth.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398075.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00089-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934892 | 299 | 2.84375 | 3 |
It is widely known that the right and left hemispheres of the brain perform different tasks. Lesions to the left hemisphere typically bring impairments in language production and comprehension, while lesions to the right hemisphere give rise to deficits in the visual-spatial perception, such as the inability to recognize familiar faces.
In the last few years, we have become used to the idea that functional asymmetry between the left and right sides of the nervous system is not unique to humans: fishes, amphibians, birds and mammals have functional and anatomical asymmetries.
So, the idea that all vertebrate species, even non-human ones without any linguistic skills, have an asymmetric brain seems to be finally accepted. Now, this process of extension among species is going on and brain lateralization has been extended beyond the class Vertebrata. Insects, with their nervous system so different from that of vertebrates, are also "lateralized", as shown in a paper published in PLoS ONE by Lesley J. Rogers of the Centre for Neuroscience and Animal Behaviour, University of New England (Australia), and Giorgio Vallortigara, of the Centre for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento (Italy).
The authors studied memory in bees using a widely tested procedure, known as proboscis extension reflex (PER). When presented with a droplet of sugar solution, the honeybee extends its proboscis to get it. If an odour stimulus, such as lemon scent, is present shortly before the droplet, after very short training, animals learn to extend their proboscis when the odour alone is presented.
The honeybee can learn to discriminate between different odours, extending its proboscis to lemon and not to vanilla, keeping memory of the correct scent for a long period. The odour is perceived by the two antennae that honeybees have on their heads. After the bees had been trained using both antennae, Rogers and Vallortigara tested their recall ability, by coating either the left or right antenna with a harmless latex-based substance and thus rendering one antenna incapable of detecting odour.
The authors observed that, one hour after training, honeybees recognized the correct odour when the right antenna was in use and didn't when using the left antenna. However, 24 hours after training, the pattern reversed: correct responses were significantly higher when the left antenna was in use.
The "lateralization" appears to be linked to memory consolidation. Testing animals using lateral presentation (the odour was presented to the left or right side of the bee) and no coating of the antennae (both antennae in use), the authors found that bees showed better recall of the task when they were tested at one hour after training using the right antenna, an effect that disappeared three hours after training. However, by 6 hours after training, a lateral shift had occurred and the memory could be recalled mainly when the left antenna was in use. The left antenna took over on the long period (after 6 hours and remained so at 24 hours).
It would seem that the right antenna and the associated neural structures form the basis for a short term and relatively temporary memory, and left antenna supports long term learning, taking place from about 3 hours after training on.
It is not clear at present whether learning via the right antenna is sufficient to trigger shorter-term encoding on the right side of the brain and longer-term encoding on the left side of the brain. An alternative hypothesis would be that the memory encoding is the same on both sides of the brain but only the right antenna has access for shorter-term recall and only the left antenna has access for longer-term recall.
What could the ecological reason for that be? Perhaps the shift from one antenna to the other allows use of the right antenna to learn about new odours without interference from odour memories in long-term stores. It is known that bees visit different flowers at different times of the day, as nectar becomes available, and this would require the formation of different odour associations during the course of the day, a process that might be aided if recall of earlier odour memories is avoided on the learning side of the brain.
Citation: Rogers LJ, Vallortigara G (2008) From Antenna to Antenna: Lateral Shift of Olfactory Memory Recall by Honeybees. PLoS ONE 3(6): e2340. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002340
PLEASE ADD THE LINK TO THE PUBLISHED ARTICLE IN ONLINE VERSIONS OF YOUR REPORT (URL live from June 4): http://www.
PRESS-ONLY PREVIEW: http://www.
Related image for press use: http://www. | <urn:uuid:eab057c2-9060-4ba5-aa7b-90b3c0b48d11> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-06/plos-mih060208.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00033-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934218 | 974 | 3.671875 | 4 |
Magnetoencephalography (MEG) Scanner
This video was produced by Elekta and used by The Nebraska Medical Center with permission. The Nebraska Medical Center MEG Center is an Elekta Neuromag(R) center in North America.
Magnetoencephalography (MEG) scan is the newest technique used to precisely map functional areas of the brain. The MEG scanner generates a real-time movie of brain activity as a patient is asked to do specific exercises. It is currently the best method for generating preoperative brain maps, the scan helps neurosurgeons determine the best surgical approach.
For more information about the MEG Center at The Nebraska Medical Center, visit http://www.nebraskamed.com or call 1-800-922-0000. | <urn:uuid:88e61f92-f224-471c-a20b-723aff64cae6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nebraskamed.com/health-library/youtube/detail/123/magnetoencephalography-(meg)-scanner | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398209.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00094-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.86772 | 166 | 2.8125 | 3 |
rob, a 22 year old male from the Internet asks on May 30, 2007,
Is it possible for a wild koala bear to ignite as a result of the sun's radiated heat igniting the eucalyptus oils found on and within the kola's fur? If so, is this a common occurrence? I don't think there is any scientific evidence to support the theory but due to eucalyptus oil having a relatively low ignition point at approximately 110 degrees and the sun's temperature exceeding this in certain parts of Australia the eucalyptus oil present on the fur and skin of the animal may ignite. Do you think this is possible? It's very much a split decision in the office at the moment.
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What a ripper of a question! We have been asked some absolute beauties in our time, but this one is up there with the best. The staff here at the Koala Hospital have visions of koalas exploding in trees all over the Australian bush when temperatures get too high and the eucalyptus oil within their bodies and on their fur ignites. We can just picture balls of flaming fur flying through the air with stunned smoking koalas landing on the ground with a thud, shaking the soot, ash and cinders out of their blackened fur and in a weak, dry crackling voice saying, "Stone the crows...its bloody hot today."
If this was a true fact, there wouldn't be any grey fluffy furry koalas in Australia, only black balls of smouldering smoky marsupials sitting in the forks of leafless crispy eucalyptus trees.
First we must note that koalas are NOT bears. They are not a placental mammal but a marsupial mammal with pouched young. Koalas have evolved alongside the Australian Eucalypts for thousands and thousands (probably millions) of years and have developed not only strategies to cope with the volatile oils in the eucalyptus leaf but also have developed strategies to cope with high temperatures.
No they most certainly do not ignite. When temperatures in summer reach about 40 degree C (104F), koala behaviour dictates that they move to lower more cooler areas of the trees, they even move to trees that are not eucalypts, that may offer more shade. Their fur has double thickness, which insulates them from both the cold and the heat. Temperatures of 40-45 degrees would not be hot enough to cause ignition anyway. It would be an extremely rare event for the temperature to go higher than 45 degrees (113 F) in areas where koalas are normally known to inhabit. On the western plains of Queensland and New South Wales where temperatures will go higher and the koala population is very scattered, the koalas behaviour again would dictate that they would seek cooler/shadier spots during the heat of the day. They are not silly creatures and would not expose themselves to extremes.
Eucalypt trees DO NOT ignite at 110 degrees (Fahrenheit??). Eucalypt oil does not ignite in the leaf due to the suns heat radiating on them. If eucalypt oil was able to ignite at 110 degrees Fahrenheit then we would not have any eucalypt forests in Australia -- they would have all become extinct a long time ago.
The koalas have a large multi-lobed highly efficient liver and gut system which copes very well in dealing with and eliminating the toxic oils in the eucalypt leaf.
There are no recorded cases of spontaneous combustion in koalas. If they were able to ignite, the koala population probably would have become extinct millenia ago. Thank goodness for natural selection and evolutionary strategies of nature!
Note: All submissions are moderated prior to posting.
If you found this answer useful, please consider making a small donation to science.ca. | <urn:uuid:5bd5b015-afe0-415d-a9a1-2d3edfe47a71> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.science.ca/askascientist/viewquestion.php?qID=3878 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00151-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957712 | 813 | 2.59375 | 3 |
A. Since IPv6 address's are 128-bit and hence four times longer than an IPv4 address, addresses are expressed as:
where each X is a 4-digit hexadecimal integer (16 bits) and each digit is 4 bits and so can be between 0 and F (F is 15 in hexadecimal) and so examples of valid addresses would be
Notice in the second address you can leave off any leading zeros, but you must have at least one numeral in each part. For example :0800: can be written as :800:.
Obviously you may have a large sequence of zero's in the address and so it is possible to have a single gap by writing :: which will fill the gap with zero's, for example
may be written as
0:0:0:0:0:0:0:1 the loopback address (the same as 127.0.0.1 in IPv4) can be written as ::1.
A third format is available, when dealing with a mixed environment of IPv4 and IPv6 nodes is
where the 'x's are the hexadecimal values of the six high-order 16-bit pieces of the address, and the 'd's are the decimal values of the four low-order 8-bit pieces of the address (standard IPv4 representation). Examples:
or in compressed form:
The subnet mask is now replaced by a number appended to the network address specifying the number of bits making up the network part (CIDR notation), e.g. ipv6-address/prefix-length:
Means the first 60 bits make up the network part of the address.
When writing both a node address and a prefix of that node address (e.g., the node's subnet prefix), the two can combined as follows:
the node address 11AC:0:0:CA20:123:4567:89AB:CDEF
and its subnet number 11AC:0:0:CA20::/60
can be abbreviated as 11AC:0:0:CA20:123:4567:89AB:CDEF/60 | <urn:uuid:756f9e4c-870c-4ae2-b619-87a9d28583d3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://windowsitpro.com/networking/how-will-ipv6-addresses-be-written | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00029-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.87763 | 454 | 3.59375 | 4 |
Griffith, George (1857–1906)
George Griffith was a prolific author, traveler, and adventurer, described by Sam Moskowitz as "undeniably the most popular science fiction writer in England between 1893 and 1895 ... it is entirely conceivable that Griffith's science fiction outsold that of Wells." His work, however, was overshadowed by that of Wells and never influential in the United States because of the author's anti-American views.
George Chetwynd Griffith-Jones (his real name) portrayed a fully inhabited solar system in his Stories of Other Worlds, serialized in Pearson's Magazine from January to June 1900, and published in book-form as A Honeymoon in Space (1901). Like Wells, he sets his extraterrestrial yarn explicitly in the context of Darwinian evolution. On their post-nuptial tour of the Moon and planets, the eccentric Earl of Redgrave and his young American wife discover that each world illustrates the effect of biological evolution according to the stage each has reached in its development. Jupiter is still primordial and volcanic, while Saturn, further along its life-cycle, harbors giant reptiles and humanoids living in caves and trees. Following other Victorian writers of science fiction and romance, including Greg, Cromie, Pope, and Wells, Griffiths describes, on some of his worlds, civilizations that have surpassed our own, technologically and intellectually, but then degenerated in one way or another. On the Moon, the Redgraves find a race that has passed its peak and fallen into barbarous decay, while on Mars there are "purely intellectual beings" who, having regressed culturally, are now merely "cold" and "calculating" (much as Wells describes his Martian invaders in The War of the Worlds). Yet not all is doom and gloom, and Griffiths offers other evolutionary end-points for intelligence. On Venus, life has matured spiritually rather than materially in an environment free from sin (a theological theme that would be taken up in more earnest by C. S. Lewis). On the other hand "superhuman intelligence" on Jupiter's moon Ganymede has managed to transcend the degrading, Darwinian struggle for survival, and attain a state in which high rationality and culture are combined.
Related category SCIENCE FICTION
Home • About • Copyright © The Worlds of David Darling • Encyclopedia of Alternative Energy • Contact | <urn:uuid:0e39392c-4dea-499f-ad1e-0c2625690451> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/G/Griffith.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00075-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959395 | 487 | 2.84375 | 3 |
|Limber Pine - Pinus flexilis|
Family Pinaceae: Pine, Cedar, Spruce, Fir
Limber pine is a slow growing, long-lived species, taking a hundred years to reach maturity.
Limber pine is a slow growing, long-lived species, sometimes taking several hundred years to reach maturity. Mature trees may exceed 1000 years of age. Limber pine stands are broadly even-aged, though populations also occur in uneven-aged stands and on very harsh sites as widely spaced, isolated individuals [96,102,112]. Trees often have an irregular or multi-stem growth form, and rarely reach over 50 feet (15 m). At high elevations they sometimes form krummholz (stunted, twisted shrub-like formations caused by exposure to wind. German for "twisted wood"). Trunks may reach 6.5 feet (2 m) in diameter. The species is cold and drought tolerant. Trees are ectomycorrhizal, have deep taproots, and are very windfirm. Limber pine is often killed by fire because of its relatively thin bark.
Limber pine grows across a wider range of elevations that any other tree species in the central Rocky Mountains, inhabiting some of the driest sites capable of supporting trees.
Limber Pine - Pinus flexilis
The large, wingless seeds of limber pine have high energy content. Pine "nuts" provide critical food for rodents and birds, which cache the seeds for later use. Other small mammals and birds benefit from these caches. Bears also feed from caches. Sites with limber pine provide key winter range for deer and elk. Bighorn sheep use open stands on ridges. Difficult access and low grass production result in low forage value of limber pine stands for livestock.
Because of its slow growth, limber pine has been used only to a limited extent in land reclamation projects. Vegetation recovery is slow on the exposed, hot, dry, rocky sites where it is found, and soil erosion can prevent complete restoration. However, limber pine's drought tolerance and ability to survive at high elevations indicate that it has potential for use in revegetation projects.
Management of limber pine forests associated with Douglas-fir typically favors the growth of the economically important Douglas-fir. Of primary management importance in these areas is watershed protection and enhancement. The slow rate of vegetation recovery in areas where limber pine occurs requires dispersed, low-impact recreation to maintain the aesthetic appeal of these forests. Forage productivity can be increased by periodic surface fires .
Limber Pine Bark
The wood of limber pine has little commercial value. Its potential for timber and fuelwood production is low, because the trees are slow growing with irregular form. Limber pine has been used locally for mine props and railroad ties .
Limber pine dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium cyanocarpum) is a damaging parasite of limber pine, whitebark pine (P. albicaulis Engelm.), Rocky Mountain bristlecone pine (P. aristata Engelm.) and Great Basin bristlecone pine (P. longaeva D.K. Bailey). Limber pine dwarf mistletoe occurs in the Rocky Mountains from southern Montana to southern Colorado and Utah. It also occurs in widely scattered populations in the Great Basin (southern Idaho, western Utah and Nevada), and in the southern Sierra Nevada Mountains.
1. Jane E. Taylor1 and Robert L. Mathiason, "Limber Pine Dwarf Mistletoe" Forest Insect and Disease Leaflet
2. USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN)
3. U.S. Forest Service Fire Effects Information Pinus flexilis
|Tree Encyclopedia / North American Insects & Spiders is dedicated to providing scientific and educational resources for our users through use of large images and macro photographs of flora and fauna.|
Tree Encyclopedia | Tree Index
Trees live longer than any other organism on earth. Trees commonly live more than 1,000 years, and many grow considerably older. Trees have been living on Earth for more than 370 million years, and today can be found almost everywhere from the Arctic Circle to the Sahara Desert. Explore over 2,000 large format pictures of trees in more than 400 species. Family Pinaceae: Pine, Cedar, Spruce, and Fir | <urn:uuid:1157748e-adfb-4c2f-b1f1-46993081c09b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cirrusimage.com/tree_limber_pine.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00037-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.909125 | 918 | 3.671875 | 4 |
compiled by Dee Finney
CURRENT EARTH ROTATION CHARTS
Wind speed and direction respond to pressure gradient forces that exist between high and low pressure areas.
In the Northern Hemisphere and because of the rotation of the earth, winds circulate in a clockwise fashion around
areas of high pressure and in a counter-clockwise manner around regions of lower pressure. Air pressure decreases
relatively slowly with height in regions dominated by warm air and relatively rapidly with height in areas where
cold air prevails. As a result, wind patterns in the upper atmosphere tend to flow in an oscillating manner around
major pockets of warm and cold air.
Wind results from physical forces that act on the air.
A force is an influence on a body which causes the body to accelerate (change speed or
direction). Newton's First Law of Motion states that a body at rest will remain at rest, and a body in motion will
remain in motion unless acted upon by an unbalanced force. If forces balance (no net force), then we have either
no motion or uniform motion in a straight line.
Newton's 2nd Law of Motion states that the acceleration (rate of change of velocity) of
a body is directly proportional to the net force upon the body, or F = ma, where F = force, m = mass, and a = acceleration.
Gravitational force- keeps the molecules in the atmosphere from moving into space. Gravity's influence is stronger
near the earth's surface and weaker aloft.
Vertical pressure gradient force- closely balances gravity so that all the molecules in the atmosphere are not
forced into the lowest meter above the ground. The vertical pressure gradient force results from molecules in the
high pressure near the earth's surface trying to move upward where the pressure is lower.
Coriolis force- the force that results from Earth's rotation.
The Coriolis force solely results
from living on a rotating object -- Earth. It acts only on objects moving with respect to the earth's surface (e.g.,
the air, planes, birds, missiles, etc.). It is only significant over long distances (e.g., hundreds or thousands
of miles) and long time spans (e.g., 12 hours or longer). Hence, tornadoes are not influenced by the Coriolis force.
Neither is the water draining in your sink. The Coriolis force always will deflect objects to the right
in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. The Coriolis force will never change the
speed of an object, only its direction
Friction- the drag exerted on the air by the earth's surface (e.g., plants, trees, buildings, mountains, etc.).
Centrifugal force- the tendency for a body to resist a change in direction
If Earth did not rotate, air currents would flow directly from areas of high pressure
to areas of low pressure. However, because Earth does rotate, air currents ultimately become involved in a tug-of-war
between pressure gradient forces and the Coriolis force. The result is that air circulates counterclockwise
around areas of low pressure in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise around areas of high pressure
DANGER OF WIND IN MOBILE HOMES
HURRICANES AND SPINOFF TORNADOS
AVOID TRAVEL IN THESE CONDITIONS
Blowing/shifting snow: Loose snow and wind force more than 11 m/sec (fresh breeze, 18
knots) with blowing snow partially obstructing road view and/or danger of road conditions deteriorating within
the next few hours.
Blizzard: Wind force 16 m/sec (moderate gale, 30 knots) or more and snowfall, difficult
traveling weather, considerable danger of road conditions worsening at short notice.
Fog: Heavy fog with obstructed vision. In the interest of traffic safety motorists
are advised to proceed with caution.
WIND NEWS - 2002
ALASKA - WINTER STORM WARNINGS
DOPPLER - WEATHER WARNINGS
MOUNTAIN WEATHER AND WINDS
PACIFIC OCEAN WEATHER AND WINDS
PROTECTING YOURSELF FROM COLD AND WIND
TORNADO DANGER SIGNS
WIND DIRECTIONS IN GREAT BRITAIN
Wind gusts of up to 80mph
were reported and a tornado was confirmed in eastern . ... Within four km.,
the wind would be of
tornado force, six hundred km. ...
Just that quick, the wind
and rain hit the house and rushed past, ... That
wind had to have been over
200 miles an hour. The rain and wind
was viscious. ...
This morning Earth entered a solar wind
stream flowing from a coronal hole on the Sun. NASA's ACE spacecraft, which
monitors the solar wind,
Sep 14, 2000 ... All wind
instruments were destroyed, expert engineering analysis of the damage
indicated that gusts were in the range of 150-200 mph at ...
The runaway atmosphere is heading our way in the
form of a solar wind
stream. ..... April 4th marked the beginning of a major solar
wind storm, ...
--SWEAP, the Solar Wind
Electrons Alphas and Protons Investigation: The most ... WISPR can actually
see the solar wind,
allowing it to image clouds and ...
On Tuesday, two fishermen drowned off Colombia's coast, and
540 people were left homeless after heavy wind and rain
destroyed half the buildings in a ...
Sep 30, 2002 ... (Oct. 2, 2002) -
Packing 110 mph wind, Hurricane Lili gained strength
and churned Wednesday toward the Gulf Coast, where residents
of the solar-wind magnetic field,
the structure of the ... it more
vulnerable than usual to solar
wind disturbances. ...
power is the conversion of wind
energy into a useful form, such as
electricity, using wind
turbines. At the end of 2007,
worldwide capacity of ...
The storm, dubbed "Little Debby" so
far, is expected to become a
hurricane again with wind speeds
of up to 105 mph by an expected
Friday approach southeast ...
Solar wind speed: 405.2 km/sec
density: 4.9 protons/cm3 ...... A
solar wind stream flowing
from the indicated coronal hole
could reach Earth on or about Jan
Apr 20, 2008 ... I didn't have
the brilliant foresight to see it,
but it's pretty common in business
that where you wind up is not
where you thought you'd be ...
The solar wind is still blowing,
but the crack has closed, ... The
display was sparked by a solar
wind stream which hit Earth's
magnetic field on July 21st. ...
In 2008 and 2009, the sun set Space
Age records for low sunspot counts,
weak solar wind, and low solar | <urn:uuid:4ccf5c66-f589-4708-8287-6f989f503b3e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.earthmountainview.com/wind.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00067-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.870851 | 1,471 | 4.21875 | 4 |
Definition of rebaptize
v. t. - To baptize again or a second time.
The word "rebaptize" uses 9 letters: A B E E I P R T Z.
No direct anagrams for rebaptize found in this word list.
Words formed by adding one letter before or after rebaptize (in bold), or to abeeiprtz in any order:
d - rebaptized s - rebaptizes
Words within rebaptize
not shown as it has more than seven letters.
List all words starting with rebaptize, words containing rebaptize or words ending with rebaptize
All words formed from rebaptize by changing one letter
Other words with the same letter pairs: re eb ba ap pt ti iz ze
Browse words starting with rebaptize by next letter
Previous word in list: rebaptisms
Next word in list: rebaptized
Some random words: craal | <urn:uuid:c6f37cf7-36dd-436f-879a-7538f877e0d8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.morewords.com/word/rebaptize/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00038-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.821651 | 203 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Definitions for ottmar mergenthaler
This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word ottmar mergenthaler
Mergenthaler, Ottmar Mergenthaler(noun)
United States inventor (born in Germany) of the Linotype machine (1854-1899)
Ottmar Mergenthaler was a German-born inventor who has been called a second Gutenberg because of his invention of the Linotype machine, the first device that could easily and quickly set complete lines of type for use in printing presses. This machine revolutionized the art of printing.
The numerical value of ottmar mergenthaler in Chaldean Numerology is: 3
The numerical value of ottmar mergenthaler in Pythagorean Numerology is: 6
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"ottmar mergenthaler." Definitions.net. STANDS4 LLC, 2016. Web. 24 Jun 2016. <http://www.definitions.net/definition/ottmar mergenthaler>. | <urn:uuid:e4adbb91-a9b2-40c3-86b0-f6c77d8cbcbd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.definitions.net/definition/ottmar%20mergenthaler | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00104-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.765015 | 303 | 2.90625 | 3 |
According to a report by TheNextWeb, PhD students at Columbia University’s department of computer science have developed ‘Cider’, an OS compatibility architecture capable of running iOS apps on Android. The students succeeded in running domestic and foreign binaries on the same device, without having to use a virtual machine. Of course, the performance of apps is not what you get on an iOS device.
“They leverage binary compatibility techniques such as compile-time code adaptation and diplomatic functions. This means Cider can copy the libraries and frameworks it needs and convince an app’s code that it is running on Apple’s XNU kernel rather than Android’s Linux kernel.
The performance is less than stellar, but this is to be expected given the extra cost of diplomatic function calls and a currently incomplete OpenGL ES implementation. Nevertheless, using an OS compatibility layer for native execution of iOS apps on Android is an impressive feat.”
Cider basically enhances the Android OS of a device to mimic the application binary interface of a foreign operating system such as iOS, enabling it to run unmodi?ed foreign binaries. Most impressive of all, Android apps still function on the device even with the OS abstraction layer. The developers say they did not encounter any fundamental limitations regarding their approach that would result in compatibility problems between the two operating systems.
Here’s a proof-of-concept video showing a Nexus 7 (2012) with Cider running iOS apps Yelp and iBooks: | <urn:uuid:d27d9244-a503-4c78-82ae-5202fbbfcf0a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.iphoneincanada.ca/news/cider-brings-ios-apps-to-android/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00060-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.90989 | 306 | 2.546875 | 3 |
February 1976 | Volume 27, Issue 2
On the raw, gusty night of March 1, 1932, in the Sourland Hills of New Jersey, the twenty-month-old son of Charles A. Lindbergh and the former Anne Morrow, their first-born, was kidnapped from his nursery. Discarded nearby was a rough-made sectional ladder with a broken lower rung. A ransom note, with expressions and misspellings that suggested a writer whose first language was German, was left in the nursery. It led, on the night of April a in a Bronx cemetery, to the payment of fifty thousand dollars by an intermediary to a lone extortioner. But the child was not returned. Various hoaxers entered the picture, and underworld emissaries sought vainly to make contact with any gangsters who might have been involved.
On May 12 truckers stopping in woods not far from the Lindbergh home came across the child’s body.
Meanwhile a number of the ransom bills, of which police had recorded the serial numbers, began to appear in the New York area. A large part of the ransom, incidentally, had been paid in gold notes, which bore a yellow seal on the face and were redeemable by the Treasury in gold specie. By a decree of the Roosevelt administration taking the country off the gold standard in !933, gold currency was officially withdrawn from circulation. Such ransom bills therefore became all the more conspicuous.
On September 15, 1934, some two and a half years after the kidnapping, a New York gas-station attendant jotted down the license number of a driver who not only paid with a $10 gold note but boasted of having a “hundred more” at home. Four days later, after trailing the car owner about, FBI agents and New York police arrested him—a German-born carpenter named Bruno Richard Hauptmann, who lived in the north Bronx with his wife and infant son. In his wallet they found a $20 ransom bill, and $14,600 more in the garage behind his rented home.
Hauptmann went on trial for murder in the Hunterdon County Court at Flemington, a little town in the rolling farmland of west New Jersey, on January 2, 1935. “We realized,” said Lindbergh, testifying at the trial, “that after this circumstance had originally happened the sequence of events would probably be peculiar, not according to the ordinary logic of life.”
In fact, the tragic kidnap-murder of the Lindbergh baby became the occasion of a long-running carnival-circus that took one bizarre turn after another and ultimately reached its low, in many respects, with the trial of Hauptmann.
Outside the whitewashed nativestone courthouse in Flemington, a marketplace for chicken and egg farmers some seventy miles southwest of New York City, where nothing much had ever happened before in two centuries, souvenir peddlers promptly swarmed in to hawk tiny wooden replicas of the kidnap ladder.
On the first Sunday of the trial, when the courthouse was opened to sightseers, an estimated sixty thousand visitors from as far away as Chicago and Washington, according to their entries in the “guest book” the local sheriff provided, descended on Flemington, whose normal population was less than three thousand. Some twenty thousand automobiles, at times moving only three miles an hour and at other times not at all, choked the roads all the way back to New York and Philadelphia.
At the courthouse deputy sheriffs served as barkers, pointing out the main attractions. Tourists elbowed one another for the thrill of sitting in the chair Lindbergh occupied daily as an observer, marked with a sheet of paper breezily inscribed “Lindy.” But they backed off with a shudder from the camp chair assigned to Hauptmann; only three brave sightseers risked it all day. Hundreds had themselves photographed in the judge’s place and carved their initials into the bench. The century-old witness chair had to be nailed down lest it be carried off.
As the trial progressed attendance became an absolute must for the cafesociety set presided over by that huge, pear-shaped, rumpled arbiter of elegance Elsa Maxwell. Packs of “women in mink,” as they came to be called, became a regular feature of the court sessions, along with Broadway and Hollywood stars such as Lynne Fontanne, Clifton Webb, Jack Benny, and Estelle Taylor. The Union Hotel, the town’s only hostelry, which normally served fifty meals a day, dished out a thousand for the duration of the trial, and—significantly—two thousand drinks a day.
An inside group of newspapermen, doing their best to live up to the lifestyle of Ben Hecht and Charles MacArthur’s rowdy play THe Front Page, concocted a special trial anthem, adapted from the German beer-garden ditty “Schnitzelbank,” that ridiculed almost everybody and everything connected with the trial. A printable sample stanza went:
During the six weeks of the trial some dozens of volunteer “confessions” were received from all over the country, “clearing” Hauptmann. The confessors turned out to be a variety of publicity seekers, psychopaths, and convicts hoping to wangle a brief vacation from their prison cells by being brought to Flemington to testify.
Nevertheless, for all this nightmarish hullabaloo, Justice Thomas W. Trenchard, a massive man who looked like a monument of Jurisprudence, managed miraculously to keep a firm hand on the trial proceedings and to guide them so fairly and dignifiedly and humanely (he bought rubbers for the entire jury to wade through the winter slush on their way to and from the courthouse) that no error was ever laid against him during the many appeals before Hauptmann died in the electric chair at the New Jersey State Prison in Trenton on April 3, 1936.
Why this mass hysteria that for six weeks made Flemington a world news center? The main reason, of course, was that Lindbergh, the Lone Eagle, was still a world hero seven years after his epic solo flight across the Atlantic. Also this was a time when sensational murder trials, including the Hall-Mills and Snyder-Gray cases of a few years before, were the favorite reading matter of the newspaper public.
Reporters came from every continent to pour out as much as a million words a day from the little courthouse on a web of 168 specially installed lines that included direct wires to London, Paris, Berlin, and Sydney. It was the largest setup ever created for a news event, including the World Series and Olympic games. Technicians estimated that for the duration of the trial Flemington had a communications system large enough to provide normal service for a city of a million.
Newspapermen enjoyed calling the Hauptmann trial “the Story of the Century,” airily by-passing World War i. It was nevertheless a fact that day after day on the front pages of America, and many foreign journals as well, the trial was given top play over such simultaneous, and ultimately more significant, events as the first of the Moscow trials of Old Bolsheviks; the first appeasement of Adolf Hitler, this by the return to Germany of the Saarland territory (after which New Jersey’s local Sourland was misnamed); and the Roosevelt administration’s introduction of a key piece of New Deal legislation, the Social Security Act.
Seating capacity of the courtroom, with its church-pew spectator benches and some extra facilities, was no more than five hundred, and there was a daily struggle for admission that went all the way from primitive elbowing to ruses like obtaining pretend witness subpoenas from friendly lawyers in the case. I happened to be one of a hundred and fifty privileged newspapermen who were issued special press passes. My own blood-red ticket, imprinted in black, entitled me to Press Seat No. 3, which consisted of about twenty meager inches of sitting space in the first of two rows of unpainted pine benches and tables that were installed directly behind the enclosure for judge, defendant, lawyers, and witnesses.
There, in my narrow lebensraum, wearing down ten pencils daily, I contributed some five thousand words a day of the running story for the New York Post . This was a consecutive, chronological account of all that happened in the courtroom while it was happening: question-and-answer testimony, an evaluation of the same in relation to previous testimony and happenings, description of the appearance and behavior of the witnesses, skirmishes of the lawyers, reaction of the defendant and spectators. And every word of it had to be written by hand on manuscript-size sheets, passed up the aisle by messengers, and relayed to the attic, where a telegrapher especially assigned to me transmitted my running account to the Post , an evening paper, where it would be set up in type and printed only minutes later.
Simultaneously my senior partner, James Martindale, would be writing leads to the story, including revisions and bulletins, that would go at the top of the chronological account, changing as new developments occurred.
The telegraphers on such assignments had a knack for learning quickly to decipher the scrawls of their reporter wards. Though I had regularly flunked penmanship all through elementary school, my own personal guardian, Joe, of Postal Telegraph (I never learned the rest of his name), failed only once in interpreting my sixweek output of 150,000 words. On the fourth day of the trial, during testimony involving the kidnap ladder, a sheet of my copy came rustling back in reverse action over the chain of transmission from the attic. A marginal note from Joe inquired as to whether a certain circled hieroglyphic was to be read as “nail hole” or “mastermind,” indicating the broad spectrum of my indecipherability. (It was “nail hole.”)
A newcomer to the Post , I was the youngest member of a staff of ten that our legendary city editor, the late Walter Lister, selected to take with him to Flemington. A brilliant newspaperman and an incidental playwright who coauthored one of America’s first expressionist plays, Spread Eagle , Lister was a severe taskmaster. At the time he was earnestly trying to model himself on that great archetype of the sadistic city editor, Charles Chapin of the old New York World , who not only tormented his staff fiendishly but murdered his wife and wound up editing the Sing Sing Prison house organ. Lister fell short of uxoricide but, as next best, created legend by firing his favorite drinking companion, whose wife was very pregnant, one blizzardy Christmas Eve.
How I came to be tapped for the assignment was that, first, I had developed a knack of writing fast and could compose up to sixty words a minute of a news story under deadline, a valued skill on evening newspapers, where edition after edition is chasing the news as it is happening.
Further, in a series of flukes my life had become oddly linked to Hauptmann’s from the day of his arrest to the day of his execution. Again and again I was consistently lucky on the Hauptmann story as on no other story before or after.
For instance, on the day of his arrest I was sent to get an interview with Hauptmann’s wife, Anna, at the friend’s apartment where she had taken shelter with her infant son. I arrived to find I had been preceded by some two dozen reporters who had exhausted every possible dodge to get Mrs. Hauptmann to open the apartment door and submit to an interview. They had posed as telegraph messengers, lawyers, delivery boys, even policemen. They had climbed a rickety back-alley fire escape and banged on the shaded and locked windows in vain. One had even yelled “Fire!” Among the crestfallen crowd were A. J. Liebling, Dorothy Kilgallen, and Joseph Mitchell, all of later fame.
Within sixty seconds of my arrival on the scene I became the only reporter Mrs. Hauptmann admitted, on that day and for two weeks thereafter (until a Hearst paper, the New York Journal , bought her away from me with money and put her on their payroll as an exclusive property). What did the trick for me was a completely fortuitous decision the year before, while I was working in Baltimore, to fill out the long provincial evenings by taking a six-month Berlitz course in German.
Now I had but to shout through the door of Mrs. Hauptmann’s hide-out in German: “Journalist. Wish to interview you about your husband’s innocence!” At once the door opened, and Mrs. Hauptmann asked, in German: “Who spoke German?” I stepped forward, and she let me in.
It was the most taxing interview I held in ten years as a newspaperman. Though I could understand Mrs. Hauptmann well enough, my own spoken German began to flag. But Mrs. Hauptmann soon began to accept questions from me in English; more serious was the fact that whenever I reached for my pencil and wad of copy paper to take notes, Mrs. Hauptmann froze in her tracks. So I put away pencil and paper altogether and as best I could committed the entire two-hour interview to memory.
Among the things she told me was that her Richard could not possibly have kidnapped and killed a child, because he was much too gentle and concerned about all living things. Once, she said, he had nearly wrecked their car to avoid hitting a squirrel. Often he had scolded people who picked flowers in the park instead of letting them live for all the public to enjoy.
A plain, stocky woman who looked exactly like what she had been before her marriage, a hardworking waitress in a bakery-restaurant, she was yet able to evoke a touching, even romantic, moment in her life with Hauptmann. A few months after they had met, in German circles in the Bronx, she said, he took her to a park bench for a talk. There, she said, he asked her to marry him but said that there was something he had to tell her before she gave her answer—that he was in the United States illegally. Because of some “trouble” as a youth in Germany he had been unable to obtain a visa but had smuggled himself into the United States as a stowaway on a ship. She had taken his hand in hers, she said, and kissed him and joined her life to his.
The same day as that first interview with Mrs. Hauptmann, I went to the little garage behind their home and poked through the mounds of debris left by FBI men who had torn the interior apart in finding the $14,600 of ransom bills. For no reason except the mild irony involved I picked up and took away with me a German detective novel entitled Die Finanzen des Grossherzogs (“The Finances of the Grand Duke”). At the time I had no reason to pay particular attention to the name inscribed on the flyleaf, Isidor Fisch.
Within twenty-four hours it developed that Hauptmann was trying to clear himself by pinning the ransom money on an acquaintance now dead with whom he had had some minor dealings in fur skins—Isidor Fisch. I learned also that all the police agencies involved were hunting desperately for a sample of Fisch’s handwriting to compare with that of the kidnapper’s notes. The Post , after printing a facsimile and analysis of the Fisch signature from Die Finanzen des Grossherzogs , was glad to accommodate the police.
So it went for me even during the trial. One day, as Hauptmann was being taken under guard from the courtroom during a recess and passing the kidnap ladder, which was standing against the wall in evidence, I lunged toward him impulsively and obtained a “world exclusive,” a first interview of two succinct sentences:
Q. Bruno, did you make that ladder?
A. I would be a second-hand carpenter if I make such a ladder.
I was struck by the incongruously high-pitched voice that came out of that virile athletic body, but I was later to observe a similar phenomenon in such undoubted manly specimens as Jack Dempsey, Fiorello La Guardia, Ernest Hemingway, and General Patton.
A definite obstacle to the proceedings were the mink-clad ladies from café society (the generational parent of the jet set and grandparent of the Beautiful People) who swarmed to the trial like the knitting women at the base of the guillotine during the Terror. Throughout the sessions they chatted, tittered, and giggled without concern for the fact that a man charged with the murder of a baby was on trial for his life. So many of them turned up in Flemington that the Journal assigned one of its society columnists, a Mrs. Sigourney Thayer who wrote under the house pseudonym “Madame Flutterby,” to spend full time at the trial reporting nothing but the activities of the women in mink.
In an angry piece for the New York Times novelist Edna Ferber wrote: “I found all the Maxwell party countersigns and passwords were being cooed back and forth. All the mink coats were saying to the Savile Row topcoats and burgundy mufflers, ‘Hello, darling! How are you? Isn’t this divine?'”
But high as Miss Ferber soared in her indignation, I believe she fell short of the social commentary we put together in the Post by simply quoting from the Encyclopedia Britannica’s wholly objective description of the mink as a “fur-bearing animal … of the weasel family … Few mammals are as voracious and bloodthirsty. … The female is of a savage disposition.”
Miss Ferber was herself one of another genus, the “trained seal,” as we working reporters called them, celebrities in other writing media who were sent to the trial by various newspapers and news agencies to catch a quick impression and make profound observations. Also present were Alexander Woollcott, the sage of the New Yorker , and novelists Fannie Hurst, Kathleen Norris, and Ford Madox Ford, who invariably found themselves thoroughly confused by the twists and turns of the testimony and would eventually appeal to some fiftydollar-a-week reporter of the working press to guide them through the maze.
As an aspiring young novelist I was flattered to do service for the most distinguished trained seal of the lot, Ford Madox Ford, a huge, kindly mass of a man well described at the time as resembling a beached whale and very near destitution because of the meager sales of his novels in the Depression. At Ford’s request I showed him around town so he could stock up on overnight supplies. At the drugstore he asked, wistfully, for “the very smallest quantity of toothpaste that you sell” (a ten-cent tube) and elsewhere for “the cheapest spirits you stock, and the very smallest quantity” (this last was a half pint of applejack, the highly potent and potable vin du pays of Hunterdon County, priced at seventy-five cents).
Though the strongest aspects of the case against Hauptmann proved to be a mass of solid, objective evidence of a kind that laymen mistakenly downgrade because it is “circumstantial,” there were also a host of eyewitnesses who claimed to have beheld Hauptmann in a variety of damaging situations. Chief among them was John F. Condon (“Jafsie,” as he called himself), a heavyset, seventy-four-year-old retired elementary-school teacher from “the beautiful borough of the Bronx.” In one of the more bizarre turns of the case he became the intermediary in the ransom negotiations simply by writing a letter to a neighborhood newspaper offering his services —with the astonishing result that the kidnapper, whom he later positively identified as Hauptmann, got in touch with him at once and met with him twice face to face.
Other eyewitnesses proved far less convincing, including an eighty-sevenyear-old veteran of the Franco-Prussian War, Amandus Hochmuth, who claimed to have seen Hauptmann clearly at a distance of twenty-five feet as Hauptmann’s car whipped around a bend in the road toward the Lindbergh place. Even at that distance, said Hochmuth, he could see Hauptmann flush.
To test the fundamental reliability of eyewitness testimony, a fellow reporter on the Post , the late Henry Paynter, devised an impish experiment in which I had the pleasure of accompanying him one weekend. Equipped with a batch of photos of nine nationally prominent persons, we went on a tour among the farmer neighbors of the Lindberghs in the Sourland Hills. In each case we showed the photos and asked whether any such persons had been seen in the neighborhood at the time of the kidnapping. The responses were fairly astonishing. For instance, a photo of General Hugh S. Johnson, former chief of Roosevelt’s National Recovery Administration, brought the following comments:
“I remember him all right. He was coming up the road dressed like a tramp.”
“Isn’t he that Whately fellow, the English butler of the Lindberghs?”
“That’s a tough face. That’s one I’ll never forget. If ever I see that colt afoolin’ around my traps, I’d sure as hell go for my rifle.”
Concerning the notably mild-mannered Dr. Rexford Guy Tugwell, New Deal economist and Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, one witness remarked: “He has a criminal face. Isn’t that the Mr. Schmidt who killed himself around here?”
Justice Joseph Force Crater of New York, who disappeared in 1930 and has never been traced to this day, evoked these comments:
“He was around. He said he was a newspaper fellow.”
“Oh yes, he was prowling around here with that other fellow [Dr. Tugwell], asking the way to the Lindbergh place.”
Looking at the photo of Mayor La Guardia of New York, one of our witnesses declared: “I saw him driving in a blue sedan with something, maybe a ladder.”
Not one of the persons questioned identified the photo of America’s Public Enemy No. 1 of the time, Al Capone.
Another aspect of the eyewitness business developed when Hauptmann’s chief counsel, Edward J. Reilly—a florid, carnation-wearing old-time criminal lawyer known as the “Bull of Brooklyn"—began presenting the case for the defense. He led off with a string of Good Samaritans who had come forward to volunteer a variety of testimony intended to provide Hauptmann with alibis on critical dates and implicate other figures instead. Of a batch of seven such witnesses each was destroyed before he left the stand. It was proved on crossexamination that five had prison records and one had had three stays in mental hospitals. As for the seventh, an actor-taxi driver, he broke into a string of Will Rogers impersonations that made it hard to take him seriously.
The prosecution was able to confound these defense witnesses quickly through an elaborate checking procedure. The moment the witnesses gave name and address, special squads of New Jersey and New York police went to work checking local, FBI , and other files by telephone. The next day five more scheduled defense witnesses failed to show, and five more the day after.
Reilly, whose ornate dress (morning coat and striped pants, along with the daily carnation) did not go down well in backwoods Flemington, was not devoid of a sense of humor. In the last week of the trial, sitting next to his table at lunch in the Union Hotel, I heard him make a totally uninhibited comment on the nature and quality of his own witnesses. Addressing yet another would-be volunteer who had come to his table, Reilly bellowed: “You’ve never been convicted of a crime? You’ve never been in a lunatic asylum? I can’t use you as a witness.”
The city-slicker versus local-yokel antagonisms, heightened by Reilly’s big-town elegance, went right down the line, with victory not always going to the New Yorkers. Somehow the country boys managed again and again to clean out the visitors in impromptu crap games, including among their victims, on one occasion, that quintessence of Broadway sophistication Damon Runyon, who did a daily trial story for the Hearst syndicate.
And there was the dark night when two of my Post colleagues fell for the most elementary rube racket of country carnivals. Coming back along Main Street to our rented quarters in the home of a local dentist, they were carrying a surprise treat of a case of beer and two dozen hamburgers when they were accosted by two Flemington youths who taunted them with obscenities. Carefully putting beer and hamburgers down on the sidewalk, my colleagues gave chase to their two tormentors. Promptly a third and a fourth yokel came out of the shadows and made off with our midnight snack.
Most causes célèbres seem to have a revisionist aftermath in which theories are offered to turn the official verdict upside down. The Hauptmann trial is no exception. To this day, forty-one years later, whenever it comes out at a social gathering that I covered his trial, the first question I am inevitably asked is “Did Hauptmann really do it?”
My instant answer echoes the closing argument of the chief prosecutor, Attorney General David Wilentz of New Jersey, that naturally no movie camera was present in the nursery to make a record of the break-in, but that a mass of other evidence, beyond the eyewitness testimony, leads to Hauptmann and nobody else.
1. Hauptmann was found in possession of a large number of ransom bills.
2. A full year before Hauptmann was arrested, a federal lumber expert, Arthur Koehler of Wisconsin, by a patient and brilliant process involving forty thousand mills and suppliers, had traced the ponderosa pine of the kidnap ladder to a lumberyard near Hauptmann’s home where he bought his own supplies and often put in a few days’ work. Koehler was actually visiting the yard one day while Hauptmann was there.
3. One rail in the ladder was proved to have been ripped from the flooring in Hauptmann’s attic, apparently when he ran short of lumber to finish the ladder. The positioning and angle of nail holes in the rail matched exactly the holes left in the joist from which the plank had been torn.
4. Inside a closet, on a wall, in Hauptmann’s home had been jotted down the telephone number John Condon had given the kidnapper during the ransom negotiations.
5. Work sheets in the construction of the high-rise Majestic Apartments on Central Park West, in New York, where Hauptmann was employed early in 1932, show that he went to work neither on the day of the kidnapping nor on that of the passing of the ransom.
6. After the date of the ransom payment Hauptmann never again worked at his trade, or at any, but spent much of his time—and money—playing the stock market. Not successfully.
The one question that remains open to this day is whether Hauptmann had an accomplice, and this opens up the subsidiary question of whether he deliberately murdered the baby after taking it from the nursery, or whether the child was killed in an accidental fall when a rung of the ladder broke.
If death was accidental, then Hauptmann would have required an accomplice to harbor the child while Hauptmann was meeting Lindbergh’s intermediary. If death was deliberate, no accomplice was necessary. At any rate, the FBI very early cleared Mrs. Hauptmann of any connection with the case. And FBI accountants produced their own kind of proof that Hauptmann was a loner in that they traced to him—either by his expenditures or cash left in hand or stock account balances—almost the entire fifty thousand dollars of the ransom.
Then, too, beyond all this, there was a conversation I overheard one day during a recess between two local lawyers who had signed on to assist the defense and the prosecution, respectively. The subject was the disclosure that Lindbergh, who attended the trial daily and sat only feet away from Hauptmann, was carrying a handgun in a shoulder holster under his jacket (because of constant crank threats on his life). The following dialogue then ensued: DEFENSE LAWYER : Say, aren’t you worried Lindbergh will pull that gun out some day and plug Hauptmann right between the eyes? PROSECUTION LAWYER : Now why would Colonel Lindbergh want to do anything like that? DEFENSE LAWYER : I’m damned if I wouldn’t.
Nonetheless in the attempt to answer the prosecution’s powerful case Reilly, the chief defense counsel, employed a habitual tactic of his in murder trials. He tried to shift guilt for the crime onto an amalgam of dead persons and prosecution witnesses, in this case creating an unlikely cabal of Isidor Fisch, Hauptmann’s acquaintance (dead); Oliver Whately, the Lindbergh butler (dead); Violet Sharpe, a housemaid for Mrs. Lindbergh’s mother (dead); Betty Gow, the Lindbergh nursemaid, a prosecution witness; and “Jafsie” Condon, the star prosecution witness.
As for Hauptmann’s possession of a hoard of ransom money, Reilly alleged that Fisch had left it with Hauptmann for safekeeping before returning to Germany to die in 1934, and that Hauptmann had helped himself to a portion of the funds in repayment of a debt owed him by Fisch. A brother and sister of Fisch came from Germany to the trial to rebut every aspect of Hauptmann’s story.
In the final analysis, in any event, Hauptmann was no ordinary hard- working family man plucked from nowhere to serve as a scapegoat. A World War i machine gunner at seventeen, he was unable to get work in the early Weimar period and turned to crime. He did a prison term for mugging two young women on the street and burglarizing, among others, a burgomaster’s house. Released on probation after four years in prison, he was soon rearrested for a series of factory burglaries but escaped jail and, with extraordinary determination, suffered hunger and extreme discomfort to stow away three times on German ships before finally making it to the United States in 1923—and to his death in the electric chair thirteen years later. | <urn:uuid:d0d834f8-5bdc-44e9-9cf2-dadd27a545dc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.americanheritage.com/print/53378?page=6 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00020-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.973783 | 6,590 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Today is the 160th anniversary of the birth of Wisconsin Library Hall of Fame member Frank Avery Hutchins (1851-1914). Hutchins was a leader in the free public library movement in Wisconsin and the United States. Hutchins' entry in the Dictionary of American Library Biography (Libraries Unlimited, 1978) written by Helen Huguenor Lyman has this to say about him: "Frank Hutchins, a brilliant man of rare vision and modesty, a pioneer librarian and active leader in the library world of Wisconsin, was born on March 8, 1851, in Norfolk, Ohio. During his lifetime he was teacher, bookseller, newspaper man, library trustee, and librarian. Again and again his friends described him as a humanitarian, public servant, scholar, and practical idealist. he helped to gain legislative, financial, and professional support for both the educational work of school and public libraries and the extension of library services throughout the state of Wisconsin. An initiator who would take no credit for the events he helped to set in motion, he recognized the abilities of others and encouraged them to carry out new ideas." Hutchins was one of the founders of the Wisconsin Library Association in 1891 and the first paid secretary of the Wisconsin Free Library Commission. Hutchins close partner in the development of public library service in Wisconsin was fellow Hall of Fame member Lutie Stearns. The image of Hutchins is from the Wisconsin Historical Society’s Historical Image Collection Image ID: 29375. | <urn:uuid:cf67d887-2529-4f78-8978-5d602b5057aa> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://libraryhistorybuff.blogspot.com/2011/03/frank-avery-hutchins-wisconsin-library.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00032-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965238 | 305 | 2.84375 | 3 |
What is Metro in Windows 8?
Metro is a design interface invented by Microsoft. It depend more on typography rather than visual decorations. Its heavy reliance on text-based interface is a bold, but surprisingly beautiful refresh from the commonly seen icon-based interface.
You never know from whom or where you can get inspiration from. According to Microsoft’s design team, the Metro UI is inspired by signs commonly found at public transport systems. They usually show large texts to convey information as soon and clearly as possible.
- Focus on text and the design of text. Metro UI revolves around dominating the user interface with clean, neat, sleek, and beautiful text.
If you look at the above image, it contains only text; nothing else. Yet, it looks so clean. It soothes your eyes. This is the charm of Metro – beautiful text. Metro uses Segoe font family.
- Focus more on content rather than chrome. Metro has done away with all the extra decorations like shades, gradients, etc., around the content. The content is brought to attention by using large text titles.
As seen in the above figure, the content is emphasized more using large texts. The only decoration used is the boxes; and, too, only to separate the content. The decoration itself has only one intent – to make the content more readable. It is surprising to see how even such a simple design can look so clear, readable and beautiful.
- Navigate content smoothly and consistently. Another major focus in Metro is how the interface responds to the user interactions. Consistent animations are used to change the displayed content. Consider a restaurant menu app, for example. The content could be shown this way:
- The main categories like Chinese, Indian, Mexican, etc., are shown horizontally, in form of tabs. This level of content can be navigated by using horizontal swipes.
- Each main category might have sub-categories. Say, Indian has sub-categories like South-Indian, Punjabi. This inner level of content can be accessed by tapping on the sub-category, listed under a main category.
- The food items in a sub-category can be navigated through a vertical swipe.
Thus, this creates a consistency in navigation for different levels of content.
Adaptation of Metro
Metro has been around since a long time. But, it was used only in a few apps. Initial usage was seen in Windows Media Center. The interaction and interface of Windows Media Center followed the Metro principles. The metro interface later found its way in the relatively more famous Zune application.
It gained traction when Microsoft launched its new mobile platform – Windows Phone OS. This operating system is all about Metro interface. The advantages of Metro design can truly be seen in the touch enabled Windows Phone smart phones.
Now, Microsoft has completely revamped the interface of its desktop Windows OS by deeply integrating Metro in it. Using metro is an extremely pleasant experience in touch-based interfaces. It remains to be seen how much the desktop users embrace it. | <urn:uuid:76375fcd-9322-40fc-b92a-7fe6c0322b2a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eyeonwindows.com/2012/07/30/what-is-metro-in-windows-8/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00188-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.922585 | 624 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Restoring the atlas and the spinal column to their normal position on the vertical axis removes/reduces the excessive neurological flow throughout the spinal cord, and reduces spastic contracture of the spinal extensor muscles, which in turn realigns the spine and pelvis. The joints of the spine and pelvis can then work normally because their centres of gravity rest on the body’s vertical axis.
The atlas is located at the base of the skull and, thus, makes the central nervous system (i.e., brain and spinal cord) vulnerable to interference when the atlas misaligns, or fixates. Because the atlas misaligns in more than one plane of motion relative to the skull and lower cervical vertebrae, x-rays in three planes are essential in determining these vertebral misalignments. Accurately measuring each person’s misalignment assures the proper adjustment for the person and increases the probability of correction. From this, one can easily understand why the NUCCA adjustment is a very difficult motor skill to master.
The adjustment does not heal the patient. Neither does it relieve symptoms. The healing is done by the patient’s own body, by its own immune system. What the adjustment does do is remove interference to normal nerve function. Normal performance of the patient’s nervous system is vital to the body’s ability to self-heal. The adjustment restores the normal activity of the nervous system affected by the vertebral misalignment.
Medical research is being done today to better understand this self-healing process. The science of neuro-immunology explores the ability of the body to combat and to conquer disease. It is now recognised that, had self-healing not existed, mankind would not have survived through the centuries. A simple example of self-healing is the ability of the body to mend a broken bone after it has been set. Interference to the nervous system by an atlas misalignment retards and/or prevents the ability of the body to heal itself.
Yes and no. Symptoms are merely signals from the body that indicate change. Not the problem, the signal. However, what causes symptoms for one person will not cause symptoms for another. Unfortunately, vertebral misalignment will produce imbalance in the body structure long before symptoms occur in most cases. Relief of symptoms, therefore, is a secondary effect of the adjustment. First, there must be a re-setting of the misaligned vertebrae, and a period of time that the vertebrae hold their normal positions until the healing process is complete.
Moreover, symptoms are variables in that they are not really indicative of the patient’s true state of health. Many factors influence how a patient feels: stress, fatigue, weather conditions, state of mind, etc. Therefore, adjustments cannot be predicated on how the patient feels at any given time. “I feel bad” or “I feel good” is not a sufficient reason to adjust or not to adjust. The only safe and reliable method is to check the patient for the presence or absence of neurological interference and postural distortion. If no evidence of imbalance is detected, no adjustment is rendered.
Following the first adjustment, either immediately or within a few hours, the patient may experience a warming sensation or a tingling sensation in an arm, leg, lower back, or in the chest or abdomen. This response is observed to occur in patients with health problems in these areas. Reactions are attributed to an increase in the activity of the sensory or input nerves. Impressions to the brain are increased by the adjustment and the patient may be made more aware of his/her health problem. This phenomenon occurs only in cases where the subluxation is interfering with the sensory nerves by blocking off sensory information to the brain.
Occasionally, a patient may briefly experience an increase in his or her symptoms after the first adjustment. Again, the reason is the removal of the blocking of the sensory system, permitting increased sensation to the brain. Patients will not experience this phenomenon from healthy areas of the body. A full feedback by way of the sensory nervous system seems needed in self-healing.
The doctor of chiropractic’s responsibility in upper cervical practice is to correctly analyse the atlas misalignment and to measure its distortion effects on the patient’s body. The analysis consists of x-raying the C1 misalignment, measuring the degrees of the vertebral displacements into the planes of motion, and establishing the procedure for the adjustment in each case. Treatment consists of maximally reducing the misalignments of the atlas, restoring the spinal and pelvic distortions to the vertical axis of the body, and monitoring the patient’s progress.
The patient should be monitored until the body is stable in a balanced position. Muscular and ligament damage create weakness that will likely take weeks or months to stabilise. The patient should be checked for neurological interference regardless how he or she feels. S/he should also realise that some misalignments are more difficult to handle than others, and some cases are pathological whereas others are functional. The latter respond more rapidly to NUCCA care.
A rough assessment of a patient’s rate of recovery depends on:
The presence of anomalies, malformations, and pathologies in the cervical spine also delay recovery.
Patients should report all injuries to the chiropractor, however slight, as they may produce a change in the misalignment pattern, requiring a change in the adjustment. The healing process ceases whenever the fixation recurs, and whenever the pattern changes the adjustment is no longer effective.
The patient who “holds” his/her adjustment (i.e., requires no adjustment) will obtain faster results. S/he may not immediately feel better because healing time is required, but response is more certain. There are, however, many reasons why fixation recurs. Injuries and patient care of the adjustment have been discussed. In some cases tendons become stretched in the original injury that produced the misalignment. Tendons, once stretched, do not regain their tonicity. The head rests on the atlas and weighs about 10 pounds, resting on a very small surface. This arrangement makes for instability. Additionally, no bony locks exist, as in other spinal vertebrae, to hold the atlas in place after it has been re-set.
Patients frequently engage in exercise programmes. These exercises, in some cases, can be harmful to patient progress. You should advise your chiropractor of the type of exercise they are currently engaged in and discuss their effects with them.
The NUCCA system of chiropractic practice is a natural health system that requires precise measurement of the displacements of the atlas vertebra. From these postural and x-ray measurements, an adjustment (correction) is structured for each patient that will maximally reduce all the vertebral displacements. The purpose of the adjustments is to normalise the patient’s electro-chemical flow over his/her nervous system, restore the distortions of the spinal column to the body’s vertical axis, activate self-healing, and return the body to a state of health. | <urn:uuid:5d96a3db-1c46-454d-a968-163454bafd2f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nucca.co.uk/patientknowledgedetails.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00155-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935583 | 1,494 | 3.109375 | 3 |
This volume is devoted to mostly to nanotubes, unique synthetic nanoscale quantum systems whose physical properties are often singular (i.e. record-setting). Nanotubes can be formed from a myriad of atomic or molecular species, the only requirement apparently being that the host material or “wall fabric” be configurable as a layered or sheet-like structure. Nanotubes with sp2-bonded atoms such as carbon, or boron together with nitrogen, are the champions of extreme mechanical strength, electrical response (either highly conducting or highly insulating), and thermal conductance. Carbon nanotubes can be easily produced by a variety of synthesis techniques, and for this reason they are the most studied nanotubes, both experimentally and theoretically. Boron nitride nanotubes are much more difficult to produce and only limited experimental characterization data exist. Indeed, for boron nitride nanotubes, theory is well ahead of experiment. For these reasons this volume deals largely with carbon nanotubes. Conceptually, the "building block" for a carbon nanotube is a single sheet of graphite, called graphene. Recently, it has become possible to experimentally isolate such single sheets (either on a substrate or suspended). This capability has in turn fueled many new theoretical and experimental studies of graphene itself. It is therefore fitting that this volume contains also a chapter devoted to graphene. | <urn:uuid:16154607-1b06-4314-8d4d-115dcc72f59c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.elsevier.com/books/carbon-nanotubes-quantum-cylinders-of-graphene/saito/978-0-444-53276-3 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00031-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942191 | 287 | 3.171875 | 3 |
A healthy colon will promote your overall bodily health. Your colon does not use the nutrients or food in the body, but it will use the potassium and water that are both valuable resources to keep the body healthy.
Good health always begins with a healthy colon and the foods that you consume. It is important to keep your colon healthy to avoid health problems that may quickly develop.
There are many ways how to cleanse your colon. Anyone can complete a colon cleanse naturally regardless of age or gender.
A good way to promote healthy living is to consume large amounts of water. Water is a bodily necessity and is useful for health and cleansing colon toxins. The ability to pass necessary fluids through your colon will always help to keep it clean.
Eating yogurt is another tested way to colon cleanse naturally. The bacterium included in yogurt is useful to digestion and can promote more healthy living. The colon benefits from this bacteria and it will naturally cleanse the colon to keep the body healthy.
The consumption of high fiber foods is an excellent way of cleansing colon toxins. This suppresses your appetite and is useful for the body. These high fiber foods are essential to the entire digestive system because it allows the absorption of nutrients and will decrease any constipation.
Drinking fruit juice is another way to cleanse your colon. If you do not like water, fruit juice is the next best thing. These juices include nutrients and fiber and are easily absorbed in the body. This eases the digestive system and allows the colon help promote your healthy living.
You can keep your colon in good health by using these tips. You can also use these tips to help live and enjoy a more healthy and productive lifestyle.
- The Multiple Health Benefits of Probiotics (weightlossdietforum.com)
- Green Exercise & Mental Health (cleansebody.org)
- Fruit Detoxing for Weight Loss (dietcleanse.org) | <urn:uuid:3cd00deb-2bd5-4744-a1ef-f13ca5e943bc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://cleansebody.org/2011/03/24/cleanse-your-colon-naturally/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00064-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93779 | 393 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Death is the most certain thing for any living entity and yet we know so little about it. It may come early or later in life but the inevitable always happens. Yet we carry out our actions and behave as if we are immortal and death does not enter into our scheme of things. However if we understand death then we will really understand life and how to live it fruitfully and happily.
Almost in every society the spiritual writings are about the art of living which prepare human beings for death. Thus they contain intricate details of heaven and hell. Some religions also make the description of hell extremely frightening so that people will change their behavior to avoid it. Majority of spiritual writings is about how to live properly so that one can escape the cycle of birth and death. In all these writings the underlying philosophy is of the continuity of soul.
Thus Egyptians believed that eventually resurrection will take place and so elaborate mummification ritual for treating the dead body was developed. Similarly in other religions the ritual of dead body burial was carried out.
In Indian Yogic tradition transition of soul from body to body is like changing into new clothes. It goes through all the living species and evolves towards godhead after its karmas (Sanskrit for actions/deeds) are resolved through various births. Katha Upanishad, Patanjali Yoga Darshan and Brahma Sutra do talk briefly about the rebirth of soul in human form and how it can also be transformed into various species.
Patanjali Yoga says, 'The transformation of one species into another is caused by inflowing of nature. Good or bad deeds are not the direct cause of this transformation but only act as a breaker of the obstacles to natural evolution ' just as a farmer breaks down the obstacles in a water course so that the water flows by its own nature'. Hence the transfer of soul from one species to another seems to be an accepted thesis in Indian religion. A direct evidence of continuity of soul has come from people who had near death experiences (NDE)
NDE seems to happen when a person is declared clinically dead but after some time returns to life. Interestingly enough nearly all the descriptions of NDE are very similar and talk of getting out of the body and going through a dark tunnel and then coming into brilliant white light. Depending upon the religion of the person one sees Christ, Krishna, Buddha or any chosen deity. For agnostics or atheists there is a feeling of tremendous warmth and happiness in the presence of white light.
Quite a number of people have also reported that during NDE their whole life flashes by and almost all their past actions become visible. Probably it is because the memory of their present birth is still fresh. Then somehow the self is told that his/her time to die has still not come and the person 'wakes up' in the body, which is being resuscitated. Interestingly enough during this period there is no concept of time. In majority of cases tremendous change in attitude towards life and death takes place in people who experience NDE. They consider dying as a pleasurable experience and are not afraid of death anymore. One of the most detailed treatises on death and dying is the Tibetan book of Living and Dying. Most of the traditions are based on Indian Yogic system though Tibetan Buddhists give them Chinese sounding names. In this book a good description is given of what happens to the soul after death and till it gets a new body. Tibetan Buddhist Lamas call this transition state as Bardo (Tibetan word for transition). They identify the bardos as:
Natural bardo of this life. This extends to a person's lifetime.
Painful bardo of dying. This is the period, which lasts from the beginning of process of dying until the clinical death.
Luminous bardo of dharmata is the period after the death experience and is manifested by varied colors, sounds and light. This is similar to NDE.
Karmic bardo is the time interval, which lasts till the soul gets a new body.
The Buddhists' believe in the Indian philosophical system that getting a new body is
dependent on the karma (Sanskrit for action) of previous births. Similar beliefs exist in
other religions. Hence one's actions or karma in this life seem to play a significant role in how one dies and in what form they are reborn.
Karma and Fear of Death
Karma is a Sanskrit word meaning action. However it embraces the whole meaning
of living. Thus according to law of karma your actions or deeds (both good and bad) decide
your future in this life or the next life. Law of karma occupies a central position in Indian
philosophy. There are tomes written on it but here we will focus mostly on how it relates to
According to some commentators the law of karma is very deterministic. They claim that you are born according to your karma, things happen to you in your present birth because of your past karmas etc. Hence according to them because of past karmas one cannot change the present life. This however negates the whole basis of Yoga which claims that one can change the Sanskars (memories) and hence ones life.
Each one of us is born with a unique genetic makeup, which provides a basic template for our general behavior. This behavior is further modified by the surroundings that one encounters in life. I therefore believe that each one of us has the power to change our destiny and our memories by our actions in this life. Our actions change the neural pathways in the brain and hence the mind which guides us to our future course of action. As we saw in Chapter 1, each one of us can be thought of as an individual molecule moving 'randomly' in the sea of humanity and according to the forces of opportunity acting on us. However as a whole we may produce a 'dissipative structure' which is the evolution of mankind. Thus the evolution of mankind towards a greater spiritual and technological sophistication is the 'chaotic attractor' towards which we are all attracted. This evolution is quite certain and therefore deterministic (as we saw in chapter on Time) unlike our individual lives. Thus on a bigger macroscopic scale the system may be deterministic and may have a destiny.
According to Indian Yogic system the time of death is governed by the karma of a living entity. When the karma's course is finished then death takes place. It is not clear how to find out what constitutes karma, its duration or how many karmas a person accumulates during his/her lifetime. Patanjali Yoga Darshan simply states that Sanyam on his/her karma makes it possible for the Yogi to calculate the exact time of his death. This also suggests
that a Yogi has no control over his death though he may know the time of exit. However there are many instances of great Yogis who have left their body by their own will and hence can certainly select the time of their departure.
An interesting aspect of time of death was given by the great Indian mathematician S. Ramanujam who used to say that the death of a person takes place only at a certain space-time junction point. He never explained what that junction point was. Ramanujam who died in 1920 at the young age of 32 was one of the greatest mathematicians of the last century. He was basically a spiritualist and mathematics was a by-product of his spirituality. He said many times 'an equation to me has no meaning unless it expresses a thought of God'. He had some clairvoyant powers and hence could predict events. He even predicted that he will die before the age of 35. Quite a number of his friends and relatives used to come to him for consultation about their future and quite a number of times he urged them to move away from their present living place so that the space-time junction point could be avoided.
The desire to know how and when death will take place is dictated by the fact that almost all the living entities are afraid of death. The first impulse on sensing impending danger is to protect oneself and survival is the cornerstone of Darwinian evolutionary theory. The possible reasons for death fear could be:
The experience is very traumatic. It is accompanied by loss of identity and sometimes with tremendous physical pain.
The living being 'instinctively' does not know what will happen to its 'memory' or form; whether it will find a new body or will it be fixed in space for a long time. So there is a fear of unknown. All living entities are wired in such a way that they are afraid of losing their body and with it their form and identity. If a soul can exist without a body then we should not be afraid of death. However the form or body, which gives us the sense of 'I', is very afraid of losing its identity.
The process of learning or moving to a higher level of consciousness is disturbed and delayed. Thus 20-30 years or even more can be lost in the process.
4. The living entity loses its ability to change 'memory'. This ability comes with the brain attached to the body and with death the body ceases to exist. In fact the proliferation of species in the initial stages of evolution is a direct consequence of the desire to have and keep the body. It allows the templates of memory from that species to continue.
Blocking the Pain of Death
Since the soul clings to the body, the shedding of lifetime memories at the time of death is painful. That is the reason the Indian yogic system stresses the liberation of soul so that the painful cycle of birth and death is stopped.
Yogis also believe that reduction or elimination of pain would remove the fear of death. One of the major aims of yoga therefore is to make the body and mind powerful enough so that pain is either reduced or removed completely.
Why is there pain and what is its purpose? Pain and pleasure are complimentary and are part of life. They are the attributes of the body. The intense physical pain probably is an outcome of the body trying to repair itself and requires very intense brain concentration for it. All other sensory inputs or other thoughts are blocked by the pain sensation. This concentrated thought might help the brain to heal the body. This is also the mechanism where single pointed concentration helps in memory removal. Pain therefore could be one of the key mechanisms of removing or modifying memory. Any intense experience can do the same. For example intense pleasure of love for a chosen deity is the genesis of Bhakti Yoga (Yoga of devotion). Interestingly, emotional and physical pain and their intensity are similar in nature and the brain does not differentiate between the two. Recent studies reveal that MRI scans of the subjects showed that the pain of rejection (emotional pain) and stubbing of big toe (physical pain) illuminated the same part of the brain. We also show this similarity intuitively in our vocabulary with terms like broken heart, heartache etc. Emotional pain allows the brain to intensely focus on resolving the conflicts and at the same time helps it to send and receive thought packets.
Advanced Yogis claim to have developed a mechanism of blocking pain from reaching the brain through Kundalini Yoga. Kundalini is a very ancient Indian Yoga system, whose practitioners believe that there is energy (could be cerebrospinal fluid) which is coiled like a female serpent (Kundalini is the Sanskrit word for a coiled female serpent) and lies at the base of spinal chord. By Yogic process (mostly by willing it) it can be raised in the central canal of the spinal chord to reach its ultimate destination - the brain. Yogis claim that once it reaches the brain, liberation of a yogi from cycle of birth and death takes place. Raising it is done step by step and it takes many years before Yogis can raise it up to the brain. Yogis also claim that conservation of sexual energy helps tremendously in raising the Kundalini.
Kundalini Yoga helps to remove the sense organ inputs to the brain from various parts of the body. In medicine the pain blockers do the same. The main pain sensations from the body come through the spinal chord and probably raising of Kundalini means blocking the pain centers in the spinal chord progressively starting from the base of spine and reaching to the top of the brain. This effectively detaches the mind from sense organs. Shri Ramkrishna used to say that as he started raising his Kundalini, his body went through the process of locking itself starting from the base of his spinal chord so that he lost control of these parts as the Kundalini traveled from base of spine to the head.
Yogis believe that with practice of Kundalini Yoga the mind gets completely detached from the body. This helps in developing memory or neural pathways so that at the time of death it is quite easy for the memory or soul to leave the body painlessly. Besides, they believe that with 'pure soul' (without the sense organ memories attached to it) it is possible to achieve salvation from the cycle of birth and death. This is the central theme of Indian Yogic system. Patanjali says that once the gunas (result of karma) are resolved through Yoga then the soul becomes pure (without memory) and merges into Universal Consciousness.
Death and Memory Removal
So what happens at the time of death? It seems the ego sense 'I' or sense of identity has to shed the memory of attachments of sense organs. It is through the sense organs that we perceive the world and carry out our actions hence it is these organs which give the sense of identity to a living entity. Shedding of these attachments allows the removal of major memory of lifetime. This includes almost all memories except the 'basic memory" which is then transferred. We are still not sure what that basic memory could be. The analogy from modern computers will be useful in explaining this concept. At the time of death there is a transfer of software (basic memory) from the body. In a computer a person transfers the software onto a new machine. In transfer of soul it is done on its own. There is no agent of transfer and hence it is guided by the forces it encounters just after death. Just like software is useless without the machine similarly the soul cannot do anything without the body (hardware). Body allows the soul to change its character just like one can modify the software through a computer machine. It is only through body that the brain receives all the sensory inputs and the body acts like an antenna for the mind. Thus the strongest desire of the soul is to get a body. This could be any body and hence there is a possibility of its transfer among species.
What happens to all the memories and information that a person learns during his/her lifetime after death?
Any knowledge produced is always in the knowledge space and it continues to increase. It is never reduced. All the information of activities we undertake whether good or bad goes into the knowledge space. This space is filled with knowledge from all over the Universe.
Information generation is an evolutionary process. There is a possibility that all the information we develop has a counterpart in the higher dimensional space. How it goes there is still not clear. Thus the old saying that all our actions may come to haunt us may mean that the information is never lost. It always remains in knowledge space.
The soul passing from one body to another carries the basic memory only. Once it gets into a new body it can access information from knowledge space. This makes more sense energy-wise since it will be difficult for the transfer of soul from one body to other if large amount of memory is attached to it.
The knowledge space is of two types. One that stays with earth or other livable planet. This includes the books, memories, other materials and the 'atmosphere' of earth or planet. This space goes with the earth and earthlings can dip into it to get the knowledge so that the evolution of mankind takes place. The other knowledge space is the Universe and as the earth passes through it we produce quantum jumps in our knowledge. The knowledge in this space exists because of actions of advanced civilizations.
Passage of Memory or Soul
It is possible that at the time of death the basic memory or soul passes into the higher dimensional space. Death is the most traumatic experience for a living entity and somehow allows the neurons to fire in a laser like fashion so that the soul can be transferred to the higher dimensional space. The space here is rigid and hence allows the stability of soul. This space could be one step higher than our 4-dimensional one and could be the realm of spirits and possibly still affected by the forces present in our 4-dimensional world. The "memory" of Yogis and enlightened souls guided by their willpower and powerful minds, could however go into even higher dimensional space. People who die suddenly for example because of a heart attack, accidents etc. may not get the time for the sense organ detachment. Thus the souls of such persons may retain the memory of body form for a little longer time which may result in the ghost form. We still do not know for how long the 'ghost structure' can remain and what type of energy is required to maintain its stability. Those who die of natural causes get sufficient time for mind withdrawal or sense detachment of the soul and may follow the path of three bardos.
The ego sense 'I' or identity of a living entity comes from the body. It seems it is a summation of all its memories and includes the body form and structure. If the body is gone then this sense becomes rootless and without an anchor. Then this rudderless soul or memory is at the mercy of the forces, which exist in its vicinity. This memory, individual soul etc. is called atman in Indian traditional thought. It is quite possible that the atman or soul of an ordinary person, at the time of death, may contain substantial "memory" of body or form. These memories can only be shed or modified by the availability of a fresh body. This may make it possible for it to be born wherever it gets a body and thus the transfer of soul among species takes place.
However one is not sure if the transfer takes place in all life forms or those with a certain brain size. There could be a cutoff brain size below which the transformation from humans to other life forms may not take place.
In order to avoid this transfer into other species we need to cultivate our minds in such a manner that at the time of death we have a powerful structure of our thought so that most of the extraneous memories are shed and we create a great "Spiritual mass". Practice of yoga helps us in doing this. Creation of "Spiritual mass" is the only way to make sure that the transition of memory from one body to another human body is smooth and that it can also go to other planets by will. It is possible that our ancient spiritual teachings about swarglok (heaven), etc. came because this planet was not a very hospitable place and hence the focus was to release the soul so that it could go to other hospitable planets from where we might have come.
As our technology advances we will be able to make our future world a very hospitable place so that the body could be made strong and healthy through Yoga or designer drugs. This will help to keep the mind and brain fit so that we could leave the body at will. Thus in future most souls may be able to produce a high 'Spiritual mass' at the time of their death so that they could either stay here on earth by will or could go out of the Earth's gravitational field. Some Yogis claim that there are great masters who came from other worlds, have chosen to live in this world for its upliftment, and are hundreds of years old.
The 'Spiritual mass' can be produced when the brain is working at its fullest and capable of producing deep thought in higher dimensional space. This is what great Yogis can do and is the basis of whole Yoga. As we age our brain looses its suppleness and gets petrified. Hence it cannot fire all the 100 billion neurons in a laser like fashion at the time of death. This limits most people's capability to get a new body by will. Some of the great spiritual leaders like Christ, Adi Shankaracharya, Sant Gyaneshwar of Maharashtra, Swami Vivekananda etc. left their bodies before they reached 40 years and when their brainpower was at its prime. For others who cannot produce the critical 'spiritual mass', rebirth is by chance or strongly willed by the loved ones.
There are people who do not believe in life after death or reincarnation and hence believe that after death everything finishes with the body. However there is an irrefutable proof from a large number of cases where there has been a total recall of past lives and events by individuals (specially children) and these cases have been reported in all societies and in almost all religions. Hence we will take the data of these cases as experiential fact and assume that there is reincarnation and life after death.
So what happens in reincarnation? It seems that there is a transfer of memory or software from one body to another (the hardware). This memory contains the basic template of knowledge acquired in previous birth. Thus the memory of mundane things is left out. If this were also transferred then it would have overloaded the memory in the new body and allowed very little space for working memory. Probably this is the reason why most of us do not remember information from prior births.
The memory transfer is extremely efficient energy-wise since a new hardware (body) gets the basic memory (software) to work with. This is also the mechanism by which knowledge evolution takes place since the new body with its 'old' basic memory or templates can gain knowledge much faster and helps in knowledge accumulation. This knowledge together with what is available in other forms (books, information via mass media etc.) allows us to move forward in our evolution. The continuous knowledge evolution is however given a quantum jump when some evolved souls are able to tune into the knowledge space (KS).
There have been many instances when rebirths have taken place in the same or nearby households brought about by a very strong will of the loved ones. The intense love creates a powerful force for the soul to be so reborn. However it is not clear when and where the birth will take place. In a celebrated case the Indian saint Shri Ramkrishna described in detail how he and a very highly evolved Yogi decided to be born together on earth. He identified that Yogi as Swami Vivekananda a great spiritual leader of India. However it took 20 years for Shri Ramkrishna to find out about Vivekananda although he was born within 20 kms of where Ramkrishna was staying! Besides Vivekananda was born 40 years after Ramkrishna and the two met each other by chance in Calcutta.
One of the major aims of all life-forms is to get a human body. Getting it is extremely important in evolution of knowledge since our huge brain allows us to tune into the knowledge space. Bodies belonging to other species cannot do it because of their small brain size. If the soul goes into other life forms then the knowledge accumulation is a retrograde step.
Basis of a Good Life
How does one lead his/her life so that it is happy and death is painless and is welcomed more like a friend when it comes? Tomes have been written on this subject and the great masters of this world like Christ, Buddha, Patanjali and others have spoken about it from their direct experience. It will be therefore arrogant on my part to say anything more than what they have already said. However we can try to understand it from the perspective of our theory on deep thought.
The whole basis of life is to have continuous happiness and joy and that is possible with a very healthy body in a very hospitable world. The self can only enjoy and be happy with a body (preferably a human body) since it provides anchor to it and allows the making and breaking of memories. One of the keys to happiness is reduction and complete removal of greed. Greed creates tremendous conflicts and all round unhappiness. Removal of greed can be achieved by cultivating a nimble brain via Sanyam. A healthy body can help in creating a nimble brain.
The nimble brain has a tremendous processing power and hence a small amount of data is processed very efficiently to gain useful information. This helps the mind to "get satisfied" easily and helps in satiating the desire so that the person can move on. This is the major step in greed reduction.
Sanyam also allows enough working memory space in the brain so that majority of 100 billion neurons are available to focus on a single thought. This can become possible when we have less memory locked up in the brain about mundane and routine worldly activities and attachments. Also there should be an excellent conflict resolution mechanism developed internally. Deep down we should honestly evaluate our actions and should be able to live with them in peace. This act can help in freeing the mind from psychological knots, which can take up a major portion of the memory. Removal of these knots may help make the mind calm and fit for deep thought. The final word on this subject therefore belongs to Patanjali who says, "Undisturbed calmness of mind is attained by cultivating friendliness towards the happy, compassion for the unhappy, delight in the virtuous and indifference towards the wicked".
Making this world a better and more hospitable place can also help in calmness of mind and internal happiness. This will help us fulfill both our physical and emotional needs and can help all humans to live a very full and happy life. For most of us this planet is the only home we have. This means that besides our personal evolution we should also contribute as much as possible to mankind's evolution. In this, technology will play a very major role. It allows us to take care of our physical needs and with its progress and evolution will allow us to live in a sustainable manner. Thus to my mind the contribution of Edisons, Fords, Einsteins and Newtons of this world towards mankind's evolution are at par with those of spiritual leaders like Buddha, Christ, Patanjali, etc. Mankind has always aspired to immortality. Thus by means of chemicals, drugs and spiritual methods humans have always striven to prolong their lives. Yogis and practitioners of healthy body cult claim that human body can theoretically live for 125 years. There are some Yogis in India who claim that some masters have lived even for 300-400 years!
I believe that once our technology becomes very advanced then it will be possible for humans to have a long life. Whether that long life will be productive, happy and emotionally satisfying will depend a lot on how hospitable we make this planet earth. I believe a combination of spirituality and technology can provide a basis for achieving this goal. | <urn:uuid:a71b861d-fce4-46f6-a0b2-624aeb5b87fa> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.boloji.com/index.cfm?md=Content&sd=Articles&ArticleID=2796 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00078-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957589 | 5,542 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Elizabeth Blackwell was the first woman to get a medical degree. She was born in Bristol, England in 1812. She got her degree from Geneva Medical School. Throughout her career she faced discrimination. Male doctors ignored her and hospitals didn't let her in. This is why she opened the first Medical School for women with her sister. Even though she was a woman she fought to fulfill her dream. She led the way for women everywhere. She gave them hope to become doctors. Thanks to her I have the opportunity to become a doctor. | <urn:uuid:60098374-4e72-4b12-801b-00ec0de47fac> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/studentstake/women/elizabeth_blackwell.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00037-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.995398 | 107 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Each year, an estimated 1.7 million persons in the United States sustain a brain injury, and 12,000 - 20,000 sustain a spinal cord injury. In fact, injury is the leading cause of death among children and teens. The most frequent causes of these injuries are motor vehicle crashes, violence, falls, sports and recreation. The good news is that most injuries are preventable.
ThinkFirst, is an award winning, national injury prevention program. It provides safety education to school-age children in the hope of reducing serious injury. The program helps educate youth about personal vulnerability and risk taking behaviors. Physical therapists from Burke Rehabilitation Hospital, who are ThinkFirst volunteers, are dedicated to providing this injury prevention program to young people, school officials, community program members, and community leaders. Burke offers the program free of charge to organizations that serve youth.
For more information call Elizabeth Dominick, PT, at (914) 597-2393. | <urn:uuid:2e48c3d3-b716-4259-859e-efc442c80a8a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.burke.org/community/special-events-programs/thinkfirst | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00088-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94038 | 195 | 2.671875 | 3 |
The first encounter on the Greek mainland between East and West took place on the small seaside plain of Marathon, twenty-six miles northeast of Athens. The Persian expeditionary force of Darius I was not large, perhaps numbering under thirty thousand. But it arrived confident after storming the nearby Greek city-state of Eretria. Moreover, no allies except the Plataeans joined the Athenian resistance of less than ten thousand troops, and some autocratic regimes in Attica supported the invaders in the hope of toppling the fledgling democracy.
To meet the larger invading force, the Athenian commander Militiades weakened his center and reinforced his wings, hoping that his hoplites could hold the middle while his flanks broke through the lighter-clad Persian infantry. In fact, the Athenian center broke, but it held long enough for the Athenians to rout the Persian wings and meet in the rear, causing a general panic among the invaders.
Almost immediately, the victory of “the Marathon men” captured the collective imagination of the Greeks. Ceremonial funeral mounds of the legendary 192 Athenian dead and the loyal Plataeans were erected on the battlefield. Epigrams were composed and panoramic murals were put on display. No wonder: it had been Athens’s finest hour, when its democratic yeomen alone had beaten back the imperial might of Persia (see Persian Wars).
The Reader’s Companion to Military History. Edited by Robert Cowley and Geoffrey Parker. Copyright © 1996 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:9f1a79de-07a6-44a0-ab98-02a4d3d61106> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/battle-of-marathon/print | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00076-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960292 | 327 | 3.4375 | 3 |
Question: I typically use wget to download files. On some systems, wget is not installed and only curl is available. Can you explain me with a simple example on how I can download a remote file using curl? Are there any difference between curl and wget?
Answer: On a high-level, both wget and curl are command line utilities that do the same thing.
- They both can be used to download files using FTP and HTTP(s).
- You can also send HTTP POST request using curl and wget
- However curl provides APIs that can be used by programmers inside their own code. curl uses libcurl which is a cross-platform library.
- wget is just a command-line tool without any APIs.
- Curl also supports lot more protocols that wget doesn’t support. For example: SCP, SFTP, TFTP, TELNET, LDAP(S), FILE, POP3, IMAP, SMTP, RTMP and RTSP.
- There is a major advantage of using wget. wget supports recursive download, while curl doesn’t.
The following example downloads the file and stores in the same name as the remote server.
The following example download the file and stores in a different name than the remote server. This is helpful when the remote URL doesn’t contain the file name in the url as shown in the example below.
wget -O taglist.zip http://www.vim.org/scripts/download_script.php?src_id=7701
More wget examples: The Ultimate Wget Download Guide With 15 Awesome Examples
$ curl -O http://www.openss7.org/repos/tarballs/strx25-0.9.2.1.tar.bz2 % Total % Received % Xferd Average Speed Time Time Time Current Dload Upload Total Spent Left Speed 28 3762k 28 1085k 0 0 72771 0 0:00:52 0:00:15 0:00:37 54267
Option -O (upper-case O) is important. Without this, curl will start dumping the downloaded file on the stdout. Using -O, it downloads the files in the same name as the remote server. In the above example, we are downloading strx25-0.9.2.1.tar.bz2, so the downloaded file will also be the same name.
Instead of -O, you an also specify, “–remote-name” as shown below. Both are the same.
$ curl --remote-name http://www.openss7.org/repos/tarballs/strx25-0.9.2.1.tar.bz2
While curl is downloading it gives the following useful information:
- % – The total % of the download that was completed as of now. When it gets to 100% the download is completed. In the above example, it has downloaded only 28% of the file.
- Total – The total size of the file
- Received – The total size of the file that was has been downloaded so far. In the above example, it has downloaded 1085k so far (out of 3762k total)
- Xferd – This will be used when you upload some files to the remote server. During upload, this will indicate the total size of the file that has been uploaded so far. Since we are downloading a file, in this example, this is 0.
- Average Speed Dload – This indicates the average download speed.
- AVerage Speed Upload – While uploading a file, this will indicate the average upload speed
- Time Total – This indicates the total time it will take to download (or upload) the whole file based on the current download (or upload) speed. In this example, it will take approximately a total of 52 seconds to download this file.
- Time Spend – The time curl has spent so far downloading (or uploading) the file. In this example, it has spent 15 seconds so far.
- Time Left – This is caculated based on “Time Total” – “Time Spent”.
- Current Speed – This indicates the current download/upload speed. Compare this with Average Spped Dload/UPload to see how fast or slow your system is downloading currently.
If you want to download the file and store it in a different name than the name of the file in the remote server, use -o (lower-case o) as shown below. This is helpful when the remote URL doesn’t contain the file name in the url as shown in the example below.
$ curl -o taglist.zip http://www.vim.org/scripts/download_script.php?src_id=7701 % Total % Received % Xferd Average Speed Time Time Time Current Dload Upload Total Spent Left Speed 100 50243 100 50243 0 0 170k 0 --:--:-- --:--:-- --:--:-- 400k
In the above example, there is no file name in the remote URL, it just calls a php script that passes some parameter to it. However, the file will be downloaded and saved as taglist.zip on your local system. Instead of -o, you an also specify, “–output”.
More curl examples: 15 Practical Linux cURL Command Examples | <urn:uuid:fc65838d-230d-43ce-b4ca-0ab0fa793b52> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thegeekstuff.com/2012/07/wget-curl/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00192-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.855779 | 1,145 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Meet the Sakakis: Thirty-something mom and dad Yukiko and Hiroshi, and their three-year-old daughter, May. They’re a typical Japanese family: they live in the Tokyo suburb of Musashino, they have one child (and they’re stopping there, they say), and both parents work to afford a middle-class lifestyle.
I visited the Sakakis to get an idea of how an average Japanese family consumes energy. I left their home with a greater understanding of why Japan is a much more energy-efficient country than ours.
I visited the Sakakis on a Saturday. It was 85 degrees and muggy outside; a typical early September day in Tokyo. Despite the conditions, the Sakakis weren’t running their air conditioner, opting instead to open the windows and close the drapes to their two-bedroom apartment, in order to block out the sun and let a humid breeze flow through. When I asked them why the AC wasn’t on, Sakaki-san went to his desk drawer and pulled out his electricity bill. The Sakakis pay 24 yen per kilowatt-hour. That’s equivalent to about 30 cents in U.S. currency. That’s also roughly twice as much as Californians pay for electricity. Despite their frugal energy habits and diminutive quarters, the Sakakis pay what amounts to a little over $100 a month on electricity. They spend around the same for natural gas each month.
Energy is expensive in Japan. The country has no domestic fossil fuel resources, so it has to import them. The government taxes its citizens heavily for energy consumption, and then uses the revenue to put Japan at the forefront of renewable energy R&D. This has made Japan a world leader in solar panel sales and it’s put the country years ahead of the rest of the world in the development of other innovative energy-saving technologies like hydrogen fuel cells and batteries for electric vehicles. According to Japan expert Llewelyn Hughes at George Washington University, Japan leads the world in green technology patents. “It’s not even close,” he told me in an interview to prepare me for my trip.
All of these technological innovations mean Japan is poised to emerge from the global recession with great economic potential. It also means that the Sakaki household has some very cool gadgets: a refrigerator with several different drawers in order to separate perishable items and save energy, a floor that heats up in the winter, and a bath that talks to them. | <urn:uuid:f56f816a-f0a8-4efa-a327-eef908f52f0d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blogs.kqed.org/climatewatch/tag/electricity/page/2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00057-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960783 | 525 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Net Present Value
Net Present Value is a method to estimate the current value of future cash flows. In its simplest form, Net Present Value applies a discount rate to a future cash flow number and the product is the Net Present Value.
The discount rate may have many components; Internal Rate of Return (IRR), Cost of Capital, Cost of Debt, Risk, estimated inflation and risk.
Suppose you lent $100.00 to Person A. It is to be repaid within one year. You would like a return of 5% on your money you expect inflation to be 2%, and your assessment of risk for this person leads you to add 1% to the discount rate. This means you would assign a discount rate of 8% to this loan. If this person approached you suggesting, I will give you $90.00 today to discharge my loan, you would counter that you needed at least $92.59. (92.59 x 1.08 = $100.00)
Usually a corporation will use a Weighted Average Cost of Capital as a discount rate when NPV is the appropriate method of evaluating an invesment or capital expenditure. | <urn:uuid:bb01961c-eae7-4223-807b-dc40627116ce> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.conservapedia.com/Net_Present_Value | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00031-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939179 | 235 | 3.171875 | 3 |
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A brief overview of chemistry, the study of matter and how it changes and interacts with other matter. Covers matter, elements, atoms, reactions, and describes different types of chemistry ranging from biochemistry to physical chemistry. | <urn:uuid:9ee327e5-2d51-4096-8cfb-8ddabc16cd8a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://gws.ala.org/node/7796 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00071-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.851923 | 77 | 2.59375 | 3 |
From Our 2013 Archives
Vitamin B Supplements May Guard Against Stroke
Latest Heart News
Previous research has yielded conflicting findings about whether taking vitamin B supplements affects the risk of stroke and heart attack. Some studies have concluded that taking vitamin B supplements may actually increase the risk, according to the review authors.
They analyzed the findings of 14 clinical trials that included a total of nearly 55,000 people. All of the trials compared vitamin B supplement use with a placebo or very low-dose vitamin B.
The participants were followed for a minimum of six months. There were a total of nearly 2,500 strokes among the participants in the studies, all of which showed some benefit of taking vitamin B.
Overall, vitamin B supplements reduced the risk of stroke by 7 percent, but did not appear to reduce the severity of strokes or the risk of death from stroke, according to the review, which was published in the Sept. 18 online issue of the journal Neurology.
The researchers found that folic acid, a supplemental form of folate (B9) that is common in fortified cereals, appeared to reduce the beneficial effect of vitamin B. They also found that vitamin B12 had no effect on stroke risk.
"Based on our results, the ability of vitamin B to reduce stroke risk may be influenced by a number of other factors, such as the body's absorption rate, the amount of folic acid or vitamin B12 concentration in the blood, and whether a person has kidney disease or high blood pressure," review author Xu Yuming, of Zhengzhou University in China, said in a journal news release.
"Before you begin taking any supplements, you should always talk to your doctor," Yuming added.
One expert agreed, noting that strokes can be caused by many varying factors.
"Ischemic strokes can have many different causes, the most common being hypertension, diabetes, high cholesterol, smoking and obesity," said Dr. Rafael Alexander Ortiz, director of neuro-endovascular surgery and stroke at Lenox Hill Hospital in New York City. "There is a group of patients that may suffer a stroke due to deficiency of vitamins and enzymes. It is appropriate to perform a comprehensive work-up, including [for] vitamin deficiencies, in patients that have suffered a stroke."
Another expert said the findings are important.
"[The report] identifies a substance which is readily available and has been demonstrated to have a positive effect in stroke risk reduction in certain population subgroups," said Dr. Albert Favate, director of the Comprehensive Stroke Center at NYU Langone Medical Center in New York City. "The article also reflects the increased public thirst for dietary prevention of stroke."
-- Robert Preidt
SOURCES: Alexander Ortiz, director, neuro-endovascular surgery and stroke, Lenox Hill Hospital, New York City; Albert Favate, M.D., clinical instructor, department of neurology, and director, Comprehensive Stroke Center, NYU Langone Medical Center, New York City; Neurology, news release, Sept. 18, 2013 | <urn:uuid:31eb1803-dcbd-4290-8f03-2f98bbc9df80> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=173710 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00118-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952605 | 626 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Babies can tell when you have been lying to them, according to a new study.
Although babies are known for copying adults' behaviour, a new study shows babies will only imitate adults that have previously proven themselves trustworthy.
If an adult has previously displayed unreliable or dishonest behaviour, the baby is less likely to mimic them, according to LiveScience.
Researchers divided 60 babies into two groups. In the first group, "unreliable" experimenters looked inside a container while expressing excitement, and invited the babies to discover whether the box contained a toy or was empty. For that group's experiment, the box was empty.
The second group had "reliable" experimenters, so when the babies copied the adults' enthusiastic behaviour and looked inside the box, they found a toy.
In a second imitation task, each baby again observed the same experimenter that they had looked at during the box exercise. This time, the adult used her forehead instead of her hands to turn on a push-on light.
The experimenter then watched to see whether the infant would copy her behaviour.
Sixty-one per cent of the babies in the "reliable" group imitated the irrational behaviour of using their foreheads to turn on the light, but only 34 per cent of infants imitated the unreliable testers who had previously lied them.
"This shows infants will imitate behaviour from a reliable adult," said researcher Ivy Brooker of the Concordia Department of Psychology.
"In contrast, the same behaviour performed by an unreliable adult is interpreted as irrational or inefficient, therefore not worth imitating."
- HERALD ONLINE | <urn:uuid:aeb041c2-8a45-4aad-9d31-d5a2a7b62316> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nzherald.co.nz/lifestyle/news/article.cfm?c_id=6&objectid=10773016 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00028-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951103 | 331 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Conifers are trees or shrubs that bear cones. With a variety of colors, shapes, and sizes, they add color and textural contrast to landscapes year-round. But what exactly are dwarf conifers? Simply stated, they are conifers that do not reach the normal height for their species. True dwarf conifers average about one-twentieth the typical size, with most species growing from 1 to 6 inches annually and reaching less than 6 feet after ten years. An intermediate dwarf conifer will grow 6 to 15 feet tall over the same decade.
With their small stature, dwarf conifers can be perfect for a small yard or urban plot. Many types maintain their evergreen beauty during winter, providing a welcome focal point in any yard during this bleak time. Their year-round consistency also provides habitat and protection for birds and small animals.
Considering dwarf conifers for your landscape? Be sure to learn the exact characteristics of each, keeping in mind their different foliage and colors, which may differ from the parent or normal species. And don't forget their small size is relative: discover the mature size of each dwarf conifer selection you find interesting, lest you choose one that unhappily exceeds your expectations.
What Causes a Dwarf Conifer?
Several conditions and factors can cause a conifer species to grow naturally as a dwarf — including, sometimes, a harsh climate or poor soil condition. Seedling mutations also create dwarf conifers. Bud mutations (or, as they are sometimes called, “sports”) can also introduce changes in a particular bud from the normal growing parent to a dwarfed habit. Finally, tangled, dense clumps of branchlets sometimes grow on full-sized conifers. Called witches' brooms, they can result from disease or genetic mutation. All of these types of changes can then be propagated.
A deliberate method of cultivating dwarf conifers is through grafting. Cultivators graft a normal growing species onto a dwarf rootstock, which actually slows down the growth of the conifer, in turn creating a new dwarf cultivar. Dwarf varieties also can be created through the process of growing standards, or a plant that has a long single stem. In this case a rootstock is trained to create vertical growth, and the dwarf conifer is grafted above on a long stem. The development and training of new cultivars through plant breeding also creates dwarf varieties.
A Look at Conifer Seeds
Cones are ancient structures that protect the tree's seeds, which shelter beneath each of the cone's woody scales. Young green cones are sealed tight by resin. Once the seeds inside mature (after several months to several years), the cone turns brown and its scales open. The seeds are dispersed by wind or by animals, and the empty cone falls to the ground. Some dwarf conifers don't produce cones at all (they have a long juvenile phase), some bear small ones, and others bear full-sized cones despite the tree's small stature.
Caring for Your Dwarf Conifers
Different species of dwarf conifers require different growing conditions — though there are some general guidelines. Most require full sun to light shade and well-drained soil (some require slightly acidic soil conditions). When you first plant a dwarf conifer, be sure that it receives 1 inch of water per week (supplement if there isn't enough rainfall). Mulch around your dwarf conifer — but not directly around its trunk — to improve moisture retention and increase soil nutrients. Watch for branches that look like they could revert back to faster growth; prune them out immediately. Dwarf conifers typically do not need fertilization. Above all, don't forget to learn about the specific needs of your type of dwarf conifer.
Dwarf forms can be used in innovative ways. You may plant dwarf conifers around garden pools and in rock gardens, and miniature dwarf conifers (remaining under a foot in height) are ideal in containers. When planted near ornamental grasses, dwarf conifers maximize the contrast between airy/dense textures and light/dark colors. Prostrate (horizontal) or matted forms make attractive groundcovers. When dwarf conifers are planted as a group, choose an odd number (3, 5, 7) of different shapes. This is especially effective where winter interest is needed.
Dwarf Conifers for the Chicago Region
Dwarf conifers for the Chicago region are available in a great variety of sizes, shapes, and textures — as well as a four-season palette including every shade of green, unexpected blues, and silvers, complemented by spring growth in yellow and white, and winter foliage in red, copper, or bronze. Below are some dwarf conifer cultivars with interesting characteristics that are hardy for this area:
- Abies concolor 'Compacta' (Compact White Fir) has bluish-gray foliage in an upright habit.
- Chamaecyparis pisifera 'Gold Spangled' (Sawara Falsecypress) has yellow, feathery foliage throughout the year.
- Chamaecyparis pisifera 'Plumosa juniperoides' (Juniper-Plume Dwarf Sawara Falsecypress) has pale yellow new growth in the spring, contrasting with the darker inner foliage, turning golden in the summer.
- Larix decidua 'Whorled Peace' (European Larch) is a deciduous conifer featuring branches with a curving form that collectively look like spiraling water.
- Picea abies 'Repens Gold' (Dwarf Norway Spruce) has golden-green, feathery foliage.
- Picea abies 'Elegens' (Dwarf Norway Spruce) is a low-growing, green, spreading conifer.
- Picea pungens 'Sunshine' (Colorado Blue Spruce) has a slight golden look to its foliage, as its new growth is light yellow and older growth turns silver-green as it matures, growing pyramidal in shape.
- Picea pungens 'Glauca Pendula' (Weeping Colorado Blue Spruce) has the blue foliage of the Colorado Spruce in a weeping, dwarf form.
Be sure to visit the newly renovated Dwarf Conifer Garden at the Chicago Botanic Garden to view these and many more dwarf conifers. | <urn:uuid:cf75d45f-8a4c-42da-a8aa-6659865d26af> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.chicagobotanic.org/plantinfo/dwarf_conifers | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00088-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.930321 | 1,338 | 4 | 4 |
A new study reinforces the idea that starting school a little later in the morning is better for most kids: Teens Sleep Longer With Delayed School Starts
THURSDAY, June 12 (HealthDay News) -- Teens whose high schools have a delayed start time sleep longer and report less daytime sleepiness, say researchers at Norwalk Hospital's Sleep Disorders Center in Connecticut.
The study included 259 high school students who reported sleeping about 7.03 hours per school night, with a mean bed time of 10:52 p.m. and a mean wake-up time of 6:12 a.m. when school started at 7:35 a.m.
After the school start time was switched to 8:15 a.m., the students' total sleep time on school nights increased 33 minutes, mainly due to a later rise time. Their bedtime on school nights was slightly later, and there was a slight decrease in weekend sleep time. After the change in school start time, more students reported having no problem with daytime sleepiness.
"Following a 40-minute delay in start time, the students utilized 83 percent of the extra time for sleep. This increase in sleep time came as a result of being able to 'sleep in' to 6:53 a.m., with little delay in their reported school night bedtime. This study demonstrates that students given the opportunity to sleep longer, will, rather than extend their wake activities on school nights," study corresponding author Dr. Mary B. O'Malley said in a prepared statement.
According to the Mayo Clinic, "puberty changes a teen's internal clock, delaying the time he or she starts feeling sleepy -- often until 11 p.m. or later." In addition, they need nine hours of sleep a night, on average. So in order for teens to get enough sleep, school shouldn't start for them until definitely after 8 a.m., and ideally closer to 9. I wonder if Ann Arbor has ever considered this; high schools here start at 7:40 a.m. | <urn:uuid:876939e3-2cfb-4cf0-b5ce-a18251eec9e7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.mlive.com/neurotic_mom/2008/06/later_school_bells_more_sleep.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394937.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00009-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966223 | 418 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Geography is inherently tied to spatial thinking, but it includes the element of familiarity with the planet. We expect our students to know where major subduction zones and mountain ranges are, where deep ocean currents rise to the surface, where atmospheric circulation cells rise and descend, and maps are a critical component of our teaching. We also often expect students to become intimately familiar with a particular place through field work.
Common challenges and misconceptions
- Students tend to think of geographic features such as coastlines and river courses as unchanging, rather than as features subject to both slow and rapid change.
- The geography that they may be most familiar with is often at odds with the scientific description of these features
- Students often experience discomfort being taken out of their environment for field work
Learning outcomes and assessment for geographic facility
Learning outcomes for geographic facility may be focused on local, regional, or global contexts. Consider incorporating resources such as Google Earth and GIS software to allow students the opportunity to manipulate data in a geographic context. Learning outcomes that addresses this habit of mind might be something like:
- Students will be able to name the world's major deserts and describe why they are located where they are.
- Assessment: Give students a blank world map with continents outlined. Ask them to sketch in the boundaries of major deserts and any other indications they need to describe why they are there (wind patterns, ocean currents, etc.).
- Students will be able to deduce relationships between the distribution of a given natural resource (copper porphyry deposits, oil and gas, geothermal energy) and plate tectonic processes.
- Assessment: After learning about the distribution of types of plate boundaries, give students a map showing the world distribution and age of copper porphyry deposits and ask them to use what they know about the distribution of plate boundaries to interpret the origin of copper porphyry deposits.
Resources for teaching about geographic facility
- Teaching in the field site guide from Teach the Earth
- Teaching in the field from the National Association of Geoscience Teachers
- Teaching with GIS in the Geosciences from Pedagogy in Action
- Teaching with Google Earth from Pedagogy in Action and On the Cutting Edge
- Curriculum for the Bioregion from the Evergreen State College
Big ideas, essential principles, and fundamental concepts about geographic facility in the geoscience literacies
- Earth Science Big Idea 7. Humans depend on Earth for resources.
- Fundamental concept 7.1. Earth is our home; its resources mold civilizations, drive human exploration, and inspire human endeavors ...
- Fundamental concept 7.2. Geology affects the distribution and development of human populations.
- Fundamental concept 7.4. Resources are distributed unevenly around the planet.
- Climate Literacy Essential Principle 4. Climate varies over space and time through both natural and man-made processes.
- Fundamental concept A. Climate is determined by the long-term pattern of temperature and precipitation averages and extremes at a location. Climate descriptions can refer to areas that are local, regional, or global in extent. ...
- Atmospheric Science Essential Principle 4. Earth's atmosphere changes over time and space, giving rise to weather and climate.
- Fundamental concept 4.1. Weather is the state of Earth's atmosphere at a particular place and time. ...
- Fundamental concept 4.3. Both weather and climate vary by region based on latitude, altitude, land use, proximity to physical features such as the ocean and mountains, and ocean currents.
- Ocean Science Essential Principle 1. The Earth has one big ocean with many features.
- Fundamental concept a. ... There is one ocean with many ocean basins...
- Fundamental concept b. ... Earth's highest peaks, deepest valleys, and flattest vast plains are all in the ocean.
- Mogk, D.W. and Goodwin, C., 2012 Learning in the Field: Synthesis of research on thinking and learning in the geosciences , in Kastens, K.A. and Manduca, C.A., eds., Earth and Mind II: A Synthesis of Research on Thinking and Learning in the Geosciences: Geological Society of America Special Paper 486, p. 131-163 | <urn:uuid:36a9128c-ad12-41a6-814a-4d4060e5d8dd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://serc.carleton.edu/integrate/teaching_materials/geographic.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00124-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.906401 | 872 | 4.28125 | 4 |
Research led by astronomers at the University of Warwick has confirmed that the flash from one of the biggest and brightest bangs yet recorded by astronomers comes from a massive black hole at the centre of a distant galaxy. The black hole appears to have ripped apart a star that wandered too close, creating a powerful beam of energy that crossed the 3.8 billion light years to Earth.
Their research is published today in the Journal Science in a paper entitled "An Extremely Luminous Panchromatic Outburst from the Nucleus of a Distant Galaxy"
The high energy X-rays and gamma-rays persisted at an extremely bright level for weeks after the event, with bright flares arising when further chunks of the star fell into the black hole. The extreme brightness of this event comes from the fact that it illuminated only a small fraction of the sky, pointing a jet of light towards the Milky Way, which was detected at Earth 3.8 billion years after the star was ripped apart.
Dr Andrew Levan, lead researcher on the paper from the University of Warwick "Despite the power of this the cataclysmic event we still only happen to see this event because our solar system happened to be looking right down the barrel of this jet of energy".
The new research paper clearly establishes that the source of this event - (known now as Sw 1644+57) is right at the heart of far away galaxy, 3.8 billion light years away, at a spot which would be in the constellation Draco.
University of Warwick researcher Dr Andrew Levan said:
"The only explanation that so far fits the size, intensity, time scale, and level of fluctuation of the observed event, is that a massive black at the very centre of that galaxy has pulled in a large star and ripped it apart by tidal disruption. The spinning black hole then created the two jets one of which pointed straight to earth."
For further details please contact:
Dr Andrew Levan
Department of Physics, University of Warwick
(mobile/cell) +44 (0)7714 250373
Office +44 (0)2476 574740 (office)
Peter Dunn, Head of Communications
University of Warwick, Tel: +44 (0)24 76 523708
Mobile/Cell +44 (0)7767 655860
Notes for Editors
The researchers used the Hubble Space Telescope, Swift satellite and the Chandra X-ray Observatory to study the blast. Swift's Burst Alert Telescope first discovered the source, on March 28, when it erupted with the first in a series of X-ray blasts.
The full list of research organisations credited in the paper is: The Department of Physics, University of Warwick, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leicester, Leicester, Department of Astronomy, University of California, Space Telescope Science Institute, Dark Cosmology Centre, Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, NASA , Universities Space Research Association, Columbia Astrophysics Lab, Columbia University, Instituto de Astrofissica de Andalucia (IAA-CSIC), Glorieta de la Astronomia , Herschel Science Operations Centre, ESAC, ESA, UCO/Lick Observatory, University of California, Institut de Radio Astronomie Millimetrique, Joint Astronomy center, University Park, Hilo, Center for Galaxy Evolution, University of California, Irvine, AIM, CEA/DSM - CNRS, Irfu/SAP, Centre de Saclay, Infrared Processing and Analysis Center, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, 91125, Centre for Astrophysics & Supercomputing, Swinburne University, Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe, University of Tokyo, Cahill Center for Astrophysics, California Institute of Technology, Centre for Astrophysics & Cosmology, Science Institute, University of Iceland, Center for Gravitation and Cosmology, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Space Science Office, VP62, NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center, SLAC National Accelerator Center, Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology, Dunlap Institute for Astronomy & Astrophysics, University of Toronto, Computational Cosmology Center, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Astronomical Institute, University of Amsterdam, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Benoziyo Center for Astrophysics, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Johns Hopkins University, Centre for Astrophysics Research, Science and Technology Research Institute, University of Hertfordshire, Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes, Santa Cruz de la Palma | <urn:uuid:3f862e74-cd6b-4136-9a16-a73179b872cd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2011-06/uow-bhk061011.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00132-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.84119 | 939 | 3.140625 | 3 |
While there are standards for Goat intake of energy and protein foods which are mainly useful for beginners these should serve only as a rough check for the experienced goat keeper. Problems which arise from Goat mineral needs afflict all manner of Goats and you, the experienced goat keeper and constitutes the principal difficulty of managing high yielding herds.
The Goat being a small ruminant works at a higher metabolic rate hence naturally with greater ‘wear and tear’ and therefore requires more mineral supplements and maintenance. The workings of the digestive tract involves the use and loss of large quantities of minerals in the digestive juices.
The Goat has an outstanding mineral requirement because it has a small body with high metabolic rate with a digestive system occupying one third of their body and producing milk richer than cow’s milk and greater in volume than sheep. Feeding which may seem adequate for other farm stock is most probably deficient for the goat.
Many of us think we know enough after some experience and reading and thus coming up with our idea of what a balance mineral supplement should be. Such commercial mixtures usually serve a purpose at a cost way out of proportion to the value of our Goat. Since it is designed to meet the requirements of cattle under orthodox systems of mineral management, that particular mixture will not be balanced for your Goat. Even commercial mixtures for the Goat may supposedly be balanced but it may just be not that for the individual goat as it depends on its feeding and expected yield, meat or milk. However it must be clearly understood that an excess of minerals becomes a heavy strain of your Goat’s kidneys which is largely responsible for getting rid of any surplus. An excess of any one mineral is liable to make another non-available. A chronic excess of many minerals deranges the workings of the vital processes.
Calcium and Phosphorus are the principal components of the goat skeleton and are essential for the chemistry in a variety of vital functions. Calcium for example is concerned with blood clotting and in the control of the metabolic rate and in nervous control. Phosphorus is needed for the release of muscular energy, for the digestion of oils, fats and for body cell making whether for growth, replacement or reproduction.
Calcium and Phosphorus are deposited in the bone together. If the need for either is needed by the body and the present diet cannot provide for it then both are released from the bones. These two minerals are always associated yet they are opposed in the effect on the body’s chemistry.
When there is a Calcium deficiency in the blood the goat will tend to overdo it. It will eat well, yield well and be very excitable. Then all of a sudden it will collapse. Phosphorus deficiency may take other forms but is always accompanied by a rather dull and apathetic attitude towards life.
In simple terms think of Calcium as the brake and Phosphorus as the accelerator. In those capacities they act on the thyroid gland which controls the metabolic rate and the rate of which Calcium and Phosphorus is withdrawn from the skeleton to serve the needs of milk production or meat development.
Magnesium in small quantities is required in the diet where it is a needed companion and assistant to Calcium in the chemistry of the goat’s body. Some functions of Calcium cannot be performed without the presence of Magnesium. When the Magnesium content in grass falls with the seasonal changes, grass fed goats are prone to Tetany. Apart from this problem lack of Magnesium can lead to general slight ill health.
Now let’s look at Iodine. The thyroid gland which controls the metabolic rate needs a supply of Iodine which in turn is needed for the manufacture thyroxine. If the supply of Iodine is not within its requirements the thyroid gland increases in size to make most of small resources and a goitre is produced. But this is an unreliable symptom and the least important consequence of Iodine deficiency which can and will cause ill health without any or noticeable difference in the size of the thyroid gland which is located in the throat. Iodine deficiency produces symptoms which include harsh coarse dry hair, dead parchment skin, still born and often hairless kids. Coming back to the thyroid gland, the goat’s ability to assimilate vitamin A and Carotene depends on its thyroid activity. So Iodine deficiency bears in its train of consequences of vitamin A deficiency as well which means retarded growth, infertility and low resistance to infection. Compared to a cow the goat has a thyroid gland which is half as big when proportioning bodyweight. The more productive your Goat, the greater will there be a need for Iodine.
Iodine differs from all other minerals in that it is only present in very small quantities in plants and almost entirely available in soil. It is rich in soils that hold their moisture well, peats, clays and humus rich land. Lime blocks the uptake of Iodine from the soil as it suppresses the effect of thyroxine in the blood. Over limed corps should be avoided as with corps subjected to heavy applications of artificial manures.
Copper is needed by the Goat in very small quantities and is needed to aid digestion and the use of iron in the body. The symptoms of Copper deficiency is scours, a dull and staring coat and loss of pigment from the hair giving the goat a washed out appearance. If you do not have access to a mineral supplement that contains Copper you can make your own. The recipe is 1 gm. of Copper Sulphate dissolved in a litre of water to be poured over 3 kg. of Salt. Let this mixture evaporate naturally and when dry add 600 gm. of red oxide of iron. Your Goats should have free access to this.
Cobalt is needed by the Goat to provide the bacteria in its digestive tract to synthesize vitamin B12. This vitamin is the antidote to pernicious anaemia. Lack of it causes this disease and encourages acetonamia and possibly other diseases. Some internal parasites rob their hosts of this vitamin when it enters the body from the digestive tract. The proportion of Cobalt included in commercial trace elements mixtures has proved useless for deficient Goats. Dissolve 10gms of Cobalt Sulphate in 300 ml of water, wet it with 2 kg of Salt and offer to goats as free access. If your goat has anaemia as a consequence of worm infestation or acetonaemia that accompanies a low fibre diet, you can counter this by adding 10gm of the above mixture to the feed everyday for a week. You can notice a chronic deficiency of Cobalt when it is evident by a gradual loss of appetite , wasting and sensitivity to cold.
We may cater for the mineral needs of our goats in three ways, Treating the soil on which (if) we grow Goat food, selecting the species of plants we grow for goat food or by feeding a concentrate of mineral mixture.
To be continued… | <urn:uuid:e96f1d53-14a5-445e-8a7f-bf7d66f9849a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thekebun.com/tag/goat/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00039-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950851 | 1,424 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Simple Definition of outfield
: the part of a baseball field that includes the area beyond the infield and between the foul lines
: the part of a cricket field that is away from the wickets
: the players who are positioned in the outfield
Full Definition of outfield
1 : the part of a baseball field beyond the infield and between the foul lines
2 : the baseball defensive positions comprising right field, center field, and left field; also : the players who occupy these positions
outfielderplay \-ˌfēl-dər\ noun
Examples of outfield in a sentence
He threw the ball to home plate from the outfield.
The team has one of the best outfields in the league.
First Known Use of outfield
Rhymes with outfield
afield, airfield, backfield, Bloomfield, brickfield, Burchfield, coalfield, cornfield, downfield, dress shield, Enfield, Fairfield, force field, goldfield, greenfield, Hadfield, heat shield, Hounsfield, ice field, infield, left field, Masefield, midfield, minefield, oil field, playfield, right field, Schofield, Sheffield, snowfield, Springfield, subfield, unsealed, upfield, Wakefield, well-heeled, windshield
OUTFIELD Defined for Kids
Definition of outfield for Students
: the part of a baseball field beyond the infield and between the foul lines
Seen and Heard
What made you want to look up outfield? Please tell us where you read or heard it (including the quote, if possible). | <urn:uuid:05a54006-b11c-44f6-9ab6-3e63190ddc7a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/outfielder | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398075.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00030-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.903577 | 335 | 3.453125 | 3 |
The Crow lived along the Yellowstone River at the foot of the Rocky Mountains in present-day southern Montana and northern Wyoming. Until a tribal dispute with the Hidatsa in the 18th century, they had lived along the upper Missouri River.
For the most part the Crow were hunters—the only crop they cultivated was tobacco. They were regarded as the premier horse thieves of the plains. In July 1806 Clark took a small expedition to explore the Yellowstone River region and, under cover of darkness, Crow succeeded in snatching half of the Americans' horses.
By the end of the 19th century, the Crow had given up most of their land to white settlers and moved to the Crow Reservation in south-central Montana. About 9,000 Crow lived in the United States as of 1990.
WILLIAM CLARKNovember 12, 1804
"The Ravin [Crow] Indians have 400 lodges & about 1200 men, & follow the Buffalow, or hunt for their Subsistance in the plains & on the Court Noi [Black Hills] & Rock Mountains, & are at war with the Siaux [and] Snake Indians."
Painting of Crow Indians by Karl Bodmer/Historical Picture Archive/Corbis | <urn:uuid:fd746d4c-b7e7-4f83-ae33-e8569e7cec62> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nationalgeographic.com/lewisandclark/record_tribes_002_19_21.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00106-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965865 | 257 | 3.953125 | 4 |
In This Module
Rocket science is based on basic science concepts such as Newton's Laws of Motion. Start your research here with the Rocket Science background information. More About Rocket Science has links to other NASA pages that explain rockets and rocket science.
This module has audio or video clips of
- A rocket scientist explaining the basic concepts and safety of rocket science.
- Launches of different kinds of rockets.
- Preview video clips, audio clips and images under Rocket Science Resources on your left. Download the ones you want to include in your podcast.
- Write your script.
- Record your narration.
- Edit your podcast.
- Share your podcast with the world.
Rocket Science Background Information
Have you heard the saying, "It's not rocket science?" Some people think rocket science is a difficult subject to understand. When someone says, "It's not rocket science," they mean that something is not too difficult. Rocket scientists are brilliant people, but rocket science is based on concepts you probably already understand. The same basic science concepts and laws work in both huge NASA rockets and small paper ones.
|Parts of a Rocket|
|No matter the size, all rockets must have a body, a nose cone, fins and a propellant system. The body is the main section of the rocket. This section holds many of the electronics needed to control large rockets. The aerodynamic shape of the nose cone helps prevent air from slowing the rocket. The fins help guide the rocket to fly straight. Finally, the propellant system includes a mixture of fuel and a chemical called an "oxidizer" that gives off oxygen. The fuel and oxidizer burn together to launch the rocket off the ground.|
|Forces on a Rocket|
When a rocket is in flight, four forces act on it: weight, thrust, and the two aerodynamic forces, lift and drag. The amount of the weight depends on the mass of all of the parts of the rocket. Thrust works the opposite of weight. The rocket's propulsion system causes thrust. Aerodynamics is the branch of science that explains the motion of air and the forces on bodies moving through the air. Lift is the aerodynamic force that works in a 90-degree angle to the direction of the flight. Lift is not as significant a force on a rocket as it is on an airplane. Drag is the aerodynamic force that works against the upward movement of the rocket.
So, what is the science behind rockets?
|Newton's Laws of Motion are important to rocket science.|
Also Known As
First law of motion
|Law of inertia||Objects at rest will stay at rest, and objects in motion will stay in motion in a straight line, unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.|
Second law of motion
|F=ma||The force of an object equals its mass times its acceleration.|
Third law of motion
|Law of action and reaction||For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.|
These three laws apply to rockets.
First Law: A rocket will stay on the launch pad until a force blasts it off. Once in space, a rocket will continue to move unless retrorockets are fired to slow the rocket down.
Second Law: The main forces acting on a rocket in flight are the weight of the rocket, thrust of the rocket engines, and drag as the rocket moves through the air. At any time, the sum of these forces is equal to the current mass of the rocket times the current acceleration of the rocket, or F=ma. The reason we say "current mass" is because as a rocket burns off its fuel, the mass of the rocket will decrease.
Third Law: A rocket can lift off from a launch pad only when it expels gas from its engine. The rocket pushes against the gas, and the gas in turn pushes against the rocket. Thrust is the force that causes the rocket to lift. In space, rocket engines are usually called reaction engines because the law of reaction causes the spacecraft to move in a direction opposite to the direction of the engine's thrust plume, which is the expanding gas coming from the back of the rocket.
|Center of Gravity and Center of Pressure|
A stable rocket has the center of pressure (cp) behind the center of gravity (cg). Image Credit: NASA For a rocket to fly in a straight path to its destination, the rocket must remain stable during flight. A stable rocket is one that flies in a smooth, uniform direction. An unstable rocket flies a crooked path, sometimes tumbling or changing direction. Unstable rockets are dangerous because it is not possible to predict where they will go. They may even turn upside down and suddenly head back directly to the launch pad.
As a rocket flies, it rotates around a point called the center of gravity, or center of mass. The center of gravity is the point where an object can be perfectly balanced. Try this: Hold a pencil on the tip of your finger. Find the spot where the pencil is balanced and does not teeter. That point is the center of gravity. It is the average location of the weight of an object.
The center of pressure is the average location of the drag forces. Because drag is an aerodynamic force, the center of pressure only exists when the air is flowing past a rocket in flight.
For a rocket to be stable, the center of pressure must be behind the center of gravity. For a model rocket, you can make adjustments to make your rocket more stable. One way to make your rocket more stable is to increase the size of the fins or to move the fins more to the rear of the rocket. These actions will move the center of pressure rearward. Another way to improve the stability of the rocket is to add weight into the nose cone, which will move the center of gravity toward the front end of the rocket. Both methods work because they increase the distance between the center of gravity and the center of pressure.
Larger, professional rockets have control systems to help them steer and remain stable. But rocket science is basically the same for all rockets. The principles used to build a model rocket, a paper rocket or a plastic bottle rocket are the same as those NASA uses to build rockets that carry humans and cargo into space.
|More About Rocket Science|
› What Is a Rocket?
› How Do Rockets Stack Up?
› Rocketry Image Gallery
› Rocketry Education Website
› Bottle Rocket Simulator | <urn:uuid:a08a888d-2d67-4e1d-8443-85713fcd0b87> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/diypodcast/rocket-science-index-diy.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00097-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.925443 | 1,335 | 4.03125 | 4 |
ALAZAN-APACHE COURTS. The Alazan-Apache Courts is a public housing project built between 1939 and 1942 on San Antonio's predominantly Mexican-American West Side. It was still operating in the early 1990s. During the 1930s more than 100,000 Mexican Americans lived in San Antonio, many of them in little more than shacks with tin roofs, dirt floors, and scrap-material walls. These dwellings had no indoor plumbing, and sanitation was primitive. In 1937, during the Great Depression, the United States Housing Authority was established. San Antonio began its own San Antonio Housing Authority on June 17, 1937. Among the five SAHA commissioners the one most responsible for promoting the Alazan-Apache project was the Italian-born Father Carmelo Tranchese, pastor of the Our Lady of Guadalupe Church. In September 1937 the USHA agreed to fund the San Antonio housing program. Five projects were scheduled: Alazan and Apache Courts for Mexican Americans, Lincoln Heights and Wheatley Courts for blacks, and Victoria Courts for whites. Many of the nearly 500 landlords who had to be bought out, however, demanded compensation beyond that allocated. Angered, the USHA administrator ordered the projects stopped in early March 1939. Eleanor Roosevelt intervened, and work began on the Alazan project in July with the demolition of the 929 substandard structures that occupied the site.
Alazan opened some of its units in August 1940 and the rest by early 1941. The project cost nearly $4 million. In less than a year the smaller, adjacent Apache Courts was scheduled for completion at a cost of $1,116,000. The USHA requirement that union labor be used for construction prevented local Mexican Americans from working on the project and added to its cost. The total cost of the five housing projects was over $10 million. The federal government loaned 90 percent of the necessary funding, while the required 10-percent local contribution was raised through a bond drive. All debts were repaid though rents. By the end of 1942 the 2,554 single-family units in all five projects were open for nearly 10,000 tenants, including 4,994 tenants in the 1,180 single-family dwellings in the Alazan-Apache projects. The carefully constructed buildings contained multiple single-family dwellings, which ranged from three to 6½ rooms each, including private bathrooms and kitchens. All were equipped with modern appliances. On-site services included library facilities, health clinics, and social, recreational, and educational programs. The cost of the utilities and services was included in the tenants' rent, which ranged from $8.75 to $14.00 a month. Eligibility for the housing was determined by minimum and maximum annual salary limits, which varied depending on family size. United States citizenship was required by the SAHA as one way of reducing the number of applicants, who far outnumbered the units available. The occupants of the Alazan-Apache Courts formed a tenants' association to maintain the project, and their courts were judged by some observers to be "the best maintained housing project in the United States." The success of the projects led to demands for more. Tranchese headed the cause. Lack of funding, however, and the developing World War II made the effort unproductive, and public housing development in San Antonio ceased until the 1950s.
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The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Handbook of Texas Online, Donald L. Zelman, "Alazan-Apache Courts," accessed July 01, 2016, http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/mpa01.
Uploaded on June 9, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association. | <urn:uuid:bb0e07fe-6549-46ea-9a88-7db6e4837d8a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/mpa01 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00177-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962903 | 928 | 3.0625 | 3 |
Take a sneak peek at the new NIST.gov and let us know what you think!
(Please note: some content may not be complete on the beta site.).
Silver Cycle: New Evidence for Natural Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles
From NIST Tech Beat: May 10, 2011
Nanoparticles of silver are being found increasingly in the environment—and in environmental science laboratories. Because they have a variety of useful properties, especially as antibacterial and antifungal agents, silver nanoparticles increasingly are being used in a wide variety of industrial and consumer products. This, in turn, has raised concerns about what happens to them once released into the environment. Now a new research paper* adds an additional wrinkle: Nature may be making silver nanoparticles on its own.
A team of researchers from the Florida Institute of Technology (FIT), the State University of New York (SUNY), Buffalo, and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) reports that, given a source of silver ions, naturally occurring humic acid will synthesize stable silver nanoparticles.
“Our colleague, Virender Sharma, had read an article in which they were using wine to form nanoparticles. He thought that, based on the similar chemistry, we should be able to produce silver nanoparticles with humic acids,” explains FIT chemist Mary Sohn. “First we formed them by traditional methods and then we tried one of our river sediment humic acids. We were really excited that we could see the characteristic yellow color of the nanoparticles.” Samples were sent to Sarbajit Banerjee at SUNY Buffalo and Robert MacCuspie at NIST for detailed analyses to confirm the presence of silver nanoparticles.
“Humic acid” is a complex mixture of many organic acids that are formed during the decay of dead organic matter. Although the exact composition varies from place to place and season to season, humic acid is ubiquitous in the environment. Metallic nanoparticles, MacCuspie explains, have characteristic colors that are a direct consequence of their size.** Silver nanoparticles appear a yellowish brown.
The team mixed silver ions with humic acid from a variety of sources at different temperatures and concentrations and found that acids from river water or sediments would form detectable silver nanoparticles at room temperature in as little as two to four days. Moreover, MacCuspie says, the humic acid appears to stabilize the nanoparticles by coating them and preventing the nanoparticles from clumping together into a larger mass of silver. “We believe it’s actually a similar process to how nanoparticles are synthesized in the laboratory,” he says, except that the lab process typically uses citric acid at elevated temperatures.
“This caught us by surprise because a lot of our work is focused on how silver nanoparticles may dissolve when they’re released into the environment and release silver ions,” MacCuspie says. Many biologists believe the toxicity of silver nanoparticles, the reason for their use as an antibacterial or antifungal agent, is due to their high surface area that makes them an efficient source of silver ions, he says, but “this creates the idea that there may be some sort of natural cycle returning some of the ions to nanoparticles.” It also helps explain the discovery, over the past few years, of silver nanoparticles in locations like old mining regions that are not likely to have been exposed to man-made nanoparticles, but would have significant concentrations of silver ions.
* N. Akaighe, R.I. MacCuspie, D.A. Navarro, D.S. Aga, S. Banerjee, M. Sohn and V.K. Sharma. Humic acid-induced silver nanoparticle formation under environmentally relevant conditions. Environmental Science & Technology, Published online Apr. 1, 2011. dx.doi.org/10.1021/es103946g.
** The effect is called “surface plasmon resonance” and is caused by surface electrons across the nanoparticle oscillating in concert. | <urn:uuid:592e397b-e237-4a3a-aa66-9d1e1588dd53> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://nist.gov/mml/mmsd/silver-051011.cfm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00023-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.936134 | 859 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Radioactive particles in cigarette smoke cause lung cancer
By David Liu, PHD
Saturday Sept 8, 2012 (foodconsumer.org) -- At least 70 chemicals in cigarette smoke can cause lung cancer including benzene, formaldehyde, acetone, tar, nicotine, arsenic and hydrogen cyanide. But a new study most recently published in Nicotine & Tobacco Research reveals that a major cause of the deadly disease is a type of radioactive particles.
Hrayr S. Karagueuzian, Ph.D. of David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles and colleagues, authors of the study, say cigarette smoke contains radioactive polonium 210 (210 Po) and regular smokers can accumulate enough of the alpha particles to boost their risk for lung cancer.
From the major tobacco industries' once internal secret documents on cigarette radioactivity made available online by the Master Settlement Agreement in 1998, the researchers found the industry was not only aware of the presence of the radioactive particles, but also had an estimation on the potential cancerous growth in the lungs or lung cancer in regular smokers due to the long term (25 years) lung radiation adsorption dose (rad) of the ionizing alpha particles emitted from cigarette smoke.
The authors calculated the radiation exposure from the radioactive particles in cigarette smoke and found their estimation was the same as what the industry found. According to the Environmental Protection Agency, the estimate of long term lung exposure to alpha particles was associated with 120 to 138 lung cancer deaths per year per 1,000 regular smokers. That is, 1.2 to 1.38 persons out of 100 regular smokers die each year due to the exposure to ionizing radioactive particles emitted from cigarette smoke.
The authors say the radioactive particles can be easily removed using a method called acid wash discovered in 1980 and much of the lung cancer induced by the radiation could be otherwise avoided. But the industry refused to acid wash tobacco leaves because of concerns that acid would change nicotine into a form that is not as easily as nicotine to be absorbed to cause instant "nicotine kick" sensation.
The researchers concluded "The evidence of lung cancer risk caused by cigarette smoke radioactivity is compelling enough to warrant its removal."
Lung Cancer Facts: Lung cancer is a major killer in the United States. An estimated 226,160 men and women are expected to be diagnosed with lung cancer in 2012. Lung cancer prognosis or survival is poor and the disease and its complication or treatment are expected to kill 160,340 in 2012 in the same country, according to the National Cancer Institute.
Lung Cancer Risk Factors: Lung cancer can be caused by many things, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Tobacco smoking and secondhand smoke, exposure to radon, asbestos, arsenic, diesel exhaust, and some forms of silica and chromium, family history of the disease, radiation therapy to the chest, exposure to beta-carotene supplements, arsenic in drinking water can all increase the risk of the disease. Many of these cancer-causing products have restrictions on use in developed countries such as the ban on asbestos around the world; however, asbestos and other products are still used in developing countries and are major causes of lung cancer.
Lung Cancer Symptoms: Early lung cancer does not cause signs or symptoms. When symptoms show up, the disease is in an advanced stage already. Lung cancer symptoms include persistent dry cough, breathing trouble, constant chest pain, coughing up blood, a hoarse voice, frequent lung infection, feeling very tired all the time, and weight loss without a known cause. To be expired on Nov 26, 2014.15
(Send your news to firstname.lastname@example.org, Foodconsumer.org is part of the Infoplus.com ™ news and information network)
- [BREAKING] GMO labeling deal struck…and it's bad
- Beta-carotene may protect against ER- breast cancer
- Red yeast rice supplement acts like statins
- Hot beverages like hot coffee, hot tea now classified as possible carcinogens
- Could drinking soy milk stop prostate cancer? | <urn:uuid:63f7deeb-bb37-4146-b1f8-344586f28aff> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.foodconsumer.org/newsite/Non-food/Lifestyle/cigarette_smoke_lung_cancer_0908121252.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393518.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00184-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.923761 | 832 | 3.171875 | 3 |
An earlier article in Solstice examined the merits of an animated sequence of Triangulated Irregular Networks (TINs) to introduce an element of order into complicated pattern. In that earlier map (takes time to load on a slow modem), the time distance between successive frames was constant (12/100 of a second between successive frames in the set of 50 frames "in" and 50 frames "out"). Views such as this offer a way to clarify geographic ideas. They might also be used, however, to make mathematical concepts come alive.
It is this latter idea that is examined here. When a constant
interval is chosen between successive animation frames, a linear equation
is portrayed: in this case, for ease in generalization, suppose y=10x
--- the time-spacing between successive frames ("in" only) is 10/100 of
a second. The left column in the table below shows half of the map
from the previous article along with the graph it might be viewed to represent.
Unit changes in x values produce a constant difference between corresponding
y values: the viewer is set down on Earth at an apparently uniform
Source of original map
Source of original map:
Suppose instead of using y=10x, one "mapped" y=log10 x. The results would appear as in the right hand column of the table above. As values of x get larger, the successive differences between the corresponding values of y get smaller. Hence, the viewer is "smashed" more rapidly to Earth!
This procedure need not be limited to continuous functions. The sequence of maps appears continuous but is in fact discrete. Animaps can easily be used as well to model discrete series.
What can be used in one direction to shed light on geographic ideas
can be turned around to make possibly difficult mathematical ideas more
appealing to learn. This sort of idea is just a beginning--the reader
might try numerous other interesting variations on this theme. | <urn:uuid:e2834816-8330-4eac-97d9-e264cbc99149> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www-personal.umich.edu/~copyrght/image/solstice/win00/animapsequences.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393146.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00162-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.925413 | 406 | 3.453125 | 3 |
Types of Broadband Connections
Broadband includes several high-speed transmission technologies such as:
The broadband technology you choose will depend on a number of factors. These may include whether you are located in an urban or rural area, how broadband Internet access is packaged with other services (such as voice telephone and home entertainment), price, and availability.
DSL is a wireline transmission technology that transmits data faster over traditional copper telephone lines already installed to homes and businesses. DSL-based broadband provides transmission speeds ranging from several hundred Kbps to millions of bits per second (Mbps). The availability and speed of your DSL service may depend on the distance from your home or business to the closest telephone company facility.
The following are types of DSL transmission technologies:
- Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) – Used primarily by residential customers, such as Internet surfers, who receive a lot of data but do not send much. ADSL typically provides faster speed in the downstream direction than the upstream direction. ADSL allows faster downstream data transmission over the same line used to provide voice service, without disrupting regular telephone calls on that line.
- Symmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL) – Used typically by businesses for services such as video conferencing, which need significant bandwidth both upstream and downstream.
Faster forms of DSL typically available to businesses include:
- High data rate Digital Subscriber Line (HDSL); and
- Very High data rate Digital Subscriber Line (VDSL).
Cable modem service enables cable operators to provide broadband using the same coaxial cables that deliver pictures and sound to your TV set.
Most cable modems are external devices that have two connections: one to the cable wall outlet, the other to a computer. They provide transmission speeds of 1.5 Mbps or more.
Subscribers can access their cable modem service by simply turning on their computers, without dialing-up an ISP. You can still watch cable TV while using it. Transmission speeds vary depending on the type of cable modem, cable network, and traffic load. Speeds are comparable to DSL.
- Fiber optic technology converts electrical signals carrying data to light and sends the light through transparent glass fibers about the diameter of a human hair. Fiber transmits data at speeds far exceeding current DSL or cable modem speeds, typically by tens or even hundreds of Mbps.
- The actual speed you experience will vary depending on a variety of factors, such as how close to your computer the service provider brings the fiber and how the service provider configures the service, including the amount of bandwidth used. The same fiber providing your broadband can also simultaneously deliver voice (VoIP) and video services, including video-on-demand.
- Telecommunications providers sometimes offer fiber broadband in limited areas and have announced plans to expand their fiber networks and offer bundled voice, Internet access, and video services.
- Variations of the technology run the fiber all the way to the customer’s home or business, to the curb outside, or to a location somewhere between the provider’s facilities and the customer.
- Wireless broadband connects a home or business to the Internet using a radio link between the customer’s location and the service provider’s facility. Wireless broadband can be mobile or fixed.
- Wireless technologies using longer-range directional equipment provide broadband service in remote or sparsely populated areas where DSL or cable modem service would be costly to provide. Speeds are generally comparable to DSL and cable modem. An external antenna is usually required.
- Wireless broadband Internet access services offered over fixed networks allow consumers to access the Internet from a fixed point while stationary and often require a direct line-of-sight between the wireless transmitter and receiver. These services have been offered using both licensed spectrum and unlicensed devices. For example, thousands of small Wireless Internet Services Providers (WISPs) provide such wireless broadband at speeds of around one Mbps using unlicensed devices, often in rural areas not served by cable or wireline broadband networks.
- Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs) provide wireless broadband access over shorter distances and are often used to extend the reach of a "last-mile" wireline or fixed wireless broadband connection within a home, building, or campus environment. Wi-Fi networks use unlicensed devices and can be designed for private access within a home or business, or be used for public Internet access at "hot spots" such as restaurants, coffee shops, hotels, airports, convention centers, and city parks.
- Mobile wireless broadband services are also becoming available from mobile telephone service providers and others. These services are generally appropriate for highly-mobile customers and require a special PC card with a built in antenna that plugs into a user’s laptop computer. Generally, they provide lower speeds, in the range of several hundred Kbps.
Just as satellites orbiting the earth provide necessary links for telephone and television service, they can also provide links for broadband. Satellite broadband is another form of wireless broadband, and is also useful for serving remote or sparsely populated areas.
Downstream and upstream speeds for satellite broadband depend on several factors, including the provider and service package purchased, the consumer’s line of sight to the orbiting satellite, and the weather. Typically a consumer can expect to receive (download) at a speed of about 500 Kbps and send (upload) at a speed of about 80 Kbps. These speeds may be slower than DSL and cable modem, but they are about 10 times faster than the download speed with dial-up Internet access. Service can be disrupted in extreme weather conditions.
BPL is the delivery of broadband over the existing low- and medium-voltage electric power distribution network. BPL speeds are comparable to DSL and cable modem speeds. BPL can be provided to homes using existing electrical connections and outlets. BPL is an emerging technology that is available in very limited areas. It has significant potential because power lines are installed virtually everywhere, alleviating the need to build new broadband facilities for every customer. | <urn:uuid:074ecaa8-67d3-4f7f-ab72-636b27a4015c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.broadband.gov/broadband_types.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00044-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.922007 | 1,239 | 3.265625 | 3 |
Coronation Stone of Motecuhzoma II (Stone of the Five Suns)
55.9 x 66 x 22.9 cm (22 x 26 x 9 in.)
Major Acquisitions Fund, 1990.21
Scholars believe that Stone of the Five Suns came from the ritual precinct of Tenochtitlán (present-day Mexico City), which was once the capital of the Aztec empire. Before it was destroyed by the Spaniards in 1521, Tenochtitlán contained numerous open plazas with impressive pyramid-temples, buildings, and monuments. Many stone sculptures, such as this commemorative piece, have been discovered in the area near the Main Pyramid, site of two principal temples: one to rain and the other to the deified Aztec founder and warrior.
Like other architectural sculptures bearing hieroglyphs, this one provides information about Aztec mythology and its connection to actual historical events. According to Aztec beliefs, the earth has been created and destroyed four times so far. The present is actually the fifth era of creation. The hieroglyphic symbols in each corner correspond to the four previous cosmic eras. Each era is named for its date of destruction, starting counterclockwise from the lower right corner. The first era is identified with the name "jaguar," followed by "wind," "rain," and "water." The carved X in the center refers to the fifth era, "movement," implying the movement of the earth, an age that Aztecs believed would end in violent earthquakes.
Other dates given on the stele help place the object within recorded Aztec history. The square area at the bottom of the stone corresponds to the year "11 Reed" (1503), in which the stone was carved, and the crocodile figure at the top corresponds to July 15, the coronation day of Motecuhzoma II, the last ruler before the Spanish conquest.
Although shown here in an upright position, this six-sided block was originally laid flat, hiding the image of a rabbit, a revered creature in Aztec culture. Images of rabbits were associated with the calendrical year of the earth’s creation. When the block rested on the ground, the rabbit figure was facing the earth (to which it referred). Thus, the entire monument was a three-dimensional, hieroglyphic text. | <urn:uuid:f30199ed-183b-4ff2-b33e-e42192c2b2f3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.artic.edu/aic/collections/exhibitions/AncientIndian/Stone | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399106.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00124-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948245 | 489 | 3.5625 | 4 |
Secondary Codex Entries Edit
Technology: Translation Edit
Human cultures remain linguistically divided. Some converse in Spanish, others in Mandarin, Arabic, Swahili, etc. Every alien race has their own equally broad panoply of languages and dialects.
Most individuals know only their mother tongue, and rely on machine translation. Modern portable computers allow anyone with a few hundred credits of equipment to enjoy seamless real-time translation of alien languages, courtesy of handheld PDAs, computers in clothing or jewelry, or sub-dermal implants. Without fast and accurate translation, galactic trade and culture would not exist.
Governments provide subsidized software, updated through the public extranet "on the fly", often as users approach spaceport customs facilities. Even the batarians, who isolated themselves from galactic society nearly two decades ago, take pains to provide up-to-date glossaries and linguistic rules, though most suspect that this is only so they can continue exporting propaganda.
It is still considered broad-minded and practical to be able to speak without machine aid. Children often take courses in alien language, and most races can speak the simplified artificial "trade tongue" with little difficulty.
Some species must rely on machine translation to interact with the rest of the galaxy. Hanar, for example, cannot reproduce the spoken language of any humanoid species, and other races cannot reproduce hanar bioluminescence without mechanical aid. Newly discovered or obscure races don't have machine translation available until the linguists have had time to study them. | <urn:uuid:4c6fff98-8c63-4dc7-bbea-be7cfe381206> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://masseffect.wikia.com/wiki/Translator | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00148-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.9305 | 313 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Pyoderma is a medical term for bacterial skin infections occurring in rabbits. These infections usually occur when the rabbit's skin tears or breaks, or when the skin is exposed to moist conditions, therefore altering the flora found within. Normally, healthy bacteria exist in the rabbit's skin and moist mucous membranes. At times, however, this can become compromised, allowing for harmful bacteria to overgrow.
Most signs for pyoderma depend on the type of bacterial infection the rabbit has, but some of the more common symptoms include:
- Muscle pain
- Nasal (and occasional eye) discharge
- Urinary tract infection(s)
- Poor sanitation and personal hygiene
- Matted fur (especially around the anus, thighs and abdomen)
- Redness and crusting around the area of infection
- Dental disease (displayed as swollen/bleeding gums, slobbering, and loose and decaying teeth)
Typically a bacterial skin infection occurs when there is a break in the rabbit's skin, generally occurring when it has been exposed to poor environmental conditions, including moisture. It can also occur in cases of injury or poor blood circulation. Pyoderma is, for the most part, a very common occurrence, much like cuts and scrapes are in human children.
The bacteria that cause pyoderma include:
- Staphylococcus aureus
- Pseudomonas aeruginosa
- Pasteurella multocida (one of the more common bacteria)
Bacteria can also penetrate oral openings or become trapped in matted fur, especially in unhealthy or obese rabbits.
Your veterinarian will want to look at all possible causes before making a diagnosis, as there are other things which may resemble a common skin infection. These may include:
- Ear mites, which can cause similar-looking crusty regions around the ears, leading to hair loss around the ears and ear canal
- Fleas, which can cause hair loss and matted hair in many areas around the body
- Skin reaction to a recent vaccination or injection, which can form crusting or scabbing
- Rabbit syphilis, a condition that often causes hair loss and crusty regions
If these are ruled out, your veterinarian may take skin samples or cultures to identify the underlying cause of the infection.
A disease of the skin in which it emits pus
Any type of arachnid excluding ticks
The end of the gastrointestinal tract; the opening at the end of the tract. | <urn:uuid:9d297c14-2de3-4a3a-912d-da2de9330cec> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.petmd.com/rabbit/conditions/skin/c_rb_pyoderma | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00132-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.923873 | 512 | 3.5625 | 4 |
Hepatitis is a general term used to describe an inflamed liver. In some cases, the cause is relatively harmless and the condition can be treated easily. However, there are also some very serious forms of hepatitis that require more in-depth treatment.
Hepatitis is the broad term used to refer to inflammation and swelling of the liver. There are numerous possible causes for hepatitis, including the well-known hepatitis A, B and C viruses. The severity of hepatitis is often determined by its cause.
There are two main types of hepatitis. Acute hepatitis is a short-term condition that clears up relatively quickly, while chronic hepatitis is a long-term disease that could potentially have fatal results.
In addition hepatitis can vary significantly based on the cause of the condition. Some of the main types of hepatitis include:
- Hepatitis caused by a virus, bacteria or parasite
- Alcoholic hepatitis
- Autoimmune hepatitis
- Drug-induced hepatitis
There are several symptoms associated with hepatitis, including:
- Jaundice (yellowing of the eyes or skin)
- Loss of appetite
- Weight loss
- Dark urine
- Pale or clay-colored stools
- Bad breath or a bitter taste in the mouth
- Low-grade fever
- General itchiness
- Abdominal pain
- Breast development in males
One note to keep in mind is that individuals infected with the hepatitis B or C viruses typically do not present any symptoms at first, which may make detection of the condition more difficult. In addition, these symptoms may be acute or chronic depending on the cause of the condition and other illnesses from which the individual is suffering.
Causes And Risk Factors
There are numerous causes for hepatitis, including:
- A viral or bacterial infection of the liver
- Liver injury caused by a toxin or poison in the body
- Autoimmune disorders that causes the individual’s liver to be attacked by the immune system
- Trauma to the abdomen area
- Interruption of the normal blood supply to the liver
- Liver damage from alcohol use
- Medication misuse, such as an overdose of acetaminophen
The most common cause of hepatitis is one of the following three viruses:
- Hepatitis A: The most common form of hepatitis in children, hepatitis A is present in the feces of infected individuals. It is often a mild infection that is short-term and easy to treat.
- Hepatitis B: This virus is spread through bodily fluids. Although it can be a mild infection, hepatitis B can also lead to serious health conditions like chronic liver disease or liver cancer.
- Hepatitis C: Hepatitis C is spread by direct contact with an infected person’s blood. It is generally very serious and is the leading reason for liver transplants in the United States.
In addition, there are two more viruses which may potentially cause hepatitis:
- Hepatitis D: This virus is spread through direct blood contact. It only occurs in people who are also infected with hepatitis B. Having both infections is generally results in more serious symptoms and complications that just being infected with hepatitis B alone.
- Hepatitis E: Hepatitis E is present in the feces of an infected individual. It is generally not very serious and clears up on its own.
There are several activities or conditions that may increase a person’s risk for hepatitis. With viral or bacterial hepatitis, living with or being in close contact with an infected person can increase your risk of contracting the illness. In addition, there are certain activities with an infected person that can increase that risk, such as sexual activity, sharing needles, poor hygiene or being a health care worker. Pregnant women can also pass the virus on to their baby, and getting a blood transfusion from an infected individual also increases the risk for infection.
For other types of hepatitis, risk factors include abuse of alcohol or certain medications, the use of certain drugs or toxic substances, having an autoimmune disorder or sustaining an injury to the abdomen area.
The following are some of the best ways to prevent hepatitis:
- Exhibit good hygiene practices. Always wash your hands thoroughly after using the bathroom and before you eat.
- Make sure any foods you eat have been properly cleaned, especially shellfish.
- Thoroughly clean any toilets, sinks, bedpans or other products being used by a person who is infected with a hepatitis virus.
- Be cautious when traveling about swimming in natural waters or drinking tap water. In some areas, poor sanitation practices increase the risk of infection.
- Get professional help if you have problems with alcohol or medication abuse.
There are also vaccines available for hepatitis A and hepatitis B. These vaccines are recommended for all individuals as part of their routine immunization.
Some forms of hepatitis, such as those caused by hepatitis A or hepatitis E, might not require treatment since they often go away on their own in a matter of days or weeks. However, hepatitis B, C and D are usually treated with one or more medications. Certain medications are also used to help treat hepatitis that is caused by an autoimmune disorder.
With hepatitis caused by alcohol or medication misuse, the treatment may depend on individual circumstances and the particular drug that was ingested. However, regaining sobriety or stopping use of the drug in question is always recommended and may require special help from rehabilitation and addiction professionals.
Those with a type of hepatitis that has become severe and long-term may be eligible for a liver transplant. This is reserved only for very serious cases of hepatitis. | <urn:uuid:efaba921-a854-4f5e-9ee7-682e9446d5f0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.symptomfind.com/diseases-conditions/hepatitis/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394605.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00013-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946079 | 1,144 | 3.90625 | 4 |
Unity is StrengthEditorial
Review of Religions, July 1993
Unity is strength! The fundamental message of Islam is the Unity of God and the establishment of the unity of mankind bound together by ties of practical brotherhood. This is the clarion call of Islam which abhors strife, hatred, greed, selfishness, pride, intolerance and such like unbrotherly dispositions. The aim of every Muslim should be in accordance with the injunction of the Holy Quran:
Help one another in righteousness and piety.
The Holy Prophet of Islam has likened the true spirit of Islamic brotherhood to that of a building every part of which reinforces other parts and, as an undivided symbol of unity, commanded Muslims when lined up for prayer to stand together shoulder to shoulder like a solid wall leaving no space for even a rod to be passed between them.
Islam is a universal religion revealed by God for the guidance of all mankind and is above personal bias, tribal prejudice and ignorant sectarianism. It teaches that all human beings are equal and nobody is superior to another due to origin, colour, genealogy or race. The only difference in the sight of God between individuals is their degree of righteousness. As God says in the Holy Quran:
Verily the most honourable person among you in the sight of God is he who is the most righteous among you. (49:14)
This ideal of Islamic unity and brotherhood which is sadly lacking in the world today can only be achieved by devoutedly acting upon the injunctions of Islam. Muslims should act upon and call people to what is good, and avoid and forbid what is bad. The strong and more fortunate should help the weak and less fortunate. The rich should help the poor. No one should usurp the property and rights of others. Religious tolerance is essential.
The Ahmadiyya Community in Islam has been dedicated to the revival of Islam for over one hundred years since its inception in 1889 by its Holy Founder, Hazrat Mirza Ghulam Ahmad--the Promised Messiah and Mahdi. Its growth has spread all over the world and the Community continues to spread its heavenly influence in rejuvenating the pristine purity of Islam in the hearts of people of all nations and creating among them a bond of divine unity. | <urn:uuid:5bb8fe36-7ba6-4dfe-a515-ce9da5598a68> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.alislam.org/library/links/00000002.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396222.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00135-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944977 | 461 | 2.734375 | 3 |
I think by now the composting word has gotten out. The benefits far outweigh simple waste reduction. Compost increases the water retention and drainage of soil. It helps keep weeds down and adds nutrients to the garden. If you are new to composting, you may wonder how to compost food scraps. There are many ways to begin kitchen waste composting. Start saving scraps and let’s get started.
Kitchen Composting Info
It may seem odd at first to save old food and trimmings on your kitchen counter. Traditionally we called that garbage, but new efforts to educate the public have now trained us in waste reduction and reuse of organic items. Composting kitchen waste can be as simple as burying the food scraps in the dirt or using a 3-stage composting bin or tumbler. The end results are nutrient rich soil additives that increase porosity and help hold important moisture in the soil.
The items that break down the quickest in kitchen composting are leafy greens. It helps to cut down the size of items for compost to no more than an inch cubed. Smaller pieces compost fastest. The slower items are meats and dairy products, though most sources do not recommend meat for composting. Compost piles must be at the proper temperature and moisture balance to ensure break down of these types of items. You will also need to cover any composting kitchen scraps so animals don’t dig them up.
Methods for Composting Kitchen Scraps
It wouldn’t really be stretching the truth to say all you need are a shovel and a patch of dirt for kitchen waste composting. Dig the scraps at least 8 inches down and cover them with dirt so animals aren’t tempted to feast on them. Chop up the scraps with a shovel or spade. Smaller pieces have open surfaces for anaerobic bacteria to attack. This makes composting a faster process.
Alternately you can invest in a 3-bin system where the first bin is raw compost or fresh kitchen scraps. The second bin will be partially broken down and well turned. The third bin will hold fully composted material, ready for your garden. You can also just make a pile in a sunny location and layer the scraps with leaf litter, grass clippings and soil. Turn the compost material every week and mist with water when composting kitchen waste.
How to Compost Food Scraps
Composting requires warm temperatures at least 160 degrees Fahrenheit (71 C.), moderate moisture, and space to turn the pile. You can really make kitchen waste composting as simple or as complex as you want. The end results are finer with multiple bins or a rotating tumbler, whereas piles on the ground or mixing into garden beds yields more robust and chunkier compost. | <urn:uuid:2114143f-c7a1-4470-88d3-ba71a3afc474> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.gardeningknowhow.com/composting/ingredients/composting-kitchen-scraps.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00093-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.933788 | 570 | 2.890625 | 3 |
Ceres | Pallas | Juno | Vesta | Chiron
Over the past two decades the use of the first four discovered asteroids has become popular in astrology. The asteroids are a series of minor planets mostly between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Some think the asteroids are the remnants of a planet which exploded. Others believe they are a planet which never coalesced. not many years ago a more recently discovered asteroid named Chiron )located between the orbits of Saturn and Uranus) was also added to the astrological toolbox.
What follows is a brief description of these five asteroids along with some suggested meanings. As with the planets,the influences of the asteroids are strongly linked to the mythological legend for which they are named. It should be stressed that a final determination the asteroids' meanings await astrologers' use, experience and interpretation. In general, the first four asteroids add a feminine influence to the masculine-dominated hierarchy of the standard ten planets. In fact, these four asteroids can be correlated to the four archetypes of woman as given in Edmund Whitman's book The Symbolic Quest. Another book, Asteroid Goddess by Demetra George, also comprehensively examines the feminine principle of the first four asteroids.
Ceres is the largest of the asteroids and was the first to be discovered almost 200 years ago (1801). In Roman mythology, Ceres was known as the goddess of agriculture, the harvest, and abundance of the land. The name of the Greek goddess, Demeter, which corresponds to Ceres derives from the Greek meaning "earth mother," and Ceres in a birth chart can indicate nurturing that is either received as a child, or the capacity to nurture in adulthood. If Ceres conjuncts the natal Sun, it is similar to having the Sun in Cancer, but Ceres' meaning is so rich and complex that is also corresponds to Virgo, Taurus and even Scorpio. Ceres people are very good at mothering regardless of their sex and may express this quality by having a "green thumb". They deal with food, possibly as a vocation, and they provide nourishment to either sustain health or to express love and compassion.
Examples: A woman with a close Ceres-Sun conjunction may find herself surrounded by children, her own as well as others, and taking care of her garden and animals with great enjoyment. A man with Ceres square his Sun may find himself in the role a caregiver for children, even through he has none of his own, or in a counseling or nurturing role with adults.
Pallas, Athena in Greek mythology, was known s the goddess of wisdom. She is said to have spring fully armed and full grown from the brow of Jupiter, perhaps indicating the realm of wisdom over which she ruled. As the warrior goddess she became the protrectress of those in battle. She used her compassionate wisdom to teach merciful justice and peaceful resolution of dispute. Pallas was a patron of the arts and gave many creative gifts to humankind, and sometimes was known as a goddess of health. She was wise, helpful, objective, and known for her absolute chastity. She represents the creative, intelligent woman and, according to legend, stood in rank second in importance to Jupiter. From Pallas' influence, the feminine wisdom principle was able to adapt and grow within the emerging patriarchy of the time.
People who have Pallas prominent in their birth charts may serve or care for others - such as with healing techniques that integrate the mind and body - but show less emotional attachment than those with a Ceres emphasis. Pallas also indicates an interest in the pattern and structure of things and an ability to strategize and perceive intuitively and creatively. The influence of Pallas is similar to that of Leo, Libra, and Aquarius.
Examples: A woman who has Pallas conjunct her midheaven and Mercury may show a strong aptitude for auto mechanics. A doctor who chooses research in preventive medicine could have Pallas trine his ascendant.
Juno, "the Queen of the Gods," was the wife of Jupiter. She endured her husband's legendary unfaithfulness while her fidelity to him was well known. She took great care of her beauty, and was considered the patroness of marriage and fertility. Ina birth chart Juno indicates a concern with all relationships from the need for a committed, fulfilling relationship to the issues of inequality and injustice that can erupt between partners. Juno's influence corresponds to that of Libra and Scorpio. Juno Also seems to be the symbol of "Fascinating womanhood," the image of a women objected to by feminists. It can indicate the desires or dreams of a woman for a traditional role of a wife, or in the charts of men, their image of women.
Examples: A woman who finds it easy to fascinate men (heads turn when she enters a room) could have Juno conjunct her ascendant. Larry Flynt, publisher of Hustler magazine, has a close midheaven-Juno square.
Vesta is the brightest of the asteroids and at time can even be seen with the naked eye. In Roman mythology, Vesta was the goddess of the hearth and its fire. She represents the flame which burns away the non-essentials, leaving only that which is pure.
Astrologically, Vesta is associated with both Scorpio and Virgo, and indicates great concentration on any given task to the exclusion of everything else. It suggest emotional and personal involvement can become a secondary to the ability to focus so directly on a goal. Many well known, successful people have Vesta prominent in their birth charts.
Examples: Mercury trine Vesta in a birth chart indicates an ability to learn easily and quickly from reading. On the other hand, Vesta-Neptune aspects can indicate a difficulty in focusing o0n or committing to any single thing.
Chiron, discovered in 1977, was named after a centaur (half human, half horse) who was healer and teach to many gods. When he died he was place in the sky as the constellation Sagittarius.
Chiron appears to rule philos0phy and healing, and represents the principal of holistic understanding. In a chart is can indicate an open-minded perspective and the ability to look beyond the limitations of current views. Chiron seems to add a spirit of uniqueness and enthusiasm as well as some self-righteous tendencies to natal charts. A keyword associated with Chiron is "maverick".
Examples: Anita Byrant, Martin Luther King, and Jerry Brown all have Jupiter-Chiron aspects while Timothy Leary has Chiron square Pluto.
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© Copyright 2000, Astrology3D, Inc.. | <urn:uuid:a82ab4c8-50ef-4620-bf7a-63cbf031d587> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.astrology3d.com/educenter/asteroids.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00008-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969052 | 1,371 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Geometric Photo Collage Activity
Take your child's knowledge of shapes out of the classroom and into the real world! A geometric photo collage is the perfect way to apply math lessons to a practical and funky art activity.
What You Need:
What You Do:
- Let your child wander the house or backyard with a camera. Tell her to take pictures of angles: right angles, acute angles, and obtuse angles. Remind her of to look in places she might normally associate with angles. Tree branches are a great place find acute and obtuse angles, and corners of the house all make perfect right angles.
- Print her photographs.
- Have your child categorize each photo, making different piles for each type of angle.
- Get her to glue the photographs onto a corner of the poster board. Try and keep the angles all together -- a lot more geometric figures are going to be added and you don't want the shapes to mix too much!
- Repeat steps 1-4, this time taking photos of perpendicular and parallel lines. two-dimensional shapes like squares, rectangles, circles, ovals, and triangles.
- If your child is feeling especially ambitious, allow her to take pictures of three-dimensional shapes like spheres, cones, cylinders, pyramids, and cubes.
- Arrange all the shapes on the poster board, keeping each type of geometric shape in its own area. Encourage your child to overlap the pictures.. When the board is completely covered, she'll have an artsy piece of decoration featuring shapes from around her own house! | <urn:uuid:c9444f6c-1d2d-4bf9-8bfc-4d2eca3899e3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.education.com/activity/article/geometric-photo-collage/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00080-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.902754 | 325 | 3.859375 | 4 |
Al-Jayyani, the mathematician, is described as a judge and a jurist in one of his treatises. The only possible problem to the identification is that al-Jayyani wrote a treatise on the total solar eclipse which occurred in Jaén on 1 July 1079. The identification means that he was over ninety years old when he wrote this treatise which, although certainly not impossible, casts a slight doubt.
The only other facts known about al-Jayyani's life are that he lived in Cairo from 1012 to 1017 and that he must have undertaken most of his work in Jaén, the city at the centre of the Moorish principality of Jayyan. This cannot only be deduced from his name "al-Jayyani" which means "from Jaén", but also from the fact that the astronomical tables that he produced were for the longitude of Jaén. Certainly he observed the solar eclipse in Jaén in 1079.
Click here for more information. | <urn:uuid:fe103377-784d-46a3-a441-277d205fbd5d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.muslimheritage.com/scholars/al-jayyani | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00131-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.986368 | 206 | 2.75 | 3 |
This summer the Poteau Valley Improvement Authority (PVIA) will test a new way to improve the clarity and health of the water in Lake Wister, begin the construction of a sophisticated computer model of how the lake works, and test water quality on 20 small streams around the county that eventually deliver their water to the lake.
Lake Wister, best known for its good crappie and catfishing, summer camping, and water skiing, is also the source of drinking water for most of LeFlore County, as well as parts of Latimer and Haskell counties. PVIA has been treating water from Lake Wister and providing it to towns and rural water districts since 1969. The intervening years have unfortunately seen water quality in the lake decline significantly.
Turning lake water into clean, safe drinking water has become more difficult and expensive.
Several years ago PVIA began a new initiative to both test innovative ways to improve water quality and to better understand the problems the lake faces. In partnership with the Choctaw Nation, the City of Poteau, AES Shady Point, and the US Geological Survey, PVIA has collected four years of new information on both the water flowing into the lake and on the lake itself.
Now they are ready to begin putting that new data to use. In August, PVIA plans to add alum, a chemical they use every day to treat water in the plant, directly to the lake in Quarry Island Cove. Through this innovative project, which has never been done on this scale in Oklahoma, PVIA hopes to reduce the level of harmful blue-green algae in the water of the cove. Some important algae byproducts are difficult to remove in the plant itself, so if this project is successful, it could lead the way to keeping water treatment costs down, as well as maintaining high safe drinking water standards.
This summer will also see scientists from the University of Arkansas begin building a new computer model of Lake Wister that will increase our understanding of how the lake works, help set goals for lake improvement, and test options for lake and watershed management. Dr. Thad Scott from the University’s Crop, Soil, and Environmental Sciences Department will lead the modeling effort.
At the same time, his colleague Dr. Brian Haggard from the Biological and Agricultural Engineering Department at the University will lead a team of researchers who will visit 20 small streams that feed into the lake and take water samples for analysis. This sampling program will help identify “hot spots” in the watershed where activities could be focused to improve water quality with the best benefit for the least cost. This sampling program is funded by a partnership of PVIA with the Oklahoma Conservation Commission.
You can learn more about all these projects next Tuesday night at Lake Wister. On June 17 from 5:30pm to 7:30pm at the main picnic pavilion on Quarry Island, PVIA will host an information meeting where you can talk with PVIA staff, scientists, and representatives from all these groups.
You can read more about the proposed alum project here. | <urn:uuid:a6891ef0-d94e-4935-a02d-58407b015688> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pvia.org/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00089-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954199 | 629 | 2.75 | 3 |
I have a hedge of waxleaf ligustrum shrubs, approximately 60-70 plants along a coral.* There are oak trees near-by, and the coral is surrounded by a pecan orchard in Texas.* The shrub planting is approximately 8-9 years old and 8 feet tall.** It has been pruned only occasionally, and watered regularly (2-3 times per week)*in the Spring and Summer, but not usually in the winter months, unless during extremely dry periods.* We observed today that there are large (1/2" diam) brown spots on many leaves all along the 100 foot lenght of the shrub.* Many leaves are turning yellow and falling.* Upon closer examination, there appears to be a scale along the stems and miniscule scale-like attachments to the underside of the leaves.* The brown spots do not appear to be alive with spores, as best we can tell.* We cannot see any visible insect activity.* Is this a disease problem or a water or nutrition*issue?* Is this enough information to identify the problem or should I attach a photo?*
Some links to read
Fungi : Leaf Spots
Leaf spots are caused by fungi or bacteria. Brown or black spots and patches may be either ragged or circular, with a water soaked or yellow-edged appearance. Insects, rain, dirty garden tools, or even people can help its spread.
Not much help, but it may lead you to an anwser.
Sounds like you may have scale insects as well as a fungal problem going on.* It sounds like you are watering too much if these are established plants.*
Btw, these plants are considered invasives in Texas, so if this is a new planting, I would recommend you remove them and plant something that isn't invasive.
Ligustrum also get white peach scale.
You can use an organic horticultural oil for the scale insects called Organocide.* It's made from sesame seeds.* Don't confuse it with the synthetic Organicide.* Note the different spelling. | <urn:uuid:4cd9b819-2762-4293-9e55-fd080ee897e8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.backyardgardener.com/forums/printthread.php?t=1557&pp=10&page=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394937.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00148-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.927221 | 425 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Several deaths and decades after it should have, Bayer CropScience announced last week that it will stop making pesticides using methyl isocyante (MIC) in the U.S. MIC is the gas that exploded in 1984 in Bhopal, India, killing more than three thousand within weeks and leaving hundreds of thousands injured survivors struggling for justice even today.
Today, January 20, the U.S. Chemical Safety Board (CSB) released its final report on an August 28, 2008 explosion at the Institute plant that killed two workers and injured another eight. It found that Bayer had rushed to restart production of two pesticides, methomyl and Larvin (thiodicarb), and in the process overrode safety procedures, raising a question about whether Bayer had other reasons to cease MIC production. The 2008 explosion was only the most recent of several over the years.
MIC is an intermediary chemical used to manufacture carbamate pesticides. Bayer’s Institute, West Virginia plant, formerly owned by Union Carbide, has been known as “America’s Bhopal” because of huge quantities of MIC stored above ground there posed dangers to the local area similar to those in India. The company, a subsidiary of German conglomerate Bayer AG, second-largest agrichemical producer in the world, said it would "stop making, storing and using the deadly chemcial" in Institute, and close a pesticide plant in Woodbine, Georgia. Bayer cited business reasons: aldicarb — a farm pesticide infamous for "causing the worst known outbreak of pesticide poisoning in North America" 26 years ago, and principal end product of MIC, was finally banned by EPA in 2010.
It would appear that Bayer also announced the end of MIC production and storage last week to lessen the public impact of the CSB’s damning report this week.
John Bresland, CSB Chairman in 2008, in announcing the agency’s investigation, noted that “other chemical companies largely phased out the use and bulk storage of MIC due to safety concerns” after the Bhopal explosion. An April 2009 congressional hearing on the 2008 explosion revealed that Bayer had removed and destroyed evidence to keep information surrounding the explosion secret. | <urn:uuid:db3a7124-0cba-4bc8-919b-ccdd952bf4f0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.panna.org/blog/bayer-blasted-will-close-americas-bhopal?quicktabs_1=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00116-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961929 | 453 | 2.96875 | 3 |
Boorman, Georgie, Clarke, Gill and Nind, Melanie
In their own words: the missing voices of girls with behavioural, social and emotional difficulties.
In, Gender and Education Association 7th International Conference, London, UK,
25 - 27 Mar 2009.
Young people, and particularly girls, constructed in the education system as having behavioural, social and emotional difficulties are amongst the most ‘missing voice[s] in research’ (Lloyd & O’Regan, 2000). Although frequently denied a place to speak from, there is much to gain from hearing what the girls have to say about engagement and belonging in education. Indeed, Gitlin (1990: 459) makes the important point that ‘when fully developed, voice is a form of political action’, a protest and a challenge to the oppression of those traditionally disenfranchised from schools.
With this in mind we direct overdue attention to the importance of hearing girls, who are troubled and troubling and deemed ‘doubly deviant’ in their resistance to both school rules and gender-stereotyped norms (Lloyd, 2005), speak about their educational experiences. We argue that participatory research methods can provide meaningful ways for girls to construct their own stories and thereby contribute to a better understanding of those stories and of their educational aspirations. In doing so we draw on our ongoing research with girls who are excluded from mainstream provision and seek ways to support them find and use their voice for educational and social change. Findings from the narrative techniques employed are discussed together with our reflections on the tensions and opportunities for educational change and social transformation inherent in the project.
Actions (login required) | <urn:uuid:44e1793c-b256-43d9-8155-f091c4f0b5a3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/65965/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00024-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947795 | 345 | 2.75 | 3 |
Two events, and , are independent if: .In a class there are 4 freshman boys, 6 freshman girls and 6 sophomore boys.
How many sophomore girls must be present if sex and class are to be independent
when a student is selected at random?
Let = number of sophomore girls.
Tabulate the information:
We have: .
If and are independent,
. . then: .
So we have: .
Therefore, there must be 9 sophomore girls. | <urn:uuid:54245f19-3801-4331-a8d0-ed65094be8d4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://mathhelpforum.com/statistics/19598-probability.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00098-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.845199 | 99 | 3.125 | 3 |
By combining hydrogen bonding and mechanical bonding, scientists in Spain have made a mechanically locked capsule that can encapsulate two oppositely charged ions.
Pablo Ballester and Marco Chas, at the Institute of Chemical Research of Catalonia, Tarragona, made the capsule’s two hemispheres out of a calixpyrrole and a calixarene. The calixpyrrole uses hydrogen bond interactions to recognise anions or N-oxide guests while the calixarene provides efficient cation-π and CH-π interactions for co-encapsulated guests. The capsule can fit two neutral or oppositely charged guests and the encapsulation is reversible.
If this has captured your attention, download Ballester’s Chemical Science Edge article for free and read more. | <urn:uuid:2489e649-cc39-4c77-9807-10cb6a2635b2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blogs.rsc.org/sc/2011/10/06/mechanically-locked-capsule-captures-oppositely-charged-guests/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00194-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.853896 | 162 | 2.828125 | 3 |
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Significance and Use
This test method is intended to measure the resistance of solid surfaces to permanent deformation under the action of a single point (stylus tip). It is a companion method to quasi-static hardness tests in which a stylus is pressed into a surface under a certain normal load and the resultant depth or impression size is used to compute a hardness number. Scratch hardness numbers, unlike quasi-static hardness numbers, involve a different combination of properties of the surface because the indenter, in this case a diamond stylus, moves tangentially along the surface. Therefore, the stress state under the scratching stylus differs from that produced under a quasi-static indenter. Scratch hardness numbers are in principle a more appropriate measure of the damage resistance of a material to surface damage processes like two-body abrasion than are quasi-static hardness numbers.
This test method is applicable to a wide range of materials. These include metals, alloys, and some polymers. The main criteria are that the scratching process produces a measurable scratch in the surface being tested without causing catastrophic fracture, spallation, or extensive delamination of surface material. Severe damage to the test surface, such that the scratch width is not clearly identifiable or that the edges of the scratch are chipped or distorted, invalidates the use of this test method to determine a scratch hardness number. Since the degree and type of surface damage in a material may vary with applied load, the applicability of this test to certain classes of materials may be limited by the maximum load at which valid scratch width measurements can be made.
The resistance of a material to abrasion by a single point may be affected by its sensitivity to the strain rate of the deformation process. Therefore, this test is conducted under low stylus traversing speeds. Use of a slow scratching speed also minimizes the possible effects of frictional heating.
This test uses measurements of the residual scratch width after the stylus has been removed to compute the scratch hardness number. Therefore, it reflects the permanent deformation resulting from scratching and not the instantaneous state of combined elastic and plastic deformation of the surface.
1.1 This test method covers laboratory procedures for determining the scratch hardness of the surfaces of solid materials. Within certain limitations, as described in this guide, this test method is applicable to metals, ceramics, polymers, and coated surfaces. The scratch hardness test, as described herein, is not intended to be used as a means to determine coating adhesion, nor is it intended for use with other than specific hemispherically-tipped, conical styli.
1.2 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.
1.3 This standard may involve hazardous materials, operations, and equipment. This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
2. Referenced Documents (purchase separately) The documents listed below are referenced within the subject standard but are not provided as part of the standard.
G40 Terminology Relating to Wear and Erosion
G117 Guide for Calculating and Reporting Measures of Precision Using Data from Interlaboratory Wear or Erosion Tests
ICS Number Code 17.040.20 (Properties of surfaces)
UNSPSC Code 41114611(Hardness testers)
|Link to Active (This link will always route to the current Active version of the standard.)|
ASTM G171-03(2009)e2, Standard Test Method for Scratch Hardness of Materials Using a Diamond Stylus, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2009, www.astm.orgBack to Top | <urn:uuid:8765ad06-6476-4308-93df-427647d2771b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.astm.org/Standards/G171.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00170-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.882344 | 855 | 2.921875 | 3 |
The second session of the first Congress began January 8,1790. Agreeably to a plan submitted by Mr. Hamilton, secretary of the treasury, Congress proceeded to make provision for discharging in full the foreign and domestic debt, and assumed also the debts incurred by the several States in carrying on the war. To this object the proceeds of the public lands lying in the western territory, the surplus revenue from the duties on imports, and a loan of two millions, were appropriated. This measure immediately restored public credit; certificates of public debt rose to par; and those who had purchased low, realized immense fortunes. Business of all kinds revived, and the country entered upon a career of prosperous activity and enterprise.
At the next session of Congress, after a protracted debate, a bill was passed imposing a tax on domestic spirits, for the purpose of paying the interest on the State debts assumed by the Union. A national bank was al so established, not without opposition, mainly on the ground of its unconstitutionality. The party lines between the federalists and anti-federalists (as they were called), which had begun to appear when the adoption of the new constitution was under discussion, became this session more broad and clear. A regular opposition to the administration began to be organized.
Meantime the hostilities of the Indians northwest of the Ohio made it necessary to send an expedition against them. Gen. Harmar was put in command, but he was defeated with considerable loss in a battle near Chillicothe. Gen. St. Clair, who succeeded in command, was also totally defeated. A bill then passed Congress for raising an additional force to the army. The measure was bitterly resisted by the opposition, chiefly on the ground that standing armies were dangerous, and that the proposed in crease showed the existence of monarchical designs on the part of the administration. An unsuccessful attempt was made the next session to reduce the military establishment; and the opposition introduced various resolutions, evincing their hostility to the administration. The public press became also the vehicle of vehement attacks, particularly upon the secretary of the treasury, Mr. Hamilton; and party spirit, from day to day, grew stronger throughout the country.
On the expiration of his term of office, however, Washington was unanimously reelected president, March, 1793; Mr. Adams again vice-president. Beside the still unsettled condition of Indian affairs, this term of Washington's administration was embarrassed by new difficulties, growing out of the French revolution. The French republic had just declared war against England and Holland; and so strong in the United States was the hatred of the people to the British, and so lively their sympathy with the French, that the opinion was entertained in many quarters that America was bound by every consideration, both of gratitude to an old ally, and sympathy with the cause of republicanism, to make common cause with France.
Immediately on receiving intelligence of the declaration of war, Washington convened a cabinet council, and by their unanimous advice, issued a proclamation, enjoining strict neutrality to be observed on the part of the United States toward the belligerent powers, April 22, 1793. The opposition (anti-federalist) party, through the press, bitterly inveighed against this proclamation, denouncing it as a high-handed assumption of power on the part of the president, a royal edict,' evincing his monarchical disposition, and also as dishonorable and ungrateful towards France.
In this state of things, Mr. Genet, the new minister appointed by the French republic, arrived in the country, with the object of engaging the cooperation of the United States against England. Misled by the flattering reception he met with at Charleston, where he landed, he immediately began, even before he had been recognized as minister, to excite the people against the government, and carried his audacity so far as to set at defiance the proclamation of neutrality, fitting out expeditions, and giving commissions to American vessels to cruise against the enemies of France and assuming the power to hold admiralty courts, for the trial and sale of prizes thus made. In these measures he was supported by the opposition, or as it began to be called, the DEMOCRATIC party, which now began, under the influence of the French minister, and in imitation of the affiliated clubs in France, to form democratic societies throughout the country.
Washington demanded the recall of Mr. Genet. The French government complied, and instructed his successor to express its entire disapproval of Genet's conduct. When Congress assembled in December following, the proclamation of neutrality, and the conduct of Washington towards Genet, were approved by that body, as they were finally by the great body of the nation.
In 1794 Congress passed a bill providing for a naval force to protect American commerce against the Algerines. The slave-trade was like wise prohibited.
There seemed now reason to apprehend the necessity of another war with England. In addition to severe and unjust commercial restrictions imposed by that government, she had proceeded to capture and condemn neutral vessels having on board French goods, or carrying corn and other supplies to France. In anticipation of a war, Congress passed several bills - for imposing an embargo; for organizing the militia; and for increasing the standing army. Meanwhile information was received that the British government was disposed to redress the grievances complained of, and amicably adjust all differences. John Jay was accordingly nominated and approved as envoy to Great Britain. | <urn:uuid:130544b9-fc85-492a-8f15-8ccf33ce2c39> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://encyclopaedic.net/american-encyclopedia-history-ii/constitutional-history?quicktabs_1=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00001-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.980953 | 1,111 | 3.28125 | 3 |
Martial Arts: Self Defense
Do Basics Work For Self-Defense?
By Christopher Caile
Basics in karate, taekwondo and kung fu help perfect basic skills, but if you think they are useful for self-defense, think again.
Basic punches, kicks, and blocks isolate one movement, or a simple group of movements. Most often they are practiced standing still, or are combined with simple movements as in basic self defense drills where one person steps and punches, while the defender steps back and blocks.
The benefits are many. By isolating one movement in constant repetition you help perfect your basics, and basics teachers so often say, are the building blocks of good, fast and powerful technique. So what’s there not to like?
A lot, it turns out. Here are some of the problems.
One major problem is that hard blocks (so often practiced, especially in karate and taekwondo) just don’t work against most attacks. They are too slow (because they require a wind up or preparation move before execution and because they are done hard) and are therefore ineffective unless you have extra time and you know beforehand the attack that is coming. That’s why boxers dodge and weave, slip punches and use a soft parry or a cover-up.
Of course basic blocks work if the attacker has to take a big step toward you and you have time to step back and wind up – but that is not likely in a close in, fast or surprise attack. To make basic blocks work in the real world, movement has to be minimized and/or modified. This is exactly what is seen in some techniques taught in old-style Okinawan karate. Blocks are more direct and in some cases the forward hand (as in an
inside block against a straight punch to the face) is used to parry (similar to what a boxer would do) while the rear hand is reserved for a secondary movement such as controlling the blocked punching arm or as a counter attack.
There are also many attacks, such as grabs and holds that basics just don’t address. To counter these attacks a whole new vocabulary of techniques must be learned. Examples include headlocks, hair grabs, two arm grabs from behind, etc.
Another problem with practice of basic technique (blocks, punches and kicks) is that it separates defense from counter-attacks. A defensive block to a punch does not change the equation – you are still under attack and a second one will probably be coming. Self-defense, if it is to be effective, should stop the attack immediately by either controlling the attack and the attacker or by simultaneously countering – ideally both. You take control and multiple defensive and counter techniques are involved.
Then, too, there is the problem of movement. Practicing blocks and punches from a stationary position actually ingrains the wrong muscle memory. Self-defense, often reflected in the moves of traditional Okinawan kata, combine techniques with movement – forward, to the side or at angles to get out of the way and/or to get into a position of advantage. Stationary drills don’t teach this. That’s why even after years of practice many practitioners in karate, taekwondo and kung fu just move backward when attacked. They lack skills in angling and movement to the side.
If you want your technique to work against real-life attacks, you must develop and practice coordinated skills. You can’t depend on instinctual improvisation, thinking that technique will come out when needed (how many of you have heard that?). Instead you must combine all your elements - movement, defense, counters and control - into single explosive or effective combinations. Defense against common attacks should be practiced over and over until they become part of your reflexive vocabulary. Of course this is the essence of old Okinawan kata, but few today teach the applications and self-defense.
In Okinawa before karate was imported to Japan there were no basic drills. Kata was the principle method of teaching. If you knew the applications, your technique included the necessary elements. You developed self-defense skills. But karate once in Japan expanded its curriculum. Techniques were extracted from kata and taught in isolation. Added to practice were basic punch, block and kicking drills, basic back and forth punching and blocking combinations, practice fighting and competition. At the same time the central role of kata practice was diminished and in most styles self-defense applications that included a rich mix of strikes, kicks, body manipulations, off-balancing and control techniques, throws and take downs were no longer taught.
But don’t think that practice fighting or kumite substitutes for this loss. Practice fighting parried down the rich inheritance found in kata to focus on percussion techniques – punch, kick and block combinations aimed at safe targets of a single opponent. In contrast, self-defense includes grabs, holds, multiple opponents, and the use of weapons and techniques aimed at targets outlawed in kumite. And the attacks are for real. They can be hard, brutal and come with no warning.
This is not to say that basics should not be practiced; they should. They teach the body how to perform singular techniques and how to develop power. They also teach balance, how to flow between technique and minimize movement within the prescribed movement pattern. But you need more for self-defense.
In short, beginners may benefit from standard drills of basic techniques, but for more advanced student you should develop your self-defense skills too. Practicing basics alone, or simple back and forth punching and blocking drills actually ingrain actions that are counter-productive in self defense situations - single technique, difficult to execute blocks, rooting in place, lack of simultaneous counter attacks and control For self-defense you need to learn how to modify and combine your basics. And where basics punches, kicks and blocks don’t fit a particular self-defense need, you need to expand you vocabulary of skills - all ingrained with movement. This way you learn how to actually apply and use your basic blocks, kicks and counters with other self-defense technique. You learn how to move and control your opponent – skills that someday may just save your life, or at least your skin.
About The Author:
Christopher Caile is the Founder and Editor-In-Chief of FightingArts.com. | <urn:uuid:9ddb3663-63b4-488a-a86e-04a3871f5be1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.fightingarts.com/reading/article.php?id=637 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392069.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00200-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955467 | 1,314 | 2.625 | 3 |
Guide To Restaurant Health Concerns and SafetyTweet
Going out to a restaurant can be one of the highlight of the week, allowing consumers to try foods they might not be able to prepare themselves, experiment with new cuisines, or just enjoy the company of family or friends over a nice meal. There is an added responsibility, however, on the part of the restaurant patron; the responsibility to prepare the food safely and inform the consumer regarding the nutrition information of their dish. Without this knowledge, ordering a salad in an effort to be “heart healthy” could do exactly the opposite; with the addition of unhealthy dressing and toppings, the nutritional value of the once healthy salad decreases. Consumers may also choose to research restaurant food storage, preparation, and food safety practices. Without this knowledge, there exists the potential for the breeding of foodborne diseases, which can easily be passed on to patrons.
A foodborne disease is one which is contracted from eating contaminated food and is, in most cases, entirely preventable. As many as 48 million people get sick every year from foodborne illnesses, with up to 3,000 deaths occurring annually. It is important to know that the symptoms of having contracted a foodborne illness are flu-like and can happen minutes or even weeks after the food has been ingested. A foodborne illness is something to be taken seriously, both to ensure the best treatment possible is given in a timely manner and to learn from whatever mistakes may have been made during preparation, whether these mistakes were made in the kitchen or at the source of the food. It is also important to know the common foodborne illnesses because being informed is often the best way to reduce the chances of getting sick.
While a diagnosis of Salmonella might include any of the over 2,300 serotypes of bacteria, the diagnosis is at least half the time referring to Salmonella Enteritidis or Salmonella Typhimurium. This disease can be present in food without affecting the appearance, smell or taste of the food. Symptoms of Salmonella range from diarrhea, fever, and cramps, though most people will recover within 8 to 72 hours, even without a doctor’s intervention. This does not mean that a doctor should not be involved, as Salmonella can be life threatening especially to young children and the elderly.
This foodborne disease is often contracted by people who have consumed food or water which has contaminated by microscopic traces of cow feces. One of the most common and severe instances of foodborne illness, complications of which can cause severe bleeding and kidney failure, can be prevented, like most foodborne diseases, by properly cooking and handling food.
Usually the result of eating undercooked chicken, Campylobacter is the most common bacterial cause of diarrheal illness. In addition to being caused by eating undercooked chicken, it can also be spread by any raw juices dripping from the chicken onto other food, and can be left behind by raw chicken when it is moved. For this reason, proper cooking and handling of raw chicken is vitally important to maintaining a person’s health.
Mandatory Restaurant Health Inspection
One way the government ensures the safety of restaurant patrons is by county agencies conducting mandatory health inspections. Usually, the health inspection is conducted by local health inspectors, who report on the degree to which a restaurant has complied with FDA regulations. Among other standards, a restaurant health inspector will inspect how a restaurant stores, handles, and prepares food, ensuring the safety of the people eating there, as well as the safety of the employees.
Nutritional Information on Each Dish
Staying healthy while eating out is not simply a matter of only eating at restaurants that have been deemed safe by a health inspector; while this may keep the patrons from getting physically ill as a result of the food, the onus also falls on the patron to make certain he or she is aware of the nutritional facts of the food they are eating. While there are regulations put in place to ensure that this information is made available to consumers, there are many ways a restaurant may mislead patrons regarding what their healthiest menu items are. The only rules a restaurant must follow when claiming a meal is “low fat” is that the standard serving size (as determined by the FDA) contains less than three grams of fat. Most restaurants, however, serve more than the standard serving size, so while the menu might say something is “healthy”, what the consumer is given may be more than a single serving size.
A restaurant, like any business, must market its goods. Therefore, they may suggest a salad as a healthy way to start the meal. Patrons should make sure to ask what exactly comes on a salad, as these can be, depending on the ingredients and the dressing, some of the unhealthiest options on the menu. If the nutritional information is not available in another way, it is best to ask the wait staff what the nutritional information of a dish is. This information, while not required to be displayed on the menu, is required upon request, thought there is no guarantee the information the patron receives is entirely accurate.
Healthiest Chain Restaurants in the Country
Eating healthy takes forethought and preparation, but sometimes it is simply easier and more convenient to eat at a restaurant. With that in mind, customers should be aware of the restaurants in America with the healthiest options. Below is a list of casual dining restaurants with the greatest amount of healthy choices on their menus as determined by Health.com.
- Uno Chicago Grill
- Souplantation & Sweet Tomatoes
- Mimi’s Café
- P.F. Chang’s Chinese Bistro
- Bob Evans
- Ruby Tuesday
- Romano’s Macaroni Grill
- Checy’s Fresh Mex
- Olive Garden
- Salmonella Information – Facts from the USDA on this dangerous disease.
- Common Foodborne Pathogens – More information on the most common foodborne preventable illnesses.
- Estimates of Foodborne Illness – The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have compiled statistics to inform the American citizenry.
- Preventing E. coli – The steps people can take to stop E. coli from spreading from garden to plate.
- Campylobacter Information – Causes and ways to prevent Campylobacter.
- Federal Food Safety System Primer – How the federal government is involved in keeping consumers safe.
- Food Safety Modernization Act – Comprehensive legislation standardizing food safety regulations.
- Food Safety Fact Sheet – The proper temperatures at which food should be stored and prepared.
- Safe Minimum Cooking Temperatures – The lowest safe temperatures at which to prepare food.
- Fight Bac! – Learn how to fight bacteria with FightBac.org.
- Center for Food Safety – Keep up-to-date on food safety news and information.
- Healthy Restaurant Eating – Eating at a restaurant does not have to mean eating unhealthy.
- Restaurant Eating Tips – Basic ideas to keep in mind when dining at a restaurant.
- Eating Healthy at Fast Food Restaurant – A collection of healthy food options that can be found at some of the country’s most popular fast food chains.
- Eating Healthy When Dining Out – Tips for consumers looking to eat better when dining out. | <urn:uuid:41004f38-0d8f-4ad7-8844-32032f115018> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.restaurantqrcodes.net/health-and-safety.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00074-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940128 | 1,497 | 3.484375 | 3 |
You may not feel happy when you smell your husband’s underarm when he has not showered or used deodorant for 24 hours, but your dog probably does. So concluded scientists who conducted an fMRI study to investigate the response of dogs’ brains to both familiar and unfamiliar canine and human odors. Since the canine sense of smell is so well-developed, studies that investigate it are especially useful for learning more about dogs, including their behavior and emotions.
The 12 dogs in the study “Scent of the familiar: an fMRI study of canine brain responses to familiar and unfamiliar human and dog odors” (in press in the journal Behavioural Processes) have been trained to remain still during the entire procedure. Because the dogs don’t move during the process because of training rather than being medicated or restrained to achieve stillness, the way various areas of the brain respond to various stimuli can be studied. All of the dogs are family pets and were raised by people from puppyhood on.
In this experiment, researchers focused on the caudate, which is an area of the brain that is associated with positive feelings and rewards. The level of activity in this part of the brain in response to various odors informs us about the emotional reaction of dogs to various stimuli. The odors used were the dog’s own odor, a familiar dog, an unfamiliar dog, a familiar person and an unfamiliar person. The familiar person was never the guardian handling the dog at the experiment because the scent of that person was present throughout the experiment.
The scientists found that dogs had the strongest, most positive reactions to the smell of a familiar person. Because most of the handlers with the dog during the experiment were female guardians, the familiar person was usually the male guardian or their child, although it was sometimes a close friend. The familiar dog was also a member of the household. The scents from dogs came from the perineal-genital area.
The dogs responded to all of the scents, but activation of the caudate portion of the brain in response to the familiar human scent showed that dogs distinguished it from all the other scents and that they had a particularly positive association with that smell. Dogs had a more positive response to familiar humans than to either unfamiliar humans or to members of their own species, whether familiar or unfamiliar.
Interestingly, the four dogs in this study who are service dogs had the strongest responses to human scents, which may be due to genetics, their intense exposure to humans during training or even simply a fluke related to small sample size. It is possible that dogs whose caudate is highly responsive to human scent may be best suited for service work. Because not all dogs selected to be service dogs end up successfully completing the time-consuming and expensive training, choosing those dogs who are most likely to succeed could save time and money as well as lessen the extensive waiting times for people in need of such dogs. | <urn:uuid:55acca63-bde4-4c9b-ae93-77b0ade33a19> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://thebark.com/content/dogs-responses-familiar-human-scents?qt-most_popular=0 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00012-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.973473 | 606 | 3.03125 | 3 |
I. The Concept of ConsensusEdward Shils
II. The Study of ConsensusLewis Lipsitz
Consensus is a particular state of the belief system of a society. It exists when a large proportion of the adult members of a society, more particularly a large proportion of those concerned with decisions regarding the allocations of authority, status, rights, wealth and income, and other important and scarce values about which conflict might occur, are in approximate agreement in their beliefs about what decisions should be made and have some feeling of unity with each other and with the society as a whole. Consensus may also exist between individuals in primordial or personal face-to-face relationships as in a family or in friendship; it may exist within a charismatic corporate body like a church or sect or within a society. Here we shall be considering only the consensual state of a society, that is, “macrosocial” consensus. (Dissensus exists in situations where potentially divergent “interests” confront each other and consensus is absent.)
Three elements crucial to the functioning of consensus are (1) common acceptance of laws, rules, and norms, (2) attachment to the institutions which promulgate and apply the laws and rules, and (3) a widespread sense of identity or unity, which discloses to individuals who experience it, those features in respect to which they are identical and therefore equal. The sense of identity diminishes the significance of the differences on which dissensus and hostile sentiments would otherwise focus. Although these elements may vary independently, the strength of any one of them helps to strengthen the others.
The pattern of consensual belief. Consensus refers to distributions of scarce values among individuals who are in face-to-face interaction and who are competing for these values. Between workers and supervisors and among workers on a shop floor, among members of different political parties, or members of different factions within a political party, consensus operates to restrict the extension of dissensus and to limit conflict with regard to the allocation of valued objects. In these face-to-face situations the consensus is ordinarily, although not always, a “derivative” of beliefs which have a wider range of reference. The adjudication of conflicts with immediate superiors, colleagues, or political rivals is often a specific product of norms or maxims which have a more general and a wider relevance. (The same applies to dissensus.) Relatively few persons are in face-to-face interaction with those who are remote from them in such society-wide distributions as income, power, and deference, but it is to these larger distributions that attention is given, and it is about them that “serious” beliefs are held. Individuals are capable of perceiving the approximate dimensions of these larger distributions and of passing judgment on their rightfulness; indeed, the greatest importance is attributed to these distributions. Human beings are capable of rendering judgments about situations in which they do not actually participate, and many are strongly inclined to do so. Intellectual and moral sensibility impel them to judge the quality of their society and to formulate the attitude they should take toward it and toward the larger distributions which determine it. The fact that beliefs about such distributions are beliefs about power—a fact which draws attention to itself and which urgently demands judgment—makes macrosocial distributions into objects of vital beliefs.
The beliefs with respect to which consensus may exist include both cognitive propositions and moral standards about the justice or injustice of the distribution of roles, facilities, and rewards and about the worth of the institutions of authority and order by which these distributions are brought about, maintained, and changed. These beliefs usually concern the rightness and the qualifications of those in authority to exercise it and of those receiving different amounts of the valued objects to receive what they do. These beliefs also concern the legitimacy of the institutions through which the bearers of authority and the recipients of the different shares are selected. In a condition of macro-social consensus, the most important beliefs relate to the sense of unity which extends from those who possess it, whatever their own position, to strata of the population very differently situated in the distributions of rewards and very different in their share in the exercise of authority. Macrosocial consensus by definition does not include such beliefs as those which refer to the right order of personal relationships, the proper objects of aesthetic experience and judgment, the origin and structure of the cosmos, and the nature and powers of divinity. (It is of course quite likely that where consensus exists with respect to such beliefs, the macrosocial consensus in which we are interested is more probable and more enduring.)
Until the emergence of the modern liberal state with a plurality of religions, diverse political parties, and institutions for the conduct and control of class and other sectional conflicts, rulers tended to believe that consensus in religious beliefs was a necessary condition of the consensus required for social order. In the nineteenth century this view ceased to be regarded as valid. Yet it is quite possible that consensus of beliefs apart from those about the justice or injustice of the distribution of scarce and desired objects helps to create and maintain the vague sense of unity which is an essential part of consensus. There is perhaps a deeper truth hidden in the quip which asserted that England was a “country of a hundred religions and one sauce.” The approximate uniformity of standards of taste might have contributed to the sense of unity which enabled a macrosocial consensus to function despite the divisions concerning questions of theology and ecclesiastical organization [seeLegitimacy].
Abstract or general ethical and political beliefs (”principles”) can enter into consensus insofar as they affect agreement or disagreement on particular issues of legitimacy, distribution, selection, and so on. A situation in which general principles, ratiocinatively or affectively arrived at, explicitly and visibly determine particular orientations is by no means impossible. Still, it is relatively rare in any society, and only rigorous ideologists insist on a very close dependence of particular decisions on the explicit principles which are part of an explicit and systematic belief system.
Human beings assess the actions and orientations of other persons in general categories, and their assessments give some direction to their particular and immediate response to these persons. General ethical standards, vague notions of the right ordering of life, and conceptions of the virtues which entitle men to power, deference, and other rewards and facilities can have some influence on concrete responses to particular issues; insofar as they are consensually shared, such general orientations may be said to constitute part of the consensus.
The beliefs which enter into consensus are not clearly articulated or systematically ordered. They are expressed sometimes in maxims and sometimes in ambiguous terms like “fairness.” They are often formulated negatively, repudiating particular situations but not indicating what is positively right. Even the corpus of law, which is the most articulated precipitate of consensus, is full of gaps and is rarely very coherent in a logical sense; what is more, the specific imperatives and prohibitions contained in law are far more differentiated than the beliefs actually formulated or articulated by those who share in consensus. In societies with written constitutions, the body of beliefs and rules and images contained therein has some correspondence with the prevailing consensus, but the correspondence is only approximate and uneven.
Dissensual patterns of belief are often more explicit and systematic than are the consensual patterns which affirm the existing central institutional system. The more dissensual it is, the greater the likelihood of explicitness and systematic coherence in a pattern of belief. Accordingly, consensual belief patterns tend to be more pluralistic in the sense that they espouse a number of beliefs which are not wholly consistent with each other and which are able to coexist quite easily as long as no one of them is carried out in full. Thus, in contemporary Western liberal societies both equality and liberty are believed to be very important, but neither is pressed to complete fulfillment. They remain vague indicators of a direction or tendency rather than specific imperatives. A greater monism is generally but not always characteristic of dissensual patterns of belief. There probably is a positive correlation between monism in the pattern of belief and the degree of dissensuality vis-à-vis the prevailing patterns of belief.
The beliefs which enter into consensus (or dissensus) vary in the intensity with which they are adhered to even within a single pattern of belief; some component beliefs might be very stringently insisted upon, others less so. Correspondingly, within a given society some of the adherents of a given pattern of belief might have a high average level of intensity of adherence, others might have a lower average level. The adherents of a dissensual (internally consensual) pattern of belief will usually have a higher average level of intensity of adherence than the adherents of a consensual pattern.
Consensual patterns of belief tend to be affirmative about the distribution of authority, the legitimacy of its results, and the mechanisms and standards by which it is effected. There is nothing in the definition of consensus that requires this to be so, and there might indeed be occasions when the prevailing system of authority becomes the object of a widely shared negative consensus. This would be a situation in which the paradox of a dissensual consensus is realized. But that would be the exception. Insofar as a dominant consensus exists in a society, it usually more or less affirms the existing system of authoritative institutions and the distributions associated with them because authority, when it is effective, tends to establish its own legitimacy. The coercive powers of authority also help it to call forth a conformity which justifies itself by an acknowledgment of the legitimacy of the powerful. Perhaps even more important is the close affinity of outlook of the central cultural system with the central institutional system, and this, through teaching and exemplification, tends to diffuse itself into the outlook and the programs of large parts of the society.
The empirical analysis of the pattern of consensus confronts the same difficulties as the empirical analysis of beliefs actually held by individuals. Because of vagueness, ambiguity, unsystematic character, and variations in level of abstraction, actually held beliefs are difficult to describe, and there is a tendency on the part of sociological and anthropological analysts to systematize, clarify, and specify actually held beliefs to a point which makes the holder of such beliefs appear to be a systematic philosopher. Premises are rendered explicit and particular judgments are generalized; as a result of this process, beliefs which are not knowingly held are imputed by the analysts, who thus distort the nature of consensus and the mechanisms through which it operates.
The social structure of consensus. In no society, however consensual, is the consensus ever universally shared. Nor does it depend upon universal participation to be effective. Those adults who do share it, do so with very different degrees of intensity or concern. Of course no adult member of society is outside the system of allocation of scarce roles, facilities, and rewards, and as a result no adult, unless he is utterly—indeed almost catatonically—apathetic, can entirely avoid rendering judgments at least about that sector of the distribution which he perceives immediately around him. Moreover, the judgments which he renders are related in a determinate way to those current in the culture of his society. Yet his interest in the larger distribution and the problems of legitimacy associated with it might be very faint and infrequent.
Since one of the most important foci of consensus is the system of allocation of the whole society, those persons who do not concern themselves much or intensely with the total allocation may be said to be somewhat marginal in the structure of consensus. Even where they share general beliefs, about what is “fair,” for instance, the fact that they apply these beliefs only or primarily to their immediate environment and not to the larger society means that they do not participate in the consensus to the same extent and in the same way as those who apply the consensually shared norms more intensely and frequently to the macrosocial system of allocation.
In societies which are relatively unintegrated and where centrally made decisions therefore impinge only very intermittently and marginally on certain sectors of the society (e.g., isolated villages which do not participate in a national economy), the members of those sectors might be entirely outside the structure of consensus. But in modern societies, where government plays such a large part in influencing allocations and where country-wide communication and transportation systems bring at least some features of the central institutional system into the field of attention of even the uneducated and apathetic, complete abstention from the structure of consensus (or dissensus) is very rare.
On some issues and on some occasions most of the adult population is consensual, but even within such general consensus there are many individual differences. Apart from differences in intensity among those who share in any particular belief in a consensus, there are differences in the number or proportion of beliefs adhered to. Every consensus is constituted by a plurality of beliefs, such as beliefs about the right principles of remuneration, the proper shape of particular distributions (equality and inequality), the prerogatives of property ownership, the propriety of incumbency by certain individuals and classes of individuals in certain positions on particular distributions, and the value of the total national community. Within the “public” of a consensus, some sectors might be attached intensely to all the beliefs, others intensely only to some of them and faintly to others, and some might be attached only to a very few and repudiate most others. A common acceptance of certain of the beliefs might bind the entire “public” into a partial consensus; just how partial it is depends on the extent to which other beliefs are repudiated and various contrary ones espoused by the various subsectors of that public. For example, nearly everyone in a given country might accept the legitimacy of the electoral system and of the authorities selected through it, and they might also accept a particular unequal distribution of income; but they might disagree sharply about the distribution of deference, and about the capacity of particular incumbents of authoritative roles to act beneficially on behalf of the society as a whole.
Consensus exists in a complex interplay with dissensus. Dissensus is the state of disagreement of beliefs about allocative decisions and results. Those who are dissensual with respect to a particular feature of an allocative system or process might be consensual with respect to other features or about the general properties of the system. Thus the dimensions or boundaries of the structure of consensus are variable within a given society, not only over a longer trend but from situation and problem to situation and problem.
Party politics in modern societies are organized efforts to shift the boundaries of the partial dissensus within the framework of a partial consensus. But alongside these deliberate efforts to change the structure of consensus, there is a continual shifting of boundaries among partially dissensual groups. Beliefs about which there was once disagreement (e.g., concerning the right of the unemployed to public assistance) become consensual, while previously consensual beliefs, such as those concerning the right of the inheritance of property, become partially dissensual. These historical shifts in the structure of consensus arise in part from the struggles of the proponents of the partially dissensual programs, in part from demographic and technological changes, which are accompanied by changes in occupational structure, and in part from the unfolding of the dynamic potentialities of various patterns of belief.
The variations in the “public” of consensus (i.e., in the size of the population participating in it) testify also to the simultaneous coherence and incoherence of the patterns of belief which individuals bring into consensus. If each individual had a perfectly systematized pattern of belief, those who disagreed with him on one particular belief would disagree with him on all others. On the other hand, if this pattern of belief were totally incoherent, there would be no stability in the “publics” formed by the consensus around particular beliefs. Agreement on one issue would not entail any probability of agreement on any other. Yet, as we know, every consensual pattern of belief is borne in the first instance by a persisting “public” of adherents who gather around them, on particular issues and clusters of issues, extended and somewhat fluctuating “publics.” Some who are consensual on most issues are dissensual on a few; others who are dissensual on most issues are consensual on a few. From this determinateness of pattern an approximate stability of the “publics” is borne.
The function of consensus. Consensus maintains public order, that is, it reduces the probability of the use of violence in the resolution of disagreements; it increases the amount of cooperation which is not impelled by fear of the coercive power of the stronger party. It does so by (1) the reduction of the probability of disagreements, (2) the restriction of the intensity of affect and strength of motivation with which disagreements are conducted and the softening of the rigidity of the attachment to the objectives about which the disagreements exist, and (3) the fostering of a readiness to accept peaceful modes of adjudicating disagreements among those who have a sense of mutual affinity or identity.
There is no natural harmony of interest among men in society. Men are diverse in their propensities, and the material and symbolic objects which they seek are scarce in relation to the demand for them. Their “interests” are in conflict. Furthermore, a society—particularly a large-scale society—differentiated by generations, by occupations, by status and culture, will naturally tend toward a differentiation in beliefs regarding the rightness of the actions of authority and the justice of the existing social order [seeConflict]. Where it exists, consensus is a counterforce against the fulfillment of the divisive potentialities of these divergent “interests” and beliefs. Consensus facilitates collaboration: it reinforces the cooperation which arises from coincidences of interest, limits the range of the divergence of interests by defining ends in a way which renders them more compatible, and circumscribes the actions injurious to cooperation which might arise from the divergent interests.
To be effective consensus depends particularly on those persons scattered throughout the society in many classes, regions, and occupations who have a fairly continuous concern with (1) the macrosocial distribution of roles, facilities, and rewards, (2) the particular decisions taken in the center of the society inasmuch as they affect these distributions or are affected by them, and (3) the institutions in which these decisions are taken or which influence the distributions. The concern may take the form of institutionalized participation in the decisions bearing on these three aspects of distributive events, or it may take the form of attitudinal involvement which affects action. The concerned are elites who, on behalf of the strata and collectivities generated by the distributions or on behalf of some ideal arrangement, take it upon themselves or are institutionally entitled to pass judgment and to attempt to influence opinion and decision. Their agreement or disagreement on particular issues can promote harmony or conflict in the working of institutions and in the relationships of strata and collectivities. [SeeElites.]
Public order and effective cooperation among the diverse parts of the society do not, however, require complete and continuous consensus even among the elites. What is important for the maintenance of order is that their disagreements about particular issues should exist within a consensual matrix. This consensual matrix is maintained largely by the sense of oneness with each other and with the whole society; this sense of oneness manifests itself in a sense of affinity even with persons with whom there might be many particular disagreements. Coalitions of interests, the boundaries of which cut across each other, keep the sense of oneness from disintegrating. (Cleavages formed by the coincidence of boundaries of interest coalitions, on the other hand, do serious damage to the sense of oneness.) The power to coerce is another important element in maintaining order in society, but it never operates alone for any length of time. Without a strong consensual reinforcement, coercion could in itself never be effective. It is a supplement to consensus, not a mutually exclusive alternative.
The formation and change of consensus. The family which inducts the newly born organism into society is the first instigator of consensus. Within the family the child acquires generalized and affirmative attitudes toward authority, which are the preconditions of a subsequent assimilation into a consensus based on authoritative institutions at the center of society. In school the child acquires some of the culture of the larger society, some knowledge and appreciation of its heroes, great events, and territorial scope; he forms an image of the society. From childhood on, great collective rituals repeatedly renew the sense of unity with the larger society, and recurrent interaction with like-minded persons maintains and reinforces the disposition to attribute validity to those who speak and act through and for the central institutional system and those who speak on behalf of the central cultural system. As a result, a substantial proportion of the indigenous population grows into a consensual culture which accepts the Tightness and justice of existing distributions, the norms for judging them, and the institutions for maintaining and changing them [seeSocialization].
But the consensus never includes all the population. Some families and sectors of the population —classes and ethnic groups—are at the margins of the dominant consensus or even outside it. Some people even reject the pattern of the beliefs which inform the dominant consensus as far-reachingly as is possible under the pressures of authority and the permeative influence of the central cultural system. Every large society has a dissensual as well as a consensual culture, which is sustained by religious traditions and regional and class cultures as well as by recurrently renewed ethical and metaphysical criticism of the prevailing system of authority and the allocations of which the incumbents of authoritative and elite roles are the beneficiaries. Those who experience pain from the existing distributions of income, power, and status, although often sharing much of the consensual pattern of belief, also have contrary inclinations. A society which inflicts the distress of a sense of exclusion and inferiority cannot wholly succeed in assimilating into its affirmative consensus those whom it wounds.
The numerous particular situations of conflicts of interest and of norms of what is fair and just constitute the occasions for repeated rearrangements and regroupings of those who are consensual and those who are dissensual. The boundaries shift and shade off from the one zone into the other. At times the consensus might be very inclusive and at others it might lose some or much of its following.
The strength of the central institutional system and the deep penetration of the central cultural system result, however, in a considerable tenacity of the beliefs that make up the consensus. But the beliefs themselves undergo gradual changes. Indeed, the traditional character of most of the consensual beliefs renders such changes feasible, and this too helps to maintain the consensus. The ambiguity which is inherent in traditionally transmitted beliefs fosters flexibility and permits continuity in the face of changing circumstances. Moderate changes in the structure and in the incumbents of the various positions in the distributions of power, income, and status can be borne without a serious diminution in adherence to the main beliefs in a prevailing consensus. If the losers by these allocative changes are not too drastically affected, their participation in the consensus will not be greatly affected. Much depends on the continued strength of the central institutions. If these continue to maintain the appearance of effectiveness, dissensual tendencies will be held in check. Strong attachment to the society as a whole, aided by the apparent effectiveness of authority, inhibits dissensual tendencies. Beliefs about “luck” and a belief that results are indicative of qualifications render losses even more bearable.
When, however, drastic changes occur, the consensus is likely to be weakened by a deeper and more comprehensive withdrawal of those who are severely hurt by the changes. The diverse potentialities of interpretation which every consensus contains tends, under these circumstances, to be subjected to constructions which run in opposed directions, and reconciliation becomes more difficult. It is also likely that large and rapid increments in the quantity of rewards received will disrupt the participation of the gainers in the hitherto dominant consensus. Such increments often raise the level of aspiration well beyond the limits permitted by the beliefs of the traditionally established consensus.
Changes in technology disclose new possibilities of changing the share in valued objects possessed by various strata of the population. Those who perceive these possibilities and who, by virtue of their control over resources, are in a position to enhance their share will usually seek to do so. If they are prevented from doing so by the fixity of attachment of the incumbent elites to the existing distributions and by the rigidity of the patterns of belief of those elites about the rightness of the existing distributions, a new focus of dissensual beliefs will be formed. Technological innovations also engender new occupations with new occupational cultures. These new cultures might contain beliefs which cannot always or easily be accommodated within the existing consensus, and this too leads to new foci of dissensual beliefs.
Yet, despite the strains to which it is constantly subjected, the consensus of a society has much adaptability and considerable powers of endurance. Even in periods of acute civil disorder, when the previously legitimated authority has been expelled or has shown its weakness, the consensus is not entirely in dissolution. Society can never dissolve into a Hobbesian state of nature. Even though it has ceased to bind the warring groups, the sections of the population which are not intensely involved in the conflict might be quite consensual in their orientations toward each other or, at least, much more so than the groups which are violently in conflict with each other. The disruption of society in situations of acute civil disorder consists of the active contention of violently dissensual elites for the machinery and symbols of authority and the control of the system of distribution. The persistence of the more consensual sections of the population in the beliefs they have hitherto held fosters the re-establishment of a substantial measure of consensus when the crisis passes. Even the two warring parties usually contend against each other on behalf of divergent interpretations of a commonly shared constellation of beliefs. It is only that the sense of unity, of attachment to the whole society, which is an essential constituent of consensus, has been so violently ruptured that the affinity of substantive beliefs retains no restraining power.
Once civil order is restored, consensus gradually becomes re-established. It will not be exactly the same consensual pattern of belief that existed previously. The newly established elite, legitimated by effective incumbency, will both deliberately and unwittingly infiltrate some of its own beliefs into the previously operative consensus. However, the members of the new elite will, in their turn, become assimilated into the basic consensual pattern which is held by those they rule and which they too shared before coming to power.
Abrams, Mark 1964 Party Politics After the End of Ideology. Pages 56–63 in Erik Allardt and Yrjö Littunen (editors), Cleavages, Ideologies and Party Systems: Contributions to Comparative Political Sociology. Helsinki: Westermarck Society.
Lipset, Seymour M. 1964 Political Cleavages in “Developed” and “Emerging” Politics. Pages 21–55 in Erik Allardt and Yrjö Littunen (editors), Cleavages, Ideologies and Party Systems: Contributions to Comparative Political Sociology. Helsinki: Westermarck Society.
Lockwood, David 1964 Social Integration and System Integration. Pages 244–257 in George K. Zollschan and Walter Hirsch (editors), Explorations in Social Change. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Mcclosky, Herbert 1964 Consensus and Ideology in American Politics. American Political Science Review 58:361–382.
Plamenatz, John; Griffith, Ernest S.; and Pennock, J. Roland 1956 Cultural Prerequisites to a Successfully Functioning Democracy: A Symposium. American Political Science Review 50:101–137. → See especially pages 115–127, by John Plamenatz.
Prothro, James W.; and Grigg, C. W. 1960 Fundamental Principles of Democracy: Bases of Agreement and Disagreement. Journal of Politics 22:276–294.
Shils, Edward 1961 Centre and Periphery. Pages 117–130 in The Logic of Personal Knowledge: Essays Presented to Michael Polanyi. London: Routledge; New York: Free Press.
Tocqueville, Alexis de (1835) 1945 Democracy in America. 2 vols. New York: Knopf. → First published in French. Paperback editions were published in 1961 by Vintage and by Schocken.
TÆnnies, Ferdinand (1887) 1957 Community and Society (Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft). Translated and edited by Charles P. Loomis. East Lansing: Michigan State Univ. Press. → First published in German. A paperback edition was published in 1963 by Harper.
TÆnnies, Ferdinand (1909) 1961 Custom: An Essay on Social Codes. New York: Free Press. → First published in German.
Political consensus involves kinds of agreements that are politically relevant. Students of this subject have been concerned largely with questions of the stability of regimes, particularly democratic regimes.
Four uses of the idea of consensus have been developed by writers interested primarily in the viability of democratic political processes. One conception has seen consensus as agreement on the “fundamentals” of democratic government. There is marked divergence, however, on the questions of what it means to agree on fundamentals and just how significant such agreement is (Griffith et al. 1956). Others have argued that the consensus necessary in a democracy is chiefly a matter of habitual patterns of behavior which are more important than conscious agreement on democratic principles (Prothro & Grigg 1960). A third position has emphasized the question of the acceptability of governmental policy to significant social groups. In this view, consensus on emotion-laden issues such as those embodied in the welfare state can have decisive influence on the stability of the political system (Lipset 1964). A fourth view of consensus in the democratic context has defined consensus as existing where all structurally important social groups contain adherents of major political parties. This view of consensus sees it as the outcome of “cross-cutting cleavages” which ensure that social divisions and political conflicts do not reinforce one another too thoroughly. Here consensus is the opposite of acute conflict and is hypothesized as leading to political tolerance and a low-tension politics (Parsons 1959). It should be clear that these four conceptualizations of politically relevant consensus are not mutually exclusive but in some cases complement each other, while in others they conflict.
Two other views of consensus, although also related to the problems of democracy, have been developed and employed in different political contexts as well. The first of these is consensus as legitimacy: approval of the existing government and/or its directives. Understood in this sense, consensus is seen to be one of the key elements in governmental stability. Others have discussed consensus in terms of the basic moral and social perspectives that underlie political life. This has been a matter of deep concern to students of developing nations. In this view, the problem of creating consensus is closely related to questions of political socialization, ideology, political myths and rituals, modernization, and personality structure.
Each of these concepts of politically relevant consensus deals with a form of agreement. Although this notion of agreement appears to be the core of the idea of consensus, such a conclusion hardly begins to clarify the important problems. Of acute concern, and the object of most controversy among students of consensus, are the questions of how various kinds of agreement or lack of agreement are related to political stability, democracy, and the limitation of conflict.
Consensus and political philosophy. Preoccupation with problems of social cohesion and legitimacy was characteristic of political philosophy from its beginnings. Plato and Aristotle explored questions of political consensus. Both, for example, emphasized the significance of appropriate political socialization through education if the polity was to be stable. Several of the books of Aristotle's Politics are concerned with problems of political viability and revolution and deal extensively with governmental legitimacy.
Concern with political cohesion has been a recurrent one in the modern period. Contract theorists such as Locke, Hobbes, Rousseau, and Paine emphasized the need for a rational, conscious creation of political consensus and employed the idea of the “contract” as the basis of legitimate authority. The utilitarians, and to a certain extent John Stuart Mill, provided an “interest” justification of government. In their view, a secular consensus should be based on a recognition that government should serve the interests of the greatest number.
Political theorists of a more conservative or aristocratic hue have been profoundly concerned with consensus as a problem. Burke, for example, feared the spread of the ideology of the French Revolution because, in his view, it called into question the legitimacy of all forms of government. He championed political ritualism, a hierarchical social order, and close church-state relations as important sustainers of consensus about governmental legitimacy. De Tocqueville emphasized the peculiar problems of consensus in a democratic polity and argued for the increased significance of religion as a binding force in direct proportion to the growth of political liberty. Concern continues with the significance of ritualism and religiosity in creating consensus. Several authors have emphasized the role of political holidays and ceremonies in producing a sense of national unity.
Nationalism has been discussed as a semireligious unifying motif in Western nations (Key 1961, p. 43). It has also been argued that the American president and the British monarch inspire a semireligious attachment which serves as a primordial unifying bond in the political system. Similar hypotheses have been offered with regard to the role of nationalist ideologies and nationalist leaders in developing nations (Apter 1963).
Modernization and political consensus. There is agreement that modernization processes generally involve acute crises of political consensus.
Western societies. Lipset (1960, pp. 76–97) has discussed this process as it occurred in Western societies in terms of three basic crises of legitimacy: first, the crisis involving church-state relations; second, the crisis involving the entry of the working class into politics; and third, the crisis surrounding questions of redistribution of wealth. He argues that governmental legitimacy can be undermined by these crises in various ways. For one, the entry of the working class into the political arena can be delayed too long, thus making for a revolutionary ideology in that class. Second, crises can accumulate through the inability to solve any one of them. In such a case, as in France, cleavages are intensified and governmental stability fundamentally endangered. Finally, too radical a change in the political system, again as in France, can alienate the more conservative groups, thus undermining the conditions for mutual tolerance.
Lipset concludes (1964) that the wide acceptance of a secularized welfare state marks the ends of these crises of consensus. PostWorld War II developments, especially economic growth, settled the intense political conflicts of previous western European politics. The older, largely nineteenth-century ideologies are outmoded. A new ideology, named “conservative socialism” by Lipset, has gained acceptance among major social groups and the major political parties. Political conflict, then, has lost its intensity and no longer revolves around what are felt to be fundamental differences of view. Europe is described as coming to resemble America in its politics, in that political parties offer similar programs and a large middle class plays a crucial moderating role. Many have seriously questioned this view. LaPalombara (1966a; 1966b), for example, has raised important methodological issues and also has challenged the substance of the argument as it applies to Italian politics.
Lane (1962) has explored this new “ideology” as it appears among upper-working-class and lower-middle-class Americans. His data are drawn from intensive interviews of 15 men. He maintains that the strata these individuals represent are largely satisfied with the existing political system, as well as with the present patterns of social stratification. Their political attitudes are characterized by pragmatic responses, an absence of moral perspectives on current issues, and the lack of a distinct ideological identity. Lane argues that these individuals identify with various social groups and therefore their ideology, such as it is, is diffuse and tolerant. His findings support those of survey research concerning the attitudes of Americans toward the political parties and their candidates. It is unclear whether this “nonideology” is a distinctly contemporary phenomenon in America or is merely the modern version of older aspects of American politics. It is also unclear whether the “ideology” Lane has uncovered is confined to a particular geographic section of the United States and to a particular stratum of the population.
Developing nations. Political consensus expressed in terms of governmental stability is regarded as a fundamental problem in developing nations. Many maintain that discontinuous social change, creating sharp imbalances between expectations and opportunities, makes political stability a rare and yet overwhelmingly necessary commodity. This gap between expectations and opportunities is conceptualized variously as a result of excessively rapid urbanization, the absence of employment for highly trained personnel, or the spread of ideas of equality and economic development.
One problem of modernization involves the gap between mass and elite. This gap prevents effective communication in both directions and therefore blocks the development of a national normative culture and national identity, as well as preventing widespread needs and demands from becoming known to the elite with sufficient speed (Binder 1964).
Intense conflict and the absence of consensus on the ends and means of political life are also characteristic of developing states. Students of many countries have observed the severity of political party conflict involving groups with sharply different world views, which often takes on some of the aspects of warfare. In these cases, the stakes involved in politics are perceived as being so high that no political group is willing to concede defeat voluntarily. The norms of tolerance cannot develop and governmental legitimacy is constantly threatened. Democratic politics may be able to develop only where political activists do not feel the stakes of competition are too high. We know little, however, about the circumstances in which such perceptions change, and this knowledge is critical to the problems of developing nations.
Consensus and “fundamentals” of democracy. Scholars have maintained that agreement on certain fundamentals is a prerequisite of democracy. These fundamentals have been variously seen as the belief in human equality, the belief in the superiority of democracy, the belief in tolerance for dissenting views, and the belief in majority rule. Recent empirical examinations of the actual state of agreement on such matters in the United States has led to a more complex picture of the relationship between consensus on fundamentals and democratic practices.
Prothro and Grigg (1960), using 90 per cent agreement as a measure of consensus, found it to exist on matters of majority rule and minority rights in two American cities, as long as statements were phrased in very abstract terms. When statements were made more specific, however, consensus broke down. Agreement appeared to be especially fragile when communists and Negroes were involved in the specific statements. The authors found that higher education and higher social status were related to greater agreement on the worth of majority rule and minority rights. They concluded that democracy can exist without consensus because many of the undemocratic are apathetic, and because agreement on specific policies sustains unity despite lack of consensus on fundamentals.
McClosky (1964), building on earlier work, found important differences in support of democratic norms between party activists and the general electorate. Party activists were more likely to support majority rule and minority rights and to believe in governmental fairness. But even among activists disagreement was widespread, and there was frequently failure to achieve consensus on specifics. (McClosky defined consensus as 75 per cent agreement.) Consensus was highest among both activists and electorate on abstract statements concerning freedom of speech and of dissent. Consensus was weakest on questions of political, social, and economic equality. McClosky noted the use fulness of apathy when many do not share democratic norms, although he maintained that this condition has its dangers. In particular he stressed that many may mistakenly support undemocratic organizations and practices while thinking that they are defending freedom. In general, he argued, consensus is not necessarily a condition of political stability. When conditions are stable, consensus may be unnecessary. Only in time of social disorganization is consensus important as a stabilizing force. Finally, he argued that the conditions which enhance consensus on democratic norms are becoming more widespread in the United States: education, urbanization, social mobility, proliferation of the mass media, expansion of the middle class, reduced size and isolation of rural groups, declining number of groups living on substandard incomes, and more complete integration of minority groups into social and cultural life.
Consensus and political symbols. The role of national holidays, ceremonies, and rituals in creating or sustaining consensus has been little explored. It remains questionable that such events facilitate consensus. Arguments concerning the supposed integrative role of the British coronation ceremony have been effectively challenged (Shils & Young 1953; Birnbaum 1955). Contrary hypotheses also exist. It has been observed, for example, that the creed of Americanism and the ceremonies that accompany it have sometimes served as a focal point of conflict (Key 1961, p. 43). A fervent belief in this creed has often been associated with persecution of those groups regarded as foreigners or aliens. At present, one cannot be certain about the function of any particular political ritual without knowing the social circumstances in which it is enacted.
It is fairly clear, however, that myths and symbols can play a role in diminishing conflict in specific policy areas (Edelman 1960). Consumer groups, typically poorly organized, often achieve symbolic victories through the passage of regulatory legislation covering a particular area of the economy. Producer groups, more involved in the details of policy making, can often shape the substance of this regulation in a direction congenial to them. If the public is unaware of this change in the original intentions of the legislation, it assumes that these intentions are being carried out. In such a case, the general public believes policy is made in its favor, while those being regulated are also content with the arrangements, and a rather strange consensus may be said to exist. One must, however, ponder the consequences of such a consensus for the real content of political democracy.
Problems and research needs. The empirical and speculative work concerning consensus on fundamentals in the United States is open to serious question on several points (Willhoite 1963).
Measuring democracy. Some researchers seem to have assumed that the United States is in fact a democracy. This assumption has confused the picture of the relationship between consensus and democracy. For example, when Prothro and Grigg discovered that consensus is weakest on questions involving Negroes and communists, they went on to conclude that democracy can exist without consensus. But if, in fact, American democratic practices are least adequate where Negroes and communists are concerned, then lack of consensus appears to be far more significant. In order to relate attitudinal consensus to democratic practices, one needs to measure not only the degree of consensus but also the degree of democracy. This has not yet been done. Therefore one must retain an open mind on the question of the exact connections between these two variables.
Negative consensus. A different line of attack flows from the analysis of negative consensus. Many authors have pointed out the significance of a consensus on behavior that will not be allowed. This matter has been of particular interest to students of international relations who have concentrated on the problem of “encapsulating” conflict (Etzioni 1964). The shared fear of war has been cited as a major factor in keeping conflict under control. Likewise, negative consensus may play a role in domestic politics. For example, the tacit agreement, perhaps conscious, not to raise certain sorts of issues is of great importance in facilitating peaceful adjustment of disputes. If this is the case, then negative consensus may take the place in domestic politics once credited to a positive consensus on democratic norms. The gains of the civil rights movement in America have flowed, in part, from a negative consensus among whites on the need to avoid violence. Given such a consensus, certain Negro demands have had to be met (Killian & Grigg 1964). This interpretation runs counter to the assertion that the civil rights movement has been successful because equality is a significant tenet in the American creed. The hypothesis is that negative consensus operates in place of positive belief. These conflicting interpretations are in need of further investigation.
Consensus, cooperation, and stability. The conviction that consensus, in any sense, is necessary for political life has been vigorously challenged. In many cases social cooperation and political cohesion may not depend upon consensus. Further, conflict as well as consensus can lead to social integration and successful problem solving.
There is no direct relation between consensus and political equilibrium or integration. Consensus can retard political and social adaptation as well as facilitate it. For example, as Van den Berghe has pointed out (1963), consensus on such norms as extreme competition, individualistic laissez-faire, treachery, and witchcraft does not necessarily aid social solidarity. Moreover, consensus within groups can hinder consensus among groups.
Consensus is not identical with cooperation, and the latter can exist without the former. Many factors besides consensus may contribute to cooperative behavior. Williams (1964, p. 383) has observed that such factors include mutual advantage, power, technical capacities for communication, and social mechanisms for settling conflicts. The precise role of consensus in political stabilization clearly remains a matter of dispute.
Problems of creating consensus. How is consensus created, and how is it changed? Under what circumstances, for example, do previously outlawed forms of conflict become legitimate or acceptable? Such changes have taken place in the domestic politics of many countries, involving, for example, issues raised by political pamphleteering, strikes, and mass demonstrations. In these cases, more democratic norms have been achieved primarily through serious social conflict. It is clear, therefore, that the identification of democracy with government by consensus can make sense only in that ideal case in which a perfect democracy has already been created.
Under what circumstances will governmental initiative be successful in altering a previously existing consensus? Research into American race relations has demonstrated that attitudes adapt over time to overt behavior, but clearly such adaptation has limits and preconditions. Related to this question is the problem of determining under what circumstances governmental legitimacy itself is undermined, particularly in relation to the government's ability to cope with social change.
On the policy-making level, democracy has often been described as politics involving bargaining among political leaders through which a consensus is created. There has been little systematic study, however, of this consensus-creating process. Finally, a critical problem for students of international behavior is consensus creation concerning the limitation of conflict. Osgood (1962) has described the general principles of a process of tension reduction based on the building of trust through graduated reciprocal initiatives by the parties to the conflict. Fisher (1964) has advocated the “fractionation” of conflict, that is, the breaking down of complex, emotion-laden disputes into smaller parts which may prove easier to compromise (see also Etzioni 1964). The difficulties faced in achieving a negative consensus on conflict are clear, but these highly suggestive strategies may help to overcome some of them.
[See alsoDemocracy; Majority rule; Modernization; Socialization. Other relevant material may be found inPolitical sociology; Public opinion; Social contract; and in the biographies ofBurke; Hobbes; Locke; Mlll; Paine; Rousseau; Tocqueville.]
After, David E. 1963 Political Religion in the New Nations. Pages 57–104 in Chicago, University of, Committee for the Comparative Study of New Nations, Old Societies and New States: The Quest for Modernity in Asia and Africa. Edited by Clifford Geertz. New York: Free Press.
Binder, Leonard 1964 National Integration and Political Development. American Political Science Review 58:622–631.
BirnbauM, Norman 1955 Monarchs and Sociologists. Sociological Review 3:5–23.
Dahl, Robert A. (1961) 1963 Who Governs? Democracy and Power in an American City. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press.
Edelman, Murray 1960 Symbols and Political Quiescence. American Political Science Review 54:695—704.
Etzioni, Amitai 1962 The Hard Way to Peace: A New Strategy. New York: Collier.
Etzioni, Amitai 1964 On Self-encapsulating Conflicts.Journal of Conflict Resolution 8:242–255.
Fisher, Roger D. 1964 Fractionating Conflict. Pages 91–109 in Roger D. Fisher (editor), International Conflict and Behavioral Science: The Craigville Papers. New York: Basic Books.
Griffith, E. S.; Plamenatz, J.; and Pennock, J. R. 1956 Cultural Prerequisites to a Successfully Functioning Democracy: A Symposium. American Political Science Review 50:101–137.
Horowitz, Irving L. 1962 Consensus, Conflict and Cooperation: A Sociological Inventory. Social Forces 41: 177–188.
Key, Valdimer O. 1961 Public Opinion and American Democracy. New York: Knopf.
Killian, Lewis M.; and GRIGG, CHARLES 1964 Racial Crisis in America. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
Lane, Robert E. 1962 Political Ideology: Why the American Common Man Believes What He Does. New York: Free Press.
Lapalombara, Joseph 1966a Decline of Ideology: A Dissent and an Interpretation. American Political Science Review 60:5–16.
Lapalombara, Joseph 1966b A Reply to “Some Further Comments on The End of Ideology.'” American Political Science Review 60:110–111.
Lerner, Daniel 1958 The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East. Glencoe, 111.: Free Press.
Lipset, Seymour M. (1959) 1962 Political Sociology. Pages 81–114 in American Sociological Society, Sociology Today: Problems and Prospects. Edited by Robert K. Merton, Leonard Broom, and Leonard S. Cottrell, Jr. New York: Basic Books.
Lipset, Seymour M. 1960 Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday.
Lipset, Seymour M. 1964 The Changing Class Structure and Contemporary European Politics. Daedalus 93:277–303.
Lipset, Seymour M. 1966 Some Further Comments on “The End of Ideology.” American Political Science Review 60:17–18.
McClosky, Herbert 1964 Consensus and Ideology in American Politics. American Political Science Review 58:361–382.
Osgood, Charles E. 1962 An Alternative to War or Surrender. Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press.
Parsons, Talcott 1959 Voting and the Equilibrium of the American Political System. Pages 80–120 in Eugene Burdick and Arthur J. Brodbeck (editors), American Voting Behavior. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press.
Prothro, James W.; and Grigg, C. W. 1960 Fundamental Principles of Democracy: Bases of Agreement and Disagreement. Journal of Politics 22:276–294.
Shils, Edward; and Young, Michael 1953 The Meaning of the Coronation. Sociological Review 1:63–81.
Tocqueville, Alexis de (1835) 1945 Democracy in America. 2 vols. New York: Knopf. → First published in French. A paperback edition was published in 1961 by Vintage and by Schocken. See especially Volume 1.
Van den Berghe, Pierre L. 1963 Dialectic and Functionalism: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis. American Sociological Review 28:695–705.
Willhoite, Fred H. 1963 Political Order and Consensus. Western Political Quarterly 16:294–304.
Williams, Robin M. JR. 1964 Strangers Next Door: Ethnic Relations in American Communities. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
"Consensus." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. 1968. Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3045000240.html
"Consensus." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. 1968. Retrieved June 25, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3045000240.html
Consensus refers both to a state of common feeling or agreement in a group and to a decision rule by which a group or society determines legitimate political authority and coordinates political action. The term derives from the Latin consens, which is closely related to consent, and was first used in modern times to describe the relationship between different parts of a system in working toward the purpose of the whole. Characteristic of many nineteenth-century writers, Émile Durkheim posits the analogy of a “spontaneous consensus of parts” in the body social as a necessary condition for the preservation of order in increasingly differentiated societies (1984, p. 297). Contemporary theories of communitarianism, civic culture, and liberal pluralism follow Durkheim, to different degrees, in staking democratic order on a value consensus embedded in social norms, practices, and institutions.
Theorists of participatory and deliberative democracy often abandon the search for an empirical consensus underlying social order and instead hold consensus as a normative ideal of political decision making amid human conditions of difference and conflict. For Jean-Jacques Rousseau, legitimate political authority rests not on the consent of the majority—the domination of a part of society over the whole—but on a consensus that accounts for the interests of all members of society. Consensus thus seeks to preserve individual freedom and political equality. Indebted to Immanuel Kant’s (1724–1804) theory of common sense, Jürgen Habermas (1990) locates the ideal of consensus in the fundamental practice of communication, which presupposes the possibility of shared understanding between speakers. The expectation of rational consensus inherent in speech establishes certain norms for political deliberation, most notably reason, inclusion, participation, and publicity. On many accounts, consensual politics requires both constitutionally protected public spaces and institutionalized procedures that incorporate the previous norms into decision-making processes.
Critics of consensualism worry that the ideal of consensus carries normalizing and repressive effects on groups and societies. Theorists of agonistic democracy, such as Iris Marion Young (2000) and William E. Connolly (1991), contend that commitment to a strong rational consensus privileges certain modes of expression and participation to the exclusion of others and often brackets difficult issues from public discussion altogether. Thus, consensual ideals of political engagement and outcome effectively silence some points of view. While agonistic democracy affirms the possibility of agreement on particular issues in particular circumstances, it recognizes the contingencies and exclusions that constitute any strong value consensus and emphasizes a care for difference and struggle as central elements of politics.
In practice, consensual politics have long embodied the ideals and tensions of these competing theoretical strains. While consensus was the aim, if not always the abiding practice, in the political assemblies of ancient Athens, classical writers from Thucydides (c. 460–c. 400 BCE) to Aristotle cautioned against the dangers of popular rhetoric in fomenting collective tyranny. The Iroquois Confederacy explicitly protected dissenting views during consensual processes by establishing mechanisms for veto power and for the revisiting of contentious issues. The Religious Society of Friends and the peace and environmental movements of the late twentieth century are examples of groups that use consensus decision-making practices.
SEE ALSO Conflict; Egalitarianism
Connolly, William E. 1991. Identity/Difference: Democratic Negotiations of Political Paradox. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Durkheim, Émile. 1984. Division of Labor in Society. Translated by W. D. Halls. New York: The Free Press.
Habermas, Jürgen. 1990. Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action. Trans. Christian Lenhardt and Shierry Weber Nicholsen. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Johanson, Bruce Elliott, and Barbara Alice Mann, eds. 2000. Encyclopedia of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois Confederacy). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Mansbridge, Jane J. 1980. Beyond Adversary Democracy. New York: Basic Books.
Ober, Josiah. 1998. Political Dissent in Democratic Athens: Intellectual Critics of Popular Rule. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Pellow, David N. 1999. Framing Emerging Environmental Movement Tactics: Mobilizing Consensus, Demobilizing Conflict. Sociological Forum 14 (4): 659–683.
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. 1987. The Basic Political Writings. Trans. and ed. by Donald A. Cress. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing.
Young, Iris Marion. 2000. Inclusion and Democracy. New York: Oxford University Press.
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"Consensus." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. 2008. Retrieved June 25, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3045300429.html
In so far as sociological theory is concerned with the problem of social order, it is possible to identify two broadly differing approaches in the history of the discipline, one of which emphasizes conflict and coercion while the other assumes a degree of social consensus in the form of agreement over values and norms. Whilst value consensus is seen as the basis of social order, the true explanatory focus is the process of socialization through the vehicle of the family, an activity upon which normative functionalists placed great emphasis.
It was commonplace, during the 1960s, to speak of the debate between the consensus and conflict schools. Enthusiasts of the former approach tended to be critical of any kind of social determinism and to argue instead that social theory must accommodate intention and choice at the level of individual action. Society should therefore be seen as the expression of a system of values and norms which have been developed and institutionalized over time by its members. Thus, in Parsons's own writings, ‘integration’ is cited as one of four key requirements for the functioning of society. Conflict theory was the inevitable counterpart to the consensus view of social order and was developed in opposition to Parsonsian functionalism in the late 1950s and early 1960s. This approach rejects the assumption of shared norms and values as the basis for social order, and points instead to the balance of power between conflicting interests, both political and economic. With hindsight it is clear that, on many issues, the two groups of protagonists were simply talking past each other.
GORDON MARSHALL. "consensus." A Dictionary of Sociology. 1998. Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O88-consensus.html
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then, in addition, f = ab + a′c + bc
The term bc is sometimes called an optional product. This operation is invaluable in the elimination of circuit static hazards. Its systematic application to a Boolean function provides the basis of a minimization procedure that is less voluminous than the Quine-McCluskey method, since it does not require the full canonical expansion of the original function.
JOHN DAINTITH. "consensus." A Dictionary of Computing. 2004. Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O11-consensus.html
JOHN DAINTITH. "consensus." A Dictionary of Computing. 2004. Retrieved June 25, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O11-consensus.html
con·sen·sus / kənˈsensəs/ • n. [usu. in sing.] general agreement: a consensus of opinion among judges| [as adj.] a consensus view.
"consensus." The Oxford Pocket Dictionary of Current English. 2009. Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O999-consensus.html
"consensus." The Oxford Pocket Dictionary of Current English. 2009. Retrieved June 25, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O999-consensus.html
T. F. HOAD. "consensus." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology. 1996. Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O27-consensus.html
T. F. HOAD. "consensus." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology. 1996. Retrieved June 25, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O27-consensus.html
"consensus." Oxford Dictionary of Rhymes. 2007. Encyclopedia.com. (June 25, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O233-consensus.html
"consensus." Oxford Dictionary of Rhymes. 2007. Retrieved June 25, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O233-consensus.html | <urn:uuid:dc4e08e0-e8fa-4e9d-a9c3-023afc50177b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Consensus.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00057-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941276 | 12,778 | 3.375 | 3 |
|Part of the series on|
The association fallacy is a logical fallacy that occurs when a person/belief is supported or attacked because of its relation to some other person/belief. It is, to an extent, a version of a non sequitur.
This fallacy can be done in either a positive or negative (derogatory) way. In both cases, it is equally fallacious. This is best demonstrated by common examples.
Alternate names
- ex concessis
- bad company fallacy
- company that you keep
- group fallacy
- social identification
- A is a member of group B
- A is a member of group C
- Therefore, group B is C.
- RationalWiki is a wiki
- RationalWiki likes goats
- Wikis like goats
“”Determinists say humans are exactly like computers [in causation] but they only ever debate people.
|—Stefan Molyneux on the Joe Rogan Experience.|
Stefan Molyneux's argument against determinism:
- Determinists say humans are identical to rocks in causation.
- Determinists debate people.
- They're doing the same thing as debating rocks.
Molyneux elaborates on this by using the analogy that if a group of oranges is identical, "it wouldn't matter which one I eat"; without realizing the irony that according to his logic, oranges are identical to computers because of deterministic causation so he should eat computers.
Positive uses
Positive association is called honor by association.
In this case, the fallacy implies that the good things that people associate with Martin Luther King came from his being a Baptist. While this may, in part, be true, it is fallacious to state that all Baptists will be good, or that someone becoming a Baptist will become good. In politics, the association fallacy is often subtly combined a priori reasoning in a manner that is clearly nonsensical when spelled out:
- The Republican Party is opposed to raising the minimum wage.
- Abraham Lincoln was a member of the Republican Party.
- Abraham Lincoln was a good man.
- Therefore, we should not raise the minimum wage.
Although it might well be true that Abraham Lincoln was a good man, this does not reflect on the Republican Party's political ideas today, and it also misses the historical context. More importantly, such arguments take as a premise that the Republican Party ought to oppose the minimum wage and then seek to rationalize it, rather than concluding the minimum wage ought not to be raised based on empirical evidence.
Negative uses
“”Hitler wrote a book!
|—Book protester sign, Postal 2|
Negative association is called guilt by association.
- Stalin was an atheist.
- Stalin had millions of people killed.
- Non-sequitur, atheism is evil.
Another classic example is the thought process used by some in the anti-nuclear movement.
- Nuclear weapons, which can destroy civilization, utilize energy from fission.
- Nuclear power utilizes energy from fission.
- Non-sequitur, nuclear power is bad.
Negating the positive use above
With most negative uses of association fallacies, it relies on fear. In the former case, many of the acts that Stalin made are inherently fearful, but it is doubtful whether he ordered them on account of his atheism or in the name of communism. Even if this doubt wasn't present, to attribute the negative aspects of Stalin to these beliefs is fallacious as the beliefs themselves say nothing about mass murder. This is similar to how, in a post 9/11 world especially, moderate Muslims have been subject to unfortunate associations due to the acts of fundamentalists and Jihadists. In the latter case, the fear of nuclear weapons inspired by Cold War propaganda is used to suggest that nuclear power should be similarly feared, because it uses the same physical process, even though the process of fission itself is morally neutral.
An example of Conspiracy Theorists demonizing (no pun intended) a debunker:
- Stanton LaVey is a LaVey Satanist
- Joe Rogan is friends with Stanton LaVey.
- Therefore Joe Rogan is a Satanist and a Shill.
Cranks often say, "But Galileo was persecuted in his day, and he was right!" when their ideas come under attack.
This follows the form:
- Galileo was persecuted for his beliefs
- Galileo was right
- I'm persecuted for my beliefs
- I'm right
This is not even wrong -- Galileo was persecuted not because people disagreed, but because if he was right it would contradict social thought.
The construction "x-baiting," where x is an undesirable ideology or group of people, is often used when a speaker attempts to make an association (real or imagined) between a person or group and x. Examples include:
- Green-baiting, associating all environmentalists with ecoterrorists.
- Race-baiting, making racially divisive comments or associating a person of a certain race with some wingnut (e.g. associating black people with Louis Farrakhan).
- Red-baiting, connecting a person to some (usually imaginary) communist plot or associating him with communism in some way.
- Terrorism-baiting, making spurious accusations of the subject's relation to a terrorist organization.
- Greece-baiting, connecting one's fiscal situation to that of Greece.
- Pink-baiting, linking everything bad to homosexuals and homosexuality.
- Hitler-baiting, connecting anything interpreted as bad to Nazism. See Godwin's Law.
See also
- See the Wikipedia article on Association fallacy.
- Guilt by Association, Fallacy Files
- Ex Concessis, Bruce Thompson
- The Group Fallacy, the Mead Project
- Guilt by Association, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- Guilt by Association, Nizkor Project
- Using Logic in Composition, Papyr.com | <urn:uuid:45309265-efc1-42f6-81a7-f78303934871> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Guilt_by_association | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00050-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947835 | 1,252 | 3.3125 | 3 |
Ernest Hemingway: Biography
"Sometimes when I was starting a new story and I could not get it going," Ernest Hemingway once wrote, "I would stand and look out over the roofs of Paris and think, 'Do not worry. You have always written before and you will write now. All you have to do is write one true sentence. Write the truest sentence that you know.'"1 In his search for the truest sentence, Ernest Hemingway changed American fiction. He came of age in a golden era of American literature. The names of his drinking buddies would still be filling required reading lists decades later. But Hemingway didn't want to merely mimic styles that had already proven successful. "How simple the writing of literature would be if it were only necessary to write in another way what has been well written," he once said—and Hemingway rarely chose the simple path.2 Instead, he took American prose, threw his weight behind it and laboriously moved it to a new and different place.
Hemingway was not a scholar; he never went to college. He served his apprenticeship in journalism, the trade of chronicling real life, and was influenced by the style guidelines hammered into his head as a cub reporter at the Kansas City Star, where stories were measured carefully by the inch. He was always looking for that single phrase or sentence that would illuminate pages of things unwritten. He celebrated in his fiction the struggling, the striving and the stoic, characters whose actions reflected an id-driven archetype of man. The masterpiece that won him all the big prizes and clinched his place in the canon of literary greats is a slim novella that compresses the epic struggle of life and death into a story about an old man wrestling with a fish.
His biography is important. Hemingway always believed that the best writing came from personal experience, and his novels and stories were influenced heavily by the settings of his own life. His fiction reflected his various interests and experiences, whether it was bullfighting, African big-game hunting, or driving an ambulance in the First World War. More than just thinly-veiled autobiography, Hemingway used the personal basis of his work as a challenge to himself as a writer, remarking that "good books are alike in that they are truer than if they had really happened and after you are finished reading one you will feel that all that happened to you and afterwards it all belongs to you.... If you can get so that you can give that to people, then you are a writer."3
Hemingway's created an image of himself that was larger than life, literally—people always thought he was taller than his actual height of six feet. His reputation, however, was no accident, and in maintaining Hemingway the myth he alienated many people who had to deal with Hemingway the man. He exaggerated or outright lied about some of his exploits in hunting and war. He had great difficulty maintaining friendships and marriages. Though he professed not to care for praise, he sought it out and got cranky when it wasn't given. He could be charming and charismatic or bullying and boorish—often to the same people. And his obsession with manliness—well, let's just say that the guy had a few issues with his mom. And though his writing championed those who never gave up, in the end he surrendered in his own battle against depression, ending his life in suicide. But as Papa wrote in The Old Man and the Sea, man can be destroyed, but never defeated. More than forty years after his death, Hemingway's work lives on in his own bibliography and in the countless authors he inspired. | <urn:uuid:44c15bd8-eb1e-407c-8565-646379dfab43> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.shmoop.com/ernest-hemingway/biography.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00056-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.990177 | 760 | 3.171875 | 3 |
REFERENCE: Hofstetter. C. R., Hovell, M. F., Myers, C. A., Blumberg, E., Sipan, C., Yuasa, T., Kreitner, S. (1995). Patterns of communication about AIDS among Hispanic and Anglo adolescents. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 11, 231-237.
This study examined exposure to AIDS information from mass media and interpersonal communication among a nonprobability sample of Hispanic and Anglo lower middle-class adolescents. Subjects were drawn predominantly from community health clinics, word of mouth recruiting, public service announcements, churches, schools, and health fairs in San Diego County. Both Hispanic (n = 220) and Anglo (n = 159) youths reported substantial exposure to information about AIDS from both mass media and interpersonal communication. Hispanic watched more general television than Anglos, but had less exposure to newspapers and interpersonal communication with friends. Communication among friends was most consistently related to sociodemographic variables, with older, higher status persons and girls communicating to the greatest extent. Boys reported the greatest communication with family. Anglo youths had greater exposure to information about AIDS and condoms regardless of the medium of communication, while Hispanic adolescents had greater exposure to information on risks of IV drug use. Of the three main types of mass media, print and radio provided the most exposure to AIDS information. It is important for preventive medicine practitioners to exploit these differences in communication patterns when planning preventive intervention strategies that target specific adolescent populations. | <urn:uuid:be64eec9-636a-4dfe-88ce-5b40164e1f36> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/c-beach/abstract/std05.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00025-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.914547 | 303 | 3.09375 | 3 |
crystals/materials have been mentioned before here in Nobel Intent and Ars Technica, as
they offer the promise of optical equivalents to electrical components
that power today's electronic devices. Many of the early
attempts at creating a photonic band gap material tried to mimic the
process of creating an electrical band-gap material by layering
materials with varying refractive indices; it was a group of chemical
engineers' seminal paper in Nature that demonstrated the inverse opaline
technique. This method was a way to create an optical
band-gap material that was able to build itself, basically add the
needed components in a beaker and let them do the work. While
not that simple, the basic idea behind the
technique is to use monodisperse (one uniform size) colloidal beads of
or silica to create a crystal template for a photonic device.
These beads would be crystallized onto a
substrate into a large scale crystal (Top Image) where the gaps would
be impregnated with a material of high refractive index.
The beads could then be burned away, and one would be left
with a complex structure of air holes of a finely controlled
size, the size of the initial beads,
surrounded by a material with a high refractive index that could be
as a photonic crystal (Bottom Image).
One challenge is controlling the structure of these materials, while a
bulk photonic crystal is fine, the desired applications will rely on
the ability to control the overall form and structure. A
channel of this type of material would be an excellent waveguide, but
the forming these materials in controlled shapes is a difficult task.
A large amount of research has gone into trying to control
shape of the material, from chemically patterning surfaces, to etching
trenches on the substrate in which they form, but often the physics is
so complex at this scale that control over the assembly becomes
extremely difficult. New research, recently published in Langmuir, has
combined a set of
previously developed techniques that has given researchers the ability
to create high quality photonic crystals that assemble themselves in
Using etched silicon substrates, with trenches dug for the colloidal
crystals to rest in, along with a technique known as directed
evaporation-induced self-assembly the researchers have been able to
form the high quality precursor colloidal crystals in the preformed
trenches in the silicon substrate. This self-assembly
technique slowly draws the silicon substrate out of a solution of
colloidal silica particles, it exploits the capillary forces present at
the solution/air interface—which are larger in the etched
selectively crystallize the silica particles in the trenches as opposed
to the surface of the silicon. Using the technique, they can
fill/overfill/underfill the trenches simply by changing how fast the
silicon substrate is drawn from the solution.
In the end the researchers found that using this method along with
smart selection of channel sizes—those that would be integer multiples
of the size of the beads—that they could form very high quality
crystals with very few cracks over fairly large areas (~1-10mm) all
without any special chemical treatment of the silicon surface.
With this ability it may become possible to use this family
of techniques; the inverse opaline process, etched substrates, and
evaporation induced self-assembly to create useful photonic devices
capable of a wide range of applications. | <urn:uuid:686bf05c-842e-4174-b9c2-612915b991b0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://arstechnica.com/science/2006/08/5088/?comments=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00002-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.920399 | 739 | 3.78125 | 4 |
Study: Ice sheets melting, sea level rising faster than previously thought
The vast ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica are melting faster than previously thought, and that melting is accelerating, according to a new report that verifies 18 years of melting via two independent techniques.
Left unchecked, the extra water dumped into the oceans could push average global sea level 6 inches higher by 2050, the report finds. That would mark the ice sheets as the largest contributors to sea level rise, outstripping melting from Earth's two other huge, frozen reservoirs, mountain glaciers and polar ice caps.
The new estimate of ice sheet melting - and the subsequent rise in sea level - outstrips more modest figures offered by the International Panel on Climate Change in 2007, the last time that international body published a comprehensive assessment of the ice sheets.
"It's going to be a concern for people in coastal areas," said Isabella Velicogna of the California Institute of Technology and NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a co-author of the report online at Geophysical Research Letters. "It looks like [the IPCC estimate] will easily be an underestimate of the sea level rise."
While six inches of additional sea height may sound small, the increase will distribute unevenly across the globe, Velicogna said, and disproportionately impact low-lying countries like Bangladesh.
"What impresses me is the fact that the independent data sets really match very well. This is a major point and major achievement," said Marco Tedesco, an ice sheet researcher at the City College of New York who was not involved in the study. "We knew that acceleration might occur over both ice sheets. The fact that they are coming out with numbers that are way bigger than the [melting of the] glaciers is very remarkable."
The study used two techniques to measure the melting of the ice sheets. The most thorough data set, from 1992 through the present, employed satellite radar readings of ice movement, soundings of ice thickness, and other ground-based observations to build a complete picture of the size of the ice sheets from month to month.
The second technique drew on unique twin satellites, together called Grace, which measure minute differences in gravity over the entire Earth. Because the density of the ice sheets differs from the density of surrounding areas, the ice sheets present a distinct gravity signature in Grace's readings.
The Grace satellites, an acronym for Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment, were launched by NASA and the German Aerospace Center in 2002.
Eric Rignot, a co-author on the report also from Cal Tech and JPL, said the independent techniques provided very similar figures for the acceleration of the melting. He added that year-to-year variability in snowfall, which can increase ice sheet mass, requires a long-term record to assess melting trends.
"We can't really pinpoint the start point for the acceleration" in melting, Rignot said. "We looked at 18 years. If we had 30 years [of data], we would have looked at that."
Combined, the two ice sheets dumped 475 gigatonnes of ice (which then melted) into the ocean each year. (A gigatonne is one billion metric tons.) Averaged over the 18 years of the study, the ice sheets lost a combined 36 gigatonnes more each year than they had the year before.
A 2006 study found that the melting of mountain glaciers and the polar ice caps was also accelerating, but at a rate about three times slower than that of the ice sheets.
With the ice sheets disappearing more rapidly than previously thought, estimating the magnitude of future sea level rise is less important than acknowledging its quickening pace, Velicogna said. "The point is, it's happening and we can't deny it. Eventually it's going to have an impact.".
| March 8, 2011; 6:12 PM ET
Categories: Add category | Tags: Antarctica, Greenland, IPCC, global warming, ice sheets, melting
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The Gunbower Forest Ramsar Site was listed in 1982.
The Ramsar site is a large, seasonally flooded River Red Gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) forest and woodland on the floodplain of the Murray River in Victoria between Echuca and Koondrook, 235 kilometres north-west of Melbourne.
The Ramsar site provides important habitat for native fish and waterbirds and supports the only breeding colony of the Intermediate Egret (Ardea intermedia) in Victoria.
Land in the Ramsar site is reserved in the Gunbower National Park and the River Murray Reserve managed by Parks Victoria and Gunbower State Forest managed by DEPI.
The North Central Catchment Management Authority is responsible for catchment and waterway management in the region.
Ramsar site documents
The Gunbower Forest Ramsar Site Ecological Character Description and Gunbower Forest Ramsar Information Sheet can be found by visiting the Australian Ramsar Wetlands page on the Australian Government Department of Environment.
Image: River Red Gum forest, Gunbower Forest (2009), Source: Goulburn Broken Catchment Management Authority | <urn:uuid:3dbe5456-b621-47fa-b455-11de0b37b90d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.depi.vic.gov.au/water/rivers-estuaries-and-wetlands/wetlands/significant-wetlands/gunbower-forest | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00129-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.867788 | 235 | 3.3125 | 3 |
Pope Adrian, or Hadrian I, (d. December 25, 795) was Pope from February 9, 772 to December 25, 795. He was the son of Theodore, a Roman nobleman. He reigned for longer than any Pope until the pontificate of Pius VI. He has been described as symbolizing the "the medieval ideal of union of church and state in a united Christendom" through his relationship with Charlemagne and did much to lay the ground for the creation, in 800 C.E., of the Holy Roman Empire. He may have been the first Pope to refer to the Donation of Constantine, which purported to be the last will and testament of Constantine I. This may have been fabricated during the reign of Stephen II but it is referred to in a letter from Adrian I to Charlemagne dated 778; This appointed the Popes to be successors to the Roman Emperor in the West which is the source of the papal claim to possess all authority on earth, temporal and religious and to be appointers of and not appointees of, princes and kings. His harmonious relationship with Charlemagne, regardless as to who really enjoyed temporal precedence, remains a rare example of religion and the state working effectively to create a stable, orderly society. He also helped to mend bridges between the Eastern and Western churches, presided over the Seventh Nicene Council (786), repaired many Roman churches, rebuilt the City walls and gave generously to the poor. He was a popular Pope, who tried to serve society as well as God. He may have been the architect of the dogma that the Pope is the supreme political as well as spiritual authority but his concern was not so much power for the sake of power as the creation of a stable, moral and Christian society. However the legacy of this doctrine dominated European history for centuries causing national and international conflicts such as the Investiture Controversy. In the end it led to the strict separation of church and state or subservience of the church to the state.
Very little is known of Adrian's early life. Born a patrician, he would have received a classical education and may have been marked from an early age for a career in the church. He was a clerk, a notary, a regional bishop and then a cardinal-deacon, serving under Popes Paul I and Stephen III. Renowned for his piety, his election as Pope was a popular choice, one which Paul Afiarta, the representative of the powerful Lombard King Desiderius who saw the Pope as his personal nominee, could not resist.
Soon after his accession, Adrian discovered that Paul Afiarta had either exiled or imprisoned a number of people accused of opposing Lombard ambition. He released them or secured their return. Meanwhile, Afiarta was in Lombardy denouncing the new Pope to Desiderius, who swore he would bring the Pope to his court at Pavia, in chains if necessary. Desiderius, who wanted to rule the whole of Italy, then set out to annex the Papal States, over which the popes ruled directly. Several cities fell to his advancing troops. Adrian immediately turned to Charlemagne, whose own father had been confirmed as King of the Franks by Pope Zachary, and who was considered an ally of the Papacy, to come to his defense. While he waited, Adrian prepared to resist the Lombard army. Charlemagne, in response, entered Italy with a large army and laid siege to Desiderius in his capital of Pavia. While his army besieged Desiderius, Charlemagne visited Rome where he celebrated Easter and was received with deep gratitude by Pope Adrian. By spring 774, Desiderius was defeated and exiled; Charlemagne had extended his own territory and claimed the title of King of the Lombards for himself. Adrian ratified this, and appointed Charlemagne a Roman patrician. Adrian regained control of the Papal States, although effectively as a Frankish protectorate. He also gained some additional territory: additions to the duchy of Rome, and to the Exarchate of Ravenna, and the Pentapolis in the Marches, which consisted of the "five cities" on the Adriatic coast from Rimini to Ancona with the coastal plain as far as the mountains.
According to one source, the outcome of the first encounter between Adrian and Charlemagne was the "Donation of Constantine," in which the Pope claimed temporal sovereignty, which makes Adrian "the founder" of the concept of the "temporal authority of the Popes." The Popes had already adopted aspects of imperial ceremony associated with the Senate and magistracy. The document claimed to be dated March 30, 315. While Adrian needed Charlemagne's aid and protection, Charlemagne's own territorial ambitions could be legitimized if he enjoyed the Pope's blessing.
Subsequently, Charlemagne returned several times to defend his Italian possessions, as well as to protect the Papal States. He met Adrian on at least two more occasions. In 781, he visited Rome with his wife and his son, Pippin. On that occasion Adrian crowned Pippin king of Italy. In 787 Charlemagne visited Adrian while he was in Italy to discipline the duke of Benevento, who was resisting Papal authority (Charlemagne had given Benevento to Adrian in 773).
Adrian has been described as one of the first Pope-Kings, and also as a king-maker. There is evidence, however, that Charlemagne, who would become the first Holy Roman Emperor in 800 C.E. under Pope Leo II, never "saw the Pope as more than a superior bishop" and regarded Adrian as a "state ecclesiastical functionary." If the Pope claimed to be the "residual legatee of the" Roman "empire in the west," as expressed in the Donation of Constantine, it seems that the Emperor regarded himself as the "head of the Church as well as head of the State.". Charlemagne, however, is said to have truly loved him. Historian Paul A. Johnson suggests that at this time, it was believed that the end of one reign and the start of the next required sacramental intervention to "break the magic of the old line" and transfer this "to the new". As head of the church, the Pope was the senior sacramentalist, so who better to confirm a King's authority? If nominally this made the Pope superior, in reality Charlemagne knew that since the Pope needed his protection, he was "therfore inferior," whatever the Church itself taught.
Adrian did much to improve relations between the Church in the West, and the Church in the East. He presided at the opening of the Seventh Nicene Council (786), transferred to Nice the following year. He promulgated teaching on the use and veneration of icons and supported the suppression of the iconoclasts. It was in connection with this controversy that Charlemagne commanded the writing of the Libri Carolini which opposed images. Adrian replied by letter, anathematizing all who refused to venerate the images of Jesus, the Virgin Mary, or the saints. Notwithstanding this, a synod was held at Frankfurt in 794 which condemned the practice, and the dispute remained unsettled at Adrian's death. However, the Council also endorsed the addition of the filioque (and the Son) clause to the creed, which later became a major issue between the Eastern and Western churches, with the former rejecting it. Adrian also opposed Adoptionism, the teaching that Jesus was born in the normal way, as a mortal man but was later adopted by God as God's son as a result of his righteousness.
In 787, Adrian elevated the diocese of Lichfield, in England, to an archdiocese at the request of the English bishops and King Offa of Mercia in order to balance the ecclesiastic power between Kent and Mercia. He gave the Lichfield bishop Higbert the pallium in 788. Under his lengthy papacy, the internal administration of papal affairs was vastly improved, the "papal states were reorganized" and the "dignity and decorum" of the papal office were restored.
Adrian repaired many Roman churches, decorated Saint Peter's Basilica, re-built the walls of the City and was renowned for his generosity to the poor. He restored some of the ancient aqueducts of Rome, and rebuilt the churches of Santa Maria in Cosmedin, decorated by Greek monks fleeing from the iconoclastal persecutions, and of San Marco in Rome.
Adrian died on Christmas day, 795 having reigned as Pope for 23 years, ten months, and 24 days, which would stand as a record for the next one thousand years. An epitaph written by Charlemagne in verse, in which he styles Adrian "father," is still to be seen at the door of the Vatican basilica.
Whether or not the Donation of Constantine was written before Adrian's pontificate, he is largely responsible for formulating what became the classic Catholic understanding of the temporal and spiritual authority of the Church. Loughlin comments that "Rarely have the priesthood and the empire worked together so harmoniously, and with such beneficent results to the Church and to humanity, as during the lifetime" of Charlemagne and Adrian I. Behind the claim to temporal power, which was obviously open to abuse, was the desire to Christianize the whole of society. In the West, following the collapse of the Roman Empire, it was the Church that maintained order and law as well as becoming the main bearer of culture. Johnson writes:
In the West, the Church had imposed Christian characteristics on the law, it had achieved a dominant role in the agrarian economy, and it has established a monopoly of education and culture. Now it had the chance to integrate the basic system of government with Christian teaching and practice by making the ruler a functionary of Christian theology.
Adrian I was a genuinely popular pope. Politically prudent, he ensured the survival of the papacy through his alliance with Charlemagne at a time when it was still vulnerable to manipulation and abuse. His aim does not appear to have been power for the sake of power, even if that was merely nominal, but the creation of a stable and moral Christian society.
All links retrieved February 12, 2016.
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A new kind of lens reaches an unprecedentedly sharp focus by giving up on being perfect. The lens is the first ever to help take visual light images of structures smaller than 100 nanometers (four one-millionths of inch), which could make it useful for nanotechnology and probing the insides of cells.
Ordinary lenses, like those used in magnifying glasses, have curved surfaces that bend light to a single point. A small object sitting at that point appears larger and sharply focused, helping myopic readers discern fine print and old-school detectives search for fingerprints. But conventional lenses need to be almost perfect to work. Scratches and roughness destroy the clear image.
“Every deviation from the perfect surface results in a deteriorated focus,” said Elbert van Putten, a graduate student at the University of Twente in the Netherlands. “And in practice you’ll always see surface defects.”
The smallest object on which physicists have managed to focus a single conventional lens is 200 nanometers across, just larger than the smallest known bacteria (although more complicated microscopy systems have reached down to 50 nanometers). But a lot of structures that physicists and chemists are interested in, like subcellular structures, nanoelectric circuits and photonic structures, are less than half that size.
To push the focal limit beneath 100 nanometers, van Putten and colleagues abandoned the idea of a perfect lens.
“We took a completely different approach: We deliberately made the surface porous so that it strongly scatters light,” van Putten said. The results were published May 13 in Physical Review Letters.
The researchers started with a 400-nanometer thick wafer of gallium phosphide, a material that strongly slows light that travels through it. Then they etched a random pattern of scratches and holes into the wafer’s surface using sulfuric acid.
When light hits the holey wafer, it scatters off in all directions — exactly the opposite of what you normally want from a lens. But where ordinary lenses focus light after it passes through the glass, the scattering lens manipulates the light before it ever hits the rough surface.
The researchers analyzed the patterns made by the scattered light, and computed the pattern the incoming light waves would need to have in order for the lens to converge them to one spot. They then programmed a laser to send this adjusted light through the lens.
“Even though light is scattered into all directions, you can steer it into one spot again,” van Putten said.
To test their scattering lens, van Putten and colleagues took photographs of gold nanoparticles 97 nanometers across. The resulting image (above, right) was much sharper than the blurry print taken with a conventional lens (left).
“The focus is always at the theoretical limit, as sharp as it could be,” van Putten said. “We’re not hindered anymore by surface errors.”
Image courtesy Elbert van Putten.
Citation: Scattering Lens Resolves Sub-100 nm Structures with Visible Light. E.G. van Putten, D. Akbulut, J. Bertolotti, W.L. Vos, A. Lagendijk, and A.P. Mosk. Physical Review Letters, vol. 106, May 13, 2011. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.106.193905.
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- How To Destroy the World with Nanotechnology | <urn:uuid:47a9c6c9-9722-426e-b246-ee0404e086cf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wired.com/2011/05/nanolens/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00091-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.917957 | 793 | 3.96875 | 4 |
There has been a lot of talk about inequality lately. If we are going to discuss this subject, we need to define our terms. Equality of result is an extremely controversial subject and is not relevant to the discussion of this post. Equality of opportunity is.
What do we mean by “equality of opportunity?” We mean a fair playing field where people have equal opportunities to do what they want with their lives without interference.
I think a great example is our wonderful 14th amendment to the Constitution, which calls on all states to provide citizens with “equal protection” of the law. This same amendment points out that it is the purpose of government to protect the natural rights of “life, liberty and property.” It is easy to see what this amendment is calling for: people should be able to live in harmony with each other, competing as they may wish in terms of business enterprises, but left alone to pursue their own goals as long as they do not harm others and try to take away their life, liberty and property.
The story of how the 14th amendment was subverted by mostly southern judges in the closing decades of the 19th century is one of judicial activism. The result were the Jim Crow laws, segregation and many other evils of the pre-civil rights era. But note, like most interference with equality of opportunity, it was government that ushered in the evil and protected certain groups at the expense of others. In fact, it is government that is the biggest obstacle to creating a truly free society where people have equal chances to pursue their chosen paths.
Let us begin by illustrating the beauty of the free market system when it is allowed to work.
I own several Ipads. They cost about $500 each. They are a wonderful, liberating technology. I travel a lot, and I never used a webcam to communicate with my family on the road. Just too complicated to take out the laptop and get the software going. With the Ipad, I just click on the “Facetime” app, click on my wife’s information, and connect. There is one camera facing me so the kids can see me and another on the back so they can see the things I am looking at. Sometimes I just wander around the airport with my Ipad showing the kids the airplanes. They are spellbound. There is no doubt that this technology is improving my life.
You can use an Ipad to surf the web, read a book, play your Itunes music and many, many other things. But $500 is pricey for the entry-level Ipad, and there are several others that can cost up to $900 with accessories. That is a lot to pay.
So, Amazon came along with the Kindle Fire ($200). And now Barnes and Noble has the Nook Color ($250). These less expensive devices do many of the same thing as the Ipad, but they cost less than half as much. The free market, tuned as it is to the choices of consumers, will adjust and bring better products at lower prices.
Imagine another world, where the government stepped in and prevented competition and said no Kindles or Nooks could compete against the Ipad because Apple workers might lose their jobs. This is what government often does: it decreases equality of opportunity by interfering with the marketplace. Who loses an opportunity? All of the entrepreneurs who want to create a new product to compete against the Ipad. When the government does not intervene, these people have the freedom to be successful. When the government tries to “control” the economy (and protect certain jobs instead of others), equality of opportunity is lost.
Let’s say you are not the entrepreneurial type yourself. Why should you care? Because all companies have areas that have benefited from the free market. And the money produced by the market pays so students can go to school and so government workers can have jobs. If you work for a bank, somebody at some point took a chance to use his or her own money to start that bank. Same with Starbucks, same with Novell, same with any company out there. Whether you recognize it or not, your employment is a product of the entrepreneurial environment. When it is allowed to thrive, there are more opportunities for everybody.
A lot of you are saying that the government doesn’t intervene that much. Oh, that that were true. The government intervenes in so many ways that it is easier to think of businesses with intervention than businesses that are free. Let me give some examples.
Bailouts. I worked for a company, Worldcom, that went through bankruptcy. Worldcom’s executives made a lot of very poor decisions, and the company began losing money. The stock plummeted. What happened during bankruptcy? A judge appointed a team of executives with the power to reorganize the business. Money-losing units were closed — those that made money were given new capital so they could expand. The majority of Worldcom employees (like me) kept their jobs. Verizon ended up buying the company and keeping its most profitable assets and many of its employees. Should Worldcom have been bailed out? Well, you could make the argument it should have been. It was a huge telecom company employing tens of thousands of people. Wasn’t it “too big to fail?”
A government bailout of Worldcom would have been a disaster. It would have maintained the bad executives who made the bad decisions while wasting taxpayer money on a company with no real future. In short, a bailout of Worldcom would have decreased equality of opportunity by lessening the ability of entrepreneurs to create a profitable enterprise out of the assets of one that was not profitable (or well-run). Verizon has taken these assets and created an excellent product with one of the best telecom networks in the world. A bailout would have simply maintained the status quo of failure.
All bailouts interfere with equality of opportunity. When the government decided to bail out GM, it prevented competing entrepreneurs from creating a better company out of the best GM products. The same with Chrysler, AIG and the many other banks who were bailed out during the TARP process. All of these companies should have been allowed to go into bankruptcy. Their profitable assets would have been bought by other, better-run companies — their money-losing divisions would have been allowed to fail.
Bailouts interfere with equality of opportunity in another way: they take money from productive people (through taxes) and give it to well-connected, unproductive people (those who are being bailed out). This is the exact opposite of the intent of the 14th amendment, where individual property is meant to be protected by law.
Licensing requirements. Some readers may be familiar with the difficult-to-believe case of the Utah woman who is being told she cannot braid hair without undergoing 2,000 hours of cosmetology training, none of which has anything to do with hair braiding. The woman is an African immigrant — she has a willing client base that is willing to pay her to braid their hair. Yet the government stepped in and told her she could not pursue her vocation without 2,000 hours of training — that has nothing to do with her discipline!!
This is an outlier, you say. Oh, really? Every year the government finds new vocations that must be regulated. Alternative medicine is prevented, even when willing customers say they want to try something new. Among the other professions where you must receive a license to practice: cat groomers, tattoo artists, tree-trimmers, and dozens of other very simple occupations.
Such licensing requirements are simply a way for existing businesses to prevent competition. They interfere with your equality of opportunity: you cannot work in such fields without a costly and lengthy licensing process. This prevents willing buyers from purchasing from willing sellers.
Some of you are saying: doesn’t this help prevent fraud? Licensing prevents bad actors in the economy. No, it is the market that prevents bad actors. The government cannot be everywhere at all times, nor do we want to live in a world where it is. Companies that do a bad job providing services, and defraud customers, should be sued and should go out of business. Companies that provide good services, regardless of whether some bureaucrat has decided to give them a license, should thrive.
Subsidies. If you subsidize something, prices will go up. This is Econ 101. More money pursuing the same good causes inflation in the cost of the good. So, when the government decides to subsidize ethanol production, do costs go up or not? Well, in fact we have seen a massive increase in farm prices in the heartland. We have already seen Rameumpton discuss how subsidies are causing the price of university education to skyrocket.
Subsidies always have a price. Government takes money from some people (taxpayers) to give it to other people (the people being subsidized). The government picks winners and losers based on political connections. The is the very definition of interfering with equality of opportunity: those without connections face the double hazard of 1)not being able to succeed without the subsidies and 2)having their money taken away by government and given to others.
In a society that truly offered equality of opportunity, such subsidies would be illegal. Each company or person or farmer would have to survive based on their ability, not their political connections.
We are fortunate in that all but the most egregious totalitarians believe in equality of opportunity. People see this as an issue of basic fairness: people should have the opportunity to do as well as anybody else and not be hindered by bad actors in the economy. Unfortunately, many people don’t realize that the primary source of unfairness is the government itself. The proper role of government is to create a level playing field and to allow people to pursue their own paths without interference. As I have shown above, the government increasingly sees its role as picking winners and losers based on connections. This is the opposite of equality of opportunity. | <urn:uuid:caaeb168-7247-4d84-b99c-b671ef9a042c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.millennialstar.org/who-or-what-is-interfering-with-equality-of-opportunity/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00195-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974796 | 2,062 | 2.640625 | 3 |
The expression “linear search in sorted lists” itself sounds strange. Why should we use this algorithm for sorted lists when there are lots of other algorithms that are far more effective? As I mentioned in
my previous post the sequential search is very ineffective in most of the cases and it is primary used for unordered lists. Indeed sometimes it is more useful first to sort the data and then use a faster algorithm like the binary search. On the other hand the analysis shows that for lists with less than ten items the linear search is much faster than the binary search. Although, for instance, binary search is more effective on sorted lists, sequential search can be a better solution in some specific cases with minor changes. The problem is that when developers hear the expression “sorted list” they directly choose an algorithm different from the linear search. Perhaps the problem lays in the way we understand what an ordered list is?
What is a sorted list?
We used to think that this list (1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13) is sorted. Actually we think so because it is … sorted, but the list (3, 13, 1, 3, 3.14, 1.5, -1) is also sorted, except that we don’t know how. Thus we can think that any array is sorted, although it is not always obvious how. There are basically two cases when sequential search can be very useful. First when the list is very short or when we know in advance that there are some values that are very frequently searched. Let’s say we have a very large list, with hundreds of thousands of items, but actually most of the searches in that list always find the same ten values. This additional information tells us that using a binary search will be quite ineffective in this case. A possible approach, of course, is to place those values at the front of the list and to perform a sequential search.
Self-organization practically means that every time we search and find the desired value, we somehow change the list so the next search will be far more effective. There are basically two approaches to do that.
- To move the item one position forward to the front of the list;
- To move the item directly at the front of the list;
Of course it depends on your case which approach you’ll choose, but it is assumed that the second option, the one that we choose to move the item directly at the front of the list, is better. Indeed if we choose the first option and the list is (…, 24, 31) after constantly searching for those two values the array will be changing from (…, 24, 31) to (…, 31, 24) and once again to (…, 24, 31) and so on and so on. Thus a better solution is to move the desired item directly to the front of the list. Now if we look for the value of “5” in the list
(1, 2, 4, …, 5, …, 398) it will become (5, 1, 2, …, 398) after the value is found. By choosing this approach we can be sure that as the number of searches increases, the most frequently searched values are placed at the front of the list. Now the sequential search is quite a good solution! Here’s an example of sequential search from my previous article. The only change is that after we find the desired value we need to move it to the front of the list.
Using sequential search in sorted lists can be very useful and fast, the only thing is that we need to know in advance that there are some values that are frequently searched. A typical example of this case is the contact list on your phone. Perhaps you have lots of names in there, but most of the times you search in it is to find your best friends’ and family phone numbers. That is why most of the cell phone manufacturers add to their phones the ability to predefine shortcut keys for the most frequently dialed numbers. Here’s another use case. Let’s say that we have the same scenario as in my previous
post, where username/name pairs are stored into a CSV file. We can fetch those values in a PHP array.
Every time a user enters the site we search for his name by his username and a welcome message is displayed. We know that some users enter the site very frequently while others do that once per month so we cannot only perform a sequential search but also we can use self-organization for the array and change the CSV file at the end.
The result is:
Hello, Darth Vader Found after 5 iterations! Hello, Darth Vader Found after 1 iterations!
Now every time Darth Vader tries to sign in, you won’t bother him to wait a lot for sure. However I bet nobody uses CSV files to store such information, but this is only an example. | <urn:uuid:d7a9d054-515d-477c-8218-599b4855aee0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.stoimen.com/blog/2011/12/02/computer-algorithms-linear-search-in-sorted-lists/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00088-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934432 | 1,020 | 3.1875 | 3 |
The entries in this section are mostly general works which place Mt. Shasta in an historical context. Mt. Shasta was the main sentinel on the California-Oregon trail during the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850s. It stood squarely in the middle of a remote territory fiercely defended by Native Americans. It was a landmark that commanded attention. In a physical sense it drew attention because of height, size, and beauty. In a symbolic sense it represented a route of uncertain and difficult passage. As early as 1840 British and American historians such as John Dunn and Robert Greenhow were busy writing books and articles which included mention of the mountain. These early histories were important tools used to support claims of ownership of the Oregon Territory. By the late 19th Century historians such as Hubert Howe Bancroft and Harvey Scott wrote books and articles in order to piece together a clearer view of the disparate facts of the multinational settlement of the West. In the early 20th Century historians such as Reuben Gold Thwaites began to publish and annotate the journals and writings of important and interesting early figures from the Fur Trade and California settlement era. By the middle to late 20th Century, historians such as Edwin Gudde and Carl Wheat on occasion mentioned Mt. Shasta in their extensive writings about California place names and cartography.
The [MS number] indicates the Mount Shasta Special Collection accession numbers
used by the College of the Siskiyous Library.
[MS1168].††††††††† Bancroft, Hubert Howe 1832-1918.†
The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft.† San Francisco, Calif.: The History
Company, 1886-1890. 39 volumes. Some 1886 sets published by A. L. Bancroft Company.
Numerous editions exist of the various volumes and subsets.†††† H. H. Bancroft
states "In 1869, having accumulated some sixteen thousand books, manuscripts,
and pamphlets, besides maps and cumbersome files of Pacific Coast journals,
I determined to go to work" (Vol. 1, p. viii). Many of his materials, for
example a manuscript History of British Columbia by A. C. Anderson, were written
specifically for him, often by 'old timers' at his request.† Bancroft's interests
focused on the western slope of the North American continent, including Alaska
and Mexico. His research findings filled 39 volumes, though note that he was
aided by many of assistants.
††††† Note that Bancroft, in addition to "Mount Shasta," uses the plural term "Shasta Mountains" (Vol. 1, p. 327) as a general name, in a manner similar to the use of the name by the Hudson's Bay Company and by members of the Wilkes-Emmons overland expedition of 1841 (see Simpson "Letter to McLoughlin" 1842; Dana manuscript journal 1841; Eld manuscript journal... 1841; Wilkes Narratives... 1844).
††††† The following volumes are noted citing general topics considered relevant to Mount Shasta. This is not an exhaustive or analytical list; it merely indicates the scope of Bancroft's material.:
††††† Vol. 1. Native Races, vol. i, Wild Tribes. The Northern Californians, p. 326-361 (contains information about the three blue lines on the chin of several tribes. Quotes often from the anonymous Shastas and Their Neighbors manuscript). Tribal Boundaries, Northern Calif., pp. 442-447.
††††† Vol. 3. Native Races, vol. iii, p. 565.
††††† Vol. 19. History of California, vol. ii, 1801-1824. Arguello expedition of 1821, pp. 445-449.
††††† Vol. 20. History of California, vol. iii, 1825-1840. Jedediah Smith, pp. 153-160. Alexander McLeod, pp. 160-162. Hall J. Kelley, pp. 409-411.
††††† Vol. 21. History of California, vol. iv, 1840-1845. Young and Edwards Cattle Drive, pp. 85-87. Wilkes Expedition, pp. 240-248. Duflot de Mofras, pp. 248-250?
††††† Vol. 23. History of California, vol. vi, 1848-1859. Yreka, pp. 494-495.
††††† Vol. 28. History of the Northwest Coast, vol. ii, 1800-1846. Wilkes' Expedition, including reference of an 1879 letter from G. F. Emmons to H. H. Bancroft, p. 681.
††††† Vol. 29. History of Oregon, vol. i. Baily, Gay, and Turner, p. 96. Map, after Parker's 1838 map, showing Mt. Shasty near 43° latitude, p. 120. Edwards 1837 Diary pp. 139-153. Note that Bancroft thinks the 1837 'Chasta valley and river' of Edwards is present Rogue River valley and river, p. 147.††††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS1168].
[MS2106].††††††††† Beadle, John Hanson 1840-1897.† The Undeveloped West.† Philadelphia: National Publishing Company, 1873. pp. 741-759.†† This material was later slightly rewritten and published in Beadles's Western Wilds, and the Men Who Redeem them, an Authentic Narrative..., Cincinnati: Jones Brothers, 1879.†††† Beadle was an Indiana newpaper man who traveled extensively in the west. His observations are detailed. His inquiries of local residents around Shasta City contributes original background material to the life Joaquin Miller, albeit that Beadle was quite unsymaphethic to the plight of the Indians and even less generous to those whites, like MIller, who lived with the squaws;† Joaquin MIller (p.750-753). He also discusses† Samuel Lockhart who became a monomaniac in regards to killing Pitt River Indians, and was arrested often by Federal Authorities for his actions only to be released to resume his activities 'hunting for Shastas'. States that Lockhart was shot in Idaho while acting as a guard at a mine, and died from complications to a wound of the arm. Interesting picture of Venus and Adonis-Digger Indians (p.752) . Illustration of the interior of a stage coach.(p. 755) Describes Mount Shasta as a "view of indescribable beauty. The lower portion looked like polished marble, shading off by degrees to a bright green; while the summit, covered all the year with snow and ice, appeared a monument of dazzling whiteness." (p. 755). Humorous account of the advantages of plump people versus lean people when riding the stage over mountainous land.† Mentions someone who was possibly Thomas MacKay: "As one of the old settlers informed me, most of the early comers learned French and Indian by the aid of a 'sleeping dictionary,' the pronouniation is not strictly academic. When miners first came they learned that a Scotchman named McKie had been living among the Klamaths for forty years, and was very popular with them; hence their first salutaion was 'Mak a Makkee?'- 'Are you a McKee?' or a good white man-a question which facts soon answered in the negative." (p.?)†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS2106].
[MS1198].††††††††† Browne, John Ross 1821-1875.† Indian War in Oregon and Washington Territories: Letter from Secretary of Interior, transmitting, in Compliance with the Resolution of the House of the 15th Instant, the report of J. Ross Browne, on the Subject of the Indian war in Oregon and Washington Territories. In: House Document 38, 35th Congress, 1st. Session.† [Washington, D.C.]: Jan. 25, 1858. The Shastas and Rogues are discussed, but geographical distributions of these two tribes over the southern Oregon Territory are not given (p. 37). Several tribes which were at war with the Rogues and the Shasta are mentioned.† J. Ross Browne visited the region as a special investigator, and presents, in what he tried to make as unbiased as possible, an official report on the causes of the Indian wars with special emphasis on the Rogue River wars.†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS1198].
[MS1074].††††††††† Byrd, Cecil K.† The West
Bound Pioneer: Overland Emigration to Oregon.† Bloomington, Ind.: The Lilly
Library, Indiana University, 1988. Contains detailed annotated entries for many
of the books relevant to the naming Mount Shasta and to the emigration on the
Oregon-California Trail. Contains unique information about the books, journals
and maps of authors such as Hall J. Kelley, Daniel Lee and Joseph Frost, Philip
Leget Edwards, Thomas Jefferson Farnham, Sir George Simpson, Lansford Warren
Hastings, Miss A. J. Allen, Overton Johnson and William Henry Winter, Joel Palmer,
Charles Preuss, Paul Kane, Charles Wilkes, and Lindsey Applegate. Illustrated
with photofascimiles of original cover pages.
†††††† One entry describes a manuscript letter by Jesse Applegate and quotes Applegate's comments on the "Rogue's River Clamath and Soth Vallies" (p. 45).†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS1074].
[MS453].††††††††† Case, Chester H. Jr. The Development of Roads Between Oregon and California. University of California, 1955 (Thesis). Source: Peterson.†††† 40. Find List/10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS453].
[MS942].††††††††† Cline, Gloria Griffen.† Exploring the Great Basin.† Reno, Nev.: University of Nevada Press, 1988. Reprint; new forward by Michael J. Brodhead. First published in 1963 by the University of Oklahoma Press.†††† A thorough history of Spanish, English, and American explorers of the Great Basin with the emphasis on the 1820s and 1830s. Contains one detailed chapter on early maps of the 1830s which showed the cartographic influence of Jedediah Smith. The Gallatin map of 1836 is discussed in detail (see Gallatin 1836).†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS942].
[MS687].††††††††† Craig, Joan.† 300 Years of Records. In: Williams, Glyndwr.† Highlights of the first 200 Years of the Hudson's Bay Company.† 1976. pp. 66-70.†† 1976 Reprint of The Beaver. Autumn 1970, Outfit 301.†††† This is a guide to the historical policies of record keeping of the Hudson's Bay Company. The article includes a discussion of the modern HBC safeguarding practices used to insure that this vast legacy remains intact.†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS687].
[MS44].††††††††† Dillon, Richard.† Siskiyou
Trail: The Hudson's Bay Company Route to California.† New York: McGraw-Hill
Book Company, 1975. One of the most thorough studies of the early exploration
of the Mount Shasta region. Extensive chapters on the history of the fur trade
routes through the Siskiyous. Chapters are devoted to the expeditions of Peter
Skene Ogden, Alexander McLeod, Ewing Young, Charles Wilkes, John Work, Jedediah
Smith, and others. A very readable book. Contains an extensive selected bibliography.
The book is somewhat dated by more recent work on the history of the Siskiyou
Trail and of Mount Shasta (see LaLande 1987).
††††† The selected bibliography documents that the author has consulted the journals and diaries of the Wilkes-Emmons overland expedition members. The author stresses the importance of the Wilkes-Emmons overland expedition of 1841: "... the completion of the investigation of Emmons and Eld on October 28, 1841, really put the Siskiyou Trail 'on the map'"(p. 350).
††††† The book contains many photographs, including a rare photo of the legendary Michel Laframboise, who is credited with establishing the upper Sacramento fur trade route west of Mount Shasta (p. xxvii).†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS44].
[MS147].††††††††† Dillon, Richard.† Siskiyou Pass.† San Francisco, Calif.: The Book Club of San Francisco, 1979. Pamphlet. Loose bound in publisher's box, along with other pamphlets in the series. Title of the box, 'California Trails and Mountain Passes', differs slightly from the series title.†††† Four page pamphlet on the history of the Siskiyou Pass. Mount Shasta is mentioned several times. Footnotes and sources of information are not given. Note that the "Shasta Mountains" is defined as the "easternmost crags of the Trinity Range" (p. 4). The author is probably referring to the "Sasty Mountains," as the term was used by the Wilkes-Emmons expedition of 1841 (see Wilkes. Letter ...Sept. 1, 1841. In Wilkes. Narratives...1845, Vol. 5. p. 518). An untitled and unattributed illustration of Mount Shasta appears on p. 2. This illustration is almost certainly the work of artist Edward Kern and it first appears in Fremont's 1887 Memoirs. A reference to Alexander McLeod's "Pass of the Siskiyous, 1830" (p. 3) is mentioned but the source of the reference is undocumented.††††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS147].
[MS1152].††††††††† Dunn, John.† The Oregon Territory,
and the British North American Fur Trade, with an Account of the Habits and
Customs of the Principal Native Tribes on the Northern Continent.† Philadelphia,
Pa.: G. B. Zieber and Co., 1845. 'By John Dunn. Late of the Hudson's Bay Company:
Eight Years a Resident in the Country.' First published as The History of the
Oregon Territory , London,1845.†††† Historian John Dunn, a former employee of
the Hudson's Bay Company, wrote this book to support the English claims to the
Oregon Territory. He particularly addresses issues raised by the American Thomas
Farnham, and although Dunn disagrees with Farnham in general he does follow
Farnham's adoption of Hall J. Kelley's "President's Range" names for
the present Cascades mountains, including the adoption of the name "Mount
Jackson" for present Mt. Shasta.† These names were, says Dunn: "...entirely
new to the Britishers" (p. 141). He states that: "Mount Jackson is
the most southern peak of the range, lying in latitude forty-one, beyond the
southern boundary of Oregon" (p. 42).
††††† Note that, as was often the case in writings of the 1830s and 1840s, the present Rogue River was thought to be connected to the present Klamath river; thus one finds statements such as: "The principal rivers are the Wallamette, the Umpqua, and Klamet; which, with the productiveness of the soil, have been already noticed" (p. 143).†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS1152].
[MS2121].††††††††† Eagle, Gene. Across the Divide [the McCloud place-name]. In: Weed Press. April, 17, 1996. Sec. B. p. 2. Concerns the history of the town of McCloud, and in part suggests a possible source of the spelling changes from 'McLeod' to 'McCloud' ' Author states: "One of the prerequistes of being county surveyor was that McCloud was also a 'cartographic emperor,' meaning he had free reign over the assignment and spelling of place names on county maps. Doubtless Ross McCloud made certain that Alexander McLeod's achievements were recognized by name on his county maps, but it is equally certain that he ensured that the river which had been named for the Hudson's Bay trapper was spelled the 'right way' i.e. the same way this later McCloud spelled his own name."†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† MS2121].
[MS1192].††††††††† Giles, Rosena.† Shasta County,
California: A History.† Oakland, Calif.: Biobooks, 1949. With map and illustrations.
Foreword by Jos. A. Sullivan.†††† Contains a few Mt. Shasta legends and facts.
Note that the author states: "1800, first recorded trapper contact with
the Shasta Indians," but gives no reference to the source for 1800 date
††††† Contains an unusual legend: "To the Indians it was the home of the Great Spirit, who builded it. To this date (1915) it is capped by eternal snow summer and winter. The pennant of snow sometimes blowing from it is called 'The Snow Banner.' A cloud obscuring the tip is the sign of rain. Old timers say: 'Mt. Shasta has her nightcap on.'" (pp. 244-245)
††††† The author also states: "It is the mountain sighted by Frey Francisco Duran on the Spanish trek toward the north in 1814. They called it the 'Jesus Maria' from the river which they supposed came from the mountain. Gage Hill at lower Springs was the point where artists came to paint Mt. Shasta. (Mrs. Gage)" (pp. 244-245).†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS1192].
[MS847].††††††††† Greenhow, Robert 1800-1854.† Memoir, Historical and Political on the Northwest Coast of North America.† Washington, D.C.: Blair and Rives, 1840. Contains an authoritative map showing Mount Shasta as "Mount Jackson." This book was revised and much expanded in an 1844 edition (see Greenhow 1845). Greenhow wrote this history at the request of those who wished for American ownership of the region. Greenhow adopted Hall J. Kelley's Presidents' Range names for the Cascade Range, though he retained the British name of "Mt. Shasty" for present Mt. McLoughlin, while naming as "Mt. Jackson" present Mt. Shasta.†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS847].
[MS1050].††††††††† Gudde, Erwin G.† California
Place Names.† Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1974. Third
edition, 1969 revised and enlarged, second printing.†††† Contains a long entry
for the name "Shasta." The author accepts without criticism that Alexander
Henry's 1814 term "Shatasla" was a name for the same tribe today called
the "Shasta," and accepts, citing Merriam's arguments, that there
is some controversy as to which mountain, McLoughlin or Shasta, Peter Skene
Ogden was naming in 1827. But Gudde felt that: "It is, however, fairly
certain that it was Mount Shasta and equally certain that it was not the Shasta
River. Merriam (Journal, Wash. D. C. Academy of Science, XIV, 522 ff.) believes
that Ogden referred to Mount McLoughlin and Rogue River in Oregon, and the maps
of the 1830s support this belief. Albert's map of 1838, a U.S. government publication,
shows Shasty River (and a tributary, Nasty River!) flowing into Klamath River
from the north, as well as Mount Shasty, all in Oregon." Gudde cites the
Eld sketch maps of 1841, and the de Mofras map of 1844 as proof of the California
location of Mt. Shasty. Note that Gudde was probably not aware that the Eld
maps were the very first maps to transfer the name to a new location, and that
Emmons, leader of the Wilkes-Emmons overland expedition expressed that they
were looking at Mt. Shasty or Mt. Pitt, upon first crossing the Oregon-Calif.
Border (see Eld journal 1841; Emmons journal 1841).
††††† The author explains that Madison Walthall, an assemblyman from the Sacramento district, proposed the name "Shasta County," and that on Feb. 18, 1850, the name became official.(see Walthall 1850). Note that the spelling of "Shasta" with an "-a" ending does not appear in published works until after the California Legislature used the spelling in 1850. Gudde only hints at this by stating that "The spelling Shasta is used on Scholfield's map of 1851." Scholfield's map was possibly the first map to ever use the modern spelling.†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS1050].
[MS1139].††††††††† Hafen, LeRoy R. 1893.† The
Mountain Men and the Fur Trade of the Far West: Biographical Sketches of the
Participants by Scholars of the Subject and with Introductions by the Editor.
Under the Editorial Supervision of LeRoy R. Hafen.† Glendale, Calif.: A.
H. Clark Co., 1965-1972. 10 volumes.†††† Various authors, each detailed biography
written by a noted historian. Note that the entire series contains hundreds
of footnotes which could yield further clues to the history of the Mt. Shasta
region. Among the biographies are:
††††† Vol. 1: "Thomas McKay" (pp. 269?-277); "Alexander Roderick McLeod" (pp. 288?-297).
††††† Vol. 2:† "John Work" (pp.?); "Ewing Young" (pp. 370-397?)
††††† Vol. 3:† 'Peter Skene Ogden' (pp.?)
††††† Vol. 5:† "Michel Laframboise" (pp. 145-170).
††††† Vol. 10: contains a Bibliography and Index.†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS1139].
[MS1071].††††††††† Helfrich, David. Stagecoach to Linkville. In : Klamath Echoes. 1973. No. 11. David Helfrich, managing editor. The entire issue is devoted to this article.†††† An extensive history, consisting of quotations compiled from early newspaper articles and other sources, with modern commentary. Covers the Klamath Falls and Medford regional stagecoach routes, many of which passed by Mt. Shasta during the 19th century.† For Mt. Shasta the map on page 9 is especially useful. Contains many photographs. The "Lockhart road," of the mid 1850s went north : "...to present Fall River Mills where Pit River was crossed at the Lockhart Ferry. Following up the western side of Fall River Valley past the site later to become Fort Crook, the road turned westerly to head almost directly toward Mt. Shasta. After reaching a location midway between present Bartle and McCloud, or about nine miles from each, the road seems to have developed early into two branches, but exactly when is unknown at present. The right hand or older route followed the 1854 emigrant trail through Military Pass, east of Mt. Shasta and on to Yreka past Sheep Rock. The left hand route passed through present McCloud and on to the vicinity of present Mount Shasta" (p. 8). 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS1071].
[MS1196].††††††††† Humfreville, James Lee.† †Twenty
Years Among our Hostile Indians: Describing the Characteristics, Customs, Habits,
Religion, Marriages, Dances and Battles of the Wild Indians in Their Natural
State together with the Fur Companies, Overland Stage, Pony Express, Electric
Telegraph, and Other Phases of Life in the Pathless Regions of the Wild West.†
New York: Hunter and Company, 1903. 'by J. Lee Humfreville, Late Captain United
States Cavalry. 2nd. ed., rev., enl. and improved with many new and rare illustrations
selected by the author.' First published in 1897 by Hartford Pub. Co., Hartford
Conn.†††† An elaborate attempt to discuss most of the Indian tribes of the American
West. Mentions Mount Shasta as the northern boundary of the Wintun (p. 294).
Defines the Shasta tribe as one of the Klamath group (p. 307). Places into the
"Shahaptin" language the "Shastas," "Scotans,"
"Rogues or Rascals" "Modocs" and other southern Oregon and
northern California tribes (p. 317).
††††† The author discusses from personal experience the characteristics of many of the tribes of the West, though it does not appear that the author met with the Shastas or their neighbors. Due to the author's cultural bias and lack of tact the book contains many deprecating remarks, such as "...quite intelligent for Indians."
††††† The 1903 revised edition as a whole contains one of the most interesting and beautiful collections of American Indian photographs ever published. The hundreds of photographs were selected not by the author, but by the publishers.†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS1196].
[MS443].††††††††† Jennings, Charles W.† State Geologic Maps of California—A Brief History. In: Bailey, Edgar H. 1914.† Geology of Northern California.† San Francisco, Calif.: California Division of Mines and Geology, 1966. pp. 5-16†††† Jenning's historical report covers 125 years of geologic map-making in California. Much of the study relates in some way to the study of far-northern California. The Railroad Survey maps, the Whitney Survey maps, the Gold Rush maps etc., are all discussed. The real strength of the article is its comprehensiveness and particularly its attention to maps which are not found in the usual historical surveys of California maps. Several of the maps reproduced depict Mt. Shasta.†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS443].
[MS1064].††††††††† Kyle, Douglas E., Hoover, Mildred
Brooke and others.† Historic Spots in California.† Stanford, Calif.:
Stanford University Press, 1990. Fourth edition. An extensive 1990 revison of
the 1968 book by William N. Abeloe which was itself a revision of the original
three volumes first published in the 1930s by M. B. Hoover, H. E. Rench, and
E. G. Rench.†††† Contains an extensive section on Siskiyou County with an emphasis
on Mount Shasta (pp. 452-463). An informative and comprehensive account of the
historic Mt. Shasta region. However, numerous legends about the naming of Mt.
Shasta and the Siskiyous are accepted without much discussion, including several
highly debatable statements such as one about Mt. Shasta: "The first recorded
mention of it, as 'Shatasla,' was in 1814, in the journal of Alexander Henry,
an early mountain man" (p. 453). Note that no mention of a mountain was
made by Henry, "Shatasla" was a tribal name for one Indian (see Maloney
"Shasta was Shatasla..." 1945).
††††† The author accepts without discussion that Peter Skene Ogden in 1827 named present-day Mt. Shasta as "Mt. Sastise." Note that there is the strong possibility that Ogden named present Mt. McLoughlin as "Sastise"and not present Mt. Shasta (see LaLande 1987). Author states, quoting Gudde, that 1828 was the date when Alexander McLeod passed through the mountains and lost "a bob-tailed" or Siskiyou horse. The incorrect date of 1828 originates in the 1863 Chinook Jargon Dictionary by George Gibbs (see Gibbs 1863), the date should have been the winter of 1829-1830 (see McLeod "report..." Feb. 15, 1830).† Overall the book is an excellent historical work.†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS1064].
[MS114].††††††††† Lewis, Oscar 1893.† The Quest for Qual-a-wa-loo (Humbolt Bay).† San Francisco, Calif.: 1943. Oscar Lewis, a renowned American historian, wrote the foreword and presumably wrote the entire book; there is no author attribution on the title page. Another edition of this book, published by the Holmes Book Co, Oakland, 1966, states: 'George D. Murray, editor.'††††† Primarily about Humbolt Bay, this book nonetheless serves as one of the best histories of the early exploration of the Siskiyou Trail. The book includes individual chapters entitled: 'Peter Skene Ogden' (pp. 21-24); 'Jedediah Strong Smith' (pp. 25-74); 'Ewing Young' (pp. 75-88); and 'The Conquest of Northern California by the Americans' (pp. 89-102).† The journals of J. Smith, P.S. Ogden, H. Rogers, E. Young, H.J. Kelley, A.McLeod, T. McKay, P.B. Reading, J. Clyman, L. Hastings, and others, were used in preparing the text. Particular attention is given to clarifying the chronological sequence of the explorations. In all, this unusual and little-known book has a better grasp of the available journals and how they fit together than any other book of its kind. But be cautioned that there are obvious errors in this book, notably 'John' McCleod instead of Alexander McCleod (p. 83) and 'Leroy' Hastings instead of Lansford Hastings (p. 94). Also, the book has no index, no footnotes, and no bibliography.†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS114].
[MS584].††††††††† McArthur, Lewis Ankeny 1883-1951.†
Oregon Geographic Names.† Portland, Ore.: Oregon Historical Society Press,
1992. Sixth Edition. Revised and Enlarged by Lewis L. McArthur. Original versions
of these essays appeared in the Oregon Historical Society Quarterly (see 'Cascade
Range' Vol. 26, 1925, pp. 375-380; 'Mt. McLoughlin' Vol. 27, 1926, pp. 356-358;
'Shasta Costa Creek' Vol. 28, 1929,† p. 98.'†††† Contains several entries which
indirectly concern Mt. Shasta. States: "Mount McLoughlin...This mountain
is called Mount McLoughlin on a map issued in 1838..." Also states: "
'Mount Pitt' appears for the first time on a map made by Charles Preuss, a cartographer
who accompanied Frémont; but no reference is made to it by Frémont in his writings"
††††† For the "Siskiyou Mountains" entry, the author relates the various stories of the bob-tailed horse; of the six stones; of a local Indian unknown origin, and of one more: "On p. 598 of Lacombe's Cree dictionary, Montreal, 1874, published in French, is the Cree word sisikiyawatim, which refers to a spotted horse or possibly a packhorse. The obvious similarity between the first part of this word and the word Siskiyou is too great to need comment."
††††† For the "Cascade Range" the author discusses Farnham's latitudes of his "'President's Range' (the names adopted from Hall J. Kelly) or Cascade Range; for 'Mt. Jackson' or present-day Mt. Shasta, Farnham stated the latitude of "41 degrees, 10 minutes" (p.37).
††††† Contains information about the Shastacosta tribe: "Shasta Costa Creek... Shasta Costa Creek is a tributary of Rogue River. It bears the name of the 'Shas-te-koos-tee' Indians. Orvil Dodge spells the name of the Indian tribe in this manner and says that it numbered about 145 in 1854. The name of the creek does not seem to have anything to do with either Mount Shasta or the Spanish word costa meaning coast, but is merely the white man's convenient method of writing the Indian name. The Handbook of American Indians , V. 2, p. 857, lists the tribe or band as Chastacosta, part of the Tututni Indians."
††††† Note that in this book it is not mentioned that a "Mt. McLoughlin" appears earlier on the 1834 Arrowsmith "Map of British North America," though on the 1834 map the name is applied to a mountain approximately in the region of present Three Sisters.
††††† Note also that it is not mentioned that Charles Preuss, Fremont's topographer, actually did create several manuscript maps during 1843 which show a "Sasty" at the approximate latitude of Mt. McLoughlin and a "Pit" at the nearly exact latitude of present-day Mt. Shasta (see Wheat Mapping the Transmississippi West Vol. 2, 1952, p. 196). By 1848 this historically correct name of "Mt. Shasty" for present Mt. McLoughlin had been rendered inoperative by the Wilkes maps of 1844 (see Wilkes 1844) and by the Mitchell map of 1846 (see Mitchell 1846). English and American maps from the 1830s and even from the 1840s show present Mt. McLoughlin as the original "Mt. Shasty" (see LaLande1987, pp. 124-127). Note however that there is still doubt as to the location of the original Hudson's Bay Company's "Mt. McLoughlin," located at different latitudes north of present-Mt. McLoughlin on the maps of the 1830s.†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS584].
[MS747].††††††††† McGroaty, John S.† California:
Its History and Romance.† Los Angeles, Calif.: Grafton Publishing Company,
1911. Contains an account of two possible origins for the name "Shasta."
The author says: "Some authorities claim the name 'Shasta' to be derived
from Shas-ti-ka, the name of a tribe of Indians that lived at the base of this
mountain. The word "Shas-ti-ka means 'stone house or cave dwellers.' Other
authorities claim that the word 'Shasta' is a corruption of the French word
'chaste' and was first applied by explorers because of the wonderful whiteness
or chastity of the eternal snow that caps the summit of this wonderful peak"
(p. 319). Note that A. L. Kroeber considers the 'stone house' derivation to
be a mistake (see Kroeber 1916).
††††† Contains a documented early reference to the "Six Caillieux" theory of the origin of the name "Siskiyou." The author writes that: "Senator Jacob R. Snyder of San Francisco, who advocated the formation of this county, in an argument delivered April 14, 1852, in the Senate of the State of California, stated that the French name 'Six Callieux' was given to a ford on the Umpqua River at which place Michael La Frambeau, who led a party of Hudson Bay Company trappers, crossed in the year 1832. Six large stones or rocks lay in the river where they crossed, and they gave it the name of 'Six Callieux' or 'Six-stone Ford,' and from this the mountain or butte derived its name, which was subsequently given to the county when created" (p. 320).
††††† This story of the "six callieux" on a river crossing is a frequently encountered theory for the origin of the name "Siskiyou." By dating the 1852 speech of the senator the author has given what is possibly the earliest known published example of the legend. Where Senator Snyder obtained this theory, and especially the important details about the year 1832, the Umpqua River and Michael La Frambeau [Laframboise], is not mentioned.†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS747].
[MS784].††††††††† McKinney, J. O. Sheep Rock. The Siskiyou Pioneer in Folklore, Fact and Fiction and Yearbook. Siskiyou County Historical Society. (Big Springs Edition). Vol. 3. No. 4 . pp. 72-74. Sheep Rock is a large volcanic uplift just north of Mt. Shasta. Sheep Rock is a landmark mentioned in some of the earliest exploration journals of the region. The author states that:† "Hudson's Bay Company factor, Jean Baptist McKay, mentions in his diary that he and his men camped there in 1825. It carried the name of Sheep Rock then" (p. 72). Note that the date of 1825 is perhaps in error, since the 1826-1827 fur trade expedition of Peter Skene Ogden is generally considered to have been the first HBC excursion into California (see LaLande 1987). Note that at least two other Sheep Rock locations appear in early accounts (see correspondence between Alice Bay Maloney and George Schrader in the Schrader File, and the Gibbs manuscript 1851 McKee expedition map). This article also recounts attempts to re-establish sheep on Sheep Rock. 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS784].
[MS1167].††††††† ††McLoughlin, John 1784-1857.†
[letter to Governor and Committee, Nov.15, 1843, mentioning the 'Sasty Mountains'].
In: Rich, E. E. 1904.† The Letters of John McLoughlin: From Fort Vancouver
to the Governor and Committee. Second Series, 1839-44.† Toronto: The Champlain
Society, 1943. pp. 142-148.†† Introduction by William K. Lamb (1904-).†††† A
letter criticizing parts of an 1843 American Congress report as inaccurate,
misinformed, and biased. The American report contained a section on the ill-treatment
of Indians by members of the Fort Vancouver-based Hudson's Bay Company fur trade
expeditions. The report quotes from the American "Captain Spaulding"
who had spent time at Fort Vancouver. Captain Spaulding wrote of the "Clamath"
and "Chester Valley." McLoughlin corrects the spelling: "(the
Clamath and Chester Valley he means the Clamet and Sasty Valley)" (p. 145).
††††† Note that the text of Captain Spaulding, reprinted with McLoughlin's notes in parenthesis, states that the Sacramento to be in southern Oregon. Spaulding says: "...in 1832, a small party of five men, in the employ of the Company, were returning from their trapping, in the Southern part of Oregon Territory, on the Sacramento, who lost their Horses, and being compelled to winter among the Indians (the Clamath and Chester Valley he means the† Clamet and Sasty Valley) were treated by them with the greatest hospitality and kindness" (p. 145). This quote perhaps underscores the possibility that the Americans in Oregon had a different view of the Shasta region geography than did the officers of Hudson's Bay Company.†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS1167].
[MS817].††††††††† Miesse, William C.† The Historical
Cartography of the California-Oregon Border Region: A Partial and Preliminary
Survey of Available Cartographic Documents.† 1989. Unpublished manuscript,
approximately 100 pages.†††† Contains commentaries and reproductions of dozens
of early maps mostly from the 1830s and 1840s, all pertaining to the naming
of Mt. Shasta. This study attempts to document the cartographic history behind
the naming of two different mountains as "Mt. Shasty." From 1827 until
the mid-1840s, it was the convention to use the name "Mt. Shasty,"
in various spellings, as a name for present-day Mt. McLoughlin in southern Oregon.
In 1844, maps published as a result of the U. S. Government's Wilkes Expedition
were the first maps to show "Mt. Shasty" as a name for a second, more
southerly mountain, one in California, namely present-day Mt. Shasta.
††††† The study attempts to assemble all the available maps and documents which might offer clues to the change in names. A considerable number of maps and documents indicate that the change in names resulted from a complicated combination of influences involving American trappers, American traders (especially Philip Leget Edwards), the American Wilkes-Emmons expedition maps and journals (especially the 1841 manuscript maps of Henry Eld, and the 1841 notebook of George Foster Emmons), the 1844 published maps of Wilkes, the 1846 published maps of Mitchell, and the 1848 Preuss-Fremont map. Although there were influential American government mapmakers who retained the name of Mt. Shasty for present Mt. McLoughlin (notably Greenhow in 1845), the combined influence of the Wilkes, Mitchell, and Frémont maps was to forever rename the mountain we now call Mt. Shasta.
††††† Note that during the course of research one important map historically considered missing was rediscovered in the National Archives: the George Gibbs manuscript map, meant to accompany the 1851 'Shasta Treaty' journal of Redick McKee but never published. Other interesting discoveries included the unpublished 1843 notebook maps of Charles Preuss (similar to the Preuss notebook map published in Wheat 1957, Vol. 2, but on a larger scale with annotations and details of compass angles to Mt. Sasty) showing "Sasty" in Oregon and† "Pitt" in California, with later annotations about a mix up in mountain names. The famous Preuss-Frémont Map of 1848† reverses the mountain names as recorded in these notebooks, explaining in part why the Preuss-Frémont map of 1848 was the first map to apply the name Mt. "Pitt" to present-day Mt. McLoughlin.
††††† Contains many curious maps, including one which resolved the two mountain problem by naming both mountains as "Mt. Shaste."
††††† Note also that the opinion emerged from the research that no map earlier than 1850 shows the name of† Mount "Shasta," That is, no map using the "-a" ending. Among books, maps, journals and other sources, it appears that only two documents use an "-a" ending ( specifically as "Chasta" in the 1837 Edwards manuscript in the California State Library, and Samuel Parker's 1838 spelling of 'Chastą;' Edwards, incidentally, later abandoned the "-a" ending and used the spelling of "Chasty" in his 1842 guide book to the Oregon Territory). The "-a" ending apparently does not appear again, in maps, journals, newspapers, books, or other published works, until after the California State Legislature decided upon the "-a" ending spelling in early 1850 as the spelling for the new Shasta County. Apparently the spelling "Shasta" was used for present Mt. Shasta only after the County was first so named.†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS817].
[MS226].††††††††† Neasham, Ernest R.† Fall River Valley: An Examination of Historical Sources, Fall River Valley and the Intermountain Area from the Earliest Times until 1890.† Sacramento, Calif.: The Citadel Press, 1985. First published in 1957.†††† A well-documented study which includes a considerable amount of material on the exploration of the trails near Mount Shasta. The author considers and quotes from the original records of Ogden, Work, McLeod, Reading, Williamson, etc. The location where Alexander Roderick McLeod lost his horses and furs in 1830 is estimated to be on the headwaters of the McCloud (p. 31). This is a highly recommended book on the early exploration of the Mount Shasta region. The title may be geographically misleading, until one realizes that the early routes from Oregon to California generally went by way of Fall River. The book also contains a chapter on the "Aborigines" including much material on the Achumawi Indians, who "visited Mount Shasta for Elk" (p. 6).†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS226].
[MS1227].††††††††† Nicolay, Charles Grenfell Rev.† The Oregon Territory.† London: 1846. 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS1227].
[MS46].††††††††† Oakland Public Library.† Older Maps of California: A List in Three Parts Compiled by the Oakland Public Library Reference Department.† 1940. Unpublished typewritten manuscript.†††† An eleven page list of maps and books useful for understanding the different placements of Mount Shasta on early maps of the California-Oregon border region.†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS46].
[MS1038].††††††††† Sampson, William R.† John McLoughlin's Business Correspondence, 1847-48.† Seattle, Wash.: University of Washington Press, 1973. Contains a thorough and up-to-date bibliography of manuscripts and primary sources for the Oregon fur trade activities of such men as John McLoughlin, George Simpson, and Peter Skene Ogden (pp.157-167). The bibliography is especially valuable for its citations of obscure manuscripts from the 1830s, some of which may someday offer new clues to the origins of the naming of Mt. Shasta and the Siskiyou mountains.†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS1038].
[MS1151].††††††††† Scott, Harvey.† History of
the Oregon Country by Harvey Scott, Forty Years editor of the Morning Oregonian.†
Cambridge, Mass.: Riverside Press, 1924. Compiled from the author's articles
of the late 1890s and early 1900s which appeared in 'The Oregonian.'†††† Contains
a chapter on the "Names of Mountains" which includes several 1893
articles about the snow peaks of the Cascade Mountains including the old name
of" Mt. Pitt" for present day Mt. McLoughlin. (pp. 169-178). Also
contains a "Compiler's Appendix" which includes notes on the "Names
of Snow Peaks (pp. 300-306). See also p. 179 for notes on the name Siskiyou.
††††† On p. 305 there is an analysis of the name Mount Pitt which includes the statement: "Mount Pitt appears for the first time on a map made by Charles Preuss, a cartographer who accompanied Fremont; but no reference is made to it by Fremont in his writings." Note that the sketch maps of Preuss in his 1843 journals show the name "Sasty" for present-day Mt. McLoughlin and "Pit" for present Mt. Shasta. The fact that the 1848 Fremont-Preuss map reversed the names was probably due to the new naming begun with Wilkes in 1844 and Mitchell in 1846.
†††† An interesting review of the early variations of the name "Klamath" is found on p. 306.†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS1151].
[MS783].††††††††† [Siskiyou County Historical Society]. Map of 19th century Trails around Mt. Shasta [map]. In: The Siskiyou Pioneer in Folklore, Fact and Fiction and Yearbook. Siskiyou County Historical Society. (Big Springs Edition). 1961. Vol. 3. No. 4. Facing p. 20. Fold-out map.†††† Contains an excellent hand-drawn map of the northern side of Mt. Shasta depicting the Yreka Branch of the Applegate Trail and other trails used by emigrants and early settlers. This is a large scale map showing even the most insignificant modern roads in the Shasta Valley, with superimposition of the old trails. 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS783].
[MS2031].††††††††† Smith, D. Dottie.† The Dictionary of Early Shasta County History.† Cottonwood, CA (Box 1147, Cottonwood 96022): D. Smith, 1991. viii, 160, p.; 22 cm.†† Includes bibliographical references (p. 160-).†††† One of the best sources of early place name history for Shasta and Siskiyou counties. Very comprehensive.†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS2031].
[MS346].††††††††† Southern, May Hazel.† Our
Storied Landmarks: Shasta County, California.† San Francisco, Calif.: P.
Balakshin Printing Company, 1942. Explains the naming of the town of Shasta
City (near Redding, Calif.). The author states that the town's citizens considered
the name of Upper Reading's Springs too long to be a commercial name. At a town
meeting on June 8th, 1850, and after much argument, a man named A. B. Brown,
who afterward became county judge of Amador County, proposed the name "Shasta."
The name change was agreed upon (p. 33).
††††† Southern's book also contains a brief chapter on Joaquin Miller, and gives newspaper references from the Shasta Courier of Aug. 4 and 11th, 1855 for Miller's Battle of Castle Crags. Contains a photo of Miller's Battle Rock.
††††† May Hazel Southern, a co-founder of the Shasta County Historical Society, was the daughter of Simeon (Sims) Southern, who pioneered in 1859 the stage stop which today is marked as the Sims exit, south of Castle Crags, on highway Interstate 5. Some of the most interesting material in this book concerns how Simeon Southern built a small rock fort next to his home site so as to fend off Indian attacks (p. 84).
††††† Note that historically, and quite significantly, prior to the adoption of the "Shasta" County spelling by the California State Legislature on Feb. 18, 1850, there does not appear to be any article, book, or map utilizing an "-a" ending to the name "Shasta" for either the county, mountain or the town, other than perhaps in preliminary State Legislature documents.† The naming of the town of Shasta was mostly done following the example of the County name, and not following the name of the mountain, which had not yet been called by the modern "-a" spelling. According to Erwin Gudde (see Gudde 1969), it was Madison Walthall, an assemblyman from Sacramento, who suggested the name "Shasta" to the State Legislature, and perhaps to him may be credited the modern spelling of the name not only of the County, but of the great mountain as well.†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS346].
[MS1207].††††††††† Stuhl, Edward 1887-1984.† Names Given By Explorers to Mt. Shasta.† no date. Unpublished manuscript. 2 pages.†††† Consists of names for Mt. Shasta listed chronologically, along with the explorer's name and the source authority for the name. Though not a comprehensive list, it serves as a useful reference to the names of Mt. Shasta. Note that several of the names, such as Fray Narciso Duran's "Jesus Maria" are likely but unproven early names for Mt. Shasta.†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS1207].
[MS1140].††††††††† Thwaites, Reuben Gold.† Early
Western Travels 1748-1846: A Series of Annotated Reprints of Some of the Best
and Rarest Contemporary Volumes of Travel, Descriptive of the Aborigines and
Social and Economic Conditions in the Middle and Far West, during the Period
of Early American Settlement. Edited with Notes, Introductions, Index, etc.,
by Reuben Gold Thwaites. LL.D.† Cleveland, Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Company,
1906. 30 or more volumes.†††† Thwaites may have been the first modern historian
to realize and state in print that the British named present Mt. Shasta as "Mt.
Pitt," albeit he does not explain the extra "t." He say: "...Mt.
Pitt, which name was first assigned by the British to Mount Shasta" (Vol.
29, p. 35).
††††† All volumes not seen. Vols. 29 and 30 contain Mt. Shasta material.
††††† Volume 29: Part 2 of Farnham's Travels in the Great Western Prairies... and contains Thwaites notes (p. 35) on Hall Jackson Kelley's President's Range name of "Mt. Jackson" for present-day Mt. Shasta.
††††† Volume 30: Palmer's Journal of Travels over the Rocky Mountains 1845-1846.†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS1140].
[MS2143].††††††††† Warner, J. J. The Indian Pestilence in 1833. In: Los Angeles Daily Star. Aug. 23, 1874. Reprinted in the Kern County Weekly Courier, Aug. 9, 1874. Both newspapers in the California Section of the California State Library.† Reference source:† Sandos, James A.† 'Between Crucifix and Lance: Indian-White Relations in California 1769-1848,' in† Contested Eden: California Before the Gold Rush edited by Ramon A. Gutierrez and Richard J. Orsi, Vol. 76 nos. 2 and 3, Summer and Fall 1997 of California History (magazine).††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† MS2143].
[MS623].††††††††† Wells, Harry Laurenz 1854-1940.
Shasta, Monarch of the Sacramento. In: Pacific Coast Travel. Oct., 1925.
Vol. 1. No. 3. pp. 27-28. Contains an introduction and four sections: How It
Was Named, An Indian Shasta Legend, Climbing the Mountain, The First Climbers.
The author reaffirms his 1881 statements (see Wells 1881) that the name Shasta
is derived from the Russian "Tchastal" which became the American "Chasta"
which in turn became the "Shasta" of today.
†††††† Mentions that N. C. Mayhew in 1859 became the first person to stay overnight on the summit of Mt. Shasta. 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS623].
[MS820].††††††††† Wheat, Carl Irving 1892-1966.†
Mapping the Transmississippi West: Volume Two, From Lewis and Clark to Fremont
1804-1845.† San Francisco, Calif.: The Institute of Historical Cartography,
1958.† The five volume Mapping the Transmississippi West, is the most comprehensive
work to-date on the maps of the West. Volume 2 contains extensive commentary
on more than one hundred maps from the period 1804-1845. This volume is essential
reading for anyone interested in the historical cartography of the California-Oregon
border region. Vol. 2 contains reproductions of about 60 maps.
†††††† Several of the maps reproduced in Volume 2 are essential to the history of the naming of Mount Shasta; a few of the most important are listed below with the full bibliocartographic name as given by Wheat. The map and page numbers in parenthesis refer to the bibliocartography appendix pp. 203-271. For the actual page on which each map appears refer to either the Table of Map Reproductions Vol. 2, pp. vii-ix, or to the Alphabetical Index of Maps, Vol. 2, pp. 274-281.
†††††† Note that the dates do not always match the date of publication but instead match the dates of Wheat's commentary periods:
††††† "1831 Smith (Fremont, Gibbs): Map of an Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains in the year 1842 and to Oregon & Northern California in the years 1843-44 by Brevet Capt. J.C. Frémont of the Corps of Topographical Engineers under the orders of Col. J.J. Abert, Chief of the Topographical Bureau...[This is the map on which George Gibbs drew Smith's material, in 1851(?); 51 by 31 1/2 inches.]" (Map 398; p. 238). Note that Wheat, who discovered in 1953 this George Gibbs hand-drawn map, considers it to be the only extant copy of the now lost Jedediah Smith circa 1831 map of the west. Gibbs's hand-drawn copy shows "Mt. Simpson" and "Rogers' Peak" in California. Wheat states "Later in his journal, under date of October 26, 1851, Gibbs refers to Mount Shasta, saying 'It is the same as the Rogers' peak of Smith'" (p. 130). Note that Wheat may have been led astray by Gibbs comment, for it is much more likely, based on a careful appraisal of this map, especially noting that "Mt. Simpson" appears twice on the map, and upon a review of the 1836 maps of Gallatin and of Tanner, that "Mt. Simpson" was Jedediah Smith's name for present Mount Shasta, and that "Rogers' Peak" was the name for present Mt. Lassen. Carl Wheat and Dale Morgan wrote an entire book, entitled Jedediah Smith and his maps of the West† (San Francisco, the California Historical Society, 1954), which is about the discovery and significance of Gibbs's copy of the Smith map.
††††† "1834 Arrowsmith: British North America, by Permission Dedicated to the Hon.ble Hudson's Bay Company; Containing the latest information which their documents furnish. By their Obedient Servant J. Arrowsmith. London, Pub.d Feb.y 1834 by J. Arrowsmith, 33 East St. Red Lion Square. [Engraved; 24 by 19 inches; boundries colored by hand.]" (map 403, p. 239). Note that Wheat states: "This is the first map to name the mountain by a name approximating its modern name and the name was given to it by Ogden in 1827" (p. 148). For this map and others, Wheat did not consider the placement of "Shasty" northwest of present Klamath Lake to be the result of anything other than mistaken geography on the part of the mapmaker; that is, Wheat did not consider or realize that Peter Skene Ogden possibly named an Oregon mountain, and not present Mt. Shasta, as "Shasty."
††††† "1836 Gallatin: Map of the Indian Tribes of North America about 1600 A.D. along the Atlantic; and about A.D. westwardly. Published by the Amer: Antiq: Soc: From a drawing by Hon. A. Gallatin. Pendleton's Lithography. [Lithographed; 16 & 1/2 inches; various Indian tribal areas colored by hand.]" (Map 417, p. 242).
††††† "1836 Tanner: North America. Philadelphia: Published by H.S. Tanner. Entered according to Act of Congress in the Year 1836 by H.S. Tanner, in the Clerks office of the District Court of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. Tanner's Universal Atlas 2. [Engraved; 11 by 14 5/8 inches; states and districts colored by hand.] (Map 422, p. 245).
††††† "1838 Hood: Map of the United States Territory of Oregon West of the Rocky Mountains. Exhibiting the various Trading Depots or Forts occupied by the British Hudson Bay Company: connected with the Western and Northwestern fur trade. Compiled in the Bureau of Topographical Engineers, from the latest authorities, under the direction of Col J.J. Abert, by Wash: Hood. 1838. M.H. Stansbury del.e [Manuscript; 20 3/4 by 18 3/4 inches]" (Maps 433 and 434, pp. 248-249).
††††† "1839 Parker: Map of Oregon Territory by Samuel Parker. 1838. Copy right secured. Eng.d by M.M. Peabody, Utica, N.Y. [Engraved, 23 1/4 by 13 5/8 inches.] (Map 446, p. 253).
††††† "1839 Kelley: [Manuscript map, without title, by Hall J. Kelley, showing the western portion of the 'Territory of Oregon' and the northern portion of 'High California;' 12 1/2 by 12 1/2 inches.]" (Map 444, p. 253).
††††† "1839 Burr: Map of the United States of North America with parts of the Adjacent countries, by David H. Burr. (Late topographer to the Post Office.) Geographer to the House of Representatives of the U.S. Engraved according to the Act of Congress, July 10.th 1839, by David H. Burr, in the clerks office of the District Court of the District of Columbia. [Engraved; 49 by 353/4 inches; boundaries colored] (Map 441, p. 251).
††††† "1840 Burr (Greenhow): The North-west-coast of North America and adjacent territories compiled from the best authorities under the direction of Robert Greenhow to accompany his Memoir on the Northwest Coast Published by order of the Senate of the United States drawn by David H. Burr. Lith. S.D. Longtree. [Lithographed; 21 1/2 by 16 inches]" (Map 447, p. 254).
††††† "1841 Wilkes, 1: Map of the Oregon Territory by the U.S. Ex. Ex. Charles Wilkes Esq.r commander. 1841 J.H. Young & Sherman & Smith, N.Y. [Engraved; 34 by 22 3/4 inches.] (Map 457, p. 256).
††††† "1841 Wilkes, 2: Map of Upper California by the U.S. Ex. Ex. and Best authorities 1844. [Engraved; 11 3/8 by 8 5/8 inches.] (Map 458, p. 256).
††††† "1844 De Mofras: Carte de la côte de L'Amérique sur l'oceán Pacifique septentrional comprenant le Territoire de l'Orégon, les Californies, la Mer Vermeille, partie des territoires de la Compagnie de la Baie d'Hudson, et de L'Amerique Russe. Dressé par Mr. Duflot de Mofras, Attaché ą la Légation de France ą Mexico; pour servir ą l'intelligence de son voyage d'exploration Publié par ordre du Roi, sous les auspices de M.r Le Maréchal Duc de Dalmatie, President du Conseil des Ministres et de M.r Le Ministre des Affairs étrangŹres, Paris, 1844. Le Plan gravé par Jacobs. L'écriture gravée par Hocq. Publié par Arthus Betrand. [Engraved; 27 1/2 by 36 inches; boundaries and routes colored by hand]" (Map 474, p. 261).
††††† "1845 Farnham: Map of the Californias by T. J. Farnham. Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1845. by Thomas J. Farnham in the Clerk's office of the Southern District of New York. [Cerographic map; 10 7/8 by 14 inches.] (Map 494, p. 268).
††††† "1845 Preuss: [Untitled map showing the upper Snake, Great Salt Lake, Mary's River the Sacramento-Pit and the Clammut (Klamath) River; 6 3/8 by 4 1/8 inches; manuscript.] (Map 499, p. 270). Note that Wheat does not comment upon the fact that this important manuscript map shows "Pit" mountain as the name for present Mt. Shasta, and "Sasty" as the name for present Mt. McLoughlin. The map was drawn in 1843 when Preuss was 'en route' with Frémont's 1843-1844 expedition. Importantly, an unpublished manuscript map from the Preuss notebooks in the Library of Congress contains annotations discussing the confusion in names. In 1848 Preuss published a map which reversed this usage possibly to conform with the conventions of naming used by Wilkes.†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS820].
[MS686].††††††††† Williams, Glyndwr.† Further Reading. In: Williams, Glyndwr.† Highlights of the first 200 Years of the Hudson's Bay Company.† 1976. pp. 60-63.†† 1976 Reprint of 'The Beaver'. Autumn 1970, Outfit 301.†††† A bibliographic essay on the major Hudson's Bay Company histories. The author is addressing the serious student of the fur trade.†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS686].
[MS685].††††††††† Williams, Glyndwr.† Highlights of the first 200 Years of the Hudson's Bay Company.† 1976. pp. 1-59.†† 1976 Reprint of The Beaver. Autumn 1970, Outfit 301.†††† This article is a very good overview of the Hudson' Bay Company's history, written by an author who has dealt extensively with the labyrinth of documents in the HBC Archives.†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS685].
[MS1099].††††††††† Wilson, Maud Eunice. Federal
Exploration in California from 1841-1855. Berkeley, Calif.: University of
California, 1917 (Thesis, Master's).†††† A thorough review of the coordinated
program of American government exploration of California during the period indicated.
Thesis supervised by the great California historian Herbert Bolton. The thesis
covers among others the 1841 Wilkes, 1843 and 1845 Frémont, 1849 Warner, and
1854 Williamson surveys, all of northern California.† The author begins by stating:
"Federal Exploration of California between the years 1841 and 1855 was
no suddenly launched project of the government, but on the contrary, was planned
with much forethought. There was a well-defined movement to obtain California,
especially the harbor of San Francisco, some ten years before the Mexican War.
This resulted in the Wilkes' and Fremont's expeditions..." (Introduction).†††††
††††† The author points out and quotes Williamson's conclusion that a railroad from the Sacramento Valley to Oregon would be well-advised to pass on the western side of the Cascades if it proves at all possible, since the eastern side of the Cascades is so barren, capable of being wind swept, and is more or less devoid of population (see p. 148). Note that the 1854 Williamson survey work is often credited with having prepared the way for the present railroad route up the Sacramento river canyon from Redding to Mt. Shasta. But Williamson never surveyed the canyon, first having passed on the east side of the Mt. Shasta region, and on the return coming over the Siskiyous as far as Yreka only, before going to Scott Valley and the Trinity river route southward. Apparently Williamson work was preparation by elimination only, since the other routes were not practical, he made a suggestion which later led to the establishment of the Sacramento Canyon railroad route.
††††† This is a very detailed thesis containing an extremely extensive bibliography of government documents pertaining to the 1840s and 1850s exploration of California.†††† 10. Early Exploration: Historical Interpretations and Reviews.† [MS1099].
Native Americans ~
Recreation ~ Maps ~ Mount Shasta Collection ~ Bibliography ~ Lesson Plans ~ About Project | <urn:uuid:5c4e8bad-1da1-43ae-a0f2-953c1c040712> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.siskiyous.edu/shasta/bib/B10.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00089-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.897499 | 15,419 | 3.75 | 4 |
Abstract Background The isolated northern region of Nicaragua has one of the highest rates of diarrheal disease in Central America. Political and environmental hardships faced by inhabitants of this region are contributing factors to this health inequity. The aim of this study was to assess the relationship between water and latrine infrastructure and the prevalence of diarrhea in this region. Methods A population-based, cross-sectional survey of women of reproductive age was conducted in the Sahsa region of northern Nicaragua in July, 2009. Households were selected by two stage cluster sampling methodology. A questionnaire was administered in Spanish and Miskito with assessment of household and socioeconomic conditions, sanitation practices, and health care access. Diarrhea prevalence differences at the household level over a two week reporting period were estimated with a standardized instrument which included assessment of water treatment and latrine use and maintenance. Results There were 189 women enrolled in the current study. The use of water purification methods, such as chlorine and filters, and latrine ownership were not associated with reduced prevalence of household diarrhea in the two week reporting period. Latrine overflow, however, was associated with an increased prevalence of diarrhea during the same two week period [adjusted prevalence difference and 95% CI: 0.19 (0.03, 0.36)]. Conclusions Simple, low cost interventions that improve water and latrine infrastructure may reduce the prevalence of diarrheal disease in the isolated regions of Nicaragua and Central America. | <urn:uuid:798f5b84-dc5e-4928-94e3-36b27deacbd2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/record?id=uuid%3Ad927b13b-3c99-47c2-85d0-8fbdb1939f0e | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00099-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974743 | 287 | 2.75 | 3 |
Taproot vs. Fibrous Root System
There are two main types of roots according to origin of development and branching pattern in the angiosperms: taproot system and fibrous system.
Generally, plants with a taproot system are deep-rooted in comparison with those having fibrous type. The taproot system enables the plant to anchor better to the soil and obtain water from deeper sources. In contrast, shallow-rooted plants are more susceptible to drought but they are quick to absorb surface and irrigation water and thus have the ability to respond quickly to fertilizer application.
In order to enhance the development of more lateral roots in taprooted plants, pruning of the taproot is practiced, as in plant nurseries. The practice is also a standard procedure with bonsai trees.
The primary root which develops from a radicle and becomes dominant is called a taproot, as in carrot. Roots that develop from other roots are generally called lateral roots; those that arise from other plant organs rather than the root, such as from stems or leaves, are called adventitious roots.
A taproot system is one in which the primary root becomes the main root of the plant with minimal branching consisting of secondary, smaller lateral roots. The taproot system occurs in dicot plants and is one of the basis of distinguishing these plants from the monocots which have fibrous roots.
In plants having a taproot system, the trunk-like primary root develops directly from the embryonic root called radicle and grows downward into the soil. From this taproot, lateral roots develop which may initially grow horizontally then turn downward. These roots repeatedly form finer roots which terminate in a root tip with a minute, dome-shaped, protective root cap at the tipmost part. As the root grows, it pushes its root cap forward, probing the soil and absorbing water and nutrients mainly through fine root hairs. The root hairs are extensions of the epidermis which develop in the region of differentiation. These plant organs are short-lived and constantly replaced.
In grasses and other monocots including lilies and palm plants, the root system is a fibrous root system consisting of a dense mass of slender, adventitious roots that arise from the stem. A fibrous root system has no single large taproot because the embryonic root dies back when the plant is still young. The roots grow downward and outward from the stem, branching repeatedly to form a mass of fine roots.
There are various specialized root types such as the storage root, aerial root, contractile root, haustoria, prop roots, pneumatophores, and buttress roots (Simpson 2010). These are shortly described below:
1. Storage roots- These consist of a thickened roots due to the accumulation of high-energy storage compounds, usually starch. These are further subclassified into fleshy and tuberous roots. Examples of crops with fleshy roots are the carrot, ginseng (Panax), and sugar beet while those with tuberous roots are the sweet potato, cassava, and yam bean (Click here to read Starchy Root Crops, Tuber Crops and Corm Crops).
2. Aerial roots- These are adventitious roots that are common in many epiphytes such as in the monocot plants belonging to the arum or gabi family (Araceae) and orchid family (Orchidaceae). In general, these fibrous roots remain aerial, i.e. they do not enter the soil. Depending on the plant species, aerial roots perform special functions such as water retention, photosynthesis, and support.
3. Contractile roots- As in many plants that form bulbs (e.g. lily) or corms (e.g. Gladiolus), these fibrous roots contract vertically to pull the plant downward into the soil. These roots are also found in ginseng (Panax). According to Moore et al. 2003, contractile roots can shrink more than 50% in only a few weeks.
4. Haustoria- These are specialized roots in parasitic plants that penetrate the tissues of a host plant, as in watchweed (Striga) and broomrape (Orobanche).
5. Prop roots- These are aerial roots that arise from a stem and subsequently sink into the soil to provide additional support to the plant such as in corn and Ficus. In banyan tree (Ficus benghalensis), these modified roots provide additional support to the branches similar to the pillars of a bridge which make it possible for these branches to extend horizontally to great distances. The prop roots of Rhyzophora stylosa are also capable of photosynthesis (Kitaya et al. 2002).
6. Pneumatophores- These are specialized roots in some plants that grow in watery places and which function mainly for oxygen absorption. The raised pneumatophores of many mangrove species including Sonneratia alba and Avicennia marina and the “knees” or knee pneumatophores of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza and bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) serve as entry of atmospheric oxygen which diffuses to roots growing in anaerobic soils. The “knees” are described as cone-shaped extension of the root that protrude from the ground. The oxygen from the air diffuses to the pneumatophores through aerenchyma cells which compose as much as 80% of these roots (Moore et al. 2003).
7. Buttress roots- These are enlarged, often thickened roots that spread horizontally from the base of trees to provide additional support. In tropical trees like fig (Ficus) that are shallow rooted, large buttress roots are formed at the base of their trunks. | <urn:uuid:86fbc3a3-5fdf-40ce-a50b-12eaaa56421f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cropsreview.com/fibrous-root.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00163-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942209 | 1,195 | 4.03125 | 4 |
Did You Hear That?
One of the first steps to take when diagnosing noisy plumbing is to determine whether the mysterious sound is occurring when your water is turned on or if it is a result of draining water. Noises on the inlet side (or when your water is turned on) could be caused by: excessive water pressure, worn valve or faucet parts, improperly connected pumps or other appliances, incorrectly placed pipe fasteners, and plumbing runs containing too many tight bends or other restrictions. Noises on the drain side usually stem from poor location or a possible pipe layout containing too many tight bends.
A hissing noise that occurs when a faucet is opened slightly generally signals excessive water pressure. If you encounter hissing sounds call your locate water company, they will be able to tell you if the water pressure in your area may be the culprit. They can also install a pressure reducing valve on the incoming water supple pipe to help regulate the pressure.
Thudding noise, often accompanied by shuddering pipes, when a faucet or appliance valve is turned off is a common condition referred to as a water hammer. The noise and vibration are caused by the reverberating wave of pressure in the water, which suddenly has no place to go. Opening a valve that discharges water at a rapid pace into a section of piping containing a restriction, elbow, or other fitting can also produce water hammer.
Water hammer can usually be cured by installing fittings called air chambers or shock absorbers in the plumbing to which the problem valves or faucets are connected. These devices allow the shock wave created by the halted flow of water to dissipate in the air they contain, which (unlike water) is compressible.
Older plumbing systems may have short vertical sections of capped pipe behind walls on faucet runs for the same purpose; these can eventually fill with water, reducing or destroying their effectiveness. The cure is to drain the water system completely by shutting off the main water supply valve and opening all faucets. Then open the main supply valve and close the faucets one at a time, starting with the faucet nearest the valve and ending with the one farthest away.
Chattering or Screeching
Intense chattering or screeching that occurs when a valve or faucet is turned on, and that usually disappears when the fitting is opened fully, signals loose or defective internal parts. In most cases, the only solution is to replace the defective valve or faucet with a new one.
Pumps and appliances such as washing machines and dishwashers can also transfer motor noise to pipes if they are improperly connected. When installing new appliances always link them to plumbing with plastic or rubber hoses and never use rigid pipe. This will dramatically cut down on the amount of noise create when the appliance is in use.
Other Mysterious Noises
Creaking, squeaking, scratching, snapping, and tapping noises are commonly caused by the expansion or contraction of copper pipes used to supply hot water. The sounds can occur as the pipes slide against loose fasteners or strike nearby house framing.
If you can pinpoint the problem by following the sound to an exposed pipe you may discover a lose pipe hanger or other obstruction that the pipes can clatter against. Attaching foam pipe insulation around the pipes at the contact points will lessen the transmission of vibration from plumbing to surfaces that can amplify the sounds.
When replacing or installing new pipe hangers try to fasten them to larger structural elements that will work to dampen or disperse the sound and always sandwich the ends of new fasteners between rubber washers.
Drain Pipe Noise
When dealing with noises produced by drain pipes the primary goal is to eliminate and surfaces that can be struck by falling water or rushing water and to insulate the pipes to contain any avoidable sounds.
When replacing toilets or faucets, inquire about water-saving alternatives as they are less noisy than conventional models. Upgrading your fixtures can be an easy solution to stubborn plumbing sounds.
When having old plumbing repaired or replaced avoid routing drain pipes in walls shared with bedrooms or rooms where your family and guests often gather. Walls containing drain pipes need to be soundproofed and the pipes themselves should be wrapped with specially designed fiberglass insulation.
Related Information from Horizon Services…
- The 7 Deadly Plumbing Sins
- How to Diagnose and Repair Poor Water Pressure Issues
- Don’t Let a Clog Cause a Pipe to Burst
- Horizon Plumbing Services
- Horizon Drain Cleaning Services
- Horizon Sewer & Water Line Replacement Services | <urn:uuid:6792f0be-9cb8-45d8-a6b3-56e38041eca6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.horizonservicesinc.com/blog-posts/plumbing-services-2/diagnose-unwanted-plumbing-noises | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397864.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00023-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.929963 | 938 | 3.125 | 3 |
Rescue me, please, from the hand of my brother, from the hand of Eisav. (32:12)
Yaakov was on the road travelling when he received the message that his brother Eisav was heading towards him with 400 men. A frightened Yaakov prays to God, "Rescue me, please, from the hand of my brother, from the hand of Eisav." Why did Yaakov repeat himself in describing Eisav? He should have said, "Rescue me from Eisav," or "Rescue me from my brother." What was the purpose of using both terms?
Yaakov's fear was two-pronged. He was afraid that "Eisav" would act with enmity and threaten his physical survival. He also feared the spiritual danger of greeting Eisav as his brother. He feared that Eisav would have a negative influence on his family if they ended up making peace. He therefore prayed to God to save him from both outcomes.
Remarkably, Yaakov prayed for his spiritual well-being before he prayed to be saved from physical danger! He was more concerned over the negative influence that Eisav may have on him than he was concerned for his life!(1)
By nature, people adapt their behavior to their surroundings; they begin to think and act like their neighbors. Hence, it is imperative that one keeps distance from evil people, while befriending righteous people and emulating them.(2)
1. Bais Halevi.
2. Rambam, Hilchos Deos 6:1. | <urn:uuid:1d2558fd-a66c-4469-82a8-7519332037de> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.aish.com/tp/b/1-min-vort/231347321.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402479.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00127-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.989754 | 337 | 2.71875 | 3 |
"Georg Andreas Böckler was a German architect, engineer and author. He was the architect of the city of Nuremberg and specialized in hydraulic architecture. Architectura Curiosa Nova was his main opus, a four-part work in one volume, published in 1664.
Illustrated with 200 engravings, the decorative plates of the first three parts show the theory and application of hydrodynamics for fountains, water-jets, spray-patterns, garden fountains and well heads; and elaborate and often fanciful designs for free-standing fountains. The fourth part includes designs for grottoes, garden pavilions and architectural designs including views of European palaces."
It was my good fortune while fossicking around in the digital cloisters of the University of Heidelburg to discover that since my last post about Böckler's Architectura Curiosa Nova, the whole work has been posted online. It would never be described as understated. Many wedding cake decoration ideas within.
The image above the engraving with the statue carrying a trident was the only plate I saw (when I remembered to look) with an engravers name, but I can't make it out even using the pdf zoom capability at the site.
Part I, II, III, IV of Architectura Curiosa Nova.
nb. Part I of Architectura Curiosa Nova has quite a few pages of text and only a couple of images of piping diagrams; Part II has images of the fountain heads for the most part; Part III has both 'wall' variety and complete fountain images and Part IV concentrates on depicting some of the great houses of Europe and mazes.
- Previously: Böckler's other great work, Theatrum Machinarum Novum.
- Also previously: a post about another of the 'Theatre of Machines' authors, Jacques Besson, which has links to all the other renaissance engineering-type posts at BibliOdyssey.
- The best (large) colour examples from this baroque work can be found by searching on 'boeckler' at Panteek Gallery. [personally, I think the original black and white plates are superior]
- Mazarine have a 'quick and dirty' large thumbnail view of some of the mazes (a usual addition to any gardening or architectural landscape work of the day) from Part IV.
- For the keen: George Goodall's Facetation website is always worth perusing, even if it makes my head spin a bit [Böckler at Facetation]
Thursday, March 30, 2006
Posted by peacay at 5:43 am | <urn:uuid:cb43d5fe-54f4-4a04-adec-6687cd7e4784> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://bibliodyssey.blogspot.com/2006/03/architectura-curiosa-nova-unplugged.html?showComment=1143664740000 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00088-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948008 | 562 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Well I'm a level 4 mechatronics students from Mauritius and doing my project on a self balanced bicycle which uses a flywheel to achieve this.A better view of it can be seen on:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0312B...eature=related
OR EVEN ON:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d1Uy7...eature=relatedhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AvGUu...eature=related
During the past 3 weeks,I've been struggling on calculation of torque(flywheel motor) and I'm stuck.
I have been using the formula T=J*alpha,
where J=moment of inertia and alpha=angular acceleration.
I have assumed overall mass of prototype to be around 2.5 kg,radius of flywheel=5 cm,mass of flywheel=0.5kg,radius of driving wheel=5 cm,max permissible tilting angle=30 degrees.
Could you please help me in selecting my 12V DC motors:flywheel motor(rpm,torque)
and flywheel specifications(radius and mass)
and finally if gear box(reduction gear) is needed,its ratio??
Thanking you all in advance. | <urn:uuid:e97695f4-bfe7-4795-b8fa-54113c9ee7c7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.societyofrobots.com/robotforum/index.php?topic=14662.0 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00084-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.787152 | 269 | 2.765625 | 3 |
The rhythmic beating of drums can be heard throughout campus, a sound that transports students to a far off land through intricate beats and silences.
The drumming is coming from the West African Drumming class, taught by music department coordinator Steve Biondo.
Biondo is teaching 25 students this semester how to use drums to highlight West African culture and technique to produce an amazing sound.
“It’s all about the history and culture of West Africa,” Biondo said. “There are more than 300 rhythms played for certain reasons.”
The class involves attending one two-hour meeting a week, and then additional practicing three times a week.
Students are provided with drums from donations to use for class and for practicing.
“It’s a really fun class,” said Adrianna Utley, senior child development major. “I learned how to play an instrument and become one with the drum.”
Students are given an introduction to the Malinke drumming traditions, which are practiced by the people of Western Africa.
They learn about two main drums, the djembe and the dunun.
The djembe looks like a large goblet, and the head is commonly covered in animal skin.
The drum can produce a variety of tones.
The dunun looks like a long snare drum and produces a low bass sound.
Students also learn about the shakere, which is made of a hollowed out gourd, and produces a sound similar to a maraca, and used for background effect.
After learning the culture and the types of drums, the students begin to learn rhythms and how to play as an ensemble.
“I had to take the class for general education, but I ended up really liking it,” said Corey Teter, senior political science major. “I ended up taking it for a second semester.”
Biondo grew up playing Latin music and Afro-Cuban music.
He then decided to learn about West African drumming.
Inspired by Raynor Carroll, percussion for the Los Angeles Philharmonic and Mamada Keita, he taught himself to play, and now teaches three classes of the course.
“Music has been taught the same way for 600 years,” Biondo said.
Getting people to show up for class and practice the required amount of time is the hardest part of teaching the class, he added.
He teaches the class three basic rhythms, the Kono, Mendiani and Dinasa.
Many of the song titles that the group performs are in French, the spoken language of the Malinke people.
At the end of the semester, the students are required to give a performance to show what they have learned.
Dressed in authentic African clothing, the students show that West African Drumming is not just an easy A class.
Not only do they need to know how to play, but they also have the beats and rhythms memorized and know how to play together as a group.
The West African Drumming performance is at 8 p.m. on Dec. 15.
Tickets are $5 general admission, free for students.
Christopher Barnes-Baxter can be reached at email@example.com.
Carly Hill can be reached at firstname.lastname@example.org. | <urn:uuid:272f0da3-a30b-478e-a9a4-6c5c6018146e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://laverne.edu/campus-times/2010/10/students-drum-to-african-beat/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00192-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951968 | 715 | 2.8125 | 3 |
NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter has completed its primary, two-year science phase. The spacecraft has found signs of a complex Martian history of climate change that produced a diversity of past watery environments.
The orbiter has returned 73 terabits of science data, more than all earlier Mars missions combined. The spacecraft will build on this record as it continues to examine Mars in unprecedented detail during its next two-year phase of science operations.
Among the major findings during the primary science phase is the revelation that the action of water on and near the surface of Mars occurred for hundreds of millions of years. This activity was at least regional and possibly global in extent, though possibly intermittent. The spacecraft also observed that signatures of a variety of watery environments, some acidic, some alkaline, increase the possibility that there are places on Mars that could reveal evidence of past life, if it ever existed.
Since moving into position 186 miles above Mars' surface in October 2006, the orbiter also has conducted 10,000 targeted observation sequences of high-priority areas. It has imaged nearly 40 percent of the planet at a resolution that can reveal house-sized objects in detail, with one percent in enough detail to see desk-sized features. This survey has covered almost 60 percent of Mars in mineral mapping bands at stadium-size resolution. The orbiter also assembled nearly 700 daily global weather maps, dozens of atmospheric temperature profiles, and hundreds of radar profiles of the subsurface and the interior of the polar caps.
"These observations are now at the level of detail necessary to test hypotheses about when and where water has changed Mars and where future missions will be most productive as they search for habitable regions on Mars," said Richard Zurek, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter project scientist at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, Calif.
Included in the observations are hundreds of stereo pairs used to make detailed topography maps and classic images in support of other Mars missions. One image showed the Mars rover Opportunity poised on the rim of Victoria Crater, and another was of NASA's Phoenix Mars Lander during its descent to the surface. Orbiter data prompted the Phoenix team to change the spacecraft's landing site, and are being used to select the landing location for NASA's Mars Science Laboratory, which is scheduled for launch in 2011. For five months of Phoenix operations on Mars that ended in November, the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and NASA's Mars Odyssey orbiter shared the vital communications roles of relaying commands to the lander, and data from Phoenix back to Earth.
The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter has found repetitive layering in Mars' permanent polar ice caps. The patterns suggest climate change cycles continuing to the present. They may record possible effects of cyclical changes in Mars' tilt and orbit on global sunlight patterns. Recent climate cycles are indicated by radar detection of subsurface icy deposits outside the polar regions, closer to the equator, where near-surface ice is not permanently stable. Other results reveal details of ancient streambeds, atmospheric hazes and motions of water, along with the ever-changing weather on Mars.
Most observations from the orbiter will be discontinued for a few weeks while the sun is between Earth and Mars, which will disrupt communications. This month, the orbiter will begin a new phase, with science observations continuing as Mars makes another orbit around the sun, which takes approximately two Earth years.
"This spacecraft truly exemplifies the best in capabilities to support science and other Martian spacecraft activities," said Michael Meyer, lead scientist for the Mars Exploration Program at NASA Headquarters in Washington. "MRO has exceeded its own goals and our expectations. We look forward to more discoveries as we continue to look at the Red Planet in spectacular detail."
NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena manages the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter for NASA's Science Mission Directorate, Washington. Lockheed Martin Space Systems, Denver, is the prime contractor for the project and built the spacecraft.
Guy Webster 818-354-6278
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California
Dwayne Brown 202-358-1726
NASA Headquarters, Washington, D.C.
NEWS RELEASE: 2008-234 | <urn:uuid:c5f42775-aaed-4f35-9c69-88114e19d738> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/news/whatsnew/index.cfm?FuseAction=ShowNews&NewsID=188 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00089-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.925706 | 851 | 3.671875 | 4 |
"W.A. is a fraud - The curse of the country is gold, as sheep are the curse of the East. A more sordid, vulgar condition of things would be impossible to conceive. The old sand-gropers are the best to work for or to have dealings with. The Othersiders are cutting each others throats. W.A. is a huge camp of adventurers and failures."The discovery of gold in Western Australia was a long awaited and much anticipated event. Although there had been several small discoveries in the Kimberley in the late 1880s, the discovery of significant deposits of alluvial gold in Coolgardie (1892) and Kalgoorlie (1893) triggered a boom which broke more than six decades of economic stagnation.
Henry Lawson spent three months in Perth during 1896 before returning to the East when he ran out of money and optimism, never making it as far as the goldfields. He was just one of tens of thousands of t'othersiders who flocked to the West to find their fortunes. For most, all they found were hardships.
The miners of the goldfields were, for the most part, unhappy with the Forrest government in Perth. Individual representatives like Frederick Vosper gave voice to their grievances while the goldfields became a stronghold of the union movement - the West Australian Labor Party also had its origins in a conference held at Kalgoorlie in 1899.
For Western Australia, gold brought prosperity. Increased government revenues from licences, fees, tariffs and other taxes enabled Forrest to undertake major public works programs such as the supply of water to the goldfields and other regional areas. More importantly the boom brought much needed people to the colony. Once deposits of alluvial gold began to run out, miners settled in the colony providing labour for industries and settlers for new farming areas.
Most importantly the influx of immigrants brought with it new ideas and a sense of vibrancy, giving renewed vitality to the colony. From a population of 46,000 in 1890 the new State of Western Australia recorded a population of 180,000 in the first census of 1901. | <urn:uuid:35ea5df1-bb7c-4290-a5e3-ab3897965033> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://slwa.wa.gov.au/federation/fed/016_gold.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00116-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965914 | 431 | 3.453125 | 3 |
Power line communication (PLC) is a technology which uses existing electric power lines for data transmission.
Electrical voltage is big and alternatively slow (figure), while a data signal's voltage is small and alternatively fast (figure).
Since these waves have different frequencies, there is no cross interference when combing them (figure).
The overlapping signals are divided and the data signal is extracted by the PLC adaptor (figure).
This makes it possible to send data signals through power lines.
High-speed Internet wiring using optical fibers and ADSL bores a hole in the wall to activate an in-home broadband-router. This distributes data to each room by using wireless and/or wired LAN. However, these wires are not aesthetically pleasing and draw the eye away from household decorations. These can even cause wireless communication failure by interference.
A universal in-home networking system can be easily and conveniently built as PLC technology transforms wall power-outlets into information outlets.
HD-PLC Alliance’s mission is to achieve a universal networking world by promoting HD-PLC, one of the PLC technologies. | <urn:uuid:100307ff-4b5d-4601-b615-10fd7adae7e6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.hd-plc.org/modules/about/plc.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00171-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.907421 | 233 | 3.375 | 3 |
Evening primrose (Oenothera biennis) is an American native biennial plant. For some, it is considered to be a weed because it self-seeds rapidly and establishes itself easily. However, provided it's kept under control, evening primrose has delightful fragrant flowers that open at dusk (to attract the moths) and it is a plant with a number of important medical uses.
1Be sure that it is legal or appropriate to plant evening primrose where you are. Consider your local environment and biodiversity before adding a plant that sprawls with great ease.
2Purchase or obtain evening primrose seed.
3Sow the seed in late spring. Choose soil that is well-drained and in a sunny position. The type of soil isn't really an issue provided it drains well. Evening primrose will grow in cool, warm, hot, arid, places; it's not too fussy.
4Thin the seedlings to 30cm/12".
5Water until established. Do not over-water.
6Let it grow. Evening primrose "thrives on neglect" so it's fairly hard to lose it for lack of nurture. The real problem is keeping it under control because it self-seeds so readily. Be prepared to clean up any spread regularly.
- Snap off the flower stems after the blooms fade and discard of them. Doing this will prevent the seeds from ripening and spreading.
- Every part of the plant is considered to be edible; the roots are nutty and can be boiled and eaten like a vegetable; the leaves can be added to salads as greens; the seeds can be dried out and chewed.
Things You'll Need
- Evening primrose seeds
- Growing area
- Pruning shears to remove flower heads before seeds ripen
Categories: Growing Herbs and Spices
In other languages:
Thanks to all authors for creating a page that has been read 35,226 times. | <urn:uuid:e26c07c7-a682-4e10-bbb2-8ca84e47db9d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wikihow.com/Grow-Evening-Primrose | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397111.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00150-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947372 | 411 | 3.03125 | 3 |
The Cape Borda lighthouse is the shortest (10 metres high) and highest (155 metres above sea level) lighthouse in Australia. Located on the remote north-west corner of Kangaroo Island, the lighthouse has been in operation since 1858. Cape Borda lighthouse is the 3rd oldest lighthouse and only square shaped lighthouse in South Australia. The small canon was originally put in place to be fired during fog to signal shiops of danger but since its restoration in 1999 the cannon is fired daily at 1pm. The headland is named after the French mathematician, physicist, naturalist, and sailor Jean-Charles de Borda.
There are no kangaroos in Austria. We're talking about Australia, the world's smallest continent. That being cleared up, let's dive right in! Australia is a sovereign state under the Commonwealth of Nations, which is in turn overseen by Queen Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, Queen of Australia and Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth. The continent was first sighted and charted by the Dutch in 1606. Captain James Cook of Britain came along in the next century to claim it for Britain and name it "New South Wales." Shortly thereafter it was declared to be a penal colony full of nothing but criminals and convicts, giving it the crap reputation you may have heard at your last cocktail party. This rumor ignores 40,000 years of pre-European human history, especially the Aboriginal concept of Dreamtime, an interesting explanation of physical and spiritual reality. The two biggest cities in Australia are Sydney and Melbourne. Sydney is more for business, Melbourne for arts. But that's painting in very broad strokes. Take a whirl around the panoramas to see for yourself! Text by Steve Smith. | <urn:uuid:c1cc4edf-34cf-4536-901b-e218efe74353> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.360cities.net/image/lighthouse-cape-borda-kangaroo-island-south-australia | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00005-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963453 | 358 | 2.8125 | 3 |
Authors: Mario Everaldo de Souza
It is proposed that the arms of spiral galaxies are formed by the continuous outflow of matter from their centers. It is then shown that the ratio between the radial and tangential velocities of the outflow is the parameter responsible for the logarithmic spiral structure of spiral galaxies. The fitting of some spiral galaxies to the model allows the calculation of the expansion velocities of matter in these galaxies and such values completely agree with the observational data. An approximate universal equation is proposed for the description of the arms of spiral galaxies with or without bars. Some important consequences are discussed with respect to dark matter, galactic evolution, cosmology, and the Milky Way. It is, particularly, concluded that dark matter does not exist in spiral galaxies.
Comments: 10 Pages. Presented at the APS April 2013 Meeting , Denver, CO, USA, published at Frontiers in Science, 3(2), 2013
Unique-IP document downloads: 281 times
Add your own feedback and questions here:
You are equally welcome to be positive or negative about any paper but please be polite. If you are being critical you must mention at least one specific error, otherwise your comment will be deleted as unhelpful. | <urn:uuid:739c2082-e7df-494f-bc17-b6cd93291cb9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://vixra.org/abs/1112.0014 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00163-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.89788 | 254 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Stefania Podgorska, at the age of 14, worked in a grocery store in Przemyl owned by the Diamants, a Jewish family. Stefania grew very close to the Diamants, who eventually took her in after the Nazi invasion of September 1939. She continued to live with the Diamants and work at the store even after the Soviet occupation that occurred subsequent to the defeat and dismemberment of Poland by Germany and the USSR.
In June 1941, the Nazis again occupied Przemyl. Like all Jews, the Diamants were forced into a ghetto. Furthermore, Stefania’s mother was sent to Germany for forced labor. Stefania, now 16 years old, was on her own and left to care for her 6-year-old sister. She found an apartment outside the ghetto and survived by trading clothes for food. In 1942, she learned that the ghetto was being liquidated. She decided to help her Jewish neighbors escape the final roundups by hiding them. She moved to a cottage for more space to accommodate the growing number of fugitives. At one point, she had 13 Jews living in a secret space in her attic.
In July 1944, Przemyl was liberated. All of the Jews that Stefania helped to hide survived. In 1961, she moved to the United States with her husband Josef Burzminski, a Jew who had escaped from a boxcar transporting him to the Belzec death camp and who went to Stefania for assistance.
Edited by Stephanie Surach | <urn:uuid:d33a92f5-4ca3-4386-b1ca-8c1c33c44d50> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.raoulwallenberg.net/general/stefania-fusia-podgorska/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00025-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.988512 | 319 | 3.171875 | 3 |
I love to use games for my students to practice their skills. Games bring into play several important concepts from Brain Based Learning. (Pardon the pun!) Plus, they're fun!
FYI - Images are links to Amazon, in case you're interested!
Here are ten games that are easy to use:
1. Around the World This is typically a game to drill basic math facts, but it really can be used in many different ways. The children sit in a circle. One person starts the game by standing behind another child. Those two children compete to be the first to answer a fact. Whoever wins, goes to stand behind the next child. The contests continue around the circle until someone moves all the way "around the world". Math facts on cards work well, but I've also used clocks, cards with money, or fraction cards. I've never tried, but I'm sure it can be played with sight words, too.
2. Twenty questions This game is older than I am, but really gets the kids thinking and asking questions. It's a great time filler. The only rule: all questions must be "yes or no" questions. After a few times through, the kids catch onto generalities such as "Is it an animal?" With my little ones, I try to limit it to general categories, and I have them write down what they've chosen for the others to guess. (Sometimes I'll even give them slips of paper to choose that are related to things we've been learning.)
3. Jeopardy There are so many possibilities with Jeopardy! It does take a little planning, but the kids love it! Here's a link to make your own game!
4. Yahtzee This is a great way to practice those addition skills as well as add the thinking skills! It takes some strategy to play Yahtzee! Beware, it's addicting!
5. Apples to Apples My students could play this all day, and why not? It practices their reading skills as well as thinking skills such as categorizing. The best part: you'll hear lots of giggling!
6. Scrabble Combining spelling, vocabulary, adding, and strategy, it's a win-win-win-win, even if they lose!
7. Dominoes Dominoes are great for practicing math facts! They add the two sides together to find the sum! The best part is when they get the fact correct, they can build with the dominoes. My kids LOVE this!
8. Twenty One If we were in Vegas, they'd call it Black Jack. Yep, it's the same game, without the gambling. Students get two cards, add them together, and decide if they want another card. It's addition and strategy, and it's fun!
9. Dice There are tons of games to be played with dice. I have lots of them! The children can add the sum of two dice, or they can add three (or more) if they're ready! They also can roll two dice and make a two digit number out of it, then roll a second two digit number to add (or subtract). I do these two digit number games often, where the children write the numbers on their whiteboards and add them up. Sometimes we use the base ten blocks to "act it out" as well.
10. Any Board Game With a little tweaking, one can turn any board game into a learning game. Before each turn, the children have to perform some sort of task. It can be a math fact, a vocabulary word, a math challenge, task cards, or just about anything.
Games are a big part of my classroom, as you might have guessed. This is just the beginning. I'd love to hear your ideas for classroom games, too! | <urn:uuid:6948ff0e-0763-422c-b6de-56c9240d5083> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.elementarymatters.com/2012_02_01_archive.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394414.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00150-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967498 | 787 | 3.609375 | 4 |
(1906-1978) Austrian philosopher and mathematician. Famous for 'Godel's Proof'.
Godel's Incompleteness Theorem by Dale Myers.
Gödel's Ontological Argument
Paper by Chris Small about Gödel's proof of the existence of God.
Gödel: A Life of Logic
By John L. Casti and Werner DePauli. Book review of this biography.
Kenny's Overview of Hofstadter's Explanation of Gödel's Theorem
A reasonably detailed explanation of Godel's Theorem by Kenny Felder.
Biography from the MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.
Portraits and photographs, including some of his family.
A brief biography of the man.
Kurt Gödel in Blue Hill
A brief account of Kurt Gödel's trip to Blue Hill, Maine, in the summer of 1942, by Peter Suber.
Other languages 2
Last update:March 24, 2015 at 12:10:39 UTC | <urn:uuid:987a5f34-1709-418d-a262-9ec49ccc4092> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Math/Logic_and_Foundations/History/People/G%C3%B6del%2C_Kurt/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393518.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00046-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.813857 | 206 | 2.75 | 3 |
Using ultrasound waves, researchers from MIT and Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH) have found a way to enable ultra-rapid delivery of drugs to the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. This approach could make it easier to deliver drugs to patients suffering from GI disorders such as inflammatory bowel disease, ulcerative colitis, and Crohn’s disease, the researchers say.
Currently, such diseases are usually treated with drugs administered as an enema, which must be maintained in the colon for hours while the drug is absorbed. However, this can be difficult for patients who are suffering from diarrhea and incontinence. To overcome that, the researchers sought a way to stimulate more rapid drug absorption.
“We’re not changing how you administer the drug. What we are changing is the amount of time that the formulation needs to be there, because we’re accelerating how the drug enters the tissue,” says Giovanni Traverso, a research affiliate at MIT’s Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, a gastroenterologist at MGH, and one of the senior authors of a paper describing the technique in the Oct. 21 issue of Science Translational Medicine.
“With additional research, our technology could prove invaluable in both clinical and research settings, enabling improved therapies and expansion of research techniques applied to the GI tract. It demonstrates for the first time the active administration of drugs, including biologics, through the GI tract,” says Daniel Blankschtein, the Hermann P. Meissner Professor in Chemical Engineering, who is also a senior author of the paper.
Robert Langer, the David H. Koch Institute Professor at MIT and a member of the Koch Institute, is also a senior author of the paper. The study’s lead author is Carl Schoellhammer, a graduate student in chemical engineering.
Langer began exploring the possibility of using ultrasound to enhance drug delivery 30 years ago. In 1995, he and Blankschtein reported in Science that ultrasound could enable delivery of drugs through the skin, but until now it had not been explored in the GI tract.
“We've been working on ultrasound as a means to enhance transport through materials and skin since the mid-1980s, and I think the implications of this new approach have the potential to aid many patients,” Langer says.
Ultrasound improves drug delivery by a mechanism known as transient cavitation. When a fluid is exposed to sound waves, the waves induce the formation of tiny bubbles that implode and create microjets that can penetrate and push medication into tissue.
In this study, the researchers first tested their new approach in the pig GI tract, where they found that applying ultrasound greatly increased absorption of both insulin, a large protein, and mesalamine, a smaller molecule often used to treat colitis.
“Demonstrating delivery of molecules with a wide range of sizes, including active biologics, underscores the potentially broad areas in which this technology could be applied,” says Schoellhammer, who won the $15,000 Lemelson-MIT “Cure it!” Student Prize earlier this year for this research and for a microneedle pill that delivers drugs directly into GI tissue. The team also reached the finals of the MIT $100K Entrepreneurship Competition.
The researchers next investigated whether ultrasound-enhanced drug delivery could effectively treat disease in animals.
In tests of mice, the researchers found that they could resolve colitis symptoms by delivering mesalamine followed by one second of ultrasound every day for two weeks. Giving this treatment every other day also helped, but delivering the drug without ultrasound had no effect.
They also showed that ultrasound-enhanced delivery of insulin effectively lowered blood sugar levels in pigs.
“The capabilities of the technology are quite well demonstrated. This technology has great utility in localized as well as systemic delivery of drugs,” says Samir Mitragotri, a professor of systems biology and bioengineering at the University of California at Santa Barbara. Mitragotri was also an author of the 1995 Science paper on ultrasound drug delivery but was not involved in the new research.
While inflammatory GI diseases are an obvious first target for this type of drug delivery, it could also be used to administer drugs for colon cancer or infections of the GI tract, Traverso says. The researchers are now performing additional animal studies to help them optimize the ultrasound device and prepare it for testing in human patients. | <urn:uuid:1a4ae61e-9875-42fb-81f6-9694c372c3b0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://news.mit.edu/2015/ultrasound-drug-delivery-inflammatory-bowel-disease-1021 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00145-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946388 | 924 | 2.9375 | 3 |
Queensland's history is vibrant and diverse reaching back more than 40,000 years when Aboriginal people and Torres Strait Islanders first inhabited the landscape. Queensland memory is filled with stories that tell of discovery and development from Queensland's stunning coastline to the rugged outback; of connections from communities in the south to the pristine islands of the Torres Strait; and of journeys overland and across seas.
State Library of Queensland, mainly through the John Oxley Library, has a vital role in preserving and sharing Queensland's history by collecting contemporary and retrospective content that chronicles events, people, places and ideas that continue to shape Queensland.
State Library encourages the development of new knowledge about Queensland's history through the John Oxley Library blog, the Queensland Memory Awards, special research initiatives, and in its support for local collections and the distributed collection of Queensland memory.
Collecting our present for our future
Queensland is a vast state, enjoying diversity in its culture, places and experiences. This is just as true of contemporary Queensland as it was in the past.
The John Oxley Library, is not only committed to collecting Queensland's history and heritage, but also to collecting evidence of Queensland's contemporary life and culture.
Collecting aspects of contemporary life allows us to preserve the present for the future, so that we can look back at the people, events, experiences, feelings and values of today.
What aspects do we collect of Contemporary Queensland?
The John Oxley Library seeks to reflect and react to contemporary Queensland by gathering materials that represent the society and culture of our time.
It might focus on: current events that impact widely; the every day contemporary life of individuals, families, organisations or businesses; or current popular culture in its various forms.
An example of this can be found in the various digital photograph collections that captured the 2011 Queensland floods.
How is Contemporary Queensland material captured?
The John Oxley Library is particularly focused on capturing and collecting the present through different and new and emerging technologies. Examples include:
- Websites through the PANDORA intiative
- eserials, such as newsletters, magazines and journals
- ebooks, reports and other one-off publications
- born-digital images
- digital video footage
- oral histories and digital stories.
Archives and manuscripts
The John Oxley Library holds an extensive collection of archives and manuscripts that document the social, cultural, economic and political development of Queensland. The collection consists of unpublished material including personal papers, dairies, correspondence, original maps, plans, business and organisational records.
Search John Oxley Library's collections of archives and manuscripts through One Search.
State Library houses hundreds of thousands of items in its collections from local communities and regions throughout Queensland in a variety of formats including oral histories, manuscripts maps, books, artworks, objects, and photographs. Significant resources about local communities can be found in the John Oxley Library heritage collections.
Investigate Local Content
John Oxley Library caters to a wide range of users, from the academic to the casual browser who may be looking for information about their local community, their regions and Queensland. The collections are used by local and family historians, research scholars, business and industry, university and school students, historical societies, general readers, government departments and the media.
We have an extensive and ongoing digitisation program that focuses on Queensland places, ensuring access to local community history online via many platforms many of which are located in the library's catalogue One Search.
Queensland Memory enewsletter
Subscribe to the Queensland memory bi-monthly enewsletter to keep up to date with heritage collections and activities across Queensland, including World War I centenary commemorations.
Discover an eclectic range of books, gifts, reproduction prints and more at the Library Shop. | <urn:uuid:e131ea59-5197-4ebd-ac4b-25514ac889dd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.slq.qld.gov.au/resources/qld-history | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00004-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.929291 | 775 | 3.046875 | 3 |
in calling the attention of the House to the Report of the Committee on the Military Defences of the Colonies, said, he thought it was essential to a proper discussion of the Army Estimates that the expenditure of the country upon colonial defences should be brought before the House. He was induced to introduce the subject now because he might not have another opportunity of doing so, and because if it were to be discussed at all it ought to be before supply was granted for the army. They were about to vote £15,000,000 for the Army Estimates, and of that sum upwards of £4,000,000 was disposed of in colonial defences. He could show that a great deal of this money was unnecessarily voted—that it was uselessly thrown away; while at the same time the resources and rightful obligations of large 1827 portions of the Empire in men and money were refused, although both could be readily enlisted in Her Majesty's service. A Committee had sat upon the subject of the Colonial Defences, and he wished now to know whether the Government intended to act upon their Report, and if not, what was going to be done. It was in March, 1859, that the gallant General (General Peel) then at the head of the War Office, communicated with the Colonial Office and the Treasury his sense of the immense inconvenience and mischief produced by the existing system, and urged upon them the necessity of coming to some definite principle as to the distribution of the expenditure on colonial defences between his own and the Colonial Department. General Peel then laid down, as the basis of an equitable arrangement, the double principle that the Home Government ought to contribute to the defence of the Colonies from invasion, but that the colonists should provide wholly for their own internal defence, and that any expenditure by the mother country for that purpose ought to be reimbursed from the colonial funds. The gallant General then proposed the formation of a Committee formed of representatives of three offices—the War Office, the Colonial Office, and the Treasury—to consider the best means of devising better arrangements. That Committee was formed and consisted of Mr. Hamilton (the Secretary of the Treasury and formerly a highly respected Member of that House) as representative of the Treasury; Mr. Godley (a man of the highest ability and worth, and one whose opinion upon a question like this was of the greatest value because of his vast acquaintance with colonial matters) from the War Office; and Mr. Eliott (also a man of eminent ability) from the Colonial Office. Mr. Godley was one of the founders of the Colony of Canterbury, in New Zealand, one of the most successful colonies this country had ever established. He (Mr. Adderley) could himself bear testimony to its success, having been one of the original adventurers in the scheme with Mr. Godley, and being in the receipt of large and ample dividends arising from the unexampled and unchecked prosperity of the colony. That Committee made its Report. To that Report he desired the particular attention of the House on various grounds. Questions of considerable import were involved in its consideration. It was important on the ground of economy; it had an important bearing upon the efficiency of the army, which, as 1828 the hon. and gallant General (Sir De Lacy Evans) had just stated was now scattered over the globe; but thirdly, it was important because it showed that the safety and vigour of our colonies were materially impaired by the present system. He intended, first, to state the principles laid down by the Report; secondly, the objections advanced by Mr. Elliott, in an appendix, to some of those principles; and thirdly, to show the fallacy of those objections. The Report showed, first, that the colonies of England contributed to the expense of their own defences about one-tenth part only, and it stated that such a state of things was quite novel in the whole world's history and an entire innovation on the former treatment of her Colonies by England. It was absolutely unparalleled in the history of the world that any portion of an empire—colonial, provincial, or otherwise—should be so exempted, both in purse and person, from the cost of its own defences. He did not believe that, there was one Englishman in a thousand who was well acquainted with the history of our earliest colonies; but those who knew it would remember that for a century and a half the original American colonists had maintained their own defences without any assistance from the mother country, and had not only maintained peace within their own borders, but had even defeated the regular armies of Spain, France, Holland, and other countries repeatedly with their own Militia troops. Graham, the historian of the early American colonists, showed how England used to go to war in those days, and the zeal with which the colonists readily supplied not only money but troops. In 1710, when England was engaged in a contest with France, the American militia, being disappointed in the arrival of the English regular army, obtained permission to take the field alone, and added Port Royal and Acadia to the dominions of the Crown. A far more memorable instance was that of the taking of Louisburg in 1745, when the young English colonies, exposed to danger on all sides, absolutely themselves, unaided by a single man from England, raised a force, both military and naval, and took Cape Breton, the Gibraltar of America, and added it to the dominions of the Crown. The Mutiny Act of England was never extended to America until 1740, and it was then that the introduction of English troops began there, never censing until the emancipation of those colonies, produced mainly by the interference of the mother country. 1829 The present sysem was not only an innovation, but one of the most inconsistent and anomalous description. No definite rule existed; for some colonies which as Imperial stations had a right to have Imperial garrisons, contributed most, and those which had no claim for assistance contributed least. Another aggravation was the treatment of the troops in regard to colonial allowances. In some rich colonies Her Majesty's troops received allowances in addition to their pay. The consequence was, that the pay of the troops stationed in less liberal colonies where no such allowances were made was necessarily increased out of our Treasury beyond the regular pay of our army; and where this was not done continual grumblings and discontent prevailed. When Earl Grey was at the head of the Colonial Office, be suggested that all that England should undertake to maintain in each colony was that amount of force which might be considered necessary for Imperial purposes. Very ample reasons were given in the Report for not adopting that proposition. He thought the Report sufficiently disposed of the proposition and principles laid down by Lord Grey. What was sufficient for Imperial purposes? He suspected hardly two Gentlemen in the House would give the same opinion on that point; some would say that no force at all, others that a very large one, was required. This proposition, in fact, left it to the discretion of the Government to determine what force was required, which was the cry practice at present found so mischievous, that a Committee had been formed to get rid of it. The force which might be deemed sufficient dining peace would, of course, prove insufficient in time of war; but that was just the time when the mother country could least spare any troops. The Report laid down the only principle which appeared to him capable of application to the case, and that was the classification of all English dependencies into Imperial stations and self-governed Colonies. It recommended that the cost of those posts which were established by the Imperial Government for their own purposes, whether warlike, as at Gibraltar and Malta, or philanthropic, as in West Africa, should be defrayed out of the Imperial Treasury. The Report included in the second class the territories of Colonies which had each a Government of its own, and declared that there was no reason whatever why this country should contribute a farthing towards the defence of those Colonics, or that 1830 they should be exempted from bearing their full share of the cost, except that the Imperial Government had the power to determine the questions of peace and war, or, in other words, that the Colonies were not represented in the Imperial Parliament. He would next come to the objections raised by Mr. Elliott to portions of the Report. Mr. Elliott acknowledged that there were gross anomalies in the existing system, and that it was impossible that England should undertake to defend all her Colonies throughout the world, and be illustrated that position very tersely in his Appendix. He said, when the Emperors of France and Austria went to war in Italy it was immediately proposed to construct new batteries at the Cape of Good Hope. That was a proposal to strengthen this country in the event of her being involved in a European war, by locking up 100 artillerymen on the most southerly coast of South Africa. It was an illustration of the system of England with regard to all her Colonies. Mr. Elliott, however, denied the soundness of the principle laid down by the Committee, that the non-representation of the Colonies in the British Parliament constituted the only reason for their exemption from paying the cost of their own defences, and insisted that mere self-interest ought to induce us to defray some part of that outlay, because the Colonies consumed more of our produce than other countries, he also objected to the recommendation of the Report that a fixed rule and rate of aid should be laid down on which England should assist the Colonies. He (Mr. Adderley) thought be should have little difficulty in showing the utter fallacy on which Mr. Elliott based his objections. He would not accept the position that the Colonies should bear their full share of their own expenses, even if they were represented in Parliament. He would still have some reason why they should be exempted, even though they were represented as much as Scotland; on what ground such partiality should be exercised towards portions of the Empire, he utterly fails to show. As to Mr. Elliott's reason that the Colonies had other claims on this country and that self-interest induced us to contribute to the expense of the Colonies, because they imported more of our produce than foreign countries, that was simply the old fallacy which existed before the principles of political economy were so well known as now. Sir George Grey, the Governor of the Cape of Good Hope, had recently expressed the 1831 same opinion in a speech in London, in which he said that upon every article the colonists imported from this country they paid something towards the Imperial taxation. Why, if that was contributing to their own defences then every country in the world that took our produce did the same thing, and we ought to pay for the local expenses of every foreign country dealing with us on the same ground of self-interest. But absurd as his inference is, he is still less sound in his premises. Mr. Elliott pointed to Australia as consuming per head a larger amount of the produce of Great Britain than the United States, and drew the conclusion that therefore a dependent country consumed more than an independent one. That argument was completely exposed by Mr. Godley, who showed that the opposite conclusion might be supported by the same logic, because Canada imported less per head than the United States, and the United States themselves imported more largely after they became independent than before, even in rate of importation per head. There are, therefore, more data for expecting importation from independent, than from dependent, countries. Of course all these arguments were fallacious, because countries did not import produce from this country from political motives but from commercial requirements. With regard to Mr. Elliott's second objection to a fixed rate of aid towards the defences of our Colonies, the Report recommended that the rate should he laid down, from which there should be no deviation, save by way of exception. Mr. Elliott would have no such rate laid down as a rule, but would keep the matter still in the discretion of the Colonial Office, to say what amount of contribution this country should be charged with—the amount of money and the number of troops Her Majesty should contribute towards each of the Colonies. What Mr. Elliott proposed was simply to retain matters as they are. It was trusting to the discretion of the Colonial Office that had led to the present state of things. His proposition was to amend the present system by retaining the present system. The proposition of the Report was to lay down a fixed rule, and rate of aid. There could be very little question which of those two propositions was the wiser. Alteration was at least more in the way of amending a vicious system than simple retention. Mr. Elliott endeavoured, by way of some change, to classify the Colonies under four heads, instead of under two; but it would be found 1832 that the four resolved themselves into two, and he did not think that any mode could be devised of varying or increasing the classification under the two heads proposed in the Report. Mr. Elliott classified colonies according to the amount of European clement in their populations. Mr. Elliott said that from the number of coloured population the West Indies required a large contribution in men and money from this country; yet, singularly enough, the troops which protected those colonists from the coloured population were coloured troops. The case of the West Indies best illustrated the advantage of a fixed rule, because if any deviation from a fixed rule could be justified, it would be in their case where the Imperial policy had interfered with the local government, interrupted their command of labour, and embarrassed the relations of the colonists to their population, and where their policy being exceptional, the treatment might also be justly exceptional. How much bettor to treat exceptional cases exceptionally, than to have no rule, because there must be exceptions! He concluded that Mr. Elliott, having been so long connected with the Colonial Office, gave a fair example of how the discretion which he advocated would be used. Mr. Elliott said of Ceylon that they contributed more than other colonists to their own defence, and there was some question whether they should not contribute still more, but at this moment they were engaged in making a large outlay on railways and other works, and it was clear that whatever was taken extra for defence would be deducted from those very useful public works. People in England were engaged in railway undertakings and other remunerating enterprises, and yet every poor man was taxed for national defence; but according to Mr. Elliott, colonists who were undertaking public works ought to be exempted from the usual liability of citizens, and all the cost of their defence be added to the taxation of this country. The Government have stated that the present state of things could not be allowed to continue; they had asked for a Committee; they had formed a Committee representing three Departments of the Government. This most important Report was before the House, and he wished to know how the Government intended to deal with it. The Report proposed material changes in the system, and changes which he thought would be of very great benefit to this country, by improving the efficiency of the army and diminishing taxation, and 1833 to the colonies by insuring their vigour and safety. If the Government were not prepared to act upon it—he did not mean hastily, but by declaring that they would gradually carry the principle recommended in the Report into effect,—would they suggest some plan of their own, or would they refer the subject to a Committee of the House? Before going into Committee of Supply upon £15,000,000 of Estimates, £4,000,000 of which he disputed as involving many useless items and still more mischievous principles, the Government ought to let them know what they were about to do upon this important subject.
§ LORD ROBERT CECIL
thought it a matter of regret that this departmental paper should have got into their hands. He did not think that the practice of substituting for a speech of a Minister the printed opinions of his permanent subordinate was likely to be attended with advantage, and in this instance the only result was to show that three officers of the Government had a serious difference of opinion upon the subject. There seemed to him no other way to settle the controversy than to refer the matter to a Committee of the House; and a further reason for doing so was, that he thought these three Gentlemen—especially Mr. Hamilton and Mr. Godley had exceeded the limits of the reference in their Report. The direction of General Peel was that they should examine into the best mode of saving to the country the expense of defending the Colonies and maintaining order within them; instead of which, Mr. Hamilton and Mr. Godley had gone into a metaphysical inquiry as to how best to promote patriotism and self-reliance, which was clearly beyond the purview of their duties. The right hon. Gentleman said that the fact that Mr. Godley had been a colonist and was in the War-Office gave a combined value to his report; he had a very high opinion of Mr. Godley, but having been in the same colony with that Gentleman he knew that' these opinions were there openly professed by Mr. Godley, and had, therefore, nothing to do with his tenure in the War-Office. He felt bound to dispute the statement that Canterbury was the most successful of all our colonies. It was a scheme which failed entirely in those points in which it differed from other schemes, and although it was perfectly true that 4,000 Englishmen, placed upon most fertile land, succeeded in supporting themselves, and rising to a flourishing condition, he could not allow 1834 the claim of Mr. Godley to be the leader of the most successful band of colonists which had ever left these shores. His right hon. Friend disputed £4,000,000 of those Estimates as useless; but the total amount for the Colonies was only £3,000,000, and half of that must be deducted for military garrisons, which it was necessary to maintain for Imperial purposes in different parts of the world—such as Malta and Gibraltar. That could not be charged as part of the expenses of the Colonies. His right hon. Friend had passed over very lightly the objection to the views of which he was the advocate, which was to be found in the fact that the Imperial Government was wont to make wars, for the cost of the prosecution of which the Colonies were compelled ultimately to provide the funds. It was indeed doubtful whether they would in many cases be put to any but the most trifling military expense were it not for the consequences which their connection with Great Britain entailed. When there was an impression that there might be a war between England and France there was a great panic in Australia; but it was solely upon this ground, that if the Imperial Government went to war the trade of Australia might he harassed by the enemy. So in the instance of Canada. If she dreaded the breaking out of hostilities with the United States she was apprehensive of that result chiefly because some dispute might arise between this country and the latter with respect to the Isthmus of Panama, the subject of recruiting, or for some similar reason. If we had to maintain a large force in Ceylon, it was simply because our Government of India might possibly create a ferment in the Native mind which might run on to Ceylon and render the services of troops necessary. So it was also with the other colonies; while in the case of the Cape of Good Hope and New Zealand a considerable force was required to keep the large native population at bay. It was true, indeed, that the Dutch needed hardly any assistance to keep the Caffres at bay; but then that was because they shot them as they would wild beasts, which our feeling would not permit us to do. Again, it had been our policy to plant two Republics which were rapidly growing in power to the north of the Cape Colony, presenting a constant source of danger, which, inasmuch as the establishment of those colonies was the direct act of the Imperial Legislature, it was bound to fur- 1835 nish the funds to meet. So it was in all cases, that wherever there was a necessity for troops that necessity arose simply from the connection of the Colonies with England, and from the danger of the Colonies being involved in England's quarrels. Now, Mr. Godley, in his paper which had been circulated the morning before, expressed it to be his opinion that it was desirable to reduce to a minimum the dependence of the Colonies; but it was perfectly obvious from the observations of his right hon. Friend that the object of those who supported that view was to destroy the dependence of the Colonies altogether. But if those opinions were carried into effect, and that the Colonies in the event of a breaking out of a French or Russian war were plundered by our enemies, the result would be that they would seek, as soon as possible, to put an end to a connection which they found to cost them extremely dear. His right hon. Friend had referred in support of his views to America, while Mr. Godley drew attention both to America and the Greek colonies of old, contending that in neither of those cases was it the custom to pay for colonial defence. But it should be remembered that in America the militia, which a spirit of patriotism and self-reliance had called into action, had been hardly so formed when it had been turned against England herself; while the Greek colonies could not be held to be colonies in our sense of the term. Corcyra, for instance, was no more a colony of Corinth than England was of Saxony, from which source a large amount of its population was derived, but upon which it was in no way dependent. The population, it was true, went from the old country to the new, but the dependence was merely nominal; and this was the state to which it was wished to reduce our colonial empire, at least it was a state of things which would be brought about by the policy recommended, whether it was wished or not. He did not think that there was any necessity for him to argue in favour of the continuance of our colonial system, for he believed that any proposition to abandon our Colonies would be hooted out of the House. He believed, however, that though our colonial empire could not be overthrown in that way, yet that it might be undermined; and he therefore most earnestly trusted that the Government would not take any action upon the recommendations in the docuuments in question—recommendations which had 1836 been made by a department unconnected with the Colonies—without submitting the matter for further consideration.
§ MR. CHICHESTER FORTESCUE
said, he was very glad the noble Lord had risen to address the House, inasmuch as he concurred in nearly the whole of the observations which he had made. He must, however, express his regret that the subject of those observations had been brought forward that evening by his right hon. Friend opposite (Mr. Adderley), inasmuch as, in the present state of the House, it was impossible that any satisfactory discussion with respect to it could take place, and as some hon. Members had left under the impression that the question would not be introduced. He regretted particularly the absence of the right hon. Gentleman who lately filled the office of Secretary for the Colonies (Sir E. Bulwer Lytton), who, he had reason to believe, would not lend his powerful aid in support of the views of which the right hon. Gentleman was the advocate. The right hon. Gentleman (Mr. Adderley) asked what course the Government intended to take in reference to the Report? It must not be forgotten that there were virtually two Reports, which were incompatible with each other. The right hon. Gentleman seemed to object very much to the classification of the Colonies made by Mr. Elliott, and to prefer that made by Mr. Godley. The latter gentleman, however, had really made no classification of the Colonies, as one of his classes contained them all, while the other comprised those military posts which are not Colonies. It appeared to him (Mr. Fortescue), on the other hand, that Mr. Elliott's classification was adapted to the state of things as it stood, and to the various and varying circumstances of the several communities which owned our sway. He found a number of communities differing in almost every respect; some, like Australia and America, of English origin, and others not, some young and growing, and others firmly established; he found islands which comprised the most extraordinary collection of races that had ever been brought together under any Government; and a number of dependencies with savage tribes on their frontiers or within their borders;—finding these circumstances existing, he adapted his advice to the facts with which he had to deal; and this circumstance very much recommended Mr. Elliott's Report to consideration. Now, the first of the Reports, to which the right 1837 hon. Gentleman had called the attention of the House, (Mr. Godley's), which had been sent in at the suggestion of the gallant General, who was then at the head of the War Department, was a very able document. But what did this Report do? Instead of preparing a scheme adapted to each Colony, according to its respective needs and capabilities, it attempted to lay down one rigid, uniform rule, as applicable alike to every one of our various and widely differing dependencies. It took away the whole of that discretion now exercised by the department of State concerned with these Colonies, and sought to supply the place of the judgment and discretion of the Secretary of Slate, by a kind of agency which was certainly simple enough—and, if possible, might be very convenient—but which he thought was an utter impossibility. It proposed to hand over to the Colonies the entire responsibility, management, and initiative in all matters relating to their military defences—a greater revolution could not well be conceived;—and, having handed over that power to the Colonies, this country was to contribute towards the expense of that military defence, not according to the wealth, danger, or necessities of the Colonies, but in one fixed and uniform proportion. Such a proposal, however ably defended, he could hardly believe any responsible Colonial Minister would undertake to carry into effect. It entirely disregarded the numerous differences that existed between our several Colonies, whether they were wealthy or poor, young or old, secure in their position, or exposed to internal or external foes. In short, it would be in practice entirely unworkable. The right hon. Gentleman had dwelt a good deal on what he considered the main motive and reason why this country should contribute in any degree to the protection of her dependencies—namely, that these were not represented in the Legislature, and that the power of peace and war was not in their hands. It was impossible to overrate the importance of that consideration; but it was not the only reason. Many of these dependencies could never have come into existence; and could not continue in existence now as separate and independent communities. It was only under the protection of this country, which sent them forth, that they could be maintained at all. Many of them were so small, that it was perfectly futile to speak of them as independent communities—if we chose to abandon them, they must attach themselves to some other State. 1838 A great part of the speech of the right hon. Gentleman referred, not to the proper mode or amount of our military contributions to our Colonies, but to the question whether we should maintain our Colonies at all. Now, hon. Gentlemen had undoubtedly a right to their opinions on that subject; but representing, as be did, the Colonial Office, he did not think it his duty to discuss such a question; he thought the business of that office was to keep the Colonies; and therefore he did not enter into any question of the value to us of the commerce of Australia and Canada, as compared with that of the United States. With respect to the motive for keeping up a force in our Colonies, it did not arise mainly from the problematic risk of a great European war; it was of a more pressing and immediate nature. In some of them, where any considerable amount of force was kept up, the danger arose not from any chance of a European war, but from the risk of hostilities with formidable Native tribes. Great as our expense had lately been at the Cape, it bad saved us the still greater expense of another Kaffir war; and that expense was already greatly lessened; for at present the force of all arms at the Capo was not much more than 4,000 men; whereas, when the Report was made, it was double that number. In Now Zealand, again, these charges were daily diminishing. While that was so, he entirely admitted that it was the duty of the Government to examine into the condition of every Colony, and endeavour, by every means in their power, to reduce the amount and cost of the force in each; and obtain from each the largest and fairest contribution towards its support. But the bead of the Colonial Office was not prepared to adopt the very simple but impossible scheme to which the name of Mr. Godley was attached. Mr. Godley rather taunted Mr. Elliott with not having proposed a rival scheme; but he entirely denied the justice of that accusation. It was Impossible by one stroke of the pen to unite all colonial and Imperial interests, and to produce one uniform self-acting scheme which would supply the place of the judgment, sagacity, and firmness of the Secretary of State in settling all those difficult and complicated questions, involving both colonial and Imperial interests. It was the duty of a Colonial Minister to take the case of each colony or group of colonies into separate consideration, dealing with it according to its special circumstances and requirements, 1839 and, while reducing its demands upon the Imperial Exchequer to the lowest practicable limits consistent with safety, also to foster and stimulate the feeling of self-reliance in the minds of the colonists. The right hon. Gentleman had passed very lightly over the military spirit which undoubtedly existed in the great colony of Canada. In our Australian colonies, likewise, there was a rapidly growing spirit of self-defence—a sentiment which it was most desirable to cultivate to the utmost. Those colonies were most favourably situated. Separated from the great Powers of Europe by thousands of miles of ocean, and with no formidable tribes on their frontiers, their need of the protection of Imperial troops was reduced to very narrow limits. He would not, however, say that they should be wholly divested of that protection, because he should be sorry to see any great dependency of the British Crown entirely denuded of a certain number of English redcoats. Feeling and reason went to a great extent together in this matter, and it would be undesirable that these colonial communities should be left unprovided with a moderate body of the mother-country's military force. The colonies of Australia already contributed a large portion of the expenditure upon their own defence—one of them considerably more than half the entire amount. And let him remind the House that if, following out the recommendation of the Report, one fixed and uniform rule were applied indiscriminately to all our Colonies, we should be driven to this absurd result—that we should have to reject a portion of the sum now contributed by these rich and growing communities. Such an uniform rule must be adapted to the circumstances of the weakest and poorest of our Colonies, which could not be expected to pay more, perhaps, than one-third of the cost of its defence—a proportion much below that which was derived, and properly derived, from a wealthy colony like Victoria. The subject was, however, a very large and complicated one, and it was impossible on an occasion like the present to treat it as it deserved. With respect to the question put by the right hon. Gentleman to the Government, he could now only answer, speaking for his noble Friend at the head of the Colonial Department, that he would use his best endeavours to restrict the Imperial expenditure upon colonial defence within the smallest possible compass—to induce, and if necessary compel, certain colonies, New 1840 Zealand for example, to contribute more than they now did towards their own protection. But at the same time his noble Friend could not undertake to carry out one rigid uniform scheme, which it was impossible to adapt to all the varying exigencies and capacities of our different dependencies.
§ MR. A. MILLS
said, it was not the pre-per time on the Motion for going into Committee of Supply to discuss so important a question as the military expenditure of our Colonial Empire, and he expressed a hope that the Government would consent to its being referred to a Select Committee. The Report on our colonial defences, to which allusion had been made, was a very valuable document, and he placed great reliance on Mr. Elliot's opinion. The recommendation made by the hon. Member for Pontefract (Mr. Childers) with regard to colonial military expenditure was deserving of consideration, because, as the Estimates were now framed, there was great difficulty in ascertaining what was paid by the Colonies, and what by the Imperial Government. He was inclined to think that the amount of our colonial expenditure was exaggerated; and though it was not to be denied that England should frame her colonial policy on the model of that of France, yet it was worthy of remark, that the single colony of Algeria cost France more in one year than the whole Imperial expenditure of England in the fifty Colonies of her Empire. He looked upon the charge for fortifications for the Colonies as an extravagant one, and he doubted if we got value for it in the event of any contingency arising. Large works for fortifications had been carried on at Quebec. We had spent there two millions, and a quarter of a million at Halifax. The only value those works were to us was in the event of the United States making a descent on Canada; but for it to be successful they must suppose sympathy on the part of the colonists and determined aggression on the part of the United States. If such a contingency were to arise it would not be by fortifications or by any conceivable military preparations, that our North American Colonies would be preserved to us, and therefore it was that he desired the expenditure with reference to our colonies should be so judiciously expended that we should get a corresponding benefit from it. The absence of any great military road through Canada was an illustration of the illogical character of our policy in this matter. The only access for troops into 1841 the interior of Canada during seven months of the year was through the State of Maine, by way of Portland, and yet we spent vast sums in fortifying colonial cities, to which, in the hour of danger, we should be unable to send succour. He (Mr. Mills) repeated the expressions of his hope that the Government would allow the whole subject of colonial defences, the revisions of which was a necessary corollary to the adoption of the principle of colonial self-government, to be referred to an impartial Select Committee of the House of Commons. | <urn:uuid:22357d47-8159-4561-b3aa-70fae06e2064> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1860/may/31/military-defences-of-the-colonies | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00176-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.986081 | 7,173 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Healthy Communities Program (2008-2012)
CDC’s Healthy Communities Program (HCP) worked through local, state, territory, and national partnerships to prevent chronic diseases and reduce health gaps.
HCP helped to increase the skills and commitment of community leaders and stakeholders to develop and promote lasting strategies that help people make healthy choices where they live, learn, work, and play.
These efforts addressed key factors that raise the risk of disease, including:
- Physical inactivity.
- Unhealthy eating.
- Tobacco use and exposure to secondhand smoke.
CDC funded 331 communities and 52 state and territorial health departments through HCP.
To learn more about the Health Communities Program, check out the Program Overview or the links below.
- Page last reviewed: January 7, 2016
- Page last updated: January 7, 2016
- Content source: | <urn:uuid:b0a25dcf-c220-4f82-8dc6-e2760915b6e6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dch/programs/healthycommunitiesprogram/index.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00084-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.927139 | 178 | 2.953125 | 3 |
According to The Phrase Finder chop chop has been around since the 1800s as a corruption of Chinese:
this little reduplicated term has its origins in the South China Sea, as a Pidgin English version of the Chinese term k'wâi-k'wâi. The earliest known citation of chop-chop in print is from the English language newspaper that was printed in Canton in the early 19th century - The Canton Register, 13th May 1834:
We have also... 'chop-chop hurry'.
A slightly fuller account was printed two years later, in a monthly journal which was produced by and for American missionaries in Canton - The Chinese Repository. In January 1836 it contained an article headed 'Jargon Spoken in Canton', which included:
"Chop-chop - pidgin Cantonese phrase for 'Hurry up!'"
It may be related to the word chopsticks as well although this link is tenuous at best:
Apart from in travelogues of the Far-East, there is little recorded mention of chop-sticks in English until the mid 20th century. The term 'quicksticks' however, did make it back to Britain in the 19th century, as an imperative meaning 'hurry up; do it without delay'. John C. Hotten recorded this in A dictionary of modern slang, 1859:
"Quick sticks, in a hurry, rapidly; 'to cut quick sticks', to be in a great hurry."
The Oxford English Dictionary supports the Chinese origin, citing the etymology as:
Etymology: Pidgin-English, < Chinese k'wâi-k'wâi . | <urn:uuid:f895b7d8-ebb1-45ab-880e-7041f96a4c0d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://english.stackexchange.com/questions/58865/what-is-the-the-origin-of-the-expression-chop-chop | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00158-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958806 | 354 | 2.5625 | 3 |
The Ligonier Valley Railroad was incorporated in 1852 and was a narrow-gauge line; its early primary purpose was to provide passenger service to and from Idlewild Park near Ligonier. The line formally opened in 1877 after money and ownership issues delayed construction and such. In the later years of the nineteenth century, the line was converted to standard gauge (with a small part of the line by the Standard Steel Works in Latrobe being dual-gauge), and the LGV operated both freight and passenger service until August 31, 1952. It was then when the line ceased operation for good; the following day, the Pennsylvania Railroad took ownership of the first three miles of the line (from Latrobe until Kingston), with the other eight miles of the line (from Kingston to Ligonier) being abandoned. The PRR (and later, Penn Central, CONRAIL, and Norfolk Southern) used the three-mile spur to serve industries such as Timken Steel and Vulcan Mold in Latrobe; as of recently, though, it has been used as storage for MOW equipment.
Norfolk Southern, in particular, has expressed interest in abandoned the remainder of the line; the Latrobe Parks and Recreation Committee, however, has recently stepped in to try and convert the line to a rail trail.
Thanks to Alix Kunkle for contributing information about this route. | <urn:uuid:1f239304-2c3e-4b7f-92b9-3b58c37ab3f6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.abandonedrails.com/Ligonier_Valley_Railroad | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00185-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.97654 | 282 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Robots, those coldly efficient creatures that never take a bathroom break or file a union grievance, have been blamed for killing thousands of good-paying manufacturing jobs.
But Jeff Bernstein says American companies need to install even more robots to remain competitive and keep additional jobs from fleeing to China, Mexico and other low-cost countries.
You won't be surprised to learn Bernstein is the president of the Ann Arbor-based Robotics Industries Association, which promotes the industrial use of robots.
But Bernstein makes a strong case that the future of U.S. manufacturing, if there is to be one, depends on increasing quality, efficiency and knowledge in building everything from cars to wind turbines.
Robots are an important element in doing that, Bernstein wrote in a recent issue of Bloomberg Businessweek.
"Look at some of the new industries America wants to develop," he said. "To get the desired quality and productivity from plants that produce wind turbines, solar panels, and advanced batteries and the cars they go in, we need robots."
General Motors Co. installed the world's first industrial robot in a New Jersey plant in 1961. But the automaker did as much as anyone to give robots a bad name.
GM built a handful of assembly plants in the 1980s that were highly automated.
But GM implemented its high-tech manufacturing strategy in a way that alienated its work force and resulted in costly programs to pay workers whose jobs were displaced by automation.
And it took years for GM to work out all the bugs in its robots other advanced automation.
In one widely reported case, robots in the automaker's Detroit-Hamtramck assembly plant sometimes painted each other instead of the cars.
Today, Bernstein notes, GM uses 1,100 robots in the Kansas City, Kan., plant that builds the hot-selling Buick LaCrosse and Chevrolet Malibu. GM has had to add workers to keep up with demand.
Many of the new jobs in manufacturing require skills in operating and repairing robots and other computerized factory equipment.
There's some evidence that manufacturing growth is being stymied by the inability of companies to find enough workers with those skills.
Manufacturing employment is beginning to recover from the brutal Great Recession.
But the New York Times recently reported that some companies are unable to hire as many workers as they'd like because many applicants lack the technical skills required.
"I think that's going to be our biggest challenge for next five or six years," Michigan Manufacturers Association President Chuck Hadden told me.
Bernstein says U.S. manufacturers could add many more robots their factories.
Of the more than 1 million industrial robots in use worldwide, just 20 percent of them are in the United States.
"The relatively low adoption rate of robots in the U.S. is a hopeful sign, since we still have a chance to take advantage of robotics on a broader scale," he said.
Industrial robots aren't as lovable as Rosie, the robotic maid on "The Jetsons." But they may be key to the survival of manufacturing in Michigan and the rest of the nation.
E-mail Rick Haglund: firstname.lastname@example.org | <urn:uuid:ed1a02e4-0794-4e48-9a47-30b896b251b0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mlive.com/auto/index.ssf/2010/07/rick_haglund_michigan_manufact.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00015-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965058 | 653 | 2.625 | 3 |
Over 80% of Great Lakes frozen over
(CNN) – The Great Lakes are set to break records for ice and cold. Take a look at this NASA photo of the lakes.
The Great Lakes Environmental Research lab says 87 percent Of lakes are covered in ice. The last time the lakes were covered in this much ice it was 1979.
Researchers say at the rate the ice is growing the Great Lakes, could set a new record sometime next week. | <urn:uuid:fa032649-6c50-42fe-b708-b769d16ec415> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://kplr11.com/2014/02/17/over-80-of-great-lakes-frozen-over/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00127-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969908 | 92 | 2.65625 | 3 |
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