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Millions of people have dark circles under eyes. Most have inherited the color and characteristics of their lower eyelid from their parents. Dark circles under eyes often appear during childhood, many people telling me they first noticed their dark circles when they were 9 or 10 years old.
There are many causes of dark circles under eyes, but in this article I am going to focus on broken blood vessels, small vascular (blood vessel) structures in the lower eyelid skin. Broken blood vessels are the easiest cause of dark circles under eyes to treat and correct.
How Broken Blood Vessels Cause Dark Circles under Eyes?
Actually what most people call broken blood vessels are not really broken blood vessels. What most people see are visible blood vessels (vascular structures) on the skin in areas that they do not expect to see blood vessels. These small vessels are arterioles, venules, and capillaries. Arterioles carry fresh blood to the skin and venules take old blood away from the skin, back to the heart and lungs to be refreshed with oxygen. Capillaries connect the arterioles and venules.
Normally blood vessels are deeper in the skin and not visible. Visible or broken blood vessels become noticeable in the following situations:
o Thin Skin- The eyelid skin is the thinnest skin in the body. The eyelid skin is only 1/6 the thickness of the skin on the rest of the face. The skin is so thin that you can see through it. You can actually see the small arterioles and venules in the skin of the eyelid. These same structures are present in all skin but are not visible in thicker skin elsewhere in the body. The lower eyelid muscle is purple, and this color is visible through the eyelid skin. That is why all lower eyelids have a darker color. This color is what most people refer to as dark circles under eyes.
o Telangiectasias or Spider Veins- The arterioles, venules and capillaries in dark circles under the eyes can be dilated or enlarged a condition called telangiectasia or often referred to as spider veins. Telangiectasias are most often caused by heredity. However, aging, pregnancy, use of topical steroid cream, excessive exertion such as weight lifting, and Rosacea also can cause telangiectasia.
o Aging and Inflammation- Ultraviolet radiation and other skin aging factors produce inflammation or irritation of the skin, especially the thin skin around the eyes. When eyelid skin is inflamed, new arterioles, venules and capillaries vessels grow into the skin to repair the damage. These new structures stay in the skin and are visible. The presence of these vascular structures darkens the color of the lower eyelid skin and can appear as dark circles under eyes.
How to Remove Dark Circles under Eyes Caused by Broken Blood Vessels
Lasers can remove Telangiectasias, and small vascular structures under the eyes, but newer light based treatments are safer and better. The newer technique called Intense Pulsed Light (IPL) or photo facial is a much gentler procedure that is very effective and does not leave marks or white areas under the eye, a major problem with older laser techniques.
o IPL- Photo Facial-Intense pulsed light (IPL) is not a laser. IPL uses a bright flash of visible light which is tuned to be absorbed by the specific color of blood. The light passes through the skin without injuring the skin and is preferentially absorbed by the blood in the small Telangiectasias, venules, arterioles and capillaries. The light energy causes the blood to boil and the heat causes the wall of the structure to shrink and close. The process takes about 6 weeks.
Usually 3 IPL treatments scheduled 6 weeks apart are required to lighten the color of the skin causing the dark circle under the eye. Eye shields must be placed on the eye to protect the eye from the light. IPL is the best treatment for Rosacea.
o Laser- Two laser wavelengths are specifically absorbed by blood -the 532nm and 1064nm laser wavelengths. The 1064nm laser is usually too strong to be used on the eyelids. The 532nm laser is the one more commonly used on the lower eyelids. However, because the laser is so strong, the eyelid skin is often damaged and a scar or white area on the eyelid skin can occur.
Since IPL has been developed, the laser is no longer the choice for treating the eyelids. Eye shields must be placed on the eye to protect the eye from the laser.
o Vein Injections- Very large and noticeable veins on the lower eyelid can be closed by injecting a sclerosing solution that is most commonly used on the lower legs to treat spider veins. This is a very tricky procedure and should only be done by an expert experienced in this technique.
o Fractional laser resurfacing to thicken skin- New fractional laser resurfacing techniques are safe to use on the eyelids with eye protective shields in place. These new fractional laser techniques plump or thicken the lower eyelid skin and lighten the color. Thicker lower eyelid skin helps camouflage the vessels and Telangiectasias.
Inherited eyelid skin color cannot be prevented. However there are things we can do to prevent new telangiectasia and vascular structures from forming and making the skin color darker. Since Ultraviolet radiation from the sun causes inflammation and new vascular growth, sun protection is the most important.
o Sun block- Always make sure that you apply sun block to the eyelids when you apply sun block to your face.
o Eye protection-Always wear protective sunglasses that cover the crow's feet areas as well as the eyes.
o Anti-inflammatory-Medical grade topical Vitamin C Serum is a powerful anti-inflammatory medication. Its use on the face and eyelids can help reduce inflammation which can cause telangiectasia and new vascular growth on the facial and eyelid skin.
If you are not happy with the color of your lower eyelids, IPL may be the answer you are looking for.
Learn more about removal of dark circles under eyes. Read about IPL treatments.
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Brooke_Seckel | <urn:uuid:40d8a9fe-d626-456e-a44e-4b363a1e70bd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://cure-healthy.blogspot.com/2012/01/broken-blood-vessels-cause-dark-circles.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00108-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.926661 | 1,335 | 3.03125 | 3 |
The Chinese all over the world will be once again celebrating their colorful New Year festivity, hoping that the year of the pig will bring them endless harmony, more luck--and money.
Chinese months are ushered in by the lunar calendar, with each month beginning on the darkest day. Traditionally, New Year festivities begin on the first day of the month and continue until the fifteenth, when the moon is brightest. As for how an animal like the pig came into play, legend has it that in ancient times, Buddha asked all the animals to meet him on Chinese New Year. Twelve came, and Buddha named a year after each one. He announced that the people born in each animal's year would have some of that animal's personality traits.
Those born in the Year of the Pig are believed to have excellent manners, make and keep friends, work very hard, and appreciate luxury. They are very loving and make loyal partners. Sounds like someone you want to paint the town red with, right? If your friend or partner is a pig person, or if you’re simply feeling festive and want to be in solidarity with our Tsinoy countrymen and women, check-out some places where celebrations abound this Chinese New Year.
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Q. What are the Jewish principles of fair taxation?
A. In principle, Jewish law gives communities very wide latitude to decide on taxation systems. Jewish communities throughout the ages had a wide variety of taxation systems in terms of tax base (income, wealth, real estate, head tax), tax grades (progressive, proportional or regressive) and other parameters. There is certainly no one tax or tax system that is dictated by Jewish law, and for that reason Jewish law also acknowledges the validity of the secular tax system as long as it was instituted by a legitimate political process.
But flexible does not mean arbitrary. There are some basic principles of fairness against which taxes were always measured, and on occasion the rabbis struck down tax provisions because they were deemed inequitable.
In this column we will discuss one these principles; in forthcoming columns we will present others.
The Talmud establishes that the citizens of a city are authorized to impose a tax to build a wall for defense. The question arises how the tax burden is to be distributed.
Rebbe Elazar asked Rebbe Yochanan: When the collection is made, is it made per person or according to assets? He said to him, it is according to assets, and Elazar my son, fix it with nails. Others say, Rebbe Elazar asked Rebbe Yochanan: When the collection is made, is it made per person or according to proximity of the houses? He said to him, it is according to assets, and Elazar my son, fix it with nails. (1)
The commentators explain that the context is a wall to protect against bandits. Since the bandits are interested only in stealing property, they were not usually a danger to life. So a per person tax would be inappropriate – not everyone benefits equally from the wall. The fair thing is to collect according to assets, meaning moveable property that is vulnerable to theft. The second half can be viewed as suggesting an additional basis for the tax, besides the one proportional to assets. Even this, states Rebbe Yochanan, should have some direct connection to the benefit; bandits are in a big hurry to avoid detection and disproportionately attack houses closer to the edge of town; thus, those closest to the perimeter benefit more and pay more.
By contrast, if the danger is also from war, where there is mortal danger, it is fair to add a head tax as well, since even someone without assets is willing to pay to protect his life.(2)
From these sources we learn that when a tax is designated for a specific project, a very important consideration in the financing is the extent of benefit from the project. We also learn that this principle doesn't contradict having the wealthy pay more than their share of the costs; very often, as in this case, the wealthy benefit more from public projects than the poor.
SOURCES: (1) Babylonian Talmud 7b (2) Shulchan Arukh Choshen Mishpat 163:3 | <urn:uuid:7d3c9966-d4e0-4881-a142-5b1e6d4d2cec> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.aish.com/ci/be/The_Jewish_Ethicist_Fair_Tax.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00162-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.977693 | 613 | 3.703125 | 4 |
The day after Rosh Hashana marks the Fast of Gedalia, one of the "minor fast days." It commemorates the tragic murder, 2,500 years ago, of a Jewish leader named Gedalia, which led to the end of Jewish settlement in Israel for many years. Also on Tishrei 3, in 1825, an American diplomat named Mordechai Manuel Noah laid the foundation stone for Ararat, the first modern-day attempt to establish a national Jewish homeland. To implement his plan, Noah petitioned the New York State legislature for rights to Grand Island, a 27-square-mile parcel of land located between Buffalo, New York and Niagara Falls. Noah also levied a "redemption tax" upon each Jew in the world. Despite a grand opening ceremony, the plan fizzled when no Jews moved to Ararat / Grand Island. | <urn:uuid:fe86194a-1292-4ea5-af24-768f12712ca1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.aish.com/dijh/Tishrei_3.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399522.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00028-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.92664 | 178 | 3.203125 | 3 |
LAMBREH, Indonesia (AP) Some women have been forced to deliver their newborns in dark tents without even a bar of soap, using shards of bamboo to cut the umbilical cords. Others have had to walk through miles of jungle for prenatal help.
After surviving the tsunami, many women are facing the danger of giving birth alone a grim legacy of the loss of hundreds of midwives among the disaster's dead.
"It breaks my heart to see mothers forced to cut the cord by themselves,'' said Fitriana, a volunteer from Solidaritas Perempuan, a women's aid group. "It's very dangerous for the mother and baby because all of the things used are not sterile.''
(AP Photo/Lely T. Djuhari)
Midwife Revita, right, holds her two-week old baby that was born in a refugee camp tent in Lambreh, in tsunami devastated Aceh province in Indonesia, Friday Jan. 21, 2005. Revita provides medical care for pregnant and sick refugees in a makeshift clinic although she struggles to cope with the lack of equipment or medicine at the camp.
The Indonesian Midwives Association says 30 percent some 1,650 of its members on the northern tip of Sumatra island died in the Dec. 26 catastrophe. Many who survived are too traumatized to resume work or lack equipment to safely deliver babies.
Those still working are overwhelmed. Revita and her sister, Syukriah, have set up a makeshift clinic in a refugee camp in a clearing tucked in the lush green hills above the provincial capital, Banda Aceh.
Revita says the two plan to stay in the camp, despite endless problems, including a scare Thursday when Indonesian soldiers attacked suspected separatist rebels in a nearby forest. Bursts of gunfire sent camp residents, pregnant women among them, diving to the ground in fear.
"I cannot leave them, I have to stay here and help,'' said Revita, who like many Indonesians uses one name. "There are so many pregnant women.''
Revita knows the problems firsthand. Two weeks ago, she gave birth to her own child in a dark tent without even a piece of soap to say nothing of basic obstetric care.
Syukriah used scissors to cut the umbilical cord of her sister's newborn. Other mothers have used bamboo shards.
The newborn, Zakira, which means tent in Arabic wriggled in her mother's arms. A thin prayer book was tucked under her small pillow.
"For the moment, she is healthy,'' Syukriah said. "But, the nights are cold and there are so many mosquitoes. We have only thin tents.''
The U.N. Population Fund estimates there are nearly 15,000 pregnant women among the survivors in Indonesia, many of whom lost husbands and other relatives in the tsunami.
More than 800 are due to give birth within a month.
The lack of midwives is compounded by the scarcity of doctors in the region. Some 2,000 health workers have been sent to Aceh, including nine midwives who are struggling to keep up with the demand.
Revita and Syukriah set up their clinic with no medicine, improvising by crushing medicinal roots to make ointment for babies with skin rashes or fevers.
"I fear for Zakira's future and my own 2-month-old baby,'' Syukriah said, rocking the infants in makeshift cradles made of sarongs, metal springs and rope hung from tree branches.
Because of the sisters' presence, the 20-tent camp has become a magnet for pregnant women and nursing mothers, among the long list of other needy.
Some 50 people lined up Thursday as Revita checked for fevers, headaches, stomach pains and other illness. They lay on straw mats, waiting for her to pull out pills from two instant noodle boxes, which serve as the clinic's medicine cabinet.
The troubles have made a joyous time difficult to bear. In Acehnese culture, the delivery of a baby is traditionally celebrated with feasts, prayers and the slaughtering of goats at a name-giving ceremony.
"It breaks an Acehnese mother's heart not to be able to do or give these things,'' Revita sobbed. "I can't even give them the most essential thing a clean and safe home.''
Acehnese culture also instructs women to stay at home for 60 days after giving birth, to recover from labor and because of beliefs that women are impure from the bleeding of childbirth. But Revita and Syukriah, whose husbands both survived the disaster, know their services are needed.
Henia Dakkak, a public health specialist for the U.N. Population Fund, said the group plans to distribute nearly 20 tons of hygiene and prenatal care products including razor blades, soap and sanitary napkins.
Aid groups will also hand out head scarves to Muslim women who lost them as they ran for their lives. Without the coverings, some women will not go out to get aid.
"Men are more likely to be aggressive in getting aid while women are left behind,'' Dakkak said. "We need to give more help to the women. The Acehnese can't afford to lose any more women now.'' | <urn:uuid:c79dee71-018c-4e55-8797-3d321b6a9a94> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://lubbockonline.com/stories/012205/wor_0122050099.shtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00032-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955191 | 1,099 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Details about Vocabulary Builder, Course 6, Student Edition:
The Glencoe Vocabulary Builder program uses a systematic approach to building studentsÂ’ vocabulary by presenting words in context or information about word parts to help students unlock word meanings independently, and by requiring students to apply their knowledge of new words in reading and writing exercises. Each book in the seven book series is designed for a specific reading level and features readings from the humanities, social studies, and sciences, vocabulary from Greek and Latin roots, assessment after each writing assignment, and a section on taking standardized tests! Vocabulary Builder is a research-based program and is ideal for SAT/ACT preparation.
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Point of View : Apr 1, 2009 ( )
Deficiencies in Forensic Science Training Must Be Met Head-On
Scientists, Lawyers, and Judges Need Education to Overcome the “CSI Effect”!--h2>
CSI: Crime Scene Investigation and its many spin-offs might be the world’s most popular television series. As a result the “CSI effect” has influenced the forensic sciences and indeed the criminal justice system.
Due to the dramatic license taken by television writers, however, the CSI effect erroneously raises our expectations of forensic science by glamorizing it, exaggerating its abilities, and overstating the accuracy of forensic techniques.
While remarkable advances in biotechnology have enabled DNA typing to become the gold standard for forensic science, other forensic evidence such as fingerprints, toolmarks, bitemarks, hairs, and blood spatters struggle to defend themselves against their critics. We should all expect forensic science to solve crimes and put the right people in jail. But it doesn’t always work that way.
That’s why in February the National Academy’s Committee on Identifying the Needs of the Forensic Sciences Community issued a report on the scientific shortcomings and policy changes that could improve the field, titled “Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward.” Though the report did not dwell on the past, there was nothing new—nothing that leading forensic scientists such as those from the Consortium of Forensic Science Organizations (CFSO) have not been proposing for decades. “The CFSO has long called for a comprehensive review of the state of forensics in this country,” said chairman Peter Marone.
The report says that the way forward is to minimize the great disparities between federal, state, and local crime laboratories. All crime labs need money, educated and skilled staff, more training, and better analytical equipment. In an effort to minimize these disparities, the committee made several key recommendations: crime labs should be independent and autonomous from law-enforcement agencies (police and prosecutors); crime labs should write reports that are more consistent with standards generally accepted by the scientific community; there needs to be more fundamental research primarily designed to better understand error rates for all forensic techniques; there needs to be mandatory accreditation of laboratories and mandatory certification of forensic scientists; and, an enforceable code of ethics for the practice of forensic science needs to be established.
Probably the most contentious recommendation, and the most political, will be trying to separate crime labs from law enforcement. Many will think that the system works best when there is local control over a proper mix of science and crime investigation. The criminal investigators need ready access to the science; scientists need to be responsive to community desires to solve crime. The concept of removing forensic science from the influence of the police and prosecutors has long been proposed as a way to prevent contextual bias. But is that true?
Bias and pressure to conform come from a variety of places in forensic scientists’ psyches. In addition, crime labs need funding and funding comes with political power. From where will the isolated, independent forensic laboratory derive its strength and appropriations? Today, they get it from the law-enforcement community of which they are a part. Of course, we would also expect that the federal government might find some difficulty legislating local police and court practices from Washington.
The committee was most concerned with forensic scientists’ knowledge base. It concluded that staffing and equipment to reduce backlogs was not enough; forensic scientists need more fundamental research to validate their techniques and more training to conduct them proficiently.
I believe that it’s all about training. As the report says, forensic scientists need to understand the principles, practices, and context of the scientific methodology they use, as well as the distinctive features of their specialty.
Training should move away from reliance on the apprentice-like transmittal of practices—an incestuous process—to college and university education and continuing professional development and training to keep abreast of advances in new techniques and an understanding of the old, traditional techniques.
Training will also be needed to comply with the mandatory accreditation of laboratories and certification of all practitioners. In order to overcome the CSI effect, there is also a need to educate the users of forensic science, especially lawyers and judges. The juries need an explanation of reality as well.
The need for training has not gone unnoticed. Training has been considered one of the areas most lacking in the forensic science and criminal justice communities for some time now. Nevertheless, crime labs with budget shortfalls always seem to cut travel and training first. Therefore, the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) created the Forensic Science Training Development and Delivery Program.
The College of Microscopy, for example, participates in a cooperative agreement with the NIJ to train 200 trace evidence examiners in state-of-the-art microanalytical techniques. This training is free to state and local crime laboratory examiners. Within a couple of weeks of the program’s announcement, three-quarters of the slots were filled, a common response experienced by other training programs sponsored by the NIJ.
In the end, forensic science must be strengthened from within—from the bottom up. Forensic science cannot be strengthened by the politicians and lawyers—from the top down. The ultimate strength of the forensic sciences will come from more training to ensure the legitimacy and integrity of this field in the future.
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A new study by Dr. Bryan Fry of the University of Melbourne argues that the Komodo dragon uses venomlike proteins to assist in a kill. The Komodo dragon, the world’s largest lizard, has intrigued scientists for years because of its uncanny ability to take down large prey. In some cases, the prey would manage to flee the scene, only to die later. The ongoing theory was that bacteria in the lizard’s serrated teeth infected its victims.
But Dr. Fry wasn’t convinced. After dissecting three lizards’ mouths, Fry and a team of researchers found a set of glands that produced special proteins. One protein disabled clotting while the other relaxed artery walls. If injected into an animal, these proteins would cause the victim’s blood pressure to drop dramatically and the animal to lose consciousness.
For more info: NY Times | <urn:uuid:7639dfea-7a26-436b-a5b5-b7d6558773b9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.animalfactguide.com/2009/05/study-asserts-komodo-dragon-uses-venom-to-kill-prey/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00091-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.92639 | 178 | 3.515625 | 4 |
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Center for Responsible Nanotechnology
Robots building robots sounds convenient--but how do you build the first one, especially when they're too small to see?
June 26th, 2007
From Basic Nanotechnology to Molecular Manufacturing
Manufacturing at the nanoscale--imposing structure on nanoscale objects--can be done in several ways. One is to build all the information needed into the ingredients, so that they form the desired structure without external manipulation. This is called self-assembly, and it's a promising approach, but difficult because it's indirect. Another way to make nanoscale structures is to use relatively large and very delicate machinery, such as focused ion beams and scanning probe microscopes. This tends to be expensive, slow, and imprecise. The third way to manufacture at the nanoscale, in theory, is to use very small machinery--but that raises the question of where the machinery comes from.
Molecular manufacturing involves the use of tiny molecular machines which are capable of building more molecular machines. Such things exist in nature; in fact, that's what the molecular machinery of cells does--ribosomes build protein using instructions from DNA. However, the natural molecular machines are difficult to engineer: it is hard to make a cell build what you want, especially if you want something other than protein. So the goal of molecular manufacturing is to use artificial engineered machines to build more machines as well as other products. And for highest performance, these machines should be "dry"--not immersed in water--which makes them rather different from biological designs.
Few molecular machines have been demonstrated so far, and most of those are based on biology. For example, molecular motors from cells have been immobilized on a surface and tiny pieces of metal have been attached to them. When the right chemicals are added, the motors turn the "propeller." This is great for research, but it's a far cry from the robot-building-robot goal of mature molecular manufacturing. So how can we get from here to there?
The broader field of nanotechnology has advanced sufficiently that researchers, even when they are not working deliberately toward molecular manufacturing, frequently do work that is relevant to it. For example, Alexander Zettl has built a motor which is not based on biomaterials at all, is not immersed in water, and is not powered chemically. It is constructed by building a bearing out of nested carbon nanotubes, attaching a piece of metal to it, and then using electric fields to move the metal. It is a very mechanical structure, susceptible to engineering and analysis and improvement. But it was hard to build, because it required large machines working at their limits of precision. See
So the ultimate goal of molecular manufacturing is to build small "dry" mechanical-molecular machines that are intricate and well-engineered enough to be used as a complete set of molecular construction tools. And the starting point, today's level of technology, is at the level of individual motors and levers and bearings. Getting from "here" to "there" is not a trivial exercise. Fortunately, there are several possible pathways. Furthermore, a small set of molecular construction tools can build a wide range of molecules--this is one of the things that makes molecular manufacturing workable.
At the level of atoms and molecules, things come in discrete packages. Water and hydrogen peroxide differ by one atom, and there's no molecule that's halfway between the two. Making a molecule requires that each atom be in the right place--but once a molecule is made, it's completely finished--there's no painting, sanding, or polishing required. So the goal of molecular manufacturing is to build molecules directly, making exactly what is desired by transferring molecular fragments onto the object under construction. This kind of direct atomic manipulation has been done with scanning probe microscopes, but only in a few cases, and three-dimensional parts have not yet been built. Biology, by the way, does something very similar: it builds one-dimensional molecules by adding a few atoms at a time onto the end, and the resulting polymer chains then fold up (self-assemble) into three-dimensional structures.
So the question of how to achieve molecular manufacturing boils down to the question of how to make nanoscale devices that can manipulate and transfer molecular fragments well enough to be worthwhile. There are three increasingly stringent criteria of "worthwhile." First, it has to be better than large devices such as scanning probe microscopes. Second, it has to be good enough to build more nanoscale fabrication devices. Third, it has to be good enough to build useful products such as computers, medical devices, or even structural materials. To meet these criteria requires reliable, programmable, general-purpose mechanical/chemical systems.
One approach to building such systems is to design and build a nanoscale device which is capable of doing molecular fabrication operations, but is simple enough that it can be built atom-by-atom by a large, slow, awkward machine like a scanning probe microscope. This will require a simplified device design as well as significant advances in scanning probe chemistry. The Nanofactory Collaboration is currently working toward this goal.
Another approach is to build the first device by self-assembly, for example by making three-dimensional functional shapes out of folded DNA strands. Here again, this requires that the first device be relatively simple. Self-assembled structures tend to be relatively weak, since if they stick too strongly they would tend to assemble incorrectly in the first place and be unable to correct the mistake. And self-assembled structures with large numbers of components tend to have a high probability of error. But it may well be easier to build the required self-assembling ingredients than to place large numbers of atoms one-by-one using a scanning probe microscope.
A third approach is to build medium-small, imprecise devices and then use them to build smaller and more precise devices. For example, scanning probe microscopes have already been built using MEMS (micro-electro-mechanical systems) technology. Smaller systems have some advantages; they may operate more quickly, and smaller volumes may be easier to keep uncontaminated. But it is not clear whether, in general, small systems can overcome the advantages of large systems: large systems are easier for humans to build and maintain, and may be supported by decades of technological development.
It is clear that each of these approaches has problems and limitations associated with it. However, the approaches can be combined. For example, rather than placing individual atoms, which would be slow and finicky, scanning-probe systems might be used to join relatively large self-assembled molecules. This would be a lot faster and require less precision. Likewise, relatively simple MEMS devices might be useful to template self-assembly or to control the working environment for scanning probe systems.
So far, designs for a molecular manufacturing system have not been developed. Without such designs, it is difficult to say (for example) whether it would be most efficient to build a DNA machine to make silica, then use that to make diamond, or whether a more straightforward approach such as direct scanning probe diamond building would work better despite requiring more advanced tools. Computers and software are just about at the point where component designs are within reach of hobbyists; for an example, see the "Machine Phase" blog.
Ten years ago, this kind of simulation would have required expensive supercomputers, and would have been less reliable; it would have required cutting-edge lab work to try to reality-check the simulations. That's not to say no progress could have been made, if sufficient money and effort had been poured into the problem. And it's not to say that the simulations are totally trustworthy even today. But simulations are getting rapidly less expensive and more reliable. It won't be too long before hobbyists have developed some kick-the-tires models that can be used to assess the functionality of various mechanical designs. It will be possible to meaningfully discuss questions such as the precision and capabilities of a particular design, and whether the effort to debug and implement that design will be worth it in terms of contributing to molecular manufacturing capabilities.
As concrete designs are proposed and evaluated, molecular manufacturing discussion will move from guesstimates of when the end result will be achieved, to discussing the comparative merits of specific development pathways in detail. At that point, it will become easier to make schedules, not just roadmaps. And with each increase in predictability, the field should become easier to fund. Once funding rises significantly above the level that has been accessible to hobbyists, we may see far more rapid progress, perhaps leading to a bandwagon effect: what is barely accessible to a hobbyist may be low-hanging fruit to a large corporation, once they realize that it exists. And advances in computers, software, and laboratory equipment are making the fruit hang lower every year. | <urn:uuid:5f0838dd-4661-41db-ba45-aef204f41bb9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nanotech-now.com/columns/?article=074 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00184-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952046 | 1,852 | 3.703125 | 4 |
Neck Pain and Computers
Almost all of the patients I treat work with computers and suffer from neck pain. An examination of their posture usually reveals that their head is no longer aligned with their shoulders. Instead, it has moved into a forward position, creating changes in the neck and shoulders. This is an example of how the body remodels or adapts itself structurally when we sit for hours at a time in the same posture. Think of hour many hours we are on a computer or even driving in a car each day. When these are our daily routines, we are creating repetitive postures and forcing the body to adapt.
So, how does the body adapt to working at a computer workstation for hours each day and how does this create chronic neck pain?
As we discussed previously, all experience is embedded in the body. In time, repeated experiences create habituated patterns of response over time that can be observed in one’s posture, movement patterns, vocal tone, and facial expressions. Research has found that repetitive use injuries are the most difficult to resolve. Dehydration of soft tissues due to altered blood flow may be the key reason.
Another factor in play is the brain structure known as the cerebellum. One of its jobs is to constantly tract where our body is in space so that and make adjustments for the protection of our brain and spinal cord as well as internal organs. It also helps us to coordinate body movements, balance, and posture without having to think about it. So, as we sit at the computer hour, after hour, our body tries to adjust our posture the best it can to adapt to this unnatural state of being. Eventually the body’s tracking device gets skewed and the body gets taxed from overcompensating. This can lead to chronic neck and shoulder pain. Try the following experiential exercise to get a sense of what is happening to our body when we sit for hours working on a computer:
Please take a moment to check in with your body. Close your eyes, take a breath, exhale, and use your senses to track bodily sensations like pulsing, breath, tension, or relaxation. Now, open your eyes, look at your computer screen. and continue reading this post.
Notice how your body begins to adapt, in the moment. Can you sense your eyes reaching towards the screen, followed by your head and neck? Your posture has begun to shift and adapt. The longer you sit in this position, the more your body will adjust itself to accommodate your position.
The Forward Head Position or The 42-Pound Head
What are the consequences of prolonged computer use? After awhile, your posture becomes habituated to this head forward position and you begin to experience chronic neck and shoulder pain because the natural interaction, function, and structure of your muscles, tendons, ligaments, and discs have changed. According to Erik Dalton, your head will eventually weigh 42lbs as it cantilevers forward. See the link to his article at the end of this post.
A forward head pattern also affects important body functions like lymphatic drainage, air and blood flow, and swallowing. Eventually, eye strain, chronic muscle spasms, inflammation, and pain may result, leading to fatigue symptoms, degenerative disc disease, and even feelings of depression.
To undo this state will require a lot of work and perhaps some therapeutic assistance to realign posture and resolve any degenerative processes that may have begun.
Improvement won’t happen overnight. Patience and persistence will help you reach your goal of improved health and well-being.
This example demonstrates how the body physically adapts to the cumulative experience of using a computer. Stay tuned as we explore how stressful and overwhelming experience registers in the body to influence long-term health on a less observable level.
What steps have you taken to support your body while working at the computer?
Additional reading: http://erikdalton.com/media/published-articles/forward-head-posture/ | <urn:uuid:c2411831-9ebd-42cd-b396-a891b7dc3297> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://maureenabivinsphd.com/tag/conditions-and-diseases/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00132-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946712 | 818 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Researchers have created a hybrid butterfly whose genes and color are blends of two other species.
New species typically arise from the branching of one species into two, but in Thursday's issue of the journal Nature, scientists report the first clear evidence that evolution in animals can work the other way around, too.
Hybridization is well-known among plants, but scientists had thought it was rare in animals.
The hybrid lab butterfly was created by interbreeding two butterflies with different wing markings. H. cydno has black wings with white and yellow markings, while H. melpomene has black wings with red, yellow and orange markings. The lab hybrid had black wings with red and yellow markings.
H. cydno and H. melpomene can be found near each other in the wilds of Mexico and northern South America. Where the habitats of these two butterflies overlap, a third butterfly, called H. heurippa, is found. Interestingly, the color markings on the wing of the natural-born H. heurippa are nearly identical to those of the lab-made hybrid.
The study supports a long-held suspicion among biologists that H. heurippa is a wild hybrid. The researchers believe it was created naturally from the interbreeding of the same two butterfly species used to create the lab hybrid.
"What we have done is to re-create the first steps in the evolution of H. heurippa," said study team member Jesus Mavarez from the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute in Panama.
Take the mule, for example
The handful of known hybrid animals have lower "fitness" than their parents. In biology, fitness is a measure of an organism's ability to reproduce and thrive. For example, mules, which are the offspring of donkeys and horses, are usually sterile.
Another obstacle scientists have thought would be difficult for hybrid species to overcome: Because hybrid animal offspring inhabit the same environments as their parent species, they wouldn't be reproductively isolated enough to form a distinct species.
Scientists reported genetic evidence last year, for example, that a naturally occurring fruit fly was a hybrid, but that species preferred a different type of fruit than both its parent species. This helped to keep the species separate.
But in the new study, researchers found that H. heurippa butterflies show a strong mating preference to members of their own species rather than with their parent species.
"If you cover the red or the yellow stripe of a bi-colored hybrid female, hybrid males no longer find her the least bit attractive," Mavarez explained.
In the wild, this sexual preference would be just as effective as physical reproductive isolation.
© 2012 LiveScience.com. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:9a1ffcf5-f4fb-4dfb-a506-d09cfbbc7e10> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nbcnews.com/id/13320805/ns/technology_and_science-science/t/scientists-breed-butterfly-hybrid/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00005-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953632 | 565 | 3.8125 | 4 |
The Zeigarnik effect: the scientific key to better work
If you, like us, are constantly looking for more efficient ways to work, then you will really appreciate what the Zeigarnik effect has to offer. It carries the name of Bluma Zeigarnik, a Lithuanian-born psychologist who first described this effect in her doctoral thesis in the late 1920s. Some accounts have it that Zeigarnik noticed this effect while she was watching waiters in a restaurant. The waiters seemed to remember complex orders that allowed them to deliver the right combination of food to the tables, yet the information vanished as the food was delivered. Zeigarnik observed that the uncompleted orders seemed to stick in the waiters’ minds until they were actually completed.
Zeigarnik didn’t leave it at that, though. Back in her laboratory, she conducted studies in which subjects were required to complete various puzzles. Some of the subjects were interrupted during the tasks. All the subjects were then asked to describe what tasks they had done. It turns out that adults remembered the interrupted tasks 90% better than the completed tasks, and that children were even more likely to recall the uncompleted tasks. In other words, uncompleted tasks will stay on your mind until you finish them!
If you look around you, you will start to notice the Zeigarnik effect pretty much everywhere. It is especially used in media and advertising. Have you ever wondered why cliffhangers work so well or why you just can’t get yourself to stop watching that series on Netflix (just one more episode)?
As writer Ernest Hemingway once said about writing a novel, “it is the wait until the next day that is hard to get through.” But the Zeigarnik effect can actually be used to positively impact your work productivity.
The Zeigarnik effect and productivity
Now you’re probably wondering how the Zeigarnik effect improves productivity. Since we experience intrusive thoughts about uncompleted tasks, the key to productivity is working in focused periods of time, while avoiding multi-tasking and disruptions. Getting a task done means peace of mind, while the intrusive thoughts mean that you will experience anxiety when leaving a task unfinished to focus on something else. Since multi-tasking is simply diverting your attention from one task to another (basically making the new task an interruption), your brain won’t allow you to fully focus on the new task because you have left the previous one uncompleted. That is why productivity techniques such as the Pomodoro technique work so well. Of course, another key element is adapting the time spent on focused work to the task at hand; some tasks will require a longer period of focused work than others.
Good news for procrastinators
The Zeigarnik effect means good news for procrastinators: you are less likely to procrastinate once you actually start a task. You’re more inclined to finish something if you start it. So how do you actually get started? It depends on what kind of procrastinator you are. If you’re likely to procrastinate because you’re faced with a big project, then don’t think about starting with the hardest chunk of work. Start with what seems manageable in the moment. You’ll be more likely to finish the task simply because you started. The Zeigarnik effect shows us that the key to beating procrastination is starting somewhere… anywhere.
Reward expectancy & the Zeigarnik effect: why the 8-hour work day doesn’t work
A study published in the Journal of Personality in 2006 showed that the Zeigarnik effect is undermined by reward expectancy. The study had subjects working on a task, interrupting them before the task was finished. While one group of subjects was told that they would receive an amount of money for participating in the study, the other group wasn’t told anything. The result was that 86% of the subjects who didn’t know about the reward chose to return to the task after they were interrupted, while only 58% of the subjects who were expecting the reward returned to the task. As the study was over and the reward was there, they found no reason to return to the task. What’s more, the subjects who were expecting the reward actually spent less time on the task once they did return to it.
Compare this to the 8-hour work day. The end of the work-day is just like the interruption in the study: once the 8 hours are done, the task is interrupted. And the pay for the 8 hours of work is the expected reward. The above study shows that reward expectancy actually undermines the Zeigarnik effect, and that rewarding task performance can lead to early task disengagement. In other words, the 8 hour work-day actually makes us unattached to our work. A great way to fight this sort of complacency is offering flexible work arrangements for your employees and offering rewards in the way of a healthy work-life balance.
Have you observed the Zeigarnik effect anywhere else? Are there any tips you have for using it to improve work practices? Let us know in the comment section below. | <urn:uuid:b3eef9e7-1b1b-4694-b735-e0257358a93d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.sandglaz.com/zeigarnik-effect-scientific-key-to-better-work/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397748.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00083-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963942 | 1,084 | 2.921875 | 3 |
MICHIGAN CITY, Ind. (AP) — Crews examining the safety of an Indiana sand
dune that collapsed on a 6-year-old Illinois boy last month are using
ground-penetrating radar usually used to find buried barrels of toxic
waste or broken underground pipelines.
National Park Service officials hope the device, along with other
equipment from the Environmental Protection Agency, will help them figure
out whether it's safe to reopen the popular 126-foot high dune at the
Indian Dunes National Lakeshore along Lake Michigan, 55 miles east of
"We're not going to reopen Mount Baldy until we understand the science of
what's going on underneath and determine if we need to mitigate it or
route visitors through different areas to make sure they are safe," Park
Service Ranger Bruce Rowe said.
Emergency workers freed Nathan Woessner after he was swallowed by the dune
on July 12. The Sterling, Ill., boy was trapped under 11 feet of sand for
more than three hours. He was unresponsive when initially rescued, but
began breathing en route to a waiting ambulance. He's since undergone some
physical, occupational and speech therapy and is expected to undergo more
The only sign Monday of where Nathan became trapped was a white pole
sticking out from the sand. The large hole created by the heavy equipment
used to rescue Nathan was filled in immediately after the rescue, Rowe
said. The 42-acre dune has been closed to the public since then.
One theory by Park Service officials is that a decomposed tree trunk under
the dune created the void that swallowed Nathan, Rowe said. The theory is
based on some old rotted wood or wood fiber found in the area where Nathan
was rescued, Rowe said.
A tree stump was visible about 15 feet south of the white pole Monday, and
at least three other stumps were visible nearby.
Mount Baldy is unique in that it moves more than most coastal dunes, Rowe
said. In the past it usually moved 4 to 5 feet south a year, but in recent
years it has moved 10 to 15 feet a year. Park officials believe that's
because years of people running up and down Mount Baldy has killed Marram
grass that holds the sand in place, Rowe said.
EPA crews using the radar began about 50 feet up the dune from where
Nathan was buried. A woman wearing a backpack with a GPS device walked
just ahead of the ground-penetrating radar, which looked like a futuristic
The device takes a series of pictures, similar to an ultrasound, as deep
as 30 feet below the surface, EPA spokesman Francisco Arcaute said. He
said it will create a 3-D underground map of sorts, finding anything
abnormal. Crews will remain at the site at least two days, possibly
longer, he said.
"We will continue to do samplings until we determine, what, if anything,
is here," Arcaute said. | <urn:uuid:96fb07df-45e5-4765-b296-7e5a0b081b83> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://chestertontribune.com/Environment/crews_examine_indiana_sand_dune.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00013-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960129 | 631 | 2.6875 | 3 |
According to The Washington Post, on May 24, food manufacturers gathered to tell regulators that the first-ever proposed guidelines for marketing to children would not stop the childhood obesity problem but would certainly hurt their businesses and abridge their right to free speech. The guidelines, ordered by Congress and written by a team from the Federal Trade Commission, the Food and Drug Administration, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and the Agriculture Department, ignited a debate about the role of marketing in soaring obesity rates among children.
The regulators held the May 24 meeting to gather input from the public. They are accepting written comments until July 14 before finalizing the recommendations and submitting them in a report to Congress. The far-reaching guidelines would cover a wide array of marketing, from traditional media such as television, print, and radio to pop-up ads on Internet sites. They would apply to social media, toys in fast-food meals, ads shown in movie theaters, sponsorship of athletic teams and philanthropic activities, as well as product placement in movies and video games. The guidelines would be voluntary and implemented over a decade. But food companies and advertising firms say they would feel great pressure to follow guidelines, making them de facto regulations.
The guidelines set out that foods advertised to children cannot exceed limited amounts of added sugars, saturated fat, sodium, or trans fat. And they must include healthy ingredients, such as fruit and vegetables, low-fat dairy products, or whole grains.
The sugar limits would pose a problem for many foods currently marketed to children. Under the guidelines, one serving of a food aimed at children could not exceed 8 g of sugar. A single serving of Count Chocula cereal currently contains 12 g of sugar; a serving of Frosted Flakes contains 11 g.
The guidelines would apply to both young children and teenagers. Food makers and advertisers argue the guidelines be more narrowly tailored when applied to teenagers because much of the programming and media consumed by teenagers are also seen by adults. Federal regulators say they will take that notion into consideration in the final recommendations.
The Washington Post article | <urn:uuid:a95eee44-d6d6-4907-9b2f-edd41775034f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ift.org/food-technology/daily-news/2011/may/27/food-makers-argue-against-proposed-marketing-guidelines.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393146.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00080-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965984 | 419 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Located in the Cuyahoga Valley National Park, this abandoned mill was constructed in 1906 and used the nearby Ohio & Erie Canal as a reservoir. Between 1926 and 1927, the mill was remodeled to accommodate an overhead crane and a fourdrinier machine to allow production of a continuous web of paper. As many as 250 workers were employed at Jaite, producing up to 8 tons of paper daily. Like the canal, the Jaite Paper Mill felt the effects of competition beyond its control and closed in 1984. It also had a large fire which helped with the closing. | <urn:uuid:5d61e953-f4a1-4eb2-8187-a21b61565f8b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://virtualglobetrotting.com/map/jaite-paper-mill-abandoned/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00036-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.986433 | 116 | 2.84375 | 3 |
On The History of Ugliness
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In “History of Beauty,” Umberto Eco explored the ways in which notions of attractiveness shift from culture to culture and era to era. With ON UGLINESS, a collection of images and written excerpts from ancient times to the present, he asks: Is repulsiveness, too, in the eye of the beholder? And what do we learn about that beholder when we delve into his aversions? Selecting stark visual images of gore, deformity, moral turpitude and malice, and quotations from sources ranging from Plato to radical feminists, Eco unfurls a taxonomy of ugliness. As gross-out contests go, it’s both absorbing and highbrow.
Link this pageWould you like to put a link to this lecture on your homepage?
Go ahead! Copy the HTML snippet ! | <urn:uuid:8189d79f-8a87-4afa-9b1b-e09ebb0672c4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://videolectures.net/cd07_eco_thu/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00066-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.912692 | 250 | 2.828125 | 3 |
European millwrights became highly skilled craftsmen, developing the technology tremendously, and as Europeans set off colonizing the rest of the globe, windmills spread throughout the world.
The pinnacles of windmill design include those built by the British, who developed many advanced "automatic control" mechanisms over the centuries, and the Dutch (who used windmills extensively to pump water and for industrial uses, as well as to grind grain).
As steam power developed, the uncertain power of the wind became less and less economic, and we are left today with a tiny fraction of the elegant structures that once extracted power from the wind. These remaining windmills, scattered throughout the world, are a historic, and certainly very photogenic, reminder of a past technological age. A number of mills have been restored, either visually, or in some cases back to full working order, where the trend for organic and non-manufactured foodstuffs has shifted the economics slightly back in their favour once again.
However the promise of widespread power from the wind lives on, both in the form of wind turbines producing electricity, and in the form of small scale windpumps (often largely low-tech "appropriate technology" installations) still used extensively in world agriculture.
The 14th and 15th centuries provide evidence of what the early mills looked like, with illustrations occuring in diverse media such as memorial brasses, stained glass, and wood carvings, as well as the expected manuscript records.
These early illustrations all show the simple, all wooden, post mill structure.
To maintain the upright post, a structure consisting of horizontal crosstrees, and angled quarterbars is used. By far the most common arrangement was 2 cross bars at right angles to each other under the base of the post, together with 4 quarterbars. Occasionally however other arrangements did occur, such as 3 crosstrees, and consequently 6 quarterbars.
Initially the crosstrees would have rested directly on the ground, (or indeed were buried in the ground for extra stability) but since this makes them very succeptible to rotting, the crosstrees were soon being placed on brick piers, to raise them off the ground.
The body of the mill housed all the milling machinery - a large brake wheel on the same shaft as the sails (the "windshaft") transferred power to a smaller gear at right angles to it, called the wallower. The wallower shared a vertical shaft with the great spur wheel, and from this smaller wheel a "stone nut" was used to drive the millstone. As larger mill bodies were constructed, additional pairs of stones could be driven, by taking further power taps, each using an extra "stone nut" off the great spur wheel. In order to apply some level of control to the mill, the brake wheel could be slowed using a large wooden friction brake around its outer edge.
As already mentioned, the whole body rotated on the central post, in order to face the wind. To allow this to happen, a tailpole or tiller beam extended from the rear of the body. By pushing on this beam (or by using some form of winch or animal power) the miller rotated his mill. The tailpole also provides a useful attachment point for a ladder to provide access to the mill.
An obvious improvement on the early post mill, is to build a roundhouse up around the crosstrees and quarterbar structure. This makes this structure a lot more protected from the weather, and provides additional storage space.
Instead of rotating the whole body of the mill to face the mill, the smock mill design consists of a fixed wooden body, holding the milling machinery, together with a rotatable cap, which holds just the roof, the sails, the windshaft and the brake wheel.
By rotating just the mill cap, the body of the mill can be made much larger than in a post mill, and hence able to house more pairs of stones, and more ancilliary machinery. In addition, the body can be made arbitrarily high, the extra height allowing the sails to catch more wind (and to a certain extent a taller body can allow longer sails to be employed, to the same end).
Smock mill bodies are theoretically roughly circular, though the use of straight timber means that most are actually eight sided. Other numbers of sides occur, including in England examples of six through to twelve sides. (In addition there are a number of small smock mills throughout the world which have square bodies). Many English smock mills are constructed above a more substantial brick built base, which may range from a few courses, up to several stories high.
By using brick or stone for the body, tower mills can be built even larger and taller than smock mills, and by being a more durable building material, the mills are more weatherproof, and more fireproof.
Other pages concerned with the history and development of windmills
|Last updated 27/01/2016||Text and images © Mark Berry, 1997-2016 -| | <urn:uuid:5dbd5c84-d92d-43ed-ada0-e399103676f0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.windmillworld.com/windmills/history.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00147-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959025 | 1,040 | 4 | 4 |
A heart attack occurs when the flow of blood to the heart is blocked, most often by a build-up of fat, cholesterol and other substances, which form a plaque in the arteries that feed the heart (coronary arteries). The interrupted blood flow can damage or destroy part of the heart muscle.
A heart attack, also called a myocardial infarction, can be fatal, but treatment has improved dramatically over the years. It's crucial to call 911 or emergency medical help if you think you might be having a heart attack.
Common heart attack signs and symptoms include:
- Pressure, tightness, pain, or a squeezing or aching sensation in your chest or arms that may spread to your neck, jaw or back
- Nausea, indigestion, heartburn or abdominal pain
- Shortness of breath
- Cold sweat
- Lightheadedness or sudden dizziness
Heart attack symptoms vary
Not all people who have heart attacks have the same symptoms or have the same severity of symptoms. Some people have mild pain; others have more severe pain. Some people have no symptoms, while for others, the first sign may be sudden cardiac arrest. However, the more signs and symptoms you have, the greater the likelihood you're having a heart attack.
Some heart attacks strike suddenly, but many people have warning signs and symptoms hours, days or weeks in advance. The earliest warning may be recurrent chest pain (angina) that's triggered by exertion and relieved by rest. Angina is caused by a temporary decrease in blood flow to the heart.
A heart attack differs from a condition in which your heart suddenly stops (sudden cardiac arrest, which occurs when an electrical disturbance disrupts your heart's pumping action and causes blood to stop flowing to the rest of your body). A heart attack can cause cardiac arrest, but it's not the only cause.
When to see a doctor
Act immediately. Some people wait too long because they don't recognize the important signs and symptoms. Take these steps:
Call for emergency medical help. If you suspect you're having a heart attack, don't hesitate. Immediately call 911 or your local emergency number. If you don't have access to emergency medical services, have someone drive you to the nearest hospital.
Drive yourself only if there are no other options. Because your condition can worsen, driving yourself puts you and others at risk.
- Take nitroglycerin, if prescribed to you by a doctor. Take it as instructed while awaiting emergency help.
Take aspirin, if recommended. Taking aspirin during a heart attack could reduce heart damage by helping to keep your blood from clotting.
Aspirin can interact with other medications, however, so don't take an aspirin unless your doctor or emergency medical personnel recommend it. Don't delay calling 911 to take an aspirin. Call for emergency help first.
What to do if you see someone having a heart attack
If you encounter someone who is unconscious, first call for emergency medical help. Then begin CPR to keep blood flowing. Push hard and fast on the person's chest — about 100 compressions a minute. It's not necessary to check the person's airway or deliver rescue breaths unless you've been trained in CPR.
A heart attack occurs when one or more of your coronary arteries become blocked. Over time, a coronary artery can narrow from the buildup of various substances, including cholesterol (atherosclerosis). This condition, known as coronary artery disease, causes most heart attacks.
During a heart attack, one of these plaques can rupture and spill cholesterol and other substances into the bloodstream. A blood clot forms at the site of the rupture. If large enough, the clot can completely block the flow of blood through the coronary artery.
Another cause of a heart attack is a spasm of a coronary artery that shuts down blood flow to part of the heart muscle. Use of tobacco and of illicit drugs, such as cocaine, can cause a life-threatening spasm. A heart attack can also occur due to a tear in the heart artery (spontaneous coronary artery dissection).
Certain factors contribute to the unwanted buildup of fatty deposits (atherosclerosis) that narrows arteries throughout your body. You can improve or eliminate many of these risk factors to reduce your chances of having a first or subsequent heart attack.
Heart attack risk factors include:
- Age. Men age 45 or older and women age 55 or older are more likely to have a heart attack than are younger men and women.
- Tobacco. Smoking and long-term exposure to secondhand smoke increase the risk of a heart attack.
- High blood pressure. Over time, high blood pressure can damage arteries that feed your heart by accelerating atherosclerosis. High blood pressure that occurs with obesity, smoking, high cholesterol or diabetes increases your risk even more.
- High blood cholesterol or triglyceride levels. A high level of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (the "bad" cholesterol) is most likely to narrow arteries. A high level of triglycerides, a type of blood fat related to your diet, also ups your risk of heart attack. However, a high level of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol (the "good" cholesterol) lowers your risk of heart attack.
- Diabetes. Insulin, a hormone secreted by your pancreas, allows your body to use glucose, a form of sugar. Having diabetes — not producing enough insulin or not responding to insulin properly — causes your body's blood sugar levels to rise. Diabetes, especially uncontrolled, increases your risk of a heart attack.
- Family history of heart attack. If your siblings, parents or grandparents have had early heart attacks (by age 55 for male relatives and by age 65 for female relatives), you may be at increased risk.
- Lack of physical activity. An inactive lifestyle contributes to high blood cholesterol levels and obesity. People who get regular aerobic exercise have better cardiovascular fitness, which decreases their overall risk of heart attack. Exercise is also beneficial in lowering high blood pressure.
- Obesity. Obesity is associated with high blood cholesterol levels, high triglyceride levels, high blood pressure and diabetes. Losing just 10 percent of your body weight can lower this risk, however.
- Stress. You may respond to stress in ways that can increase your risk of a heart attack.
- Illegal drug use. Using stimulant drugs, such as cocaine or amphetamines, can trigger a spasm of your coronary arteries that can cause a heart attack.
- A history of preeclampsia. This condition causes high blood pressure during pregnancy and increases the lifetime risk of heart disease.
- A history of an autoimmune condition, such as rheumatoid arthritis or lupus. Conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, lupus and other autoimmune conditions can increase your risk of having a heart attack.
Heart attack complications are often related to the damage done to your heart during a heart attack. This damage can lead to the following conditions:
- Abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias). If your heart muscle is damaged from a heart attack, electrical "short circuits" can develop, resulting in abnormal heart rhythms, some of which can be serious, even fatal.
- Heart failure. The amount of damaged tissue in your heart may be so great that the remaining heart muscle can't do an adequate job of pumping blood out of your heart. Heart failure may be a temporary problem that goes away after your heart, which has been stunned by a heart attack, recovers. However, it can also be a chronic condition resulting from extensive and permanent damage to your heart following your heart attack.
- Heart rupture. Areas of heart muscle weakened by a heart attack can rupture, leaving a hole in part of the heart. This rupture is often fatal.
- Valve problems. Heart valves damaged during a heart attack may develop severe, life-threatening leakage problems.
A heart attack usually is diagnosed in an emergency setting. However, if you're concerned about your risk of heart attack, see your doctor to check your risk factors and talk about prevention. If your risk is high, you may be referred to a heart specialist (cardiologist).
Here's some information to help you prepare for your appointment.
What you can do
- Be aware of pre-appointment restrictions. When you make the appointment, ask if there's anything you need to do in advance, such as restrict your diet. For a cholesterol test, for example, you may need to fast beforehand.
- Write down your symptoms, including any that seem unrelated to coronary artery disease.
- Write down key personal information, including a family history of heart disease, stroke, high blood pressure or diabetes, and recent major stresses or recent life changes.
- Make a list of medications, vitamins and supplements you're taking.
- Take someone along, if possible. Someone who accompanies you may remember something you miss or forget.
- Be prepared to discuss your diet and exercise habits. If you don't follow a diet or exercise routine, be ready to talk to your doctor about challenges you might face in getting started.
- Write down questions to ask your doctor.
Preparing a list of questions can help you make the most of your time with your doctor. Some basic questions to ask your doctor about heart attack prevention include:
- What tests do I need to determine my current heart health?
- What foods should I eat or avoid?
- What's an appropriate level of physical activity?
- How often should I be screened for heart disease?
- I have other health conditions. How can I best manage these conditions together?
- Are there brochures or other printed material that I can have?
- What websites do you recommend?
Don't hesitate to ask other questions, as well.
What to expect from your doctor
Your doctor is likely to ask you a number of questions, including:
- Have you had symptoms of heart disease, such as chest pain or shortness of breath? If so, when did they begin?
- Do these symptoms persist or come and go?
- How severe are your symptoms?
- What, if anything, seems to improve your symptoms? If you have chest pain, does it improve with rest?
- What, if anything, worsens your symptoms? If you have chest pain, does strenuous activity make it worse?
- Do you have a family history of heart disease or heart attacks?
- Have you been diagnosed with high blood pressure, diabetes or high cholesterol?
What you can do in the meantime
It's never too early to make healthy lifestyle changes, such as quitting smoking, eating healthy foods and becoming more physically active. These are primary lines of defense against having a heart attack.
Ideally, your doctor should screen you during regular physical exams for risk factors that can lead to a heart attack.
If you're in an emergency setting for symptoms of a heart attack, you'll be asked to describe your symptoms and have your blood pressure, pulse and temperature checked. You'll be hooked up to a heart monitor and will almost immediately have tests to see if you're having a heart attack.
Tests will help check if your signs and symptoms, such as chest pain, indicate a heart attack or another condition. These tests include:
- Electrocardiogram (ECG). This first test done to diagnose a heart attack records the electrical activity of your heart via electrodes attached to your skin. Impulses are recorded as waves displayed on a monitor or printed on paper. Because injured heart muscle doesn't conduct electrical impulses normally, the ECG may show that a heart attack has occurred or is in progress.
- Blood tests. Certain heart enzymes slowly leak out into your blood if your heart has been damaged by a heart attack. Emergency room doctors will take samples of your blood to test for the presence of these enzymes.
If you've had a heart attack or one is occurring, doctors will take immediate steps to treat your condition. You may also undergo these additional tests:
- Chest X-ray. An X-ray image of your chest allows your doctor to check the size of your heart and its blood vessels and to look for fluid in your lungs.
- Echocardiogram. During this test, sound waves directed at your heart from a wandlike device (transducer) held on your chest bounce off your heart and are processed electronically to provide video images of your heart. An echocardiogram can help identify whether an area of your heart has been damaged by a heart attack and isn't pumping normally or at peak capacity.
- Coronary catheterization (angiogram). A liquid dye is injected into the arteries of your heart through a long, thin tube (catheter) that's fed through an artery, usually in your leg or groin, to the arteries in your heart. The dye makes the arteries visible on X-ray, revealing areas of blockage.
Exercise stress test. In the days or weeks after your heart attack, you may also undergo a stress test. Stress tests measure how your heart and blood vessels respond to exertion. You may walk on a treadmill or pedal a stationary bike while attached to an ECG machine. Or you may receive a drug intravenously that stimulates your heart similar to exercise.
Your doctor may also order a nuclear stress test, which is similar to an exercise stress test, but uses an injected dye and special imaging techniques to produce detailed images of your heart while you're exercising. These tests can help determine your long-term treatment.
Cardiac computerized tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). These tests can be used to diagnose heart problems, including the extent of damage from heart attacks. In a cardiac CT scan, you lie on a table inside a doughnut-shaped machine. An X-ray tube inside the machine rotates around your body and collects images of your heart and chest.
In a cardiac MRI, you lie on a table inside a long tubelike machine that produces a magnetic field. The magnetic field aligns atomic particles in some of your cells. When radio waves are broadcast toward these aligned particles, they produce signals that vary according to the type of tissue they are. The signals create images of your heart.
Heart attack treatment at a hospital
With each passing minute after a heart attack, more heart tissue loses oxygen and deteriorates or dies. The main way to prevent heart damage is to restore blood flow quickly.
Medications given to treat a heart attack include:
- Aspirin. The 911 operator may instruct you to take aspirin, or emergency medical personnel may give you aspirin immediately. Aspirin reduces blood clotting, thus helping maintain blood flow through a narrowed artery.
- Thrombolytics. These drugs, also called clotbusters, help dissolve a blood clot that's blocking blood flow to your heart. The earlier you receive a thrombolytic drug after a heart attack, the greater the chance you'll survive and with less heart damage.
- Antiplatelet agents. Emergency room doctors may give you other drugs to help prevent new clots and keep existing clots from getting larger. These include medications, such as clopidogrel (Plavix) and others, called platelet aggregation inhibitors.
- Other blood-thinning medications. You'll likely be given other medications, such as heparin, to make your blood less "sticky" and less likely to form clots. Heparin is given intravenously or by an injection under your skin.
- Pain relievers. You may receive a pain reliever, such as morphine, to ease your discomfort.
- Nitroglycerin. This medication, used to treat chest pain (angina), can help improve blood flow to the heart by widening (dilating) the blood vessels.
- Beta blockers. These medications help relax your heart muscle, slow your heartbeat and decrease blood pressure, making your heart's job easier. Beta blockers can limit the amount of heart muscle damage and prevent future heart attacks.
- ACE inhibitors. These drugs lower blood pressure and reduce stress on the heart.
Surgical and other procedures
In addition to medications, you may undergo one of the following procedures to treat your heart attack:
Coronary angioplasty and stenting. Doctors insert a long, thin tube (catheter) that's passed through an artery, usually in your leg or groin, to a blocked artery in your heart. If you've had a heart attack, this procedure is often done immediately after a cardiac catheterization, a procedure used to locate blockages.
This catheter is equipped with a special balloon that, once in position, is briefly inflated to open a blocked coronary artery. A metal mesh stent may be inserted into the artery to keep it open long term, restoring blood flow to the heart. Depending on your condition, your doctor may opt to place a stent coated with a slow-releasing medication to help keep your artery open.
Coronary artery bypass surgery. In some cases, doctors may perform emergency bypass surgery at the time of a heart attack. If possible, your doctor may suggest that you have bypass surgery after your heart has had time — about three to seven days — to recover from your heart attack.
Bypass surgery involves sewing veins or arteries in place beyond a blocked or narrowed coronary artery, allowing blood flow to the heart to bypass the narrowed section.
Once blood flow to your heart is restored and your condition is stable, you're likely to remain in the hospital for several days.
Your lifestyle affects your heart health. The following steps can help you not only prevent but also recover from a heart attack:
- Avoid smoke. The most important thing you can do to improve your heart's health is to not smoke. Also, avoid being around secondhand smoke. If you need to quit, ask your doctor for help.
- Control your blood pressure and cholesterol levels. If one or both of these is high, your doctor can prescribe changes to your diet and medications. Ask your doctor how often you need to have your blood pressure and cholesterol levels monitored.
- Get regular medical checkups. Some of the major risk factors for heart attack — high blood cholesterol, high blood pressure and diabetes — cause no symptoms early on. Your doctor can perform tests to check for these conditions and help you manage them, if necessary.
- Exercise regularly. Regular exercise helps improve heart muscle function after a heart attack and helps prevent a heart attack by helping you to control your weight, diabetes, cholesterol and blood pressure. Exercise needn't be vigorous. Walking 30 minutes a day, five days a week can improve your health.
- Maintain a healthy weight. Excess weight strains your heart and can contribute to high cholesterol, high blood pressure and diabetes.
- Eat a heart-healthy diet. Saturated fat, trans fats and cholesterol in your diet can narrow arteries to your heart, and too much salt can raise blood pressure. Eat a heart-healthy diet that includes lean proteins, such as fish and beans, plenty of fruits and vegetables and whole grains.
- Manage diabetes. High blood sugar is damaging to your heart. Regular exercise, eating well and losing weight all help to keep blood sugar levels at more-desirable levels. Many people also need medication to manage their diabetes.
- Control stress. Reduce stress in your day-to-day activities. Rethink workaholic habits and find healthy ways to minimize or deal with stressful events in your life.
- If you drink alcohol, do so in moderation. For healthy adults, that means up to one drink a day for women and men older than age 65, and up to two drinks a day for men age 65 and younger.
It's never too late to take steps to prevent a heart attack — even if you've already had one. Here are ways to prevent a heart attack.
- Medications. Taking medications can reduce your risk of a subsequent heart attack and help your damaged heart function better. Continue to take what your doctor prescribes, and ask your doctor how often you need to be monitored.
- Lifestyle factors. You know the drill: Maintain a healthy weight with a heart-healthy diet, don't smoke, exercise regularly, manage stress and control conditions that can lead to heart attack, such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol and diabetes.
Having a heart attack is scary. How will this affect your life? Will you be able to return to work or resume activities you enjoy? Will it happen again?
Here are some suggestions to help you cope:
Deal with your emotions. Fear, anger, guilt and depression are all common after a heart attack. Discussing them with your doctor, a family member or a friend may help. Or consider talking to a mental health provider or joining a support group.
It's important to mention signs or symptoms of depression to your doctor. Cardiac rehabilitation programs can be effective in preventing or treating depression after a heart attack.
- Attend cardiac rehabilitation. Many hospitals offer programs that may start while you're in the hospital and, depending on the severity of your attack, continue for weeks to months after you return home. Cardiac rehabilitation programs generally focus on four main areas — medications, lifestyle changes, emotional issues and a gradual return to your normal activities.
Sex after a heart attack
Some people worry about having sex after a heart attack, but most people can safely return to sexual activity after recovering from a heart attack. When you can resume sexual activity will depend on your physical comfort, psychological readiness and previous sexual activity. Ask your doctor when it's safe to resume sexual activity.
Some heart medications may affect sexual function. If you're having problems with sexual dysfunction, talk to your doctor.
Nov. 15, 2014
- What is a heart attack? National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/heartattack/printall-index.html. Accessed Sept. 12, 2014.
- Reeder GS, et al. Criteria for the diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction. http://www.uptodate.com/home. Accessed Sept. 12, 2014.
- Heart attack answers and questions. American Heart Association. http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/Conditions/HeartAttack/Heart-Attack_UCM_001092_SubHomePage.jsp. Accessed Sept. 12, 2014.
- 2014 Hands-Only CPR fact sheet. American Heart Association. http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/CPRAndECC/HandsOnlyCPR/Hands-Only-CPR_UCM_440559_SubHomePage.jsp. Accessed Sept. 14, 2014.
- Lifestyle changes for heart attack prevention. American Heart Association. http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/Conditions/HeartAttack/PreventionTreatmentofHeartAttack/Lifestyle-Changes-for-Heart-Attack-Prevention_UCM_303934_Article.jsp. Accessed Sept. 14, 2014.
- Crawford MH, ed. Current Diagnosis & Treatment: Cardiology. 3rd ed. New York, N.Y.: The McGraw-Hill Companies; 2009. http://www.accessmedicine.com/resourceTOC.aspx?resourceID=8. Accessed Sept. 14, 2014.
- Pahlm O, et al. Multimodal Cardiovascular Imaging: Principles and Clinical Applications. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2011. http://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=382&Sectionid=40663674. Accessed Sept. 14, 2014. | <urn:uuid:a20fd75f-7ddb-41ba-8302-49a1cf149be9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/heart-attack/basics/lifestyle-home-remedies/con-20019520?p=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00084-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.922671 | 4,915 | 3.78125 | 4 |
Organic gardening is the alternative to using toxic products such as fertilizers or pesticides on the food you are going to eat and the environment you live in. A lot of techniques for organic gardening actually don't cost a lot of money. Here are some fundamental tips to get you well on your way to being a successful organic gardener.
It may be helpful to let your plants begin their life in a pot and to transfer them to your garden when they're seedlings. If you have any queries about where and how to use pond systems (http://www.pondcleaning.com.au ), you can get hold of us at our web-page. Once the plant is hardy enough, plant it in your garden. It also lets you have tighter control over the planting periods in your garden. Your seedlings will be ready to be planted when you remove your old mature plants.
Cover fences and walls with climbing plants. They can be used to cover up unsightly fences or walls. Often, they can grow enough to cover up an eyesore in one season. They may grow up through some existing shrubs and trees, and can even be worked to grow around an arbor. Some may need to be attached to a support, and others will attach themselves to any surface using their twining stems or tendrils. Some of the most reliable varieties are wisteria, clematis, jasmine, honeysuckle and climbing roses.
Before you even place the first plant in your garden, you need to check the composition of your soil. A soil analysis report can be acquired for a nominal fee. You can then use the results of that report to determine if the soil needs to be modified before you begin planting. It can avoid ruined vegetables and flowers, so check with places, such as a cooperative extension department to see where you can obtain the analysis.
For weeds that aren't in the middle of your plants, use boiling water to kill their roots. The safest herbicide that you can probably find is a cup of boiling water. One simple layer across the weeds with a pot of boiling water will take care of the problem, but you have to remember the same applies to your plants, as well. Weeds will usually stop growing if boiling water damages their roots.
Take the time to remove weeds. Weeds and gardens do not mix; they will destroy your garden. Try using white vinegar to get rid of weeds. Use it instead of chemical solutions to kill weeds. Load up your spray bottle with some white vinegar, and spray the weeds away instead of breaking your back removing them by hand.
Being a novice gardener, you should ensure that you follow the directions carefully for tool and chemical use. If you fail to do this, you could cause yourself all sorts of injuries, the most common of which is irritated skin. For your own safety, take the time to read and follow the instructions.
After your seeds begin to sprout, it is not as important to keep them warm. Sprouting plants can be removed from the heat source. Remove plastic films on containers to prevent warmth and humidity from penetrating them. Check on your seeds periodically to make sure you know when to remove the films.
To create a beautiful English garden use various plants and differing plant heights in one flower bed. If plants have the same growth height, the bed will appear flat and not have much interest.
If you want to draw advantageous insects to your garden, plant some heather. Bees love heather, and when the heather blooms in early spring, it provides a good nectar source for them. Because heather beds require very little maintenance, they often become the home of spiders, ground beetles, and other insects that can benefit your garden. Protect yourself from being surprised by these bugs by donning gardening gloves before disturbing your heather beds.
Use common sense when watering your garden. A soaker hose is a great way to water all of the plants at once, and will save you a lot of time. To protect your plants, keep the flow on the soaker down. Keep the water turned on for about two hours; while your plants are being watered, you will have time for other activities.
You can make a raised bed with untreated wood, brick, or stone. Any wood you use needs to be untreated and resistant to rot. Optimal wood choices that fit these criteria are locust, cypress, and cedar. Do not use treated wood in your vegetable garden. You may have previously used treated lumber; if so, you should use a plastic liner to cover it.
Gardening, especially organic gardening, helps you feel more "at one" with the earth. When you garden organically, you see the entire process from the beginning to the end. The whole process becomes more clear, and you appreciate all the earth offers you.
Change your garden beds every year. When the same corner of the garden accommodates the members of the same plant family repeatedly, it can become a breeding ground for disease, illness or fungi. Plants of the same type will be vulnerable the next season. Different plants have different immunities and vulnerabilities. Changing what you plant where will naturally stave off fungus and disease.
Now, admit it, gardening isn't as complicated as you thought! Like most topics, gardening has a great deal of information to be learned and the advice is readily available from a number of sources. Sometimes you need a clue, so you can begin and jump right in. Hopefully, you've gotten more than one clue by reading the above tips. | <urn:uuid:c4bcaf91-376d-4b44-a6a7-f2f73ab4e74c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.unomatch.com/blog/36793/organic-gardening-has-never-been-this-easy/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402479.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00196-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947303 | 1,137 | 2.59375 | 3 |
HUNTSVILLE (CBSDFW.COM) – As drivers travel south on Interstate-45 to Houston, they will likely pass through the city of Huntsville. They may see Texas state prisons on the left and right side of the road.
But as they leave the city, there’s the one image that Huntsville wants people to remember. It’s on the east side of Interstate-45 and hard to miss. It’s dubbed “Big Sam.” The formal name is “A Tribute To Courage.”
The tribute is a giant statue of Sam Houston. And true to Texas form, this creation is colossal. The statue of Sam Houston stands 67 feet tall on a 10-foot granite base. The Huntsville Visitors Bureau website proclaims it as the world’s tallest statue of an American hero.
According to the website, “Big Sam” was created by David Adickes. The artist is still alive and working at the age of 86.
Adickes needed 30 tons of concrete and two years to work on the project. The statue was dedicated in October 1994. Every year, between 50,000 and 65,000 people visit the huge tribute.
This story isn’t just about a statue. It is about a Texas hero. Sam Houston died 150 years ago on Friday, at the age of 70.
Several events are planned for Friday and Saturday at the Sam Houston Memorial Museum, which is part of Sam Houston State University in Huntsville. On Saturday, a tribute called “The Honor Of Memory” will be held at the Steamboat House on museum property. That is the house where Houston died in 1863.
Houston’s life and legacy includes being a member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Tennessee. He was later elected Governor of Tennessee in 1827. Sam Houston would first enter Texas in 1832 and he was named a Major General in the Texas Army three years later.
In April 1836, he led the attack and defeated Santa Anna’s army at the Battle of San Jacinto. Five months later, he was elected President of the Republic of Texas. It was an office that he would hold for two years in order to stabilize the Republic.
In 1846, Houston was selected to serve as a U.S. Senator from Texas. He would be elected three times. In later years, the family moved to Huntsville, where Houston lived for less than year before dying from pneumonia.
Now, 150 years later, his Texas-sized legacy lives on in the city of Huntsville, while “Big Sam” looks over drivers and tourists on Interstate-45.
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MOST VIEWED GALLERIES | <urn:uuid:1bc7c625-53e5-4371-82e9-6dfed13abc25> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://dfw.cbslocal.com/2013/07/26/sam-houston-statue-celebrates-texas-legend/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00122-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964804 | 622 | 2.6875 | 3 |
My son recently came back from a science day camp with one of the coolest things. It was a model of the Earth that he had created out of modeling clay. It showed the internal structure of the Earth, and because he built it, he was able to remember all of the layers of the Earth. Very cool. So here’s a good way to learn the Earth layers for kids.
To make your own, you need some modeling clay of different colors. You start by making a ball about 1.2 cm across. This represents the Earth’s inner core. Then you make a second ball about 3 cm across. This ball represents the Earth’s outer core. Then you make a third ball about 6 cm across. This ball represents the Earth’s mantle. And finally, you make some flattened pieces of clay that will be the Earth’s crust. To make it extra realistic, make some pieces blue and others green.
Take inner core and surround it with the outer core, and then surround that by the mantle. Cover the entire mantle with a thin layer of blue, and then put on some green continents on top of the blue.
If you’ve been really careful, you should be able to take a sharp knife and slice your Earth ball in half. You should be able to see the Earth’s layers inside, just like you’d see the real Earth’s layers. And you can see that the mantle is thicker underneath the Earth’s continents than it is under the oceans.
Here’s a link with more information from Purdue University so you can do the experiment yourself.
If you’re interested in teaching your children Earth science, here’s lots of information about volcanoes for kids.
We have also recorded a whole episode of Astronomy Cast just about Earth. Listen here, Episode 51: Earth. | <urn:uuid:ae335477-7aea-46c0-ab59-e7ddec9db826> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.universetoday.com/42205/earths-layers-for-kids/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00087-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.931285 | 390 | 4.15625 | 4 |
Brain Quest on the Nintendo DS for grades 3 & 4 is designed for elementary school kids age 8 - 10 to make learning more game than chore. In Brain Quest, EA Games has applied what video game makers have learned to do better than most educators: lure kids into developing skills with ever increasing challenges that actually frustrate for a while and then deliver the satisfaction of success. The game allows each player to choose third or fourth grade questions or a combination of the two with a total of 6, 000 questions.
Brain Quest has four playing modes: Brain Mode, Quest Mode, Multiplayer and a Sudoku game category with different grid sizes and difficulty levels. In Brain Mode you choose questions from one of six categories: English, Science, Math, History, Geography, and Grab Bag. There is also a “Random” button so that you don’t know what category is coming next. Sometimes the questions are grouped around a theme, such as homonyms, and after the answers, your guide gives you additional information about the events.
There are several different types of questions. Whenever the game introduces a new type of question, cute little dog pops up to explain it and to lead players through the steps of answering them. For the homonyms, there is animated matching, drawing lines between ‘know’ and ‘no,’ ‘sun’ and ‘son.’ At the end, the criss-crossed lines realign to show what words belong with which. Then players have to type in a five letter word that sounds like “through” that means “propelled through the air.” The final question in the homonym module asks if the player can recognize the word on a list: antonyms, homonyms, synonyms. Knowing that counts for a genius point. At the end, the guide explains the meaning of the roots.
In Quest Mode, you face three computer challengers in a game environment called Brain Quest Park that has different scenes that correspond to different categories of challenges. Change the scene and change the category. Each scene has three guides who ask increasingly difficult questions. Sometimes a guide will send you looking for a different questioner in a different category. So the game throws you around to cover the whole park.
Often “grade level” or “age-appropriate” labels in games aim for the lowest common denominator, the minimum of skill required to reach the oldest possible mark. With kids, the older the marker, the more attractive the game, skill or event. So it sometimes feels that publishers have dumbed their games down. But boy oh boy, not here. There are easy questions for third graders like how old you have to be to vote or arranging these four words - practice, needs, our, band - into a sentence. There are medium difficulty ones. (How many US Senators are there? Be careful you don’t select ‘50’ like I did! ) And really hard ones. Could you, in third grade, have arranged celestial bodies in order of size from asteroid, planet, star and galaxy or known to order soil layers from bedrock to subsoil, topsoil and ground level? Could you do it even now?And this is in the third grade, not fourth grade version of the game. Then there are the “genius point” questions. A sample “genius” question asks players to match the countries of Canada, India, Norway and Spain, with their currencies: dollar, rupee, krone and euro.
Playing the game gives you points and unlocks “stickers.” Once you have enough points, you can select Collectibles in the main menu and go to a screen where you can buy those ‘stickers’ to put into the game scenery. Some are simple stickers, but the higher points unlock animated stickers like the little lemur who blinks and wags his tail.
It is no small feat if Brain Quest can simply make answering questions like this fun. The reality is that children are being evaluated by tests that use many of these techniques, and playing a “game” like Brain Quest not only gives the distraction of a game, it also teaches test taking skills while testing general knowledge in a sort of calisthenics for the mind. It does not teach understanding, and so is not a substitute for real education. But it does increase the ‘cultural currency’ - Match the food or drink with the part of the body it helps keep healthy: meat, milk, water, and carrots have to be matched with the appropriate benefit to bones, muscles, kidneys and eyes. - that has been shown to help a child succeed in higher levels of school and college.
Brain Quest website
Publisher: Electronic Arts
Platform: Nintendo DS
Grade Level: 3-4
Published on Dec 31, 1969 | <urn:uuid:9e22dcf0-93c1-44e6-ab9f-2334b421a6ce> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.lasplash.com/publish/Game_Reviews_and_News_131/Brain_Quest_Game_Review_-_On_Nintendo_DS_for_Ages_8-10_printer.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00035-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944412 | 1,005 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Learning Theory Education Behaviorism
A selection of articles related to learning theory education behaviorism.
Original articles from our library related to the Learning Theory Education Behaviorism. See Table of Contents for further available material (downloadable resources) on Learning Theory Education Behaviorism.
- Hyperspace Reality
- Despite the fact that the 'new' physics, a godchild of the Einsteinian revolution has taught us that the Universe we perceive is a mere shadow of a vastly more unpredictable one, most of us still view the world in a distinctly materialistic way. A world where...
Modern Science >> New Physics
- Hypnosis, volition, and mind control.
- 5.1. Is the hypnotist in control of me? The exact nature of what we experience as 'will' or volition is anage-old philosophical problem that has yet to be resolved by brain scientistsor psychologists. Some aspects of hypnotic responding point out weaknesses...
Parapsychology >> Hypnosis
- Bringing it Down to Earth: A Fractal Approach
- 'Clouds are not spheres, mountains are not cones, coastlines are not circles, and bark is not smooth, nor does lightning travel in a straight line.' B. Mandelbrot W e want to think about the future - it's our nature. Unlike other creatures, humans possess an...
Mystic Sciences >> Astrology
- Learning Reiki
- Can Anyone Learn Reiki? The Attunement Preparing for an Attunement The International Center for Reiki Training Attunement Process Issues of Time and Money (Reiki News article) Origin of the $10,000.00 Fee Choosing a Teacher Questions to Ask about Reiki...
Body Mysteries >> Reiki
- Learning to Breathe
- Learning to breathe for meditation and health has proved to be a "practicing" step with a few people. I know it took me awhile to get the hang of it. But once learned, easy as pie! Breathing correctly, especially during meditation is not only...
Mind >> Meditation
- What is hypnotic trance? Does it provide unusual physical or mental capacities?
- 2.1 'Trance;' descriptive or misleading? Most of the classical notions of hypnosis have long held that hypnosis was special in some way from other types of interpersonal communication and that an induction (preparatory process considered by some to be...
Parapsychology >> Hypnosis
Learning Theory Education Behaviorism is described in multiple online sources, as addition to our editors' articles, see section below for printable documents, Learning Theory Education Behaviorism books and related discussion.
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Learning Theory Education Behaviorism Topics
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beaumont and fletcher team | <urn:uuid:40af7a7a-8f96-4567-aaf8-aaf7c53f9763> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.realmagick.com/learning-theory-education-behaviorism/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398075.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00062-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.901581 | 824 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Many cities have created goals to reduce their carbon footprint over the next couple of years. One way they have found to do this is through the roofs of buildings, i.e. “green” and “cool” roofs.
You might be wondering just what green roofs are, they refer to roofs that are covered either completely or partially with living plants. They have many benefits including protecting the roof from sunlight, reducing storm water runoff and pollution, reducing green house gas emissions, improving air quality and keeping buildings cooler, as plants absorb the majority of the sun’s energy. Green roofs contain a waterproof membrane, a drainage system, a thin layer of soil and, of course, plants. These types of roofs can be installed almost anywhere, including residential, commercial, educational and government buildings.
Green Roofs Report by NRDC found that green roofs in New York City were 60 degrees Fahrenheit cooler than regular black roofs. Furthermore, the report also explains that “green” roofs are either “extensive” or “intensive.” “Extensive” roofs have hardy, drought-tolerant plants that do not need fertilizers or pesticides and “intensive” green roofs mimic a park-like setting where there is no limit as to what plants or trees are installed. Of course there is more money and planning that goes into the “intensive” type roofs, but both provide the same benefits. In June 2007, it was determined that 6.6 million square feet of roofs have been either converted or were in the process of being converted into “green” roofs in the United States.
“Cool” roofs are made of materials that help reflect the sun’s energy, such as light-colored paints, roof tiles, coatings and shingles. They can be installed on all types of roofs including, flat or sloped roofs, commercial or residential buildings and new or old structures. They are able to keep roofs between 50 to 60 degrees Fahrenheit cooler than traditional roofs and can help reduce energy use and green house gas emissions as well. They do not, however, reduce storm water runoff, help with water pollution or sequester carbon, and may cause buildings to require more heat during the winter months. “Green” roofs will actually help insulate buildings during the cold season. In order for buildings to become more environmentally friendly, “cool” roof systems can have additional structures to help capture storm water runoff, as well as help with insulation. “Green” roofs may have many more benefits, but “cool” roofs are still a better choice than traditional roofs.
“Green” roofs do not have to be expensive. Urban Design Tools: Low Impact Development states that the average cost for a “green” roof in the U.S. is “between $15 to $20 per square foot for all use types, i.e., high density, residential, commercial, industrial, etc.” In other countries, such as Germany, these costs range from $8 to $15 per square foot because “green” roofs are more common and a whole service industry was developed in order to install them. Perhaps as “green” roofs become more common, they will also become cheaper in the U.S.
Once the roof is created, very little maintenance is required. Plants may require some watering until they are fully developed. “Extensive” types sometimes contain a permanent drip tubing system so that water can run directly into the roots of the plants, taking care of those that may require regular watering. In order to decrease maintenance and survival of the plants, they should be selected based off of what type of environment they can withstand.
“Cool” roofs are even cheaper than green roofs, only costing $0.75 to $1.50 per square foot and a single-ply cool roof membrane usually ranges from $1.50 to $3 per square foot, according to EPA.Gov. It also claims that “cool” roofs can save $0.50 per square foot annually, while still taking into consideration the possibility of increased heating costs in the winter. Federal Tax Credits for Energy Star qualified that roofs and reflective asphalt shingles may also be given, allowing for additional tax savings.
In order to reduce the “urban heat island effect,” people are considering creative ways to turn their heat-absorbing roofs into landscapes or reflective devices. Creating a “green” or “cool” roof can help you save money and reduce your impact on the earth. They are becoming more and more common and are not very expensive. If you feel like a “green” or “cool” roof is too much work or money, perhaps you can start small by just turning your garage or shed into an eco-friendly roof. Any little bit helps and you might find it was not as hard or expensive as you thought.
You May Also Be Interested In These Stories
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Stephanie Siemek is a freelance writer whose work can be found on Examiner.com. | <urn:uuid:29eb4a38-d6ce-4b21-a1be-858791685071> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://baltimore.cbslocal.com/2013/11/19/green-roof-vs-cool-roof/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00006-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968316 | 1,102 | 3.671875 | 4 |
If building a computer is on your bucket list, you'll be delighted to learn that Kano Computing has just kickstarted a $99 DIY modular computer kit that anyone, even children, can assemble within minutes. Powered by a Raspberry Pi Model B computer, the LEGO-like PC kit aims to give everyone a simple, fun and educational way to better understand how computers work. The Kickstarter, which launched yesterday, has already scooped over three-quarters of its $100,000 goal.
The DIY kit is based on the Linux-based Raspberry Pi, a small, low-powered plug-and-play computer designed to give more people around the world easier and more affordable access to computers. Unlike other DIY Pi kits, Kano’s package offers an “end-to-end computer” with unprecedented user-friendliness that uses fun and simple methods to teach the public everything from how to assemble the computer to how to code. After assembly, users can make spreadsheets, play games like Minecraft, watch HD videos, synthesize music, or learn code.
Each kit consists of everything required to build a computer–besides the screen–including a Raspberry Pi, 8GB SD card, a case, wireless keyboard with trackpad, cables, and speaker. Kano will also include their Debian-based Kano open source software that comes with KanoBlocks, a graphical programming language to make coding easier to understand. Each kit will come equipped with visual instruction booklets on assembly and other creative projects such as coding programs such as games.
Pledge funders can either purchase a DIY kit through a single $99 option or through a “get one, give one” option where the second computer is donated to a sponsored child. Kano hopes to ship the computers to backers by the summer of next year. | <urn:uuid:d44a6564-7750-49d0-a2b5-65fc992b4276> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://inhabitat.com/for-99-you-can-build-your-own-computer-in-less-than-twenty-minutes/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00141-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946517 | 372 | 3.203125 | 3 |
Navigating Unchartered Waters
Camilla Andersen interviews Otmar Issing
Many people can take credit for the idea of a single currency in Europe, but one man in particular was responsible for making it a reality. Otmar Issing, the first chief economist of the European Central Bank (ECB), recalls the daunting challenge of implementing monetary union. "The degree of uncertainty we were confronted with was extraordinary," he says. "Even during the best of times, monetary policy is an uncertain undertaking. Add to that the impact of the regime shift triggered by the introduction of the euro and the lack of reliable data, and I found myself asking, only seven months before the launch of the single currency: 'What is the euro area all about?'"
Today, most people take the euro for granted. But in the 1990s, many economists thought that monetary union might fail. Issing admits he would not have dared make the decision to launch the euro, but he agreed with the political logic behind the plan. "The status quo of fixed exchange rates in Western Europe was no longer viable," he says. Germany's central bank was de facto conducting monetary policy on behalf of the other European countries, and many of Europe's central banks spent billions of dollars in the early 1990s defending their currencies' peg to the deutsche mark. "So the choice was either to risk another currency crisis or to move forward," Issing says. He decided to apply his formidable intellect and what his friends and colleagues describe as an iron will to turn the vision of a common currency into reality.
Seven years later, most economists agree that monetary union represents a tremendous achievement. The euro is now the second most important currency in the world after the dollar. Inflation in the euro area (which includes the 12 countries that have so far adopted the euro) has held steady at about 2 percent despite a sevenfold increase in the price of oil. Thanks to these achievements, the ECB is now one of the most credible and powerful central banks in the world—although it has come in for its share of criticism, especially on inflation goals and how to achieve them. While Issing is proud of the ECB's accomplishments, his instincts as a central banker and economist make him cautious about claiming victory for monetary union. "Only history can tell whether it will be a success," he says.
Early years in academia
Born in Würzburg in 1936, Issing's views on Europe were shaped by his experience of growing up in war-ravaged Germany. Before the start of World War II, Nazi teachers taught him that "the enemy lives just across the Rhine." After the war, he had to walk through the ruins of his hometown on his way to school, witnessing firsthand the consequences of conflict. Once he was old enough, he started traveling in Europe and made many friends across the continent. "My personal experience convinced me that European unification matters for our common future," he says today. His views strengthened further when he began studying economics and learned about the growth potential of free trade.
Before becoming a central banker, Issing spent more than 30 years in academia, teaching and doing research at the universities of Würzburg and Erlangen-Nuremberg. In 1988, he became a member of the council of experts for the assessment of overall economic trends, a panel of wise men advising the government. Two years later, he joined the board of the Bundesbank, Germany's central bank. His experience as a university professor defined who he was as a central banker. "Once an academic, always an academic," he says, with one caveat: "As an academic, you can write a new paper if the first one is badly received. As a central banker, one misguided decision may have an impact on millions of people."
Issing's identity as a German national also colored his views on central banking. "There can be no stable society without a stable currency," he says, referring to Germany's experience with hyperinflation during the Weimar Republic, which paved the way for Adolf Hitler's election as chancellor in 1933. West Germany's new leaders took this lesson to heart, setting up a central bank that became a cornerstone of the country's economic success. "The deutsche mark was extremely important for postwar Germany. It was a symbol of stability but also a substitute for national pride. That was why it was so important to convince the Germans that the euro would also be a stable currency," Issing explains.
A controversial inflation target . . .
The first decision Issing had to make as chief economist was how to implement the ECB's mandate. After much discussion and many late nights spent in the company of his staff, he recommended a strategy that would aim to keep inflation below 2 percent over the medium term. Issing personally lobbied hard for the "below 2 percent" goal—even though most of the 11 founding members of the euro area were used to inflation substantially higher than 2 percent. In fact, not even West Germany, Europe's strongest performer on the inflation front until it was reunified with East Germany in 1989, had managed 2 percent on average.
During the first year of the euro's existence, inflation was close to 1 percent, greatly boosting the ECB's credibility. But in the aftermath of the 2001 dot-com bubble in the United States, the risk of deflation was being discussed worldwide. To ease such concerns, the ECB redefined its medium-term policy goal in 2003 as "close to but below 2 percent." Since 2001, however, inflation has hovered above 2 percent, causing the ECB to miss its own target year after year. Many academics think the problem is with the target rather than with inflation. Charles Wyplosz, professor of economics at the Graduate Institute of International Studies in Geneva, Switzerland, argues that the ECB is undermining its credibility for no good reason. By shifting its implicit 2 percent range up by half a percentage point to 0.5–2.5 percent, the ECB would increase its success rate from the current measly 43 percent to an impressive 94 percent (Wyplosz, 2006). Paul de Grauwe of the University of Leuven, Belgium, says the band is both too low and too narrow. By targeting a rate that is too low, he writes, the ECB is contributing to structural unemployment (de Grauwe, 2002).
How does Issing respond to such criticism? Far from ignoring these and other studies, he has, in good academic fashion, taken on his critics the way he knows best: by publishing papers, participating in conferences, and giving speeches. As his colleagues and friends point out, he loves a good argument and is not afraid to let people know when they are wrong. And, in this case, he thinks they are wrong. From a purely academic point of view, there is no convincing evidence showing that an inflation rate of 2.5 percent is superior to a rate of 2 percent, he says. And then there are the policy considerations: when the ECB set out its monetary policy in January 1999, the current rate of inflation was only 0.8 percent. "To indicate a substantially higher target would have undermined the credibility of the new central bank right from the beginning," he argues. Issing also thinks that the medium-term perspective of the inflation target is often ignored. "We never intended to keep inflation below 2 percent in one year," he says. "If you have a sequence of shocks, then the medium term starts anew with every new shock. Let us not forget that when we started with the euro, the oil price was $10 per barrel. Today, seven years later, it has at times been above $70 per barrel. Under these circumstances, not to mention other shocks, the track record is pretty good."
. . . and a controversial inflation strategy
The ECB's strategy for achieving its inflation goal has also come under fire. When the ECB began operating in 1999, a number of central banks in developed countries (such as Canada, New Zealand, Sweden, and the United Kingdom) had recently adopted inflation targeting, which was considered transparent and easy to communicate. But rather than join the inflation targeting bandwagon, the ECB decided on a diversified strategy based on two pillars. The first pillar assigned an important role to money. The ECB's governing council announced a reference value of 4.5 percent for the annual growth rate of M3 (a broad monetary aggregate) that it thought would be consistent with its definition of price stability. The second pillar consisted of a comprehensive analysis of the risks to price stability in the euro area, including developments in wages and unit labor costs, fiscal policy indicators, and financial market indicators.
The ECB's decision to include money as part of its strategy quickly came under fire. To some observers, the first pillar closely resembled the strategy pursued by the German central bank, leading them to suggest Issing was concerned mainly with transferring credibility to the new central bank. What is more, the growth rate for M3 has consistently overshot the ECB's reference value, often by a large margin. For instance, M3 growth was 8.0 percent in 2003. Yet it does not seem to have affected the rate of inflation. According to de Grauwe, "this will not surprise other central bankers who abandoned monetary targeting long ago after finding out that in a low-inflation environment, money numbers are very bad predictors of future inflation" (de Grauwe, 2006).
In recent years, the ECB seems to have downplayed the role of the first pillar. But Issing continues to believe that the ECB chose the right strategy. First, he vigorously denies he was concerned mainly with importing the strategy of the Bundesbank. "Of course, transferring credibility was an important element in the construction of our strategy, but even more important was the fact that it is hard to ignore the long-run relationship between money and prices and the fact that central banking has to do with money." Second, he stresses that the monetary pillar is very broadly defined, taking into account the impact of money and credit developments on inflation. Third, he believes the tide is turning, with a renewed interest in the role of money in shaping inflation. And fourth, he believes the two-pillar strategy will serve the ECB well when it comes to future challenges, such as coping with asset price bubbles (see Box 1). "I will not pretend that the two-pillar approach is set in stone. But it is a reflection of the fact that, so far, there is no model in the world that integrates monetary and nonmonetary elements into a consistent forecast of inflation and the economy."
Price stability is not everything
For those claiming success for monetary union, the biggest elephant in the room is the lack of growth in the euro area. The 12 economies grew by a disappointing 1.3 percent a year on average between 2001 and 2005—despite a strong global recovery. As a result, living standards have fallen further behind those in the United States, with the gap in GDP per capita widening to more than 30 percent. While the euro area is finally enjoying a recovery, its growth potential remains low and may decline further because of an aging population.
But it's not as if Issing has ignored this elephant. He and his colleagues at the ECB have warned repeatedly that countries must reform their economies to stay competitive. In a monetary union, there is no simple fix. As Issing once famously put it, "one size must fit all" when it comes to monetary policy in the euro area (Issing, 2001). Using fiscal policy to stimulate demand is not an option either, given that the euro area countries have committed themselves to implementing the revised Stability and Growth Pact. In the end, the only option left for euro area policymakers to recapture lost ground is structural adjustment—increasing flexibility and competition in areas ranging from labor markets to the financial sector. The European Union (EU) itself has embraced this advice in the form of the Lisbon Agenda, its blueprint for improving competitiveness. Issing underscores that "ambitious reforms to increase flexibility in labor and product markets, improve productivity, and ensure continued wage moderation represent the only way out." Even so, he worries that poor economic performance and painful reforms will encourage national governments to pin the blame on the ECB, just as the European Commission has routinely been used as a scapegoat for everything from reductions in fishing quotas to increases in the value-added tax. "We knew from the start that we would become the perfect scapegoat. This is true for any central bank, but it is even more true for a supranational institution," he says.
Issing believes that the ECB should defuse such criticism by making more efforts to convince the public about the benefits of price stability. And, for now at least, the consensus is that monetary policy in the euro area should not be used to stimulate the economy. Tommaso Padoa-Schioppa, a former member of the ECB's governing council and now the finance minister of Italy—arguably the most troubled economy in the euro area—wrote not long ago: "What can the eurosystem do to pass the trial of slow growth and high unemployment in euroland? The answer is 'very little,' because there is no miraculous medicine that monetary policy can provide to these two evils" (Padoa-Schioppa, 2004).
Another long-term challenge for the ECB is figuring out how to fulfill its responsibilities without a political union, which some commentators still believe is a long-term requirement for monetary union. While the mood in Europe might be slightly more upbeat these days, thanks to the recovery, there still appears to be little appetite for further European integration, be it in the form of a revised EU constitution or something else. But Issing believes that Europe's leaders will have to think of something. "Europe cannot in the long run avoid answering the question: What kind of political arrangement is the right complement to monetary union?" Indeed, the problems of having a monetary union without political representation are vividly illustrated by the IMF's current attempts to reform its system of governance (see Box 2).
Investing in human capital
Looking back at his career, Issing thinks he made the best decisions he could with the information he had at the time. But he acknowledges that he and his colleagues "underestimated how long it would take the public, journalists, and the markets to become familiar with a new institution, a new currency, and a fundamentally changed environment." Issing's most lasting contribution to ensuring the continued success of the euro may well turn out to be his work away from the spotlight of decision making. According to Peter Kenen, Senior Fellow at the Council on Foreign Relations, his leadership has made the ECB's economics and research departments some of the strongest in the world, matched only by those at the U.S. Federal Reserve and the Bank of England. Given Issing's lifelong commitment to rigorous academic thought and analysis, this might be the epithet he will take the most pride in.
Issing may have retired from the ECB, but he has no intention, it seems, of slowing down. He has just accepted a part-time position as international advisor to Goldman Sachs, the U.S.-based private investment bank. His new job in the banking industry will give him a chance to work more closely with those professional investors he used to communicate with at a distance. But it may be his other part-time job, as president of the Center for Financial Studies, a think tank based in Frankfurt, that in the end will give him the greatest satisfaction because it will allow him to once again exchange ideas with students and researchers in an academic setting. "The older I get, the more I enjoy the company of young people because they allow me to better understand how the world is changing," he says. | <urn:uuid:da489784-1365-4d47-9e72-0f195a6bc12e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2006/12/people.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00153-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972615 | 3,216 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Program Director Cilly Kugelmann on the Exhibition “NO COMPROMISES! The Art of Boris Lurie”
“As this image of Lurie with his brother-in-law Dino Russi from 1946 shows, the NO!art artists, in reclaiming the swastika symbol, robbed it of its symbolic value.” (Cilly Kugelmann)
Boris Lurie Art Foundation, New York
Our major retrospective dedicated to Boris Lurie opens 26 February 2016 (for more information see www.jmberlin.de/lurie/en). Blog editor Mirjam Bitter spoke with Cilly Kugelmann about the artist, his provocative work, and the possible impact today of the taboos that he broke throughout his career.
Mirjam Bitter: What is your view of Boris Lurie? What sort of a guy was he? What distinguished him as an artist?
Cilly Kugelmann: The man and the artist Boris Lurie was shaped by his experience of persecution and concentration camps under the Nazi regime. And yet, unlike other artists who faced similar experiences, I feel he cannot be described as a “Holocaust artist.” With the exception of some early drawings from 1946 and a few paintings from the late 1940s, he neither chronicled these events nor sought to interpret the Holocaust artistically in his work.
Then what role did the Holocaust play in Lurie’s work? → continue reading
An Interview with Barbara Rösch about “Recommended Reading on National Socialism and the Holocaust”
Members of the reading circle © Jewish Museum Berlin, photo: Christine Marth
A German-language brochure listing “Recommended Reading on National Socialism and the Holocaust” was recently made available for download from our website as a PDF. Over the last few years several museum employees read widely on the topic, shared their opinions and then made this selection. Dr. Barbara Rösch of our Education Department talked to me about what was involved. She is a member of the reading circle and also worked for a time at the Universities of Potsdam and Leipzig as an elementary school teacher trainer. In addition to her work at the Jewish Museum Berlin she is currently writing a book about everyday racism in elementary schools.
Dear Barbara, countless books about National Socialism and the Holocaust are available for children and young people. How did you go about making a selection?
Our work is oriented primarily to the needs of teachers, who regularly ask us to make recommendations and indeed seem almost to think that we must. We therefore bear in mind the so-called “classics” that are read in German classrooms as well as new publications, books written from a non-German perspective, and books that touch upon hitherto neglected themes, such as the hakhshara movement. → continue reading
The Last Signs of a Life in Germany Sold at Auction 75 Years Ago
Franziska Bogdanov, unpacking the suitcase from Arno Roland’s bequest
Jewish Museum Berlin CC-BY Katharina Erbe
The items in our archives have arrived here through the most various means: we have donations from German-Jewish emigrants from all over the world as well as gifts from their estates, donated to the museum after they have died by their children. We also receive some gifts from Germany, occasionally from people who aren’t themselves Jewish and yet some memorabilia from a Jewish friend or acquaintance was passed down through the generations in their family.
At the end of this last year we received a donation from the estate of a one-time Berliner who recently died in New Jersey (USA). It consisted of a large suitcase filled to the brim with documents, letters, photographs, and other objects. → continue reading | <urn:uuid:b39d172c-b894-47fe-bb7e-997d122c5e1f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.jmberlin.de/blog-en/tag/national-socialism/page/3/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397696.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00151-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968279 | 779 | 2.515625 | 3 |
You will see Earth, Venus, Jupiter, Saturn. They are either bright enough, or come closer to Mars than Earth, that there are no complications/calculations necessary.
Uranus is just a naked eye object from Earth (magnitude 5.3-5.9). Its closest approach to Earth, when it is brightest is 17.2 au distant. Mars' orbit takes it closer by about 0.5 au, so you might have thought it would be more visible. But no - on average the visual extinction in the dusty atmosphere of Mars is around 0.5-1 astronomical magnitudes (see this relevant Astronomy SE answer) and this means the gain due to proximity (about 0.1 mag) is wiped out by the extinction. You would be very unlikely to see Uranus unless you had exceptional vision and knew where to look when Uranus was at its brightest.
Mercury is tricky. It is certainly bright enough to be seen from Mars, but would be sepated by a smaller angular distance from the Sun. The contrast between Sun and Mercury would be the same. I think on balance, it would be visible if you looked carefully, since Mercury can be seen from Earth when it is closer to the Sun than its maximum angular distance, though the Martian atmosphere might affect the glare from the Sun differently. | <urn:uuid:2fe6fc45-5a51-44df-8c61-938c70581262> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/64036/what-planets-are-visible-to-the-naked-eye-from-mars | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00166-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961853 | 272 | 3.453125 | 3 |
The UN just hosted a pledging session for its Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Of the eight goals, two are for reductions in infant mortality, and maternal and child health rates. An expected refrain from the shortfall in progress toward stated objectives by 2015 is a lack of financial resources. Have donor funds been insufficient; how much of the progress made can be attributed to the MDGs; and what diseases are being ignored?
In April, a research paper published by the University of Washington, funded through the Gates Foundation, found that development aid for health jumped from $8 billion in 1995 to $19 billion in 2006. It also found that health aid to government had a negative effect on domestic government spending, such that for every $1 of health aid to government, government health expenditures from domestic sources were reduced by 0.43 cents.
During the period 2004–2008, Hudson Institute’s Index of Global Philanthropy and Remittances documented the contrast between U. S. Official Development Assistance (ODA) and non-governmental resource flows to the developing world via foundations, corporations, religious organizations, etc. The five-year total by 2008 for ODA was $119.4 billion, while non-governmental resource flows were $729.4 billion. In 2004, ODA was 20% of the total, declining to 14% in 2008.
What is the cost of implementing MDGs? In 2005, an Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) report detailed the cost of technical experts hired by the government of the UK to work in three countries. In Tanzania, the average cost was $187,000 per annum; in Jamaica, $200,300; in Bangladesh, $173,600. These costs did not include benefits or overhead, which would have increased each by at least $90,000.
ActionAid, an international charity, conducted a study on consultant wages, calculating that the cost of 740 international advisors in Cambodia exceeded the combined wages of 166,000 civil servants.
Planners for the MDG pledging session are concerned that rich countries are using the global recession as a justification to lower their ODA commitments. Yet this has been going on well before the crisis. In 2005, debt cancellation accounted for more than 20% of ODA from Austria, Germany, Italy, the UK, France, Japan, and Spain, and nearly 70% of Portugal’s ODA in 2004 came from writing off bad loans. Donor countries count the loans and inflated interest, often going back 30 years, as part of their ODA, though there is no real cash transfer to developing countries.
The Gates Foundation-funded research paper found that, on debt forgiveness, it had no detectable effect on governments’ domestic health spending. They were supposed to have increased their health and education budgets by an amount equal to that which was forgiven.
In April, an article in The Lancet documented the fact that maternal mortality had declined from 528,300 in 1980 to 347,900 in 2008. The editor reported that various UN-affiliated groups had called him, asking that the article be delayed: their numbers were much higher than what The Lancet was reporting. The callers thought publication would harm their chances of raising more funds from donors. The editor refused.
In October 2008, UNICEF reported that infant deaths had declined from 20 million annually in 1960 to 9.7 million in 2006. It credited this fall to immunizations and economic development.
A nation’s most vital health indicator is its infant mortality rate, followed by maternal mortality. Both rates began falling well before initiation of the MDGs in 2000 — despite rising population growth rates.
In a September New England Journal of Medicine article, authors reported that non-communicable diseases are among the most severe threats to global economic development. It is projected that in the next ten years, China and India will lose $558 billion and $237 billion, respectively, in national income as a result of chronic diseases.
WHO states that this disease burden will fall heaviest within developing countries. Researchers at Columbia University determined that in Brazil, the number of heart disease deaths in women aged 15-34 is twice that from pregnancy-related causes. This pattern applies in China where there are 61% more heart disease deaths in women aged 15-34 than deaths from maternal conditions. In subsequent decades, three times as many women will die from heart disease as from maternal conditions in the previous decade.
Facts are stubborn things. Fixating on MDG health targets which largely have been met ignores the adult population, the productive sector of any economy. Declines in their health through disease or disability lead to reductions in national development. Adult ill-health is an unfunded liability in a gathering storm, one that will eventually push a tsunami of costly chronic diseases onto the shores of a fragile developing world. | <urn:uuid:e7bfb1fa-fbbb-4fc6-aac6-4df178abf809> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://hudson.org/research/7353-millennium-development-goals-mask-more-serious-health-challenges | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00083-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968499 | 986 | 2.78125 | 3 |
THE RUSSIAN PULP AND PAPER industry, using cutting-edge technologies and focusing on exports, has a lot of potential and should become a locomotive to pull the whole forestry sector to a level that a great forest power deserves to have.
During its transition to a free-market and open economy, Russia had to deal with the issue of poor competitiveness of the vast majority of domestically produced goods and commodities. The influx of high-quality imported goods was one of the main reasons for the production slump that occurred in many of the country's industries during the 1990s.
This is 100 percent true in the case of wood and timber sector, where most enterprises cannot compete with their foreign counterparts.
The weak point of the domestic wood and timber sector is the lack of processing facilities for low-grade timber pulp mills especially in most of the country's timberlands.
Now is the time to develop the wood and timber industry in the regions with the most developed transportation systems, power-supply infrastructures and consumer markets, especially in the central region, the southern region and the Urals region.
Since massive woodcutting has been forbidden in most of the country's central and southern areas since the 1950s, a lot of mature and even overly mature forests have grown in these regions, and the Moscow Oblast is a typical example.
Development of the country's wood and timber sector as a whole is impossible without giving priority to its key element the pulp and paper industry.
The pulp and paper industry is one of the most dynamically developing as well as economically and socially important industries in Russia.
While the country's overall industrial output grew 9 percent in 2000 compared to 1999, production of commercial pulp, paper and cardboard increased 14.2 percent, 12.5 percent and 21.3 percent, respectively.
The pulp and paper industry is oriented toward exports and is meeting steady demand from foreign consumers for pulp, newsprint and packaging cardboard. According to statistics from the Ministry of Industry, Science and Technologies, last year revenues generated from the export of these products totaled more than $1.5 billion, a 35 percent increase compared to 1999.
Nevertheless, Russia's share in the world output of pulp and paper is quite modest and does not correspond with the country's potential. During the last decade, Russia slid from fourth to 18th place on the list of the world's biggest paper producers. Simultaneously, domestic per capita consumption of paper shrunk by nearly half and currently equals 24 kilograms per year. At the same time, paper consumption in the world has increased 13 percent; the average per capita figure is 55 kg per year, while in the United States and Finland it exceeds 300 kilograms per person annually. According to forecasts, world paper consumption will increase 30 percent over the next decade.
In Russia, according to estimates, the demand for printed periodicals is satisfied by not more than 20 percent to 25 percent, and for notepads, wallpaper and sanitary-hygiene items by 55 percent, 35 percent and 15 percent, respectively.
Currently, Russia is emerging from an unsettled period and entering a period of economic stability. A media boom should accompany the forecasted economic rise, allowing the domestic market for pulp and paper to outpace many other markets. There are reasons to expect considerable growth of domestic demand for pulp and paper next year, which, according to a Russian Ministry of Industry, Science and Technologies forecast, will rise by 23 percent. By 2010, domestic demand for commercial pulp and cardboard is forecast to increase by 43 percent and 65 percent, respectively.
In Europe, according to the United Nations' Economic Commission for Europe's Timber Committee, the consumption of paper and cardboard will increase 27.3 percent by 2010.
In southeastern Asian countris, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), consumption of pulp and paper products will be growing faster than their production. The most dramatic growth up to 60 percent is expected in China. In the long run, the United States, Germany, Great Britain, France, Italy and African countries will become major importers of paper and cardboard, the FAO reported.
It must be noted that certain kinds of office and art-print paper are not produced in Russia at all, and other products, such as packaging paper, are produced in a very limited variety, and many are highly inferior in quality, specifically newsprint, offset print, book print, magazine print, etc.
The main factor plaguing the domestic pulp and paper industry is the catastrophically low technological level, which is 20-30 years behind modern, state of the art level. As things stand today, only 5 percent of the equipment matches modern standards, more than 50 percent needs modernization and 45 percent needs replacing.
Therefore, modernization of existing facilities and building new, up-to-date factories should be viewed as important means for developing the pulp and paper industry in Russia. To this end, the government is planning targeted programs, but an escape from the current plight is only possible if an ad hoc government program is elaborated for the industry. Government support in the form of budget subsidies and/or loan guarantees will stimulate private investments in the industry, while tax exemptions and protectionist measures will help implement modernization and equipment-replacement programs at a high tempo.
Last April, at a meeting organized by the Ministry of Industry, Science and Technologies and the Russian Union of Timber Producers and Exports, which was held in April 2001 and attended by a number of federal ministers, it was resolved to create a federal program for developing the pulp and paper industry until 2015. A working group comprising representatives of government agencies, specialists and scientists was formed.
In line with a decree issued by Prime Minister Mikhail Kasyanov on June 14, 2001, the program will include the construction of no less than five pulp and paper factories in Moscow Oblast and its neighboring Tver Oblast, Kostroma Oblast and others. Meanwhile, the working group has made cost estimates and determined the main sources of financing, including bank loans as well as domestic and foreign investments. Implementation of the program will considerably improve the efficiency of use of forest resources in Central Russia. It will also help make the forests healthier and improve their ecological balance, first of all in Moscow and Moscow Oblast.
In addition, the program will help to considerably reduce timber supplies to the central region from other regions thus slashing transportation costs to increase the proportion of deep-processed products in exports and to reduce import volumes of paper, cardboard and sanitary-hygiene items.
Now it is necessary to create mechanisms for attracting financial resources to the program, form corporations and consortia with potential investors and ensure government assistance.
(The author is head of the Timber and Forestry Investment and Development Center at the Russian Union of Timber Producers and Exporters.) | <urn:uuid:39c1d9e4-7f8c-421f-b1fb-8ddf817c104a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://russiajournal.com/node/8936 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00022-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952465 | 1,387 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Brown County NEGenWeb
Project © 2000-2008
No unauthorized commercial use may be made of this material
Historical Markers in Brown County
A truly unique spot in Brown County has been recognized by the placing
of an attractive stone marker.
The Lakeland High School, the only sod high school that is known to have
existed, is the site of the stone marker, located on the Elsmere road at the
Long Lake recreation area turn off.
The marker was put up by the Brown County Historical Society and was erected
The school was built due to the Great Depression of the 1930's.. The sod
school was erected in 1934 and received State approval. The scholl was used from
1934 until 1941. The school carried a full curriculum, even offering Latin at the
insistence of one rancher. Grade nine was combined with grade ten. Grade eleven
was combined with grade twelve. "Odd year" and "even Year" subjects werre alternated
in ordr to offer all courses to all students. The modest campus was to become an
oasis of learning during the next eight years.
The Society had had a metal marker erected west of Ainsworth on Hiway 20 also.
The Historical Society has also placed a marker at the home of Nannie J. Osborne
with the dedication of the marker on 07-19-1981. Mrs.Osborne ws an early pioneer
and her homestead included much of Ainsworth. The home was built in 1879 and is
the oldest house in Ainsworth.
Mrs. Osborne donated land for the courthouse site and for two churches. The City
of Ainsworth has an Osborn Street and additions also named Osborne after this pioneer.
Nannie J. Little was born in Lexington, Kentucky the 03-14-1842 and died in Selma,
Alabama on the 12-20-1917. She is buried in Ainsworth in the Park Cemetery. She was
married to George Osborne probably in the state of Illinois. A daughter was born about 1860
in Illinois and was named Nannie M. Osborne. She was married to William H. Hogan
in Ainsworth, 05-15-1889.
The names Of Nannie J. and Nannie M. Osborne appear on the petition requesting
that Ainsworth be incorporated. The papers were dated 12-10-1883.
In 1945 the Woman's Relief Corps erected a monument at the courhouse as a memorial to all
Civil War Veterans. Lewis K. Alder, a Civil War Veteran, and a pioneer of Brown County
and a former attorney-at-law, passed away in 1933. Before his death he bequeathed to the
Woman's Relief Corps of Ainsworth a $1,000.00 bond, designating that at the time of its
maturity, it be used for the erection of a suitable memorial in Brown County
to all Civil War Veterans. The dedicaton of that monument on 05-23-1948 fulfilled
that assignment of Mr. Alder, who volunteered at the age of 17 and served 18 months under
General Sherman, including his march to the sea.
A marker was unveiled at ceremonies on Saturday. 08-19-1995, as the feature of a Statewide
Fly-in. The dedication was for a historical Marker at the Ainsworth Airport, located eight
miles northwest of the County Seat of Brown County. The marker details the former bomber
air base's role in assuring victory in World War II, and was placed along Hiway 20 near
the Ainsworth Airport. | <urn:uuid:c64a9423-c460-4d44-8e2a-366ca42215b5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~nebrown/markers.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00032-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972282 | 758 | 2.671875 | 3 |
EAST LANSING, Mich. --- A Kansas company has licensed Michigan State University technology that uses enzymes from a microbe in a cow's stomach to create plants that can be more efficiently turned into biofuel.
Enzymes that allow a cow to digest grasses and other plant fibers can be used to turn fiber from other plants into simple sugars. Mariam Sticklen, MSU professor of crop and soil sciences, discovered a way to insert a gene from a bacterium in a cow's stomach into a corn plant so the fiber in corn leaves and stalks can be more easily converted into simple sugars. These sugars can then be fermented into biofuels or other valuable chemicals.
Edenspace Systems Corp., a plant biotechnology company that develops new crops for biofuels and environmental cleanup, expects to use the technology to release biofuel corn varieties directly to growers as well as sublicensing the technology to other companies that want to add the gene to their corn varieties. The company also will investigate using the technology in other biofuel crops such as sorghum, switchgrass and sugarcane.
"This technology is a step ahead for science, for technology and for producing fuel in our own country," Sticklen said.
"We're excited to start commercializing this technology," said Bruce Ferguson, president of Edenspace. "We've been collaborating with Dr. Sticklen on this research for the past four years. This is a very productive extension of that work."
Because of the regulations surrounding the release of transgenic crops, Ferguson estimated that it would take at least three years before the new biofuel varieties were available commercially.
Breaking down cellulose and hemicellulose (the fiber that makes plant leaves and stems rigid) into simple sugars that can be fermented into ethanol has been a key challenge for biofuel producers. Enzymes must be added to chopped plant material. This makes the process and the final biofuel product more costly. The fact that the breakdown process also is difficult to do efficiently also increases costs.
Sticklen's corn variety for biofuel production, Spartan Corn III, contains all three enzymes necessary to convert the cellulose in plant fiber into sugars that can be made into biofuel.
"We look forward to working with Edenspace to further develop and deploy this suite of important technologies," said Mike Poterala, executive director of MSU Technologies, which is responsible for commercializing MSU's technology portfolio and negotiated the license with Edenspace. "This is a very exciting development for MSU and the biofuel industry."
|Contact: Jamie DePolo|
Michigan State University | <urn:uuid:a34794ce-f26f-496a-bc1e-2ffa91da9c07> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-news-1/MSU-technology-that-converts-plant-fibers-to-biofuel-commercialized-4697-1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00081-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950335 | 538 | 3.078125 | 3 |
Theoretical estimation of cooling times
Steven R Dickman
This activity was selected for the On the Cutting Edge Reviewed Teaching Collection
This activity has received positive reviews in a peer review process involving five review categories. The five categories included in the process are
- Scientific Accuracy
- Alignment of Learning Goals, Activities, and Assessments
- Pedagogic Effectiveness
- Robustness (usability and dependability of all components)
- Completeness of the ActivitySheet web page
For more information about the peer review process itself, please see http://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/review.html.
This activity has benefited from input from faculty educators beyond the author through a review and suggestion process.
This review took place as a part of a faculty professional development workshop where groups of faculty reviewed each others' activities and offered feedback and ideas for improvements. To learn more about the process On the Cutting Edge uses for activity review, see http://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/review.html.
This page first made public: Jul 5, 2007
Used this activity? Share your experiences and modifications
Development of equations governing conduction of heat, culminating in a scaling analysis to easily estimate order-of-magnitude time for magma body to cool. Simple ultimate formulas and wide-ranging geoscience applications serve to promote student confidence in a quantitative approach to Earth science.
upper-level survey course in geophysics for geology seniors and grad students
(an expanded version of this activity is presented in a second course, an advanced geophysics class for geophysics, physics, and engineering students)
Designed for a geophysics course
Skills and concepts that students must have mastered
Students should have previously seen and understood the meaning of ordinary derivatives, and be able to take simple derivatives (such as x^^2)
How the activity is situated in the course
This activity is pretty much the culmination of my course, both in substance and scheduling (usually we run out of time around this point). Ideally, including the peripheral topics and applications of heat flow, it requires about 2 weeks of lecture time (= 6 hours of lecture); but, if necessary, can be done in streamlined form in about 4 hours of lecture time.
Content/concepts goals for this activity
- solving differential equations approximately (this is necessary for dealing quantitatively with the complex Earth System)
- revealing the slowness and inefficiency of thermal conduction
Higher order thinking skills goals for this activity
- being able to cast geoscience problems quantitatively
- seeing the world in an order-of-magnitude hierarchy
- some synthesis of ideas, concerning conduction versus convection
- some data analysis
Other skills goals for this activity
Description of the activity/assignment
This combination lecture sequence / problem set activity takes a theoretical approach to the subject of conduction of heat. The lectures present Fourier's Law, its doubles (similar equations in other disciplines), and its use for measuring heat flow world-wide; derive, explain, and interpret the diffusion equation; discuss simple (1-D) solutions whose relevance to the Earth is questioned; and perform a simple scaling of the equation to obtain an approximate formula for cooling time. The problem set provides 'hands-on' experience with calculating the magnitude of heat flow, determining heat flow from temperature observations, and estimating cooling time for magma bodies. This activity gives the students essential knowledge about the transmission of heat; a perspective on conduction versus convection within the Earth; and an appreciation for geologic time. By its end, the students should have greater confidence dealing with equations; an exposure to partial derivatives; and an appreciation of the value of a quantitative approach to Earth science problems.
Addresses student fear of quantitative aspect and/or inadequate quantitative skills
Uses geophysics to solve problems in other fields
Determining whether students have met the goals
Grading the problem set and the exam corresponding to those lectures should allow for an accurate assessment.
More information about assessment tools and techniques.
Download teaching materials and tips
For data summarizing heat flow observations, any recent textbook in geophysics could be consulted. For the Verhoogen view of diffusion, which I learned as his student, it is possible that his 1974 textbook (The Earth) will suffice. | <urn:uuid:252d9e8a-4246-4e56-bbbc-316f1948e159> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/geophysics/activities/18913.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397111.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00166-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.908288 | 906 | 3.203125 | 3 |
How to develop a Training Program
The process of creating a training program to help develop an individual's level of fitness comprises of 6 stages:
The first stage is to gather details about the individual:
Prior to starting any training, it is recommended you have a medical examination to ensure it is safe for you to do so.
The second stage is to determine what components of fitness they need to improve. This will depend upon what the individual wants to get fit for - to improve general fitness, get fit enough to play in the Saturday hockey league, run a local 5 km fun run or compete in next year's London Marathon.
Exercise scientists have identified nine elements that comprise the definition of fitness. The following lists each of the nine elements and an example of how they are used:
Of all the nine elements of fitness cardiac respiratory qualities are the most important to develop as they enhance all the other components of the conditioning equation. You will need to consider which of these elements are applicable to the individuals training program based on what it is they want to get fit for.
The next stage is to identify appropriate tests that can be used to initially determine the individual's level of fitness and then to monitor progress during the training. The Evaluation Test page identifies suitable tests for each of the fitness elements.
Identified test should be conducted and the results recorded.
We now know the individual's background, objectives and current level of fitness. We now need to conduct a gap analysis of the current fitness levels (from test results at stage 3) and target fitness levels (identified at stage 2). The results of this process will assist in the design of the training program so that each component of fitness is improved to the desired level.
The following is an example of a gap analysis:
Gap analysis - Aerobic fitness and arm power are good and just need to be maintained - sprint, agility and leg power tests are below target - leg power needs to be improved.
The next stage is to prepare a training program using the results of the gap analysis and FITT principles.
For frequency, intensity and time you should start at an easy level and increase gradually e.g. 10% increments. Aerobic training should last for 20 to 40 minutes. Strength work should last 15 to 30 minutes and comprise of 3 sessions a week with 48 hours recovery between sessions.
Plan the program in four week cycles where the workload in the first three weeks increase each week (easy, medium, hard) and the fourth week comprises of active recovery and tests to monitor training progress. The aim of the four week cycles is to:
The tests used to assess the individual's initial level of fitness should be planned into week 4 of the program in order to monitor progress and effectiveness of the program. The test results can be used to adjust the program accordingly.
The program needs to last 12 to 16 weeks in order to see any real benefits and the planning (initial & subsequent adjustments) should be conducted with the individual so that they feel they own the program. This will ensure the program is enjoyable and convenient to do.
The program has now been agreed and the individual can undertake the program. Every 4 weeks meet and discuss with the individual:
The following are example training programs:
The following references provide additional information on this topic:
The reference for this page is:
The following Sports Coach pages provide additional information on this topic: | <urn:uuid:756e0cce-5ba1-4986-b20b-111a783c0631> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.brianmac.co.uk/plant.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00196-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.930788 | 690 | 2.96875 | 3 |
To complement is to complete something, supplement it, enhance it, or bring it to perfection. For example, your shoes may complement your dress, you and your spouse may complement each other, or minced garlic may complement a pasta dish. To compliment is to give praise. For example, if I were to say that you have a very nice turtle, this would be a compliment to both you and your turtle. Both words also work as nouns whose meanings are easily inferred from the verb senses.
A corresponding distinction applies to the adjectives complementary and complimentary. Complementary things complete, supplement, or bring to perfection. Complimentary means laudatory, and it also has a second, tangential sense: given free or as a courtesy. The coffee in the hotel lobby, for instance, is complimentary. As a verb, compliment occasionally appears in the corresponding sense to give free.
Complement has a secondary, seldom-used noun sense: a full crew of personnel, especially on a ship.
In these examples, complement means to complete, supplement, or bring to perfection, or denotes something that does this:
Too often I let academics intrude on my process, rather than complement it. [readwritepoem]
Sea trout is a beautiful fish with an earthiness that is complemented by citrus flavours. [Guardian]
The Bit and Spur’s food is a pretty sweet complement to the beer, but it ain’t on the cheap side. [Nile Guide]
Here, compliment refers to giving praise or an instance of giving praise:
A man she’d been out with three times complimented her for being “an amazing combination of fun, attractive and smart.” [Stuff.co.nz]
“A typical Rutgers-Seton Hall game,” Hill said afterward, meaning it as a compliment. [NorthJersey.com]
I say as much to Keith, complimenting Sandy on how well he managed working with a piano player with a strong left-hand. [Telegraph]
Here are a few examples of the adjectives, complementary and complimentary, put to use:
Words such as amazing, wonderful, hard-working and giving were among the many complimentary words used to describe Davidson. [Lexington Dispatch]
Dorothy Cross’s Montenotte and Fountainstown are two complementary volumes of a fascinating publication. [Irish Times]
A club lounge and complimentary glass of champagne on arrival no longer cut it for the time poor travelling business person. [The Age]
Finally, complement also bears the rarely used sense a full crew of personnel, as in this example:
The Raps have a full complement of solid starters and role players. [Rufus on Fire] | <urn:uuid:cf844226-cb64-4be5-9d50-15bda293cdbb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://grammarist.com/usage/complement-compliment/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00136-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954092 | 568 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Liabilities are a company’s debts, or the amount of money it owes other parties, such as lenders or suppliers. When you list liabilities on your small business’s balance sheet, you separate them into two subsections: current liabilities and long-term liabilities. Current liabilities are those that you expect to pay within one year. Long-term liabilities are those you expect to pay after a year. The amount of your small business’s total liabilities, or total debt, you must report on your balance sheet equals the sum of your current and long-term liabilities.
Determine from your accounting records the amount of your current liabilities, such as accounts payable, wages payable, short-term notes and the portion of long-term debt due within one year. Also, include money you have already received from customers for which you have not yet performed services, called unearned revenue. For example, assume your small business has $50,000 in accounts payable, $20,000 in short-term notes and $5,000 in unearned revenue.
List each item and the amount in the current liabilities subsection of the liabilities section on your balance sheet.
Calculate the sum of your current liabilities, and list the total at the bottom of the subsection. In this example, add $50,000, $20,000 and $5,000 to get $75,000 in total current liabilities. List $75,000 at the bottom of the subsection.
Determine from your records the amount of your small business’s long-term liabilities, such as long-term notes and bonds payable. Continuing with the example, assume your small business has $70,000 in long-term notes and $15,000 in bonds payable.
List each item in the long-term liabilities subsection of the liabilities section on the balance sheet.
Add together your long-term liabilities and list the total at the bottom of the subsection. In this example, add $70,000 and $15,000 to get $85,000 in total long-term liabilities. List $85,000 at the bottom of the subsection.
Add together your total current liabilities and total long-term liabilities to determine your total liabilities. Then list your result at the bottom of the liabilities section. In this example, add $75,000 and $85,000 to get $160,000 in total liabilities. List $160,000 at the bottom of the section. | <urn:uuid:35286ed8-dfe3-4222-ac7e-f73e2d962d72> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://smallbusiness.chron.com/determine-companys-total-debt-balance-sheet-42435.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00048-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940641 | 505 | 2.71875 | 3 |
What are the long-term effects of ingesting fluoride on our bones?
Fluoride is a bioaccumulator and is toxic to bones
The results of more than five epidemiological studies indicate increased hip fractures in both naturally and artificially fluoridated areas. The incidence of hip fracture is also increasing more rapidly than can be accounted for by aging of the population. There are numerous studies which undeniably prove that fluoride's cumulative effect on bone is devastating. It is well known that chronic ingestion of fluoride can cause osteofluorosis or skeletal fluorosis (crippling bone disease). This evidence has been reported in at least nine studies from five countries (contrary to promoters' denials, this occurs even at relatively "low" water fluoride levels). Moreover, according to the World Health Organization, individuals consuming between 2.0 - 8.0 mg of fluoride/day (2-8 litres of fluoridated water), can develop the pre-clinical symptoms of skeletal fluorosis (arthritis-like symptoms). As recently reported by the U.S. PHS, many women living in fluoridated communities are now ingesting up to 6.6 mg of fluoride per day, a crippling dose for some if maintained (see fluoride.htm and skeletal.htm for more info and chart on daily fluoride intakes).
It is widely recognised that fluoride "therapy" for osteoporosis adds mass to bones but produces inferior bone -- at least seven studies found structural abnormalities or mineralization defects. In short, the biomechanical competence of the skeleton may be compromised because the tensile (elasticity) strength of bone is sacrificed. These studies not only show that fluoride may cause increased skeletal fragility (more non-vertebral fractures such as hip), but that it can lead to osteomalacia (another bone disease). The relevance to fluoridation is:
short-term high-dose fluoride studies show the same amount of fluoride accumulates in the bones of osteoporosis patients as would be found in some people who are chronically exposed to long-term "low" doses of fluoride (such as in fluoridated areas). People with renal insufficiency, for example, can incorporate four times more fluoride into bone than an average healthy individual and would therefore be more susceptible to the long-term effects of drinking "optimally" fluoridated water than the average individual (see Toxicological Profile For Fluorides, Hydrogen Fluoride, and Fluorine, by the U.S. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry).
Evidence of more bone damage is seen in a NJ Department of Health study, a U.S. National Cancer Institute study, a rodent study by the U.S. National Toxicology Program (NTP), and a Polish study which examined the bones of children with dental fluorosis using new radiographic techniques. The two epidemiological studies found increased osteosarcoma rates in young men in fluoridated areas. Osteosarcoma is a rare bone cancer which mostly originates in the growing end of bones. It is more prevalent among young males 10-19 years of age and seems to occur 1.4 times more often in males than in females. Girls are at risk at an earlier age because their adolescent growth spurt occurs before that of boys. The NTP animal study found dose-related occurrences of osteosarcomas in male rats. Polish scientists discovered bone abnormalities in male children with fluorosis. How much evidence must accumulate before authorities here acknowledge what many foreign scientists have already done years ago -- fluoride is one of the most bone-seeking elements known to man and long-term ingestion is toxic to bones even in the so-called "low" doses.
Note: see also definit.htm for more info on osteoporosis and other bone diseases.
Editorial, Official "Safe" Fluoride Intakes Based On Arithmetic Error, FLUORIDE, 1997, 30:4
Alhava EM, Olkkonen H, Kauranen P, Kari T, The effect of drinking water fluoridation on the fluoride content, strength and mineral density of human bone. Acta Orthop Scand, 1980 June, 51 (3): 413-420.
The effect of drinking water fluoridation on the fluoride content of human bone, on cancellous bone strength and on the mineral density of bone was studied by analysing 158 autopsy samples of the anterior iliac crest from persons from two different areas. In the samples from the town of Kuopio, where drinking water has been fluoridated since 1959, the fluoride concentrations were considerably higher than in samples from the surrounding area where low-fluoride drinking water is used. The fluoride content of bones from Kuopio increased significantly with age, while considerably less change with age was found in samples from outside Kuopio. The highest fluoride content in bone ash was observed in women with severe osteoporosis. Cancellous bone strength measured by a strain transducer was statistically significantly higher in women with chronic immobilizing disease from Kuopio, compared with the corresponding group from outside Kuopio. No statistically significant differences in bone strength were found in men. There were no statistically significant differences in bone mineral density, as measured by gamma ray attenuation, between the samples from the fluoridated and non-fluoridated areas.
Bayley TA, Harrison JE, Murray TM, Josse RG, Sturtridge W, Pritzker KP, Strauss A, Vieth R, Goodwin S, Fluoride-induced fractures: relation to osteogenic effect. J Bone Mineral Research, 1990 March, 5 Suppl 1: S217-S222.
The possible effects of fluoride in inducing fractures were studied in 61 patients treated with sodium fluoride (NaF), 40-60 mg daily in combination with calcium and vitamin D. Nine patients developed the fluoride-(F) related lower extremity pain syndrome. Four other patients had stress fractures associated with trauma. Seven of the 61 patients had 10 upper femur fractures of which 5 were stress fractures. The bone mineral mass of the central skeleton including the hips was measured by neutron activation and the results expressed as a calcium bone index (CaBI) which normalizes the results to that of young adults of the same body size (normal range 0.75-1.2). At the time of hip fracture, 4 patients with a minimal increase in bone mass (mean delta CaBI 0.01) had 4 femur fractures and 3 patients with a marked increase (mean delta CaBI 0.24) had 6. The 7 patients with upper femur fractures at 4 years had a significantly higher bone fluoride retention, 30 mg/g Ca compared with 23.9 mg/g Ca for the other 54 (p less than 0.02) and were older, 73.1 versus 64.2 years (p less than 0.01). Using all 61 fluoride-treated patients, femur fractures/patient were significantly correlated to bone fluoride (p less than 0.05) and to age (p less than 0.05). By partial correlation, only the correlation between hip fractures/patient and bone fluoride remained significant after controlling for the effect of age (p less than 0.05). These results suggest that fluoride therapy may be implicated in the pathogenesis of hip fractures which may occur in treated patients despite a rapid, marked increase in bone mass. The lower extremity pain syndrome is not frequently associated with stress fractures in this study.
Carter DR, Beaupre GS, Effects of fluoride treatment on bone strength, J Bone Miner Res, 1990 Mar, 5:Suppl 1, S177-S184
Bone mass and architecture in appendicular and most axial sites is controlled primarily by the tissue-loading history. We introduce a conceptual framework for understanding how fluoride treatment alters this control and can cause systemic increases in bone mass. Due to possible adverse influences of fluoride on the mineralized tissue physical characteristics, however, the increase in bone mass does not necessarily result in an increase in bone strength. Using engineering analyses of bone trabeculae, we calculate the losses in trabecular strength which can be caused by the presence of hypomineralized or hypermineralized fluorotic tissue. Significant increases in bone volume fraction and bone mass may be required to overcome these strength deficits.
Cauley JA, Murphy PA, Riley T, Black D, Public Health Bonus of Water Fluoridation: Does Fluoridation Prevent Osteoporosis and Its Related Fractures?,American Journal of Epidemiology, 1991, 134, 768, (Abstract only --no study)
Fluoridation of community water supplies has been clearly established as a primary means of preventing dental caries [note: shows bias -- less than 1% of Western Continental Europe is fluoridated]. Recently, there have been renewed concerns about potential risks of fluoridation of water supplies. Documentation of additional benefits or risks is needed. Previous epidemiologic studies, most of which were ecologic studies, suggest that exposure to fluoridated water may also have beneficial effects on bone mass and fractures. To test this hypothesis in an analytical epidemiologic study, residential history and source of drinking water (public, well, cistern, spring) for 1950-1990 were obtained from 1,878 white women aged 65-93 years (mean age, 70.9 years). All of the women were participants in the Study of Osteoporotic Fractures. Thirty public water companies in southwest Pennsylvania were contacted for information on geographic service are, whether the water supply was fluoridated, and, if so, year initiated. Individual person-years of fluoride exposure was estimated. Bone mineral density was measured at three sites: distal and proximal radius and calcaneus. History of fractures (hip and wrist) after age 50 years was obtained by questionnaire. Public water constituted 73% of exposure-years. The mean years of fluoride exposure was 6.0 + or -9.24 years (range, 0-38 years). A total of 1,090 (58%) were not exposed to fluoride, while 10% were exposed for > or = 21 years. No relation was found between years of fluoride exposure and bone mineral density (r=0.005 to 0.05). Stratification by years of exposure (0-7, 8-11, 12-20, > or = 21 years) showed no relation between bone mineral density and fluoride, with or without adjustment for body mass index and age. There was also no relation with history of fracture. These data do not support a protective relation between exposure to fluoridated water and bone mineral density in this population of elderly women.
editor's note: see Lee JR, Fluoridation and Hip Fracture, Fluoride 1993, 26:4
Cauley JA, Murphy PA, Riley TJ, Buhari AM, Effects of fluoridated drinking water on bone mass and fractures: the study of osteoporotic fractures. J Bone Miner Res, 1995 July, 10 (7): 1076-1086
To determine if optimal fluoridation of public water supplies influences bone mass and fractures, we studied 2076 non-black women, all aged > or = 65 years recruited into the Study of Osteoporotic Fractures at the Pittsburgh clinic. Information on fluoride exposure was limited to community water supplies. The variable used in the analysis was years of exposure to fluoridated water in community drinking water supplies. Bone mineral density (BMD) was measured at the spine and hip using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry and at the midpoint and ultradistal radius and calcaneus using single photon absorptiometry. Prevalent and incident vertebral fractures were determined by morphometry. Incident nonspine fractures were ascertained every 4 months and confirmed by radiographic report. Exposure to residential fluoridated water had no effect on bone mass. Women exposed to fluoride for > 20 years had similar axial and appendicular bone mass to women not exposed or women exposed for ≤ 20 years. There was some suggestion that women exposed to fluoride for > 20 years had a lower relative risk of nonspine fractures (relative risk, RR, = 0.73; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.48-1.12), osteoporotic fractures, RR = 0.74 (CI 0.46-1.19), and hip fractures, RR = 0.44 (CI 0.10-1.86), compared with women not exposed, but none of these relative risks was statistically significant. There was no association with wrist or spinal fractures. Our results do not support the findings from recent ecological studies which showed an increased risk of hip fracture among individuals exposed to fluoridated public water.
[editor's note: only 9.2% of women had exposure to fluoridated water > 20 years. Among these women, the average number of exposure years was 12.7 years. Moreover, most of the exposure to fluoride was recent (from 1980-1990). In other words, not many had significant fluoride exposure before menopause. Bone turnover rate is relatively rapid before menopause and slow after. Fluoride's major effect on bone is thus most likely to occur before menopause (before age 45-50). See Lee JR, Fluoridation and Hip Fracture for more info
Caverzasio J, Imai T, Ammann P, Burgener D, Bonjour JP, Aluminum potentiates the effect of fluoride on tyrosine phosphorylation and osteoblast replication in vitro and bone mass in vivo, J Bone Miner Res 1996 Jan;11(1):46-55
Osteosclerosis in workers exposed to fluoride (F) and aluminum (Al) (industrial fluorosis) led to the use of F as a treatment to increase bone mass in osteoporosis patients. Because the influence of traces of Al on the effects of F on bone formation is heretofore unknown, we have investigated this issue both in vitro and in vivo. We have found that minute amounts of Al (≤ 10(-5) M) potentiate the effects of F in vitro such that osteoblast proliferation increased by 15 ± 2.7% at 50 microM (p < 0.001) and by 117.6 ± 5.1% at 750 microM (p < 0.001), concentrations of F with no mitogenic effect alone. F + Al time-dependently modulated a growth factor signaling pathway(s) associated with enhanced tyrosine phosphorylation (TyrP) of several proteins (p90 [2.9x], p77 [4.9x], p68 [9.6x], and mitogen activated protein kinases [3x]). TyrP was only slightly or not at all changed by F and Al alone, respectively. The effects of F + Al on TyrP and cell proliferation were markedly reduced by 100 microM tyrphostin-51, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor. Protein kinase A (PKA) and protein kinase C (PKC) pathways were not involved in this response. In vivo, F + Al administered for 8 months, at doses that had no effect when the minerals were administered individually, significantly enhanced proximal tibia bone mineral density (BMD) by 6.3 ± 1% compared with initial values and by 2-fold compared with control ovariectomized rats (p < 0.0001). These effects are consistent with a crucial role of Al in osteosclerosis observed in industrial fluorosis. The results suggest that the combination of F + Al modulates a growth factor-dependent TyrP pathway enhancing mitogen-activated protein kinase and osteoblastic proliferation and bone mass.
[editor's note: for info on aluminum-fluoride interactions, see brain.htm. For related article, see Czerwinski E, et al., and Xiao B, et al., below.
Chlebna-Sokól D, Czerwinski E, Bone Structure Assessment On Radiographs Of Distal Radial Metaphysis In Children With Dental Fluorosis, Fluoride, 1993 Jan, 26:1, 37-44
Cooper C, Wickham AAC, Barker D, Water Fluoridation and Hip Fracture, JAMA, 1991 July 24/31, 266:4, letters 513
In a recent article in The Journal, Jacobsen et al demonstrated a positive ecologic association between hip fracture discharge rates in the United States and fluoride content in water supplies. In a similar study, we recently reported the ecological association of discharge rates for hip fracture and water fluoride levels in 39 county districts in England. Our study was performed in response to the suggestion that fluoridation of water might serve to stem the rising tide of hip fracture in western populations. Such a strategy was supported by laboratory evidence that fluoride was a potent inducer of bone formation, and by epidemiologic studies from Finland [see note] and the United States demonstrating lower rates of hip fractures associated with higher water fluoride levels. Our analysis demonstrated no significant association between discharge rate and total fluoride concentration (r=.16, P=.34). This lack of association was found for both men and women, as well as in a restricted analysis eliminating the smaller counties. However, the results from the recent US study prompted us to reexamine our data.
[editor's note: the original Finland study was flawed -- more on this to follow. After a subsequent study there, Finland discontinued artificial water fluoridation]
Our original statistical methods did not adequately account for differences in precision of the county-specific rate estimate. We reanalyzed the data using a weighted least-squares technique (weighting each county by the size of the population aged 45 years and older) to allow for these differences. We found a significant positive correlation between fluoride levels and discharge rates for hip fracture (r=.41, P=.009, Figure). This relationship persisted for both women (r=.39, P=.014) and men (r=.42, P=.007). The respective regression coefficients and their standard errors were 0.46 (0.17) (discharges per thousand/milligrams per liter of fluoride) for total rate, 0.65 (0.25) for women, and 0.23 (0.08) for men.
We present these data for two purposes. First, given the widespread use of fluoridated water in public water supplies for the prevention of dental caries, any risk or benefit associated with this practice will affect extremely large numbers of persons. Using an appropriately weighted regression model, there appears to be a positive ecologic association between fluoride levels of county water supplies and fracture discharge rates. This ecologic association is consistent with a recently published study and others currently in progress. Of course, this approach remains hampered by the problems common to all ecologic studies. The relationship observed may be spurious due to the confounding of some other factor that has not been accounted for in our analysis. Furthermore, an adverse impact of such low levels of fluoride appears biologically implausible [not so -- fluoride is cumulative], despite the recent trials suggesting such a consequence at much higher doses than in our study. Nevertheless, this positive association demands further investigation at the individual level. Our second purpose is to stress the methodologic issue of weighting in this type of analysis. The precision with which each county-specific rate is estimated is directly related to the size of the population. Analyses that fail to adequately account for this variation in precision give inappropriate emphasis to counties in which there is greater error in measurement of the rate. These data provide a striking example of such a bias obscuring the detection of potentially important associations. [comments added]
Czerwinski E, Friedlein J, Kukielka RT, Evaluation of bone mineral density in the distal radius of former workers employed at the Aluminum Works, Przegl Lek 1997;54(4):269-271 (Article in Polish)
Fluoride causes an increase in bone mass by stimulation of osteogenetic process. This effect is used in treatment of osteoporosis. Chronic exposure to fluoride in aluminium works can cause an industrial fluorosis, which is characterised by increased mineral content in bone tissue. It is well known that after cessation of fluoride is gradually eliminated from the bone. Probably this same process can exist in patients with osteoporosis after stopping of osteoporosis treatment, so we decided to estimate bone mineral density in former workers of aluminium works. For investigation a group of 169 of men in mean age of 50.0 years, all of whom had worked for at least five years (average 12.9 yrs) in Skawina aluminium works before their closure in 1981, was selected. The control group was 29 men in the same age not exposed for fluoride. In all patient bone densitometry in distal and ultradistal region were evaluated. Decreased bone mineral density was found in workers of aluminium workers, compared to the control group, particularly in age groups of 40-44 and 50-54 years. Differences were bigger in measurements of trabecular bone.
[editor's note: for related articles, see below and Caverzasio J, et al., and Xiao B, et al. For info on fluoride-aluminum interactions, see brain.htm
Czerwinski E, et al., Bone and Joint Pathology in Fluoride-Exposed Workers, Archives of Environmental Health, 1988, 43:5
Danielson C, Lyon JL, Egger M, Goodenough GK, Hip fractures and fluoridation in Utah's elderly population, JAMA, 1992 August 12, 268:6, 746-748
OBJECTIVE--To test the effect of water fluoridated to 1 ppm on the incidence of hip fractures in the elderly. The incidence of femoral neck fractures in patients 65 years of age or older was compared in three communities in Utah, one with and two without water fluoridated to 1 ppm. PATIENTS--All patients with hip fractures who were 65 years of age and older over a 7-year period in the three communities, excluding (1) those with revisions of hip fractures, (2) those in whom the hip fracture was anything but a first diagnosis, (3) those in whom metastatic disease was present, or (4) those in whom the fracture was a second fracture (n = 246). The relative risk for hip fracture for women in the fluoridated area was 1.27 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.08 to 1.46) and for men was 1.41 (95% CI = 1.00 to 1.81) relative to the nonfluoridated areas. We found a small but significant increase in the risk of hip fracture in both men and women exposed to artificial fluoridation at 1 ppm, suggesting that low levels of fluoride may increase the risk of hip fracture in the elderly.
Dequeker J, Declerck K, Fluor in the treatment of osteoporosis. An overview of thirty years clinical research. Schweizerische Medizinische Wochenschrift, Journal Suisse de Medecine, 1993 Nov 27, 123(47):2228-34.
It has long been known that fluoride "hardens" mineralized tissues. Fluoride ingestion through drinking water in areas naturally rich in fluoride leads to osteosclerosis, known as endemic fluorosis. The first suggestion that fluoride be used in the treatment of osteoporosis was made in 1964. However, despite 30 years of research, the treatment remains controversial. Fluoride has a dual effect on osteoblasts. On the one hand, it increases the birthrate of osteoblasts at tissue level by a mitogenic effect on precursors of osteoblasts, while on the other hand it has a toxic effect on the individual cell with mineralization impairment and reduced apposition rate resembling osteomalacia. Fluoride has a positive effect on axial bone density, but the axial bone gain is not matched by similar changes in cortical bone. Furthermore, approximately one third of patients are non-responders. The effect of the addition of fluoride to the drinking water on fracture rate is not clear. It probably only has a small relative impact on total hip fracture rates. In two controlled fluoride therapy studies the incidence of vertebral fractures decreased, while in two other studies it increased. Experience teaches that denser bones are not necessarily better bones. The major side effects of fluor therapy are skeletal fluorosis, gastrointestinal intolerance, and painful lower extremity syndrome. Fluoride is the single most effective agent for increasing axial bone volume in the osteoporotic skeleton; however, its therapeutic window is narrow. The best candidates for fluoride therapy are patients with axial osteoporosis but with good peripheral bone density. They should have a good renal function and vitamin D status. (Abstract truncated)
Dure-Smith BA, Farley SM, Linkhart SG, Farley JR, Baylink DJ, Calcium deficiency in fluoride-treated osteoporotic patients despite calcium supplementation, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 1996 Jan, 81(1), 269-275
To test the hypothesis that the osteogenic response to fluoride can increase the skeletal requirement for calcium, resulting in a general state of calcium deficiency and secondary hyperparathyroidism, we assessed calcium deficiency, spinal bone density, by quantitative computed tomography, and serum PTH in three groups of osteoporotic subjects. Two of the three groups had been treated with fluoride and calcium (at least 1500 mg/day) for 32 ± 19 months. Group 1 consisted of 16 fluoride-treated subjects who had shown rapid increases in spinal bone density (+ 3.8 ± 2.6 mg/cm2 month), group II consisted of 10 fluoride-treated subjects who had shown decreases or only slow increases in spinal bone density (-0.05 ± 0.6 mg/cm3 month), and group III consisted of 10 age-matched untreated osteoporotic controls. Calcium deficiency was assessed by measurement of calcium retention after calcium infusion. The results of our studies showed that 1) 94% of the subjects in Group I were calcium deficient compared with only 30% in groups II and III (P < 0.01 for each); 2) the subjects in group I retained more calcium (79%) than the subjects in group II (60%, P < 0.001) or the subjects in group III (64%, P < 0.005); 3) calcium retention was proportional to serum PTH (r = 0.37, n = 36, P < 0.03); and 4) calcium retention was proportional to the (previous) fluoride-dependent increase in quantitative computed tomography spinal bone density (in groups I and II, r = 0.48, n = 26, P < 0.02). To test the hypothesis that the calcium deficiency and the secondary hyperparathyroidism that were associated with the positive response to fluoride would respond to concomitant calcitriol treatment, a subgroup of 7 calcium-deficient subjects were selected from group I and treated with calcitriol (plus fluoride and calcium) for an average of 7 months. The calcitriol therapy reduced the calcium deficit in all 7 subjects, decreasing calcium retention from 80% to 62% (P < 0.02), and decreasing PTH from 50 to 28 pg/mL (P < 0.02). Together, these data indicate that fluoride-treated osteoporotic subjects may develop calcium deficiency in proportion to the effect of fluoride to increase bone formation, and this calcium deficit is responsive to calcitriol therapy.
Fratzl P, Roschger P, Eschberger J, Abendroth B, Klaushofer K, Abnormal bone mineralization after fluoride treatment in osteoporosis: a small-angle x-ray-scattering study. J Bone Miner Res, 1994 October 9 (10): 1541-1549.
Sodium fluoride treatment of osteoporosis is known to stimulate bone formation and to increase bone mass, but recent clinical trials failed to prove its antifracture effectiveness. The formation of bone with abnormal structure and, therefore, increased fragility is discussed as a possible explanation. Until now, however, exact information on the mineral structure of osteoporotic bone after fluoride treatment has been lacking. Bone biopsies were taken from three patients with postmenopausal osteoporosis before and after fluoride treatment (60 mg NaF/day for 1-2 years), from one patient with iatrogenic fluorosis, as well as from three normal controls. The mineral in these samples was investigated by a combination of backscattered electron imaging and small-angle x-ray scattering. Depending on the total dose of fluoride, an increasing amount of new bone is laid down on the surface of preexisting trabeculae. Its mineral structure is identical to that of heavy fluorosis and is characterized by the presence of additional large crystals, presumably located outside the collagen fibrils. These large crystals, which are not present in the controls or in osteoporotic bone before fluoride treatment, contribute to increase the mineral density without significantly improving the biomechanical properties of the bone. The possible success of fluoride treatment depends not only on the amount of newly formed bone but also on the rate of bone turnover. Indeed, as soon as significant amounts of fluoride are present, bone turnover leads to the replacement of old (normal) bone by new (pathologically mineralized) bone.
Grynpas MD, Fluoride effects on bone crystals, J Bone Miner Res, 1990 Mar, 5:Suppl 1, S169-S175
Fluoride is known to have biological effects on bone cells as well as physicochemical effects on bone crystals. This review concentrates on the latter. Fluoride increases the stability of the apatite lattice and decreases the solubility of the apatite crystals. In bone mineral, this ion has been shown to affect bone crystal structure by increasing crystallinity and reducing specific surface area. These changes in turn lead to changes in the chemistry of bone mineral. Bone mineral deposition is delayed by fluoride. This ion does not diffuse into bone already formed, but is incorporated during mineralization. Subsequently fluoride tends to accumulate in the most highly mineralized bone. Bone treated with fluoride has been shown to be more resistant to acid dissolution than normal bone, which would explain the reduced rate of resorption of fluoridated bone. The distribution of fluoride in bone is not uniform, but its net effect is to increase bone mineral density probably by an increased packing of bone crystals. Finally, there is a debate as to whether fluoride produces a bone of different quality. Whether these changes in the quality of bone will prove to be helpful or harmful remain to be determined. [if fluoride leads to increased fractures, it's highly unlikely that "stability" is enhanced]
Gutteridge DH, Price RI, Kent GN, Prince RL, Michell PA, Spontaneous hip fractures in fluoride-treated patients: potential causative factors, Spontaneous hip fractures in fluoride-treated patients: potential causative factors, J Bone Miner Res, 1990 Mar 5, Suppl 1, S205-S215
Spontaneous fractures were reported to be rare (less than 1%) in 1664 hospital admissions for hip fracture in the 1950s in Sweden. We report 11 fluoride-treated postmenopausal patients who developed spontaneous fractures of the femoral necks, all subcapital initially. In 7 patients who continued treatment there were later femoral neck or shaft fractures; in 6, these were bilateral (one followed a fall). In all there were 19 spontaneous fractures: 5 were asymptomatic, including 2 with deformity; 12 fractures required surgery. Five were incomplete (stress) fractures. All were treated with supplementary calcium 1 g daily; 10 had vitamin D supplementation. In all patients where the timing was known, the initial and subsequent fractures were preceded by, or associated with increased bone turnover as measured by plasma alkaline phosphatase (pAlP) (i.e., they were all "good responders"). Two had pretreatment hip fractures following falls. We compared these 11 (Group 1) and another identically treated group of 14 patients (Group 2), without spontaneous femoral fractures and not different in mean age, pretreatment vertebral fractures, years since menopause, fluoride dosage, and plasma creatinine. Group 1 had a lower (p less than 0.05) index of cortical bone in the femoral neck, as assessed by the ratio "calcar width/femoral neck minimum width." The 6 biopsied fluorotic patients from Group 1 had a higher (p less than 0.05) bone fluoride content than the 4 biopsied fluorotic patients from Group 2. Furthermore, histological cortical features of thinning, increased porosity, and advanced tunneling resorption characterized Group 1 posttreatment biopsies. There were no significant differences in peak pAlP responses in the two groups. Mild asymptomatic vitamin D excess may have been a contributing factor in three Group 1 patients. Two further treatment groups have been studied more recently by forearm single-photon absorptiometry (SPA) at two sites; a cyclic NaF group (Group 3) and a calcium ± vitamin D group (Group 4). Neither showed significant changes in forearm cortical bone density on treatment for 2 and 1.5 years, respectively, but Group 3 showed a significant increase in density at an ultradistal (60% trabecular) site. The pAlP response in Group 3 was significantly less than in Group 1. Spontaneous femoral neck or shaft fractures did not occur in either Groups 3 or 4. Therefore, we recommend: (1) Avoidance of sodium fluoride (NaF) treatment if pretreatment femoral fracture or thin femoral neck cortices exist.
Gutteridge DH, Kent GN, Prince RL, Nicholson GC, Stewart GO, Jones CE, Bhagat CI, Stuckey BG, Retallack RW, Fluoride treatment of osteoporosis: cyclical non-blinded or continuous blinded studies?, Osteoporos Int, 1993, 3:Suppl 1, 215-217
The future of sodium fluoride (NaF), the most potent osteoblast stimulator known to man, is in the balance. Of three recent randomized trials of continuous NaF only one found a significant in vertebral fractures in the NaF group. When data from the first year were excluded, two of the studies (those with the largest numbers)showed a significantly reduced risk of vertebral fracture on NaF. The effect of NaF on cortical bone is poorly documented. Two studies have shown reduced forearm cortical bone density with continuous NaF. A further two (histomorphometric) studies have shown the development of increased cortical porosity on continuous NaF treatment. In one, this was selectively at the external cortex and was linearly correlated with cancellous volume increase. Our pilot study using NaF administered cyclically has shown an encouraging (though non-significant) reduction in vertebral fracture rates (excluding year 1) and no fall in forearm cortical density. Another (US) cyclical study has shown no increase in cortical porosity. A current W. Australian randomized study of 50 patients is described where NaF dosage is varied proportional to the osteoblast response, and duration is dependent on densitometric and radiographic response. The future of NaF should involve cyclical administration, in cautious initial dosage (50-60 mg/day) of enteric-coated NaF, in conjunction with a potent inhibitor of resorption such as hormone replacement, bisphosphonates or calcitonin. [emphasis added]
[editor's note: one U.S. cyclical study used lower dose timed-release NaF and did not run long enough to show the cumulative toxic effects of fluoride. See review by Lee JR]
Harrison JE, Bayley TA, Josse RG, Murray TM, Sturtridge W, Williams C, Goodwin S, Tam C, Fornasier V, The relationship between fluoride effects on bone histology and on bone mass in patients with postmenopausal osteoporosis, Bone Mineral, 1986 September, 1 (4): 321-33.
Twenty-one patients with postmenopausal osteoporosis were studied for 4 years after initiation with sodium fluoride (NaF), 20-25 mg b.i.d., elemental calcium, 1.0 g/day, and vitamin D2, 50,000-100,000 I.U. weekly. Histomorphometry was carried out on bone biopsies taken prior to and while on NaF treatment. The total bone mineral mass of the central third of the skeleton was measured by neutron activation analysis at 0.5-1.0 year intervals, and the result expressed as the Calcium Bone Index (CaBI), which normalizes the mineral mass to values for normal subjects of the same size. Twelve patients (57%) who developed, within the first 2 years of treatment, histological effects of fluoride (F) (increased bone formation surfaces together with thickened osteoid seams or hyperosteoidosis) increased their CaBI significantly (P less than 0.01) over the 4 year period, from 0.64 ± 0.02 to 0.78 ± 0.03 (or 21.0 ± 2.9%). No other agent is known to stimulate bone growth to this degree. The remaining nine patients showed no histological evidence of F stimulation and no increase in CaBI (from 0.67 ± 0.03 to 0.66 ± 0.03 over 4 years). The results suggest that the histological findings of hyperosteoidosis are prerequisite for the increases in bone mass of osteoporotic patients. Although serum and bone F levels were higher in patients with F response compared to those without response, there was considerable overlap in values between the two groups so that these parameters of F retention were not reliable for predicting F response. Histological evidence of hyperosteoidosis appears to be a more reliable predictor of subsequent increase in bone mass. The effect on fracture prevention of the hyperosteoidosis associated with the increases in bone mass remains to be shown.
Hedlund LR, Gallagher JC, Increased Incidence of Hip Fracture in Osteoporotic Women Treated with Sodium Fluoride, J. Bone Mineral Res, 1989 April, 4:2, 223-225.
There has been controversy as to whether fluoride therapy increases the risk of fracture in the appendicular skeleton. In the present study we compared the incidence of hip fracture in four groups of osteoporotic women: 22 treated with placebo, 17 with fluoride and calcium, 18 treated with fluoride and calcitriol, and 21 with calcitriol alone. Four hip fractures occurred in 3 patients on fluoride and calcitriol, and two hip fractures occurred in 2 patients on fluoride and calcium. No hip fractures occurred in patients receiving either calcitriol alone or placebo. The difference in fracture rates for fluoride versus nonfluoride treatment is significant (p = 0.006). Moreover, the six hip fractures occurring in patients receiving fluoride during 72.3 patient years of treatment is 10 times higher than would be expected in normal women of the same age. The probability of observing six fractures in 2 years is extremely small (0.0003). In four of the hip fracture cases, the history suggested a spontaneous fracture. These findings suggest that fluoride treatment can increase the risk of hip fracture in osteoporotic women. [emphasis added]
Sharon Hillier, Cyrus Cooper, Sam Kellingray, Graham Russell, Herbert Hughes, David Coggon, Fluoride in drinking water and risk of hip fracture in the UK: a case-control study, Lancet Jan/2000, Vol 355, No 9200.
Background: Although the benefits of water fluoridation for dental health are widely accepted, concerns remain about possible adverse effects, particularly effects on bone. Several investigators have suggested increased rates of hip fracture in places with high concentrations of fluoride in drinking water, but this finding has not been consistent, possibly because of unrecognised confounding effects.
Methods: We did a case-control study of men and women aged 50 years and older from the English county of Cleveland, and compared patients with hip fracture with community controls. Current addresses were ascertained for all participants; for those who agreed to an interview and who passed a mental test, more detailed information was obtained about lifetime residential history and exposure to other known and suspected risk factors for hip fracture. Exposures to fluoride in water were estimated from the residential histories and from information provided by water suppliers. Analysis was by logistic regression.
Findings 914 cases and 1196 controls were identified, of whom 514 and 527, respectively, were interviewed. Among those interviewed, hip fracture was strongly associated with low body-mass index (p for trend <0.001) and physical inactivity (p for trend <0.001). Estimated average lifetime exposure to fluoride in drinking water ranged from 0.15 to 1.79 ppm. Current residence in Hartlepool was a good indicator for high lifetime exposure to fluoride. After adjustment for potential confounders, the odds ratio associated with an average lifetime exposure to fluoride 0.9 ppm was 1.0 [95% CI 0.7-1.5].
Interpretation There is a low risk of hip fracture for people ingesting fluoride in drinking water at concentrations of about 1 ppm. This low risk should not be a reason for withholding fluoridation of water supplies.
Medical Research Council, Environmental Epidemiology Unit, University of Southampton, Southampton General Hospital, SO16 6YD, UK (S Hillier PhD, C Cooper DM, S Kellingray MSc, Prof D Coggon DM); and Department of Human Metabolism and Clinical Biochemistry, Sheffield University Medical School (G Russell DM, H Hughes PhD), UK. Correspondence to: Prof David Coggon (e-mail: firstname.lastname@example.org)
[editor's note: see Lee JR, Fluoride in drinking water and risk of hip fracture in the UK]
Jacobsen SJ, Goldberg J, Cooper C, Lockwood SA, The association between water fluoridation and hip fracture among white women and men aged 65 years and older. A national ecologic study, Annals of Epidemiology, 1992 September, (2:5): 617-626
For the past 45 years, there has been a great deal of debate regarding the health issues surrounding the fluoridation of public water supplies. In order to assess the association between fluoridation and hip fracture, we identified 129 counties across the United States considered to be exposed to public water fluoridation and 194 counties without exposure. Data from the Health Care Financing Administration and the Department of Veterans Affairs were used to calculate the incidence of hip fracture among white persons, aged 65 years or older, in fluoridated and nonfluoridated counties. There was a small statistically significant positive association between fracture rates and fluoridation. The relative risk (95% confidence interval) of fracture in fluoridated counties compared to nonfluoridated counties was 1.08 (1.06 to 1.10) for women and 1.17 (1.13 to 1.22) for men. As comparisons were made at the grouped level, it may be inappropriate at this time to draw inferences at the individual level. The relationship observed at the county level needs to be duplicated at the individual level with more precise measures of fluoride exposure. [emphasis added-note the higher rate for men]
Jacobsen SJ, O'Fallon WM, Melton LJ 3d, Hip fracture incidence before and after the fluoridation of the public water supply, Rochester, Minnesota, Am J Public Health, May, 1993, 83:5, 743-5.
Recent ecological comparison studies have suggested a positive association between fluoridation and hip fracture. Using data from the Rochester Epidemiology Project, we found the incidence of hip fracture for the 10 years before the fluoridation of the Rochester, Minn, public water supply was 484 per 100,000, compared with 450 per 100,000 in the following 10 years. When the effects of calendar time and age were controlled for, the relative risk associated with fluoridation was 0.63. These ecologic trend data suggest that the fluoridation of public water supplies is not associated with an immediate increase in rates of hip fracture. Further studies of this association at the individual level are clearly required before public policy decisions can be made.
[editor's note: see Lee JR, Fluoridation and Hip Fracture]
Jacobsen SJ, Goldberg J, Miles TP, Brody JA, Stiers W, Rimm AA Regional Variation in the Incidence of Hip Fracture, JAMA, 264:4, 1990 Jul, 500-502.
[excerpt] There is a weak positive association between the percent of county residents who receive fluoridated water and hip fracture incidence in the unadjusted analysis that is strengthened after adjustment
Jacqmin-Gadda H, Commenges D, Dartigues JF, Commenges D, Dartigues JF, Fluorine concentration in drinking water and fractures in the elderly [letter]. JAMA, 1995 Mar 8, 273:10, 775-6.
...We report results of a population-based study of the relationship between concentrations of fluorine and calcium in drinking water and risk of hip fractures or fractures at any site. Results reported herein are based on the sample of the Paquid study of normal and pathological aging, which comprised 3777 subjects aged 65 years or older living at home in 75 civil parishes of southwestern France. The mean time that individuals in the sample had remained in the same parishes was 41 years. Data about fractures were available for 3578 subjects, 503 (14.1%) indicated they had at least one fracture at any site during the previous 10 years and 70 (1.95%) had at least one hip fracture. Calcium and fluorine concentrations were measured in water from each parish; data from two measurements surveys performed in 1991 and data collected routinely since 1991 were used. All analyses were performed using a multiple logistic regression Five personal characteristics were studied: age, sex, Quetelet index (weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters), smoking status, and sport activity. Only age (odds ratio [OR], 2.5 for 10 years; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.7 to 3.6), sex (OR, 2.3 for women vs men; 95% CI, 1.2 to 4.3), and Quetelet index (OR, 0.90; 95% CI, 0.84 to 0.97) were significantly associated with the risk of hip fractures, and only age (OR, 1.2; 95% CI, 1.1 to 1.4) and sex (OR, 2.0; 95% CI, 1.6 to 2.4) were significantly associated with the risk of any fractures These variables were used as adjustment variables in the subsequent analyses.
Two classes of fluorine and calcium concentration were defined, using the median of the distribution among parishes as the cut off point. The main results are shown in the Table. The risk of hip fractures was significantly higher when water fluorine concentration was higher than 0.11 mg/L (P=.04), and this result persisted when using a mixed-effect logistic regression for taking into account the grouping of the subjects in parishes. No association was found between hip fractures and water calcium (P=.30) and between fractures at any site and water fluorine (P=.88) or water calcium (P=.50). Thus, adjusting for major individual risk factors, this study suggests a deleterious effect of fluorine in drinking water on the risk of hip fractures, even for moderate concentrations of fluorine, and no effect on other kinds of fractures. [emphasis added]
Jiang Y, Zhao J, Van Audekercke R, Dequeker J, Geusens P, Effects of low-dose long-term sodium fluoride preventive treatment on rat bone mass and biomechanical properties. Calcif Tissue Int, 1996 January, 58 (1): 30-39.
Effects of fluoride on bone strength and cortical bone mass remain controversial. We compared 9-month, low-dose sodium fluoride (NaF) treatment with estrogen replacement therapy. Female Wistar rats 4.5 months old were divided into baseline, sham-operated (sham), sham-treated with NaF at 0.5 mg NaF/kg/day in drinking water, and ovariectomy (OVX), OVX treated with NaF and with estrogen. Bone mass was measured by dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) in vitro. Dimensions of the first lumbar vertebral body (L1) were determined by radiogrammetry. The right femur was processed undecalcified to obtain a midshaft cross-section to determine cross-sectional moments of inertia (CSMIs). L1 compressive test and left femoral torsional test were performed. OVX induced significant bone loss in L1 and femoral midshaft. Bone mass was increased to a greater extent in NaF-treated rats than in rats receiving estrogen replacement therapy. Femoral CSMIs in OVX rats, both L1 sizes and femoral CSMIs in NaF-treated rats, were significantly increased. Estrogen treatment had the least dimension expansion. OVX significantly decreased L1 compressive variables. There was no statistical difference in compressive parameters between NaF-treated groups and controls. OVX significantly increased femoral torsional strength but NaF treatment did not. Bone fluoride content was significantly increased after treatment with NaF. No significant difference in bone mineralization degree (ash and calcium) was found between treated and control rats. The discrepancy that an increase in bone mass and geometric properties in both trabecular and cortical bones by low-dose, long-term NaF treatment did not increase vertebral strength nor proportionally improve femoral strength indicated that the bone intrinsic biomechanical properties could be changed by NaF treatment.
Kanis JA, Treatment of symptomatic osteoporosis with fluoride, Am J of Medicine, 1993 Nov 30, 95(5A), 53S-61S
Fluoride has been used for > 30 years in the management of osteoporosis. It is one of the few agents that has marked anabolic effects on the skeleton. Indeed, treatment results in continued increments in cancellous bone volume so that cancellous bone volume can be restored to normal in patients with advanced osteoporosis. Despite its long history, both the efficacy and risks of fluoride regimens continue to be the subject of controversy. One of its problems is its age, and much of the early work undertaken utilized methodology and proofs that are today unacceptable. A further problem is that sodium fluoride as a treatment is cheap and not patented (although some formulations are), so that it has been difficult for investigators or industry to make the investments required to provide a modern program of evaluation.
Karagas MR, Baron JA, Barrett JA, Jacobsen SJ, Patterns of fracture among the United States elderly: geographic and fluoride effects, Ann Epidemiol, 1996 May, 6(3), 209-216
The purpose of this study was to examine whether geographic area or water fluoride were related to the occurrence of fractures among the elderly in the United States. We used a 5% sample of the white U.S. Medicare population, aged 65 to 89 years during the period 1986-1990, to identify fractures of the hip, proximal humerus, distal forearm, and ankle. The association of geographic region and fluoridation status with fracture rates was assessed using Poisson regression. We found that rates of hip fracture were generally lower in the northern regions of the United States and higher in the southern regions. For fractures of the distal forearm and proximal humerus, lower rates were found in the Western states, and higher rates in the East. No discernible geographic pattern was found for ankle fractures. Adjustment for water fluoridation did not influence these results. Independent of geographic effects, men in fluoridated areas had modestly higher rates of fractures of the distal forearm and proximal humerus than did men in nonfluoridated areas; no such differences were observed among women, nor for fractures of the hip or ankle among either men or women. In conclusion, our data suggest that fractures of the distal forearm and proximal humerus have etiologic determinants distinct from those of fractures of the hip or ankle [emphasis added].
Kleerekoper M, Non-dental tissue effects of fluoride, Advances in Dental Research, 1994 Jun, 8(1), 32-8
The anti-caries effects of water fluoridation are well-established. The non-dental tissue effects of fluoride in drinking water, either naturally occurring or as an additive, have been too poorly studied to permit definitive conclusions to be drawn. Claims have been made that fluoride results in an increased occurrence of malignancies, particularly osteogenic sarcoma. Experimental rat data have not resolved this issue, and epidemiologic studies are equally unclear. Initial claims that fluoride offers protection against atherosclerosis remain viable, but here too, much more directed research is needed. Early studies suggested that a water fluoride content greater than 1 ppm resulted in a lower prevalence of osteoporotic fractures. Recent epidemiologic data seriously question this conclusion and raise the possibility that even this relatively low level may increase the prevalence of osteoporotic hip fractures. Other elements, including calcium and magnesium, also vary in amount as water fluoride content varies, and it has proved difficult to distinguish the independent effects of the various nutrients in water from each other. Therapeutic use of fluoride has been largely restricted to studies of its effect on the osteoporotic study, this important issue remains unresolved. This review provides an overview of these issues, focusing on the uncertainties alluded to, and attempting to develop strategies for future research. [emphasis added]
Kleerekoper M, Fluoride and the skeleton, Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci 1996 Apr, 33:2, 139-161
Fluoride has the potential to increase skeletal mass to a greater extent than any other pharmacologic agent, yet it has proven difficult to translate this into therapeutic benefit for patients with low bone mass in diseases such as osteoporosis. This apparent paradox can be explained in part by toxic actions of the ion on skeletal mineralization, impairment of the normal processes of bone resorption, and fluoride-induced decreases in strength per unit of bone (mass or volume). In part, the paradox can be explained by the late stage of osteoporosis in most patients enrolled in controlled clinical trials of fluoride, with alterations in skeletal microarchitecture beyond which restoration of mechanical integrity is not likely. Exposure of calcified tissues to environmental fluoride (water supply, dentifrices) also offers paradoxes. The anticaries effects are well documented as are the deleterious skeletal effects of endemic fluorosis when environmental exposure is too high. More controversial is the effect of seemingly nontoxic levels of exposure on the prevalence of osteoporotic fractures of the hip. This review attempts to provide a balanced overview of the conflicting literature concerning therapeutic and environmental effects of fluoride on the skeleton [emphasis added].
[editor's note: it cannot be emphasized enough that fluoride is cumulative and the toxic effects of "seemingly" small doses depend on length of time exposed, dietary factors (inadequate calcium/magnesium intake, etc), state of health (whether diabetic, with kidney disease, etc), and total fluoride intake from all sources]
Krishnamachari KA, Skeletal fluorosis in humans: a review of recent progress in the understanding of the disease, Prog Food Nutr Sci, 1986, 10 (3-4): 279-314.
Endemic skeletal fluorosis is a chronic metabolic bone and joint disease caused by ingesting large amounts of fluoride either through water or rarely from foods of endemic areas. Fluoride is a cumulative toxin which can alter accretion and resorption of bone tissue. It also affects the homeostasis of bone mineral metabolism. The total quantity of ingested fluoride is the single most important factor which determines the clinical course of the disease which is characterized by immobilization of joints of the axial skeleton and of the major joints of the extremities. A combination of osteosclerosis, osteomalacia and osteoporosis of varying degrees as well as exostosis formation characterizes the bone lesions. In a proportion of cases secondary hyperparathyroidism is observed with associated characteristic bone changes. Contrary to earlier thinking, severe crippling forms of skeletal fluorosis are seen in paediatric age group too. Increased metabolic turnover of the bone, impaired bone collagen synthesis and increased avidity for calcium are features in fluoride toxicity. Osteosclerotic picture is evident when small doses of fluoride are ingested over a long period of time during which calcium intakes are apparently normal while osteoporotic forms are common in paediatric age group and with higher body load of the element. Alterations in hormones concerned with bone mineral metabolism are seen in fluorosis. Kidney is the primary organ of excretion for fluorides. Age, sex, calcium intake in the diet, dose and duration of fluoride intake and renal efficiency in fluoride handling are the factors which influence the outcome. Serum parameters rarely help in the diagnosis. Elevated urinary fluoride and increased bone fluoride content are indicators of fluoride toxicity. Fluorosis is a preventable crippling disease. No effective therapeutic agent is available which can cure fluorosis. Industrial fluorosis is on the increase on a global basis. Bone density measurement is a tool for early diagnosis.
Kurttio P, Gustavsson N, Vartiainen T, Pekkanen J, Exposure to natural fluoride in well water and hip fracture: a cohort analysis in Finland. Am J Epidemiol 1999 Oct 15;150(8):817-24 (National Public Health Institute, Unit of Environmental Epidemiology, Kuopio, Finland).
In the retrospective cohort study based on record linkage, the authors studied a cohort of persons born in 1900-1930 (n = 144,627), who had lived in the same rural location at least from 1967 to 1980. Estimates for fluoride concentrations (median, 0.1 mg/liter; maximum, 2.4 mg/liter) in well water in each member of the cohort were obtained by a weighted median smoothing method based on ground water measurements. Information on hip fractures was obtained from the Hospital Discharge Registry for 1981-1994. No association was observed between hip fractures and estimated fluoride concentration in the well water in either men or women when all age groups were analyzed together. However, the association was modified by age and sex so that among younger women, those aged 50-64 years, higher fluoride levels increased the risk of hip fractures. Among older men and women and younger men, no consistent association was seen. The adjusted rate ratio was 2.09 (95% confidence interval: 1.16, 3.76) for younger women who were the most exposed (>1.5 mg/liter) when compared with those who were the least exposed (< or =0.1 mg/liter). The results suggest that fluoride increases the risk of hip fractures only among women.
Lafage MH, Balena R, Battle MA, Shea M, Seedor JG, Klein H, Hayes WC, Rodan GA, Comparison of alendronate and sodium fluoride effects on cancellous and cortical bone in minipigs. A one-year study. J Clin Invest, 1995 May, 95 (5): 2127-2133.
Fluoride stimulates trabecular bone formation, whereas bisphosphonates reduce bone resorption and turnover. Fracture prevention has not been convincingly demonstrated for either treatment so far. We compared the effects of 1-yr treatment of 9-mo-old minipigs with sodium fluoride (NaF, 2 mg/kg/d p.o.) or alendronate (ALN, 4 amino-1-hydroxybutylidene bisphosphonate monosodium, 1 mg/kg/d p.o.) on the biomechanical and histomorphometric properties of pig bones. As expected, NaF increased and ALN decreased bone turnover, but in these normal animals neither changed mean bone volume. NaF reduced the strength of cancellous bone from the L4 vertebra, relative to control animals, and the stiffness (resistance to deformation) of the femora, relative to the ALN group. In the ALN-treated animals, there was a strong positive correlation between bone strength and L5 cancellous bone volume, but no such correlation was observed in the NaF group. Furthermore, the modulus (resistance to deformation of the tissue) was inversely related to NaF content and there was a relative decrease in bone strength above 0.25 mg NaF/g bone. Moreover, within the range of changes measured in this study, there was an inverse correlation between bone turnover, estimated as the percentage of osteoid surface, and modulus. These findings have relevant implications regarding the use of these agents for osteoporosis therapy.
Lantz O, et al., Fluoride-induced chronic renal failure, Fluoride-induced chronic renal failure, Am J Kidney Dis, 1987 Aug, 10:2, 136-9
Lee JR, Fluoride in drinking water and risk of hip fracture in the UK: a case-control study (A critique of the study appearing in Lancet 22 January 2000; 355:265-269 by Hillier S, Cooper C, Kellingray S, et al).
Lee JR, Slow-Release Sodium Fluoride In The Management Of Postmenopausal Osteoporosis, Fluoride 1994 October, 27:4 227-228 (critical review -- CYC Pak et al, Annals of Internal Medicine 120 625-632 1994).
Lee JR, Fluoridation and Hip Fracture, Fluoride 1993 Oct, 26:4 274-277, review -- National Research Council Report: "Health Effects of Ingested Fluoride"
Lee JR, Fluoridation and Osteoporosis '92, Fluoride,1992, 25:3,162-164 [a response to the "knee-jerk" claims of some fluoridation promoters]
Lehmann R, Wapniarz M, Hofmann B, Pieper B, Haubitz I, Allolio B, Drinking water fluoridation: bone mineral density and hip fracture incidence. Bone 1998 Mar;22(3):273-278, Medizinische Universitatsklinik Wurzburg, Germany.
The role of drinking water fluoride content for prevention of osteoporosis remains controversial. Therefore, we analyzed the influence of drinking water fluoridation on the incidence of osteoporotic hip fractures and bone mineral density (BMD) in two different communities in eastern Germany: in Chemnitz, drinking water was fluoridated (1 mg/L) over a period of 30 years; in Halle, the water was not fluoridated. BMD was measured in healthy hospital employees aged 20-60 years (Halle: 214 women, 98 men; Chemnitz: 201 women, 43 men, respectively) using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Hip fractures in patients > or = 35 years admitted to the local hospitals in the years 1987-1989 were collected from the clinic registers. There was no difference in age, anthropometric, hormonal, or lifestyle variables between the two groups. Mean fluoride exposure in Chemnitz was 25.2 ± 7.3 years. No correlation was found between fluoride exposure and age-adjusted BMD. We found no significant difference in spinal or femoral BMD between subjects living in Halle and Chemnitz [lumbar spine: 0.997 ± 0.129 (g/cm2) vs. 1.045 + 0.171 (g/cm2), p = 0.08, for men; 1.055 ± 0.112 (g/cm2) vs. 1.046 ± 0.117 (g/cm2), p = 0.47, for women]. The fracture incidence showed an exponential increase with aging in men and women with an incidence about 3.5 times higher for women. In Chemnitz, we calculated an age-adjusted annual incidence of 142.2 per 100,000 for women and 72.5 per 100,000 for men, respectively. In Halle, the incidences were 178.5 per 100,000 for women and 89.2 per 100,000 for men. There was a lower hip fracture incidence after the age of 85 in women in Chemnitz (1391 per 100,000 in Chemnitz vs. 1957 per 100,000) in Halle, p = 0.006). Using the age-adjusted incidences, significantly fewer hip fractures occurred in Chemnitz in both men and women. In conclusion, our study suggests that optimal drinking water fluoridation (1 mg/L), which is advocated for prevention of dental caries, does not influence peak bone density but may reduce the incidence of osteoporotic hip fractures in the very old.
[editor's note: two of the most important short-comings in this study is that it found a statistically significant "benefit" only for women over age 85, not for any other age group or men; and, the study covers only TWO years of fracture incidence, 1987-1989. The Germans are usually pretty good at keeping data. The question which comes to mind is: why these two years and why only two? Hip fracture incidence can vary significantly from year-to-year. Moreover, the older women were post-menopausal when fluoridation started in their city. Fluoride uptake into bone is reduced compared to the more important pre-menopausal years when bone remodelling is active. See Lee JR, Fluoridation and Hip Fracture, Fluoride 1993.
Li J, Nakagaki H, Kato K, Ishiguro K, Ohno N, Kameyama Y, Mukai M, Ikeda M, Weatherell J, Robinson C, Distribution profiles of fluoride in three different kinds of rat bones. Bone, 1993 Nov, 14 (6): 835-841
The study was performed to reveal the detailed distribution profiles of fluoride in three different kinds of rat bone--humerus, vertebral arch, and parietal bone--and to compare this with the histological appearance of each bone type. Two groups of Wistar rats were provided water ad libitum containing 0 and 100 ppm fluoride, respectively, for 24 weeks. The fluoride distribution profiles across the bone of the three different bones from the outer to the inner surface were determined by means of an abrasive micro-sampling technique. In control animals, both humerus and parietal bones showed higher concentrations at the periosteal and endosteal surfaces, while the vertebral arch showed additional high levels in the middle (containing trabecular bone) of the tissue. In exposed animals, fluoride levels increased greatly in all three bone types. The vertebral and parietal fluoride distribution profiles were relatively unchanged, although humerus fluoride increased from periosteum to endosteum. The differences in fluoride distribution profiles were apparently related to the histological appearances of these bones. The surface area of bone available and the extent of vascularity appear to affect fluoride uptake.
Lundy MW, Stauffer M, Wergedal JE, Baylink DJ, Featherstone JD, Hodgson SF, Riggs BL, Histomorphometric analysis of iliac crest bone biopsies in placebo-treated versus fluoride-treated subjects. Osteoporos Int, 1995 March, 5 (2): 115-129
In a 4-year controlled, prospective trial, histomorphometric analysis was used to compare the tissue-level skeletal effects of fluoride therapy in 43 postmenopausal women (75 mg NaF/day) with those of 35 matching placebo subjects; all subjects received 1500 mg/day elemental calcium supplement. In addition to an initial, baseline biopsy, a second biopsy was obtained after 6, 18, 30 or 48 months. Measurements were made on a third biopsy obtained from 8 subjects following at least 72 months of fluoride therapy. The change in cancellous bone volume or trabecular thickness in fluoride-treated subjects was not different from a change in placebo-treated subjects. However, paired analysis in the fluoride-treated subjects indicated that bone volume was increased between the first and second biopsies (p < 0.005). Both osteoid length and width were significantly increased in fluoride compared with placebo subjects; however, only the osteoid surface increased linearly (r = 0.63, p < 0.001). The mineral apposition rate and relative tetracycline-covered bone surface were not different between fluoride and placebo treatment, although they were decreased in both groups in the second biopsy. The tetracycline-covered bone surface returned to normal in the third biopsy. Definitive evidence for osteomalacia is a prolonged mineralization lag time, which following fluoride treatment was found to be increased 9-fold in the second biopsy and 4-fold in the third biopsy. Further evidence for osteomalacia was increased osteoid thickness by 6 months, evidence of focal areas of interstitial mineralization defects, and broad tetracycline labels of low fluorescence intensity. In the third biopsies, osteoclastic resorption was observed beneath osteoid seams. Fluoride therapy increased the cortical width compared with placebo treatment (p < 0.02), and increased the osteoid surface in Haversian canals, but did not change the osteoid width, resorption surface or cortical porosity. After an initial rise, serum fluoride levels remained constant, and the urine values fell slightly. The bone fluoride concentration rose throughout the treatment period, and was correlated with the change in osteoid-covered bone surface (r = 0.56, p < 0.001). Although we found definitive evidence for osteomalacia, the cause of the osteomalacia was not determined in this study. On the other hand, the presence of bone resorption beneath unmineralized osteoid and of osteocyte halos is suggestive of hyperparathyroidism. Thus, it is possible that the strong stimulus for bone formation brought about by fluoride therapy resulted in relative calcium deficiency.
Maylin GA, Eckerlin RH, Krook L, Fluoride intoxication in dairy calves, Cornell Vet, 1987 Jan, 77:1, 84-98
Chronic fluoride intoxication in dairy cattle, caused by feeding fluoride contaminated commercial feed, was previously described in a dairy herd. Dental fluorosis and a catastrophic decrease in milk yield were the foremost findings. In calves born to the fluoride intoxicated cows, congenital fluorosis was manifested by brown discoloration of enamel, enamel hypoplasia, brown mottling of bone, severe retardation of cartilage cell differentiation, atrophy of osteoblasts, osteopenia, atrophy of bone marrow cells, serious atrophy of bone marrow fat and severely stunted growth.
Patel S, Chan JK, Hosking DJ, Fluoride pharmacokinetics and changes in lumbar spine and hip bone mineral density, Bone, 1996 Dec, 19(6), 651-655
Debate about the use of fluoride for the treatment of vertebral osteoporosis has centered not only on whether fluoride treatment decreases vertebral fractures, but also the interindividual vertebral bone mineral density (BMD) response, the potential for nonvertebral fractures, as well as side effects and tolerability. These effects may be dose dependent and, in this study, we examine the pharmacokinetics of sodium monofluorophosphate (MFP) in osteoporotic patients and relate this to changes in BMD. Plasma fluoride absorption curves were measured from 0 to 6 h after ingestion of MFP at baseline and during long-term dosing in 21 patients with vertebral osteoporosis (T scores ≤ 2). BMD was measured at baseline and at 12 months at the lumbar spine (LS), femoral neck (FN), trochanter, and Ward's triangle. We found that fluoride elimination was inversely related to creatinine clearance. LS BMD increased from a median of 0.77 g/cm2 (range 0.69 to 0.99) at baseline to 0.88 g/cm2 (0.75 to 1.13) (p < 0.001) after 12 months. This equates to a median increase of 12% (range -1.2 to 37). Median femoral neck BMD decreased from 0.75 g/cm2 (0.62 to 0.94) at baseline to 0.69 g/cm2 (0.62 to 0.92) (p = 0.13) after 12 months. This equates to a decrease of -2% (-19 to 10). BMD at the other hip sites also decreased slightly. Changes in LS and FN BMD were not significantly related (r = 0.28, p = 0.29). The various pharmacokinetic parameters measured were not related to changes in LS BMD; however, there was an inverse relationship between trough fluoride concentration during long-term dosing and change in FN BMD. Further studies are required to see if this relationship can be used to monitor osteoporotic patients treated with fluoride and prevent significant decreases in FN BMD and possibly fractures at this site.
Phipps KR, Burt BA, Water-borne fluoride and cortical bone mass: a comparison of two communities. J Dental Research, 1990 June, 69 (6):1256-1260 School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 48109-2029.
This study investigated the relationship between cortical bone mass in an older female population and their ingestion of fluoride from community water supplies. The study was conducted among lifelong female residents in Lordsburg (3.5 ppm fluoride) and Deming (0.7 ppm fluoride), NM. A total of 151 postmenopausal women ranging in age from 39 to 87 years took part; 69 were residents of the optimal-fluoride community, while the remaining 82 were residents of the high-fluoride community. Although bivariate analyses showed no difference in cortical bone mass between women in the two communities, with multiple regression analyses, significant predictors of bone mass (p less than 0.05) were weight, years since menopause, current estrogen supplementation, diabetes, and fluoride exposure status. Based on a model containing all of these variables, women living in the high-fluoride community had a bone mass ranging from 0.004 to 0.039 g/cm2 less than that of similar women living in the optimum-fluoride community. These results suggest that lifelong ingestion of water containing 3.5 ppm fluoride, compared with water containing 0.7 ppm fluoride, does not increase cortical bone mass in women of similar age, weight, and menopausal status. Under the conditions of this study, cortical bone mass might be reduced in a high-fluoride area.
Razumov VV, Klitsenko OA, Rykov VA, Danilov IP, Morphogenesis of occupational fluoride osteopathy, Med Tr Prom Ekol, 1997, 4, 18-23. [Article in Russian].
Fluor osteopathy, as the authors suppose, is a morphologic repetition of phylogenesis early stages in osteogenesis. Thus, osteosclerosis and osteoporosis demonstrated by X-ray should be considered as manifestation of bone fluorosis. Fluor-induced changes of bone tissue could not be adequately termed as "osteoporosis" and "osteosclerosis", so is defined as "fluor osteopathy".
Richards A, Fejerskov O, Ekstrand J, Fluoride pharmacokinetics in the domestic pig, J Dent Res 1982 Sep, 61(9), 1099-1102
Plasma fluoride concentrations were studied in 11 pigs following single oral or intravenous doses of fluoride. The results showed a less-than-20% bioavailability of fluoride when administered with calcium-rich food. Pharmacokinetic analyses showed that the plasma half-life varied from 0.6 to 1.4 h, depending on diet and route of fluoride administration. These data are comparable to those reported for man, and thus illustrate the suitability of the pig for studies of effects of fluoride on hard tissues.
[editor's note: as discussed elsewhere, those people on inadequate diets, will incorporate more fluoride into their bones and teeth increasing the risk of developing dental and skeletal fluorosis. The subsection of the population most at risk are the lower socio-economic groups]
Riggs BL, et al., Effect of Fluoride Treatment on the Fracture Rate in Postmenopausal Women with Osteoporosis, New England J. of Medicine, 1990 March, 322:12, 802-9
Although fluoride increases bone mass, the newly formed bone may have reduced strength. To assess the effect of fluoride treatment on the fracture rate in osteoporosis, we conducted a four-year prospective clinical trial in 202 postmenopausal women with osteoporosis and vertebral fractures who were randomly assigned to receive sodium fluoride (75 mg per day) or placebo. All received a calcium supplement (1500 mg per day). Sixty six women in the fluoride group and 69 women in the placebo group completed the trial. As compared with the placebo group, the treatment group had increases in median bone mineral density of 35 percent (P<0.0001) in the lumbar spine (predominantly cancellous bone), 12 percent (P<0.0001) in the femoral neck, and 10 percent (P<0.0001) in the femoral trochanter (sites of mixed cortical and cancellous bone), but the bone mineral density decreased by 4 percent (P<0.02) in the shaft of the radius (predominantly cortical bone). The number of new vertebral fractures was similar in the treatment and placebo groups (163 and 136, respectively; P not significant), but the number of nonvertebral fractures was higher in the treatment group (72 vs. 24; P<0.01). Fifty-four women in the fluoride group and 24 in the placebo group had side effects sufficiently severe. to warrant dose reduction; the major side effects were gastrointestinal symptoms and lower-extremity pain.We conclude that fluoride therapy increases cancellous but decreases cortical bone mineral density and increases skeletal fragility. Thus, under the conditions of this study, the fluoride-calcium regimen was not effective treatment for postmenopausal osteoporosis. [emphasis added]
Riggs BL, O'Fallon WM, Lane A, Hodgson SF, Wahner HW, Muhs J, Chao E, Melton LJ 3rd, Clinical trial of fluoride therapy in postmenopausal osteoporotic women: extended observations and additional analysis, J Bone Miner Res, 1994 Feb, 9:2, 265-275
[excerpt from the paper] Because NaF treatment results in losses of cortical bone, the effect on fracture occurrence may be more adverse at sites that contain substantial amounts of cortical bone, such as the hip, than at sites than contain large amounts of cancellous bone, such as the vertebral bodies. Because of the severity of the consequences of hip fracture, a treatment that decreases the incidence of vertebral fractures would be deemed to be worthwhile only if it does not concomitantly increase the risk of hip fracture. In this regard, it is of concern that in our study there was a threefold, but nonsignificant, increase in the incidence of hip fracture in the NaF group and that another randomized controlled trial using only 50 mg NaF per day there was a twofold, statistically significant increase in hip fracture occurrence. [emphasis added]
Riggs BL, Melton LJ 3rd, O'Fallon WM, Drug therapy for vertebral fractures in osteoporosis: evidence that decreases in bone turnover and increases in bone mass both determine antifracture efficacy, Bone, 1996 Mar, 18(3 Suppl), 197S-201S
The conventional belief is that osteopenia is the major cause of vertebral fractures and that drug therapy must induce a substantial increase in vertebral bone mineral density (BMD) before the vertebral fracture rate (VFR) is decreased. We hypothesized that the increased bone turnover in osteoporosis also is a major cause of vertebral fractures because of its adverse effects on the microarchitecture of the vertebrae and, thus, that normalization of bone turnover by antiresorptive drug therapy will decrease VFR substantially. This hypothesis is supported by our reanalysis of data from previous clinical trials with fluoride and with estrogen therapy in postmenopausal osteoporotic women. As evident from computer-generated three-dimensional graphic plots of data from osteoporotic women treated with placebo, VFR increased as bone turnover increased or as vertebral BMD decreased. Estrogen therapy decreased the bone turnover rate to normal and eliminated the relationship between VFR and bone turnover, whereas the inverse relationship with vertebral BMD persisted. In osteoporotic women treated with fluoride, VFR decreased as vertebral BMD increased, provided that patients with high (toxic) serum fluoride levels were not included in the comparison. Over the range of values in the data set, increased vertebral BMD and decreased bone turnover had approximately equal effects in decreasing VFR. Thus, both formation-stimulating and resorption-inhibiting drugs can substantially decrease VFR but do so by different mechanisms.
Shi J, Dai G, Zhang Z, Relationship between bone fluoride content, pathological change in bone of aborted fetuses and maternal fluoride level, Chung Hua Yu Fang I Hsueh Tsa Chih, 1995 Mar;29(2):103-105 (Article in Chinese)
Relationship between bone fluoride content, pathological change in bone of aborted fetuses and maternal fluoride level was studied in 46 pregnant women and their inducedly-aborted fetuses. Results showed fluoride content in fetal femur averaged 368.2 micrograms/g, and 41.4% of the bone with pathological change. Fluoride levels in maternal urine and amniotic fluid and fluoride content in fetal femur and pathological change in fetal femur appeared a positive correlation between them. Femur fluoride content and pathological change of bone in fetuses born to mothers with mottling teeth were significantly greater than to those without them. Pathological change in fetal femur presented dose-response relationship with their bone fluoride content. When the latter reached greater than 500 micrograms/g, pathological changes occurred in 90% of the bone.
Søgaard CH, et al., Marked Decrease in Trabecular Bone Quality After Five Years of Sodium Fluoride Therapy -- Assessed by Biomechanical Testing of Iliac Crest Bonce Biopsies in Osteoporotic Patients, Bone, 1994, 15:4, 393-399
In order to evaluate the effect of sodium fluoride (NaF) on bone biomechanical competence, iliac crest biopsies were taken before and after one year of treatment in 12 osteoporotic patients, and before and after five years of treatment in 14 patients. Bone fluoride content had increased significantly after both one and five years of treatment, indicating that the administered fluoride had been ingested. After one year of treatment, no difference was observed in iliac crest trabecular bone ash content. A general trend for decreased bone strength and bone quality was observed, but this was insignificant. After five years of fluoride treatment, an insignificant decrease in iliac crest trabecular bone ash content was observed. A significant reduction of 45% was found in trabecular bone strength (p < 0.05), and an even more pronounced reduction of 58% was found in trabecular bone quality (p < 0.01). The results of this study indicate that long-term administration of sodium fluoride may be detrimental to bone quality, at least as measured in non-loaded iliac crest trabecular bone.
Søgaard CH, Mosekilde L, Schwartz W, Leidig G, Minne HW, Ziegler R, Effects of fluoride on rat vertebral body biomechanical competence and bone mass, Bone, 1995 January, 16:1, 163-169.
For more than 30 years, sodium fluoride has been a commonly used therapeutic agent for established osteoporosis because of its repeatedly documented anabolic effect on trabecular bone mass. Recent clinical and experimental studies have, however, indicated a possible detrimental effect of fluoride on bone strength. Thus, the efficacy of fluoride therapy remains a controversial issue. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of fluoride on both vertebral bone mass and quality in rats. Twenty-nine 3-month-old, female rats were randomized into three groups. One group served as a control group, and the other two groups received fluoridated water at different doses (100 ppm and 150 ppm). The rats were followed for 90 days. Three lumbar vertebrae were obtained from each rat, and changes in bone fluoride content, bone mass and biomechanical competence were assessed. The results revealed a significant increase in bone fluoride content, ash density and trabecular bone volume after fluoride treatment. Directly obtained load values and load corrected for cross-sectional area were constant. Load corrected for ash content, which is a measure of bone quality, decreased significantly after fluoride therapy. It is concluded that the increase in bone mass during fluoride treatment does not translate into an improved bone strength and that the bone quality declines. This investigation thereby supports the hypothesis of a possible negative effect of fluoride on bone quality.
Sowers MR, Clark MK, Jannausch ML,Wallace RB, A Prospective Study of Bone Mineral Content and Fracture in Communities with Differential Fluoride Exposure, Am J. of Epidemiology, 1991, 133:7, 649-660
In 1983/1984, a study of bone mass and fractures was begun in 827 women aged 20-80 years in three rural Iowa communities selected for the fluoride and calcium content of their community water supplies. The control community's water had a calcium content of 67 mg/liter and a fluoride content of 1 mg/liter. The higher-calcium community had water with a calcium content of 375 mg/liter and a fluoride content of 1 mg/llter. The higher-fluoride community's water had 15 mg/liter of calcium and 4 mgl liter of fluoride naturally occurring. In 1988/1989, a follow-up study characterized the 684 women still living and available for study. Residence in the higher-fluoride community was associated with a significantly lower radial bone mass in premenopausal and postmenopausal women, an increased rate of radial bone mass loss in premenopausal women, and significantly more fractures among postmenopausal women. There was no difference In the 5-year relative risk of any fracture in the higher-calcium community versus the control community; however, the relative risk was 2.1 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.0-4.4) in women in the higher-fluoride community compared with women in the control community. There was no difference In the 5-year risk of wrist, spine, or hip fracture In the higher-calcium community versus the control community; however, the 5-year relative risk for women in the higher-fluoride community, compared with women in the control community, was 2.2 (95% CI 1.1-4.7). Estimates of risk were adjusted for age and body size. [emphasis added]Sowers MR, Wallace RB, Lemke JH, The relationship of bone mass and fracture history to fluoride and calcium intake: a study of three communities. Am J Clinical Nutrition, 1986 Dec, 44 (6): 889-898.
Stimulated by the suggestion that water fluoride greater than 1 mg/L may protect against osteoporosis, we studied bone mass of women in three rural communities with differing mineral content of the water supply. Mean fluoride and calcium of community drinking waters were 4 mg/L and 16 mg/L, respectively, high fluoride community; 1 mg/L and 375 mg/L, respectively, high calcium community; and 1 mg/L and 65 mg/L, respectively, low calcium community. Bone mass was measured by single photon absorptiometry, and women were interviewed about fracture history, dietary intake, and other important covariates. We observed no protective effect with higher fluoride intake. Bone mass was lower in older women from the high fluoride community though not statistically so; these women reported significantly more fractures. There was no observed community difference in young women's bone mass or fracture history. Young women in the high fluoride community consuming calcium and vitamin D in excess of 800 mg/day and 400 IU/day, respectively, had significantly better bone mass (p less than 0.05) than their peers. [emphasis added]
Suarez-Almazor ME, Flowerdew G, Saunders DL, Soskolne CL, Russell A, The Fluoridation of Drinking Water and Hip Fracture Hospitalization Rates in Two Canadian Communities, Am J. Public Health, 1993 May, 83, 689-693
OBJECTIVES. The purpose of this study was to compare hip fracture hospitalization rates between a fluoridated and a non-fluoridated community in Alberta, Canada: Edmonton, which has had fluoridated drinking water since 1967, and Calgary, which considered fluoridation in 1991 but is currently revising this decision. METHODS. Case subjects were all individuals aged 45 years or older residing in Edmonton or Calgary who were admitted to hospitals in Alberta between January 1, 1981, and December 31, 1987, and who had a discharge diagnosis of hip fracture. Edmonton rates were compared with Calgary rates, with adjustment for age and sex using the Edmonton population as a standard. RESULTS. The hip fracture hospitalization rate for Edmonton from 1981 through 1987 was 2.77 per 1000 person-years. The age-sex standardized rate for Calgary was 2.78 per 1000 person-years. No statistically significant difference was observed in the overall rate, and only minor differences were observed within age and sex subgroups, with the Edmonton rates being higher in males. CONCLUSIONS. These findings suggest that fluoridation of drinking water has no impact, neither beneficial nor deleterious, on the risk of hip fracture [emphasis added]
[editor's note: ALL men (aged 45+ and the subgroup of men aged 65+) in fluoridated Edmonton had a statistically significant higher rate of hip fracture admissions than did unfluoridated Calgary men. Possible confounding estrogen use which might reduce hip fractures in women was not addressed. There are several points which need to be emphasized as this study does not mean that fluoridation has "no impact" on fracture rates.
One would expect to see more fracture rates in women than in men. Should the finding of increased fractures in men be a "red-flag"? Moreover, fluoride is a cumulative element and Edmonton was fluoridated for less than 20 years when records of fracture hospitilization rates were checked. What will the increased risk be 20 years from now? Do we dare wait and see? Some other points:
Are we ignoring the red-flags?]
Turner CH, Garetto LP, Dunipace AJ, Zhang W, Wilson ME, Grynpas MD, Chachra D, McClintock R, Peacock M, Stookey GK, Fluoride treatment increased serum IGF-1, bone turnover, and bone mass, but not bone strength, in rabbits, Calcif Tissue Int, 1997 July, 61:1, 77-83.
We hypothesized that fluoride partly acts by changing the levels of circulating calcium-regulating hormones and skeletal growth factors. The effects of oral fluoride on 24 female, Dutch-Belted, young adult rabbits were studied. The rabbits were divided into two study groups, one control and the other receiving about 16 mg fluoride/rabbit/day in their drinking water. After 6 months of fluoride dosing, all rabbits were euthanized and bone and blood samples were taken for analyses. Fluoride treatment increased serum and bone fluoride levels by over an order of magnitude (P < 0.001), but did not affect body weight or the following serum biochemical variables: urea, creatinine, phosphorus, total protein, albumin, bilirubin, SGOT, or total alkaline phosphatase. No skeletal fluorosis or osteomalacia was observed histologically, nor did fluoride affect serum PTH or Vitamin D metabolites (P > 0.4). BAP was increased 37% (P < 0.05) by fluoride; serum TRAP was increased 42% (P < 0.05); serum IGF-1 was increased 40% (P < 0.05). Fluoride increased the vertebral BV/TV by 35% (P < 0.05) and tibial ash weight by 10% (P < 0.05). However, the increases in bone mass and bone formation were not reflected in improved bone strength. Fluoride decreased bone strength by about 19% in the L5 vertebra (P < 0.01) and 25% in the femoral neck (P < 0. 05). X-ray diffraction showed altered mineral crystal thickness in fluoride-treated bones (P < 0.001), and there was a negative association between crystal width and fracture stress of the femur (P < 0.02). In conclusion, fluoride's effects on bone mass and bone turnover were not mediated by PTH. IGF-1 was increased by fluoride and was associated with increased bone turnover, but was not correlated with bone formation markers. High-dose fluoride treatment did not improve, but decreased, bone strength in rabbits, even in the absence of impaired mineralization.
Turner CH, Takano Y, Hirano T, Reductions in bone strength after fluoride treatment are not reflected in tissue-level acoustic measurements, Bone, December, 1996, 19:6, 603-607.
Acoustic velocity measurements are used to estimate tissue-level bone strength after fluoride therapy for osteoporosis. However, acoustic measurements provide information about elasticity, not strength, and bone elasticity does not necessarily correlate with bone strength at a tissue level. The current study was undertaken to evaluate the effects of fluoride treatment on tissue-level acoustic velocities, and to determine the relationship between acoustic velocity and bone strength measured in the femur, femoral neck, and spine. Young adult rabbits were treated with either 0 or 100 parts per million of fluoride in their drinking water for six months. After treatment, the bones were harvested for measurement of tissue fluoride, bone strength, and acoustic properties. Acoustic velocities were measured in the femoral midshaft using an acoustic microscope with a 50 MHz transducer. Both longitudinal and transverse velocities were measured. After the initial acoustic measurements the bone specimens were treated to remove either the organic matrix or mineral, and the acoustic measurements were repeated. Fluoride treatment increased bone fluoride levels 7-8 fold and reduced all biomechanical parameters. Most notably the fracture force of the femoral neck was reduced by 25% (p < 0.005), and the fracture stress of the L-5 vertebra was reduced by 19% (p < 0.05). Fluoride treatment had no significant effect on any of the measured acoustic velocities. The elastic anisotropy of the bone was decreased by demineralization (p < 0.0001) and increased by removal of the organic matrix (p < 0.0001), but unaffected by fluoride treatment. Acoustic measurements were not correlated with bone strength in the femoral neck or femoral midshaft. There was a positive correlation between the longitudinal velocity measured in the femur and the vertebral fracture stress, but this was the only positive association between acoustic velocities and strength measurements. These data cast doubt on the utility of high frequency (>2 MHz) acoustic measurements for evaluating the efficacy of fluoride therapy, especially in the hip.
Turner CH, Owan I, Brizendine EJ, Zhang W, Wilson ME, Dunipace AJ, High fluoride intakes cause osteomalacia and diminished bone strength in rats with renal deficiency, Bone, 1996 December, 19 (6): 595-601.
Renal insufficiency is known to increase plasma fluoride levels, which may increase the risk of fluorosis and osteomalacia. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of fluoride on skeletal fragility and mineralization in renal-deficient animals. We evaluated the skeleton of rats with surgically induced renal deficiency (4/5 nephrectomy) that were chronically exposed to fluoridated water at concentrations of 0, 5, 15, and 50 ppm for a period of 6 months. The chosen fluoride doses caused plasma fluoride levels equivalent to those in humans consuming fluoridated water levels of 0, 1, 3, and 10 ppm, respectively. Animals with renal deficiency drank about 60% more water and excreted 85% more urine than control animals. Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) was decreased 68% and plasma BUN was increased fourfold in rats with renal deficiency. Plasma fluoride was strongly correlated with 1/GFR and was greatly increased by renal deficiency in all animals consuming fluoridated water. There was a strong positive, nonlinear relationship between plasma fluoride and bone fluoride levels, suggesting nonlinear binding characteristics of fluoride to bone. The amount of unmineralized osteoid in the vertebral bone was related to the plasma fluoride levels. Vertebral osteoid volume was increased over 20-fold in animals with renal deficiency that received 15 or 50 ppm fluoride, suggesting osteomalacia. Should osteomalacia be defined as a tenfold increase in osteoid volume, there appeared to be a threshold plasma fluoride level of about 20 micromol/L, above which osteomalacia was observed consistently. This plasma fluoride level was not achieved in control rats regardless of fluoride intake, nor was it achieved in renal-deficient rats receiving 0 or 5 ppm fluoride. A fluoride concentration of 50 ppm reduced femoral bone strength by 11% in control rats and by 31% in renal-deficient rats. Vertebral strength also was decreased significantly in renal-deficient rats given 50 ppm fluoride. In conclusion, fluoridated water in concentrations equivalent to 3 and 10 ppm in humans, caused osteomalacia and reduced bone strength in rats with surgically-induced renal deficiency.
Turner CH, Hasegawa K, Zhang W, Wilson M, Li Y, Dunipace AJ, Fluoride reduces bone strength in older rats, J Dent Research, 74 (8): 1995 August, 1475-1481.
In response to recent concerns about the effect of water fluoridation on hip fracture rates, we studied the influence of fluoride intake on bone strength. Four groups of rats were fed a low-fluoride diet ad libitum and received 0, 5, 15, or 50 ppm of fluoride in their drinking water. Animals were euthanized after 3, 6, 12, or 18 months of treatment. Mechanical strength of the right femur was measured by three-point bending. Fluoride content for the left femur was measured, and static histomorphometric measurements were made on a lumbar vertebra. Femoral failure load was not significantly decreased in rats treated for 3 and 6 months, but was decreased as much as 23% in rats treated 12 and 18 months at 50 ppm fluoride. Extrapolation from regression equations predicted that older rats lose 36% of femoral bone strength when bone fluoride content is increased from 0 to 10,000 ppm, while younger rats will lose only 15%. Thus, the decreased strength appeared to be due to the combined effects of fluoride intake and age on bone tissue and was not associated with a decrease in bone density or mineralization defects. There were only small effects of fluoride on bone histomorphometry. Fluoride intake at high levels had no negative effects on bone mineralization. Fluoride intake was associated with slight increases in trabecular bone volume and trabecular thickness, but these effects could not be demonstrated consistently. The mechanism by which large amounts of fluoride affect bone strength more severely in older animals is unknown.
Turner CH, Boivin G, Meunier PJ, A mathematical model for fluoride uptake by the skeleton, Calcif Tissue Int, 1993 February, 52 (2): 130-138.
A mathematical model was developed that predicts fluoride accumulation and clearance from the skeleton based upon fluoride bioavailability, bone remodeling rate, and the fluoride binding characteristics of bone. It was assumed that fluoride binds to bone in a nonlinear fashion such that a smaller percentage of fluoride is bound to bone if fluoride intake is increased to high levels. Bone resorption rate was assumed to be proportional to the solubility of hydroxyfluoroapatite which is inversely related to bone fluoride content. The predictions made by the model compared favorably with experimental results from fluoride uptake and clearance studies. Parametric studies done using the model showed the following: (1) fluoride can be cleared from the skeleton by bone remodeling, but fluoride clearance takes over four times longer than does fluoride uptake; and (2) fluoride uptake by the skeleton was positively associated with bone remodeling rate. However, the concentration of fluoride in newly formed bone does not decrease with reduced remodeling rates and surpasses 10,000 ppm for intakes of fluoride greater than 9 mg/day. For osteoporosis, daily dose and duration of fluoride treatment should be selected to avoid reaching a toxic cumulative bone fluoride content.
Turner CH, Akhter MP, Heaney RP, The effects of fluoridated water on bone strength, J Orthop Research, 1992 July 10 (4): 581-587.
Fluoride from fluoridated water accumulates not only in the enamel of teeth but also in the skeleton. The effects of fluoridated water on the skeleton are not well understood, yet there is some evidence that fluoridated water consumption increases the incidence of fractures. In the present study, femoral bending strength was measured in rats on fluoride intakes that ranged from low levels to levels well above natural high fluoride drinking water. Bone strength followed a biphasic relationship with bone fluoride content. Fluoride had a positive effect on bone strength for lower fluoride intakes and a negative influence on bone strength for higher fluoride intakes. The vertebral fluoride content at which femoral strength was maximum was between 1,100 and 1,500 ppm. The increase in femoral strength at this fluoride level was not accompanied by an increase in femoral bone density. The optimal fluoride content is within the range of bone fluoride contents found in persons living in regions with fluoridated water (1 ppm) for greater than 10 years.
Turner RT, Francis R, Brown D, Garand J, Hannon KS, Bell NH, The effects of fluoride on bone and implant histomorphometry in growing rats, J Bone Miner Res, 4 (4): 477-484 (Aug 1989).
The effects of fluoride at concentrations of 2.0 and 4.5 mM in drinking water on growth rate, vitamin D, water and mineral metabolism, bone histomorphometry, and osteoinduction of demineralized allogenic bone matrix (DABM) were compared in the rat. Whereas fluoride did not influence fluid intake or growth rate at the lower concentration, it increased fluid intake and inhibited growth rate at the higher concentration. Fluoride produced dose-related increases in serum fluoride and alkaline phosphatase but did not alter serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D or 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D. Serum calcium and phosphate were reduced by fluoride at concentrations of 2.0 mM but not 4.5 mM. Cancellous bone fractional area was increased by fluoride at 2.0 mM and was reduced by fluoride at 4.5 mM. Fluoride had no effect on cancellous bone surface length or the percentage surface lined by osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Fluoride increased medullary area and decreased the endosteal bone formation rate. Fluoride increased periosteal bone formation and apposition rates at concentrations of 2.0 mM but not 4.5 mM. Fluoride inhibited mineralization in DABM implants, and at the higher concentration, fluoride increased the formation of new bone matrix. These results indicate that in the rat, fluoride increases cortical and trabecular bone at therapeutic doses and reduces trabecular bone at toxic doses. The serum concentration of fluoride at therapeutic doses in the rat is similar to that in patients with osteoporosis who are on treatment with fluoride. In the rat, there is a narrow range between toxic and therapeutic doses.
Waldbott GL, The Preskeletal Phase of Chronic Fluoride Intoxication, Fluoride, 1998, 31:1, 13-20
Wei XY, Study on determinationing the bone mineral content as diagnostic value for occupational fluorosis, Chung Hua Yu Fang I Hsueh Tsa Chih 1993 Mar;27(2):88-90 (Article in Chinese)
The results of determination of the bone density of 194 workers exposed to fluorine by SPA-III type osteodensimeter were compared with people unexposed to fluorine, and with the results of diagnosing the fluorosis by X-ray.
Xiao B, Dong Q, Li S, Li D, Zhan C, Aluminum and fluorine in blood and bone of rats fed on diet mixed with various contents of aluminum, fluoride or their mixture, Hua Hsi I Ko Ta Hsueh Hsueh Pao, 1992 Jun, 23:2, 185-189
Wistar rats were divided into 8 groups: control, 300 ppm F, 130 ppm F, 300 ppm Al, 1200 ppm Al, 130 ppm Al + 130 ppm F. 300 ppm Al + 300 ppm F and 1200 ppm Al + 300 ppm F. The chemicals were mixed into the standard diet. The animals were fed on the diets for 12 weeks. Contents of F, Al, Ca and P in the blood (or serum) and humerus were determined at the end of 12 weeks. The results showed that the level of F in the blood and bone in the unadulterated F group was increased, especially F in the bone reached a level more than 10 times that of the control. In the 3 mixture groups, blood F and bone F were lowered, while blood F was restored to normal level, but bone F was not nevertheless, the results showed that Al was in antagonism to the absorption of F. In the unadulterated Al groups, blood and bone Al did not parallel with the amount of Al administered. The level of Al in the median Al group was higher than that of the high Al group. Taking the level of blood and bone Al as a measure, when different doses of Al were administered with F, in the low and median dosage of Al, F was in antagonism to Al absorption, but in case of high dosage of Al, F was in potentiation to Al absorption. In all the experimental groups serum P was elevated, but serum Ca was not disturbed. Bone Ca and P were decreased only in the 3 groups with unadulterated F as well as unadulterated and adulterated high dosage of Al. Mechanism of the nonlinearity of Al absorption vs Al dosage, as well as the dual effect of F on the absorption of Al was proposed.
[editor's note: for related articles, see Czerwinski E, et al. and Caverzasio J, et al. For info on fluoride-aluminum interactions see brain.htm]
Zhang Y, Li H, Yang C, Zheng Z, Chen X, Histopathologic and bone histomorphometric studies of pigs' phalanges in an endemic fluorosis area, Hua Hsi I Ko Ta Hsueh Hsueh Pao, 1994 Mar, 25(1):74-77 (Article in Chinese)
This paper presents the histopathologic changes and bone histomorphometry of ten pigs' phalanges in an endemic fluorosis area. Ten pigs from nonendemic area served as control. Results showed that the fluoride contents of blood, urine and bone were markedly increased and the calcium contents of blood were markedly decreased in endemic pigs than those in nonendemic ones. Histopathologic and bone morphometric studies of the phalangeal bones of pigs from endemic area indicate that osteoporosis is the predominant change. | <urn:uuid:e65f0d84-6725-4276-b45d-26f6b1368528> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://fluoridation.com/bones.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00085-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935932 | 22,610 | 3.359375 | 3 |
We can use this changing angle of view to produce some interesting effects. If we move closer to the subject while zooming out, we can see that although the subject fills roughly the same area of the final image, in a wide angle shot a lot more of the background is included. Take a look at this series of five pictures, each one taken at approximately half the focal length of the previous one.
As you can see, as the focal length is reduced, more and more of the background comes into view behind the subject, while objects in the foreground appear much closer to the camera, increasing the perspective effect.
This effect is most significant when shooting portraits. If you use a short focal length to taker a photo of someone’s face from close up, the parts that are closer to the camera will appear disproportionately larger, distorting the facial features.
For portraits, it’s a much better idea to step back a little and zoom in. Professional portrait photographers will usually opt for a focal length of about 90-100mm, since this gives a flattering perspective and looks more natural. In fact the maximum telephoto setting on a 3x compact camera is pretty much ideal for taking portrait shots. | <urn:uuid:e5785a4f-33da-4682-b95d-63f68b675d4f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.trustedreviews.com/opinions/digital-photography-tutorial-focal-length_Page-3 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00110-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.936293 | 248 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Recovery and Regrowth
What wildfire destroys, time will heal
When fire rages through a landscape, it alters more than just the scenery. Ecosystems defined by the vegetation that once clung to steep hillsides are drastically changed in the wake of a ruthless wildfire, and years may pass before the terrain returns to what it was before. Sometimes it never does.
With the Weber Fire nearly contained and fire crews finishing the last stages of mop-up before leaving the area, residents are left to stare at the 10,133 acres blackened by the fire and wonder what comes next.
The trajectory of ecosystem recovery after a major fire depends greatly on the type of fire and composition of the ecosystem itself, according to Monique Rocca, associate professor of wildland fire science at Colorado State University. However, most ecosystems are well equipped to heal naturally.
Rocca, an expert in the role of wildfire in natural ecosystems, says historical wildfire activity and the health of the ecosystems all play a role in the type, and speed, of regrowth after fires.
“The effects of fire on ecosystems vary a lot depending on what you are looking at,” Rocca said, in a phone interview on Friday. “You have to look at the particular ecosystem, what the historical conditions were in the area, and what type of fire impacted the area.”
The Weber Fire, concentrated in Weber and East canyons, raged through multiple unique landscapes. On the west side of the fire, through Weber Canyon, the fuels consumed by the blaze were comprised of Gamble oak and piņon-juniper woodlands. On the east side, the fire burned through tall stands of conifers and ground littered with pine needles.
Rocca said the diversity of the landscape will lead to a wide range of rehabilitation rates.
“Piņon and juniper are not well adapted to come in quickly after fire,” Rocca said. “Piņon and juniper take a long time to come back in those ecosystems.”
When hot fires burn through piņon-juniper stands they are typically wind driven, Rocca said. Due to the tendency for the stands to be thick and chocked with undergrowth, it is easy for the fire to climb “ladder fuels” into the crowns of the trees. As a consequence, most fires result in tree mortality for piņon-juniper woodlands.
Conifer forests, on the other hand, see a much greater likelihood of tree survival after fire.
“Ponderosa pine and conifers have a lot of adaptations to survive fire in their healthy natural state,” Rocca said. “If the stands are not too thick and the undergrowth is cleared, it is not unusual for pine stands to survive fire and thrive afterwards.”
Rocca said natural rehabilitation of the landscape after fire is usually first seen in the undergrowth.
“The ground layer will probably come back quickly in most cases,” she said. “In the piņon-juniper a lot of resprouting shrubs will come up. In a place that has big, large trees that are well spaced, you could see very little evidence of the fire in a year or two. The understory will come back and the trees are still there. Overall, in most landscapes you are talking about very quick regrowth of the understory, but slow regrowth of trees in the natural environment.”
Though woodlands have their own path to recovery post wildfire, efforts made by federal and state agencies and private landowners can support natural regrowth and aid in mitigating human impacts to the landscape during the fire fight.
At a community meeting in Mancos Monday night, representatives from the U.S. Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, Colorado State Forest Service and the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Natural Resources Conservation Service gathered with roughly 100 community members to discuss proactive steps toward healing the Weber Fire landscape.
“We want to talk about rehabilitation and what the next phase is after the fire is controlled and contained,” said Ivan Messinger, a wildlife biologist with the Dolores Ranger District and one of two resource advisors assigned to the Weber Fire. “Rehabilitation is a process, and we want to let you know what the agency is doing on federal lands, what the state is going to cooperate with on state lands and what programs are available to help private landowners.”
In total, the Weber Fire impacted 7,435 acres of BLM land, 901 acres of state land, and 1,797 acres of private property.
Messinger said the first step in rehabilitation is mitigation of the containment lines dug around the fires perimeter. Lines drawn by hand crews and machinery will be analyzed and addressed to be sure the ground disturbances will not impact water runoff and other features of the landscape.
The second step is emergency stabilization and rehabilitation when the BLM will develop a rehabilitation plan for reseeding, revegetation and runoff control.
The final step in recovery from the federal perspective is Burned Area Emergency Response, which features long-term strategies and planning for vegetation development and soil stability. BAER teams are put together to address this final, critical component of fire recovery.
State land officers will follow much of the same rehabilitation process on state-owned and managed land impacted by the local fire.
“We will most likely follow through with whatever is done on the other land in the area,” said Kent Grant, a logistic forester from the Colorado State Forest Service. “There will be some real delegation efforts on the state lands.”
Grant cautioned area residents to expect the landscape to “look a little rough for a while,” but at the same time, understand the natural world has a recovery process all its own.
“Nature has a way of recovering, though it doesn't always happen overnight,” Grant said. “Plants and vegetation will come. Oak brush will come. Actually, oak brush is one of those things if you try to get rid of you can't. I'm guessing by this fall you will have sprouts of maybe a foot tall or more. That is something you can look forward to, a little green on the slopes.”
Grant also mentioned the state's nursery, which offers expertise and trees for sale to the general public.
In terms of private land rehabilitation, NRCS offers numerous resources for landowners hoping to revegetate their property and local Colorado State University extension offices have resources for landowners who need information on vegetative recovery after wildfire.
“There is a lot of information out there to help you as you move forward,” Grant said.
Community workshops and meetings will be planned moving forward to keep the community apprised of rehabilitation work in the area and resources available to landowners, noted Connie Clementson, BLM agency administrator for the Weber Fire. Clementson said the next steps involve healing for the area and its residents.
“We want to get people thinking about the future and healing yourselves, your lives and your land,” she said. “This is about moving forward.”
For more information on Weber Fire rehabilitation, contact the BLM Tres Rios field office at 882-7296 or NRCS at 565-9045.
Reach Kimberly Benedict at email@example.com. | <urn:uuid:6d346f49-0cb9-4c1e-8eb5-7616392356aa> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cortezjournal.com/article/20120704/NEWS01/707049999/0/COLUMNISTS18/Recovery-and-Regrowth | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396224.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00104-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945368 | 1,549 | 3.5625 | 4 |
A tool is a simple program, usually designed for a specific purpose, it is sometimes referred to (at least throughout this document) as a command.
The “ Unix tools philosophy” emerged during the creation of the UNIX operating system, after the breakthrough invention of the pipe '|' (refer to Chapter 6 for information on using the pipe).
The pipe allowed the output of one program to be sent to the input of another. The tools philosophy was to have small programs to accomplish a particular task instead of trying to develop large monolithic programs to do a large number of tasks. To accomplish more complex tasks, tools would simply be connected together, using pipes.
All the core UNIX system tools were designed so that they could operate together. The original text-based editors (and even TeX and LaTeX) use ASCII (the American text encoding standard; an open standard) and you can use tools such as; sed, awk, vi, grep, cat, more, tr and various other text-based tools in conjunction with these editors.
Using this philosophy programmers avoided writing a program (within their larger program) that had already been written by someone else (this could be considered a form of code recycling). For example, command-line spell checkers are used by a number of different applications instead of having each application create its own own spell checker.
This philosophy lives on today in GNU/Linux and various other UNIX system-based operating systems (FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, etc.).
For further information (articles) on the UNIX tools philosophy please see the further reading section, here: Section A.2.2.1 | <urn:uuid:b43618af-dc6a-4464-b39a-1658f3fb7b66> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.tldp.org/LDP/GNU-Linux-Tools-Summary/html/the-unix-tools-philosophy.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00040-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93453 | 343 | 3.78125 | 4 |
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Improving measurements of space and time
Oct 1, 2008 1 comment
Physicists in France have proposed a new scheme for using pulses of light to make an accurate measurement of the distance between two objects in space. The technique, which has not yet been confirmed experimentally, could allow measurements to be made at the highest possible accuracy allowed by quantum mechanics. The method could someday be used to boost the performance of some space-borne instruments, say the researchers.
The standard quantum limit (SQL) in space-time positioning exists because of the quantum nature of light, which introduces fluctuations in measurements that rely on the exchange of light pulses. The SQL could never be reached for light pulses sent through Earth’s atmosphere, which introduces too much noise in the signal, but it could be relevant for some space applications where the distance between spacecrafts must be accurately controlled.
The Einstein protocol
Scientists routinely measure the position in space between two objects A and B using the “Einstein protocol”, which involves repeatedly exchanging light pulses between the objects. Object A sends a light pulse at time t1 (measured with a clock in A), which is then received at time t2 in B (measured with a clock in B). The signal is then immediately sent back to A with a return time t3 (measured with A’s clock).
What is new in our scheme is that we extract the timing signal with the best accuracy ever Brahim Lamine, Pierre and Marie Curie University
The distance between A and B can be calculated using the equation D=c(t3–t1)/2, where c is the speed of light. This is the Einstein definition of distance and is also known as a two-way ranging signal. The offset, Δt, between the times given by the two clocks is Δt=t2–( t3+t1)/2, which is called the Einstein synchronization protocol, or two-way clock synchronization.
This method involves performing pulse timing to measure the three time values. Although highly accurate, a fundamental limitation arises from the quantum nature of light, which introduces fluctuations in these timing measurements, leading to SQL. Light always contains quantum fluctuations — which come from the fact that photons are not regularly spaced in the light beam.
Reaching the yoctosecond range
Brahim Lamine and colleagues of the Pierre and Marie Curie University in Paris have shown that it is possible to reduce the noise in the observable signal being measured, so reducing the SQL (Phys. Rev. Lett. 101 123601). The researchers say they can do this by using a technique that combines “homodyne detection” and “mode-locked” femtosecond lasers. This leads to a new SQL in time transfer between two clocks, potentially reaching the yoctosecond range (10–21 s to 10–24 s). The secret behind the scheme lies in the use of “squeezed” light beams from the femtosecond lasers that redistribute the noise, so making timing measurements less noisy overall.
Mode-locked femtosecond lasers are simply a succession of pulses where the relative phase between the “carrier” — the oscillation of the electric field inside the light pulse envelope — and envelope is well defined. For example, it can have a constant value, or can be equal to zero. The coherent light pulses from the lasers carry time information in their oscillations, or wave phase, and on their envelope.
Lamine and colleagues aim to extract information from both phase and envelope using homodyne detection (the difference between two interference signals obtained from the incoming pulses and some reference pulses). Any change in distance between objects A and B leads to a modification of the interference signal. “What is new in our scheme is that we extract the timing signal with the best accuracy ever — that is, we extract the signal from both envelope and phase inside the envelope,” explained Lamine.
“Although our protocol is not directly useful for GPS — because propagation of the pulses in the atmosphere causes too much noise in the signal — it could be used for improving the positioning between satellites for future space applications,” he told physicsworld.com. “Here, external perturbations are small and high accuracy can be achieved.”
Good examples are LISA (Laser Interferometer Space Antenna), which will detect gravitational waves, post-GRACE (Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment) missions, which will determine Earth’s gravity field and DARWIN, a flotilla of spacecraft to detect Earth-like exoplanets.
About the author
Belle Dumé is contributing editor to nanotechweb.org | <urn:uuid:8176854c-7ec1-4357-943a-310d939bc91a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/2008/oct/01/improving-measurements-of-space-and-time | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00127-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.92719 | 972 | 3.609375 | 4 |
Organic materials consist of long chains of protein molecules repeatedly linked with smaller carbon-based molecules (hence the term "organic"). Unlike semiconducting crystals, which are small interlocking molecules, organic polymer semiconductors are composed of very large, chainlike molecules repeatedly linked with smaller carbon molecules.
Like all of the things that foster life, air and water also affect organic semiconductors like OLEDs, but they do so negatively. The corrosive effects of oxygen, moisture and high temperatures lead to "denaturing" in any organic molecule. Denaturing means the long complex folded interlocking strands of the organic molecule unravel, thereby eliminating its former functions.
In living things, denaturing means the protein dies; in organic semiconductors, it's just as bad.
Fortunately, it's also just a matter of time until these problems are engineered away, even if the chemists don't come up with a weatherproof polymer formula anytime soon. Either way, organic semiconductors open up a brave new world. For instance, at the other end of the solar spectrum-absorbing light rather than emitting it-plastic solar cells that embed semiconducting nanocrystals in a polymer-are creating a flexible, lower-cost alternative to solar cells fashioned atop silicon wafers.
From plastic solar cells to plastic magnets to plastic displays to ink-jet-printed circuitry using organic semiconductor "ink," the advantage of organic films is cost, cost, cost over a wide, wide, wide area. Even if their performance remains in the fraction-of-a-MHz range, compared with the 10,000-fold faster GHz speeds of silicon chips, organic semiconductors are here to stay.
Instead of processing wafers at thousands of degrees, polymer-based semiconductors can be fabricated at tens of degrees. Instead of requiring pure crystalline silicon wafers as a substrate, organic semiconductors can make due with a preparatory polymer film sprayed on almost any surface-say the wall of your family room, or the side of a building. Instead of diffusion, defects and doping, with organic semiconductors all you have to do is mix up the chemicals slightly differently, to tailor the materials compared to the expense, time and specialized high-temperature equipment needed to process silicon as a semiconductor.
Two possible solutions to organic semiconductor's "big problem" exist: firstly, modifying the formulae; second, encapsulation.
The first method is best. If organic semiconductors can be formulated to make them more stable in harsh environments, such a "weather-proof" organic material would require no encapsulation. Just such a formulation is being sought by the inventor of the plastic magnet, University of Nebraska professor Andrzej Rajca. "Magnetic polymers were predicted more than 30 years ago, and a large volume of work has been done on this," said Rajca.
Second, while chemists painstakingly search for the right formulation, engineers nevertheless are perfecting inexpensive encapsulation methods. For instance, Iowa State University recently engineered an ultrathin polymer coating for protecting delicate microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). The self-assembled process provides MEMS parts with a permanent coating that reduces friction and repels environmental contaminants. | <urn:uuid:64dbd3ce-cb05-4a91-8a2a-515a03ee6a1d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eetimes.com/document.asp?doc_id=1146812&piddl_msgorder=thrd | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00020-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.920811 | 672 | 3.546875 | 4 |
Extreme weather and bad environmental practice are being blamed for 29 separate natural disasters in Bali during the month of January 2011.
Records kept by the Disaster Prevention and Control Center (Pusdalpos-Bali) listed five separate types of natural disasters befalling Bali in January. Broken down there were 6 floods, 2 high tides, 2 landslides, 13 minor tornadoes and 6 fires. These events are blamed for injuries to 15 Bali residents, 5 deaths and property damage to 57 homes.
Disaster specialists are concerned that 2011 will see an increase in natural disasters taking place in Bali. During the entire year of 2010 there was a total of 233 events or an average of 19.4 per month. Of those 233 incidents - 29 were due to high winds and small tornadoes, 75 landslides, 56 fires, 2 earthquakes, 32 floods, 35 heavy rainstorms resulting in property damage and 4 high waves. Natural disasters in Bali in 2010 were blamed for 7 deaths and 15 injuries.
Putu Anom Agustina, the chief of Pusdalpos-Bali told Bali Post that his disaster prevention teams was on standby-by 24 hours a day to respond to any emergency situation.
Separately, the chief of the local Peoples Protection and Unity Agency (Kesbanglinmas-Bali), Nyoman Silanawa, revealed that the provincial government of Bali has allocated Rp. 20 billion (US$2.2 million) for disaster relief in 2011, an increase of 42% over the Rp 14 billion budgeted in 2011.
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The digestive system is home to a myriad of viruses, but how they are involved in health and disease is poorly understood. In a study published online today in Genome Research, researchers have investigated the dynamics of virus populations in the human gut, shedding new light on the gut "virome" and how it differs between people and responds to changes in diet.
"Our bodies are like coral reefs," said Dr. Frederic Bushman of the Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, senior author of the study, "inhabited by many diverse creatures interacting with each other and with us." The interactions between viruses, bacteria, and the human host likely have significant consequences for human health and disease, especially in the delicate ecosystem of the gut microbiome.
In this work, lead author Sam Minot, Bushman, and colleagues investigated the dynamics of the gut virome during perturbations to diet. The group studied six healthy volunteers -- some received a high fat and low fiber diet, others a low fat and high fiber diet, and one an ad-lib diet.
By analyzing DNA sequences from viruses and bacteria present in stool of the volunteers over the course of eight days, they found that although the largest variation in virus diversity observed occurred between individuals, over time dietary intervention significantly changed the proportions of virus populations in individuals on the same diet, so that the viral populations became more similar.
"The study provides a new window on the vast viral populations that live in the human gut, demonstrates that they vary radically between individuals, and shows that dietary changes can affect not just bacterial populations but also viral populations," Bushman said.
Explore further: Could wholegrain foods aid our immune systems?
Minot S, Sinha R, Chen J, Li H, Keilbaugh SA, Wu G, Lewis J, Bushman FD. The human gut virome: Inter-individual variation and dynamic response to diet. Genome Res doi: 10.1101/gr.122705.111 | <urn:uuid:393fcac2-8244-42f6-8a66-d2408c5de31c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://medicalxpress.com/news/2011-08-viruses-human-gut-dynamic-response.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00022-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937846 | 408 | 3.671875 | 4 |
About Segment Notation
In mathematics, we make a distinction between an object and a measurement taken on that object. In the tradition of mathematicians being careful with their words and notation, this distinction carries over into how we write the names of things. For example:
refers to the segment with endpoints X and Y. The line over the letters tells you that we're talking about a segment, not a line or a ray.
XY, on the other hand, refers to the length of the segment with endpoints X and Y. The lack of segment (or line or ray) markings above the letters changes the meaning. We're no longer talking about the object itself, but about a property of that object (namely, its length).
This distinction continues when comparing segments. We say that two segments are congruent, so we use the segment notation
But we say that two lengths are equal, so we use the length notation
XY = AB
XY = 3 inches
The statements and XY = AB convey exactly the same information, but one is talking about segments and the other about lengths.
We make a similar distinction between angles and their measures. Thus, angles are congruent:
But their measures are equal: | <urn:uuid:9a46ae1b-25ab-4414-b8fd-703cfc64b134> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.learner.org/courses/learningmath/geometry/session5/part_c/segment.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00167-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938389 | 254 | 4.34375 | 4 |
Western forest fires are inevitable; it's not a question of if they're going to occur, but when and how ("Stand down from Western wildfires," HCN, 7/22/13). Biomass accumulates faster than it decomposes in generally dry Western ecosystems. Fire is nature's way of balancing the equation. We have to completely rethink suppression, which only works when weather, fuels and topography are not extreme. But after a century and more of fire exclusion coupled with warming and drying climate regimes, the buzzards are coming home to roost.
We must start viewing fire as an ecological process. Of course, suppression still must be done, but it should be funded 50-50 with fuels reduction, ecological restoration and prescribed fire to reduce the extent and severity of the wildfires when they occur. There is no reason why 19 more people should have died for the misguided policy that views wildfire as something to be fought with more technology and boots on the ground.
Fort Collins, Colorado | <urn:uuid:7a16c618-e99f-4aa3-ba35-87fe0d5008b6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.hcn.org/issues/45.13/suffering-from-suppression | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00027-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956201 | 200 | 3.28125 | 3 |
In addition to the column definitions and the UNIQUE qualifier, our definition for the StationLines table included three INDEX lines—one for each of the station_id, line_id and north_to_south columns.
While it often helps to think of a relational database table as a glorified spreadsheet with rows and columns, there are some important differences. One is that a database table does not store its rows in any particular order. If we are interested in retrieving rows from the table in a certain order, we must specify it with the ORDER BY clause in our query.
Because rows are not ordered in any particular way, a SELECT query can often take quite a while to fulfill. For example, take the following query:
SELECT id FROM RailStations WHERE name = "Tel Aviv Central";
This might not seem like a time-consuming query, given that it involves a single table and a simple WHERE clause. But since the rows of RailStations are not stored in any particular order, finding the rows where the name is “Tel Aviv Central” can take quite a while. This might be a negligible amount of time in the case of a 100-row table, but when a table contains 1,000 or 10,000 rows, the time can become noticeable. In this particular example, the database server is probably smart enough to realize that RailStations.name has been declared UNIQUE, meaning our query will return one row, if it returns anything. This means the server will, on average, have to search through only half of the rows—but that can still take quite a while.
An index changes this picture by adding a pointer to each column value. If RailStations.name is indexed, the MySQL server can almost immediately find those rows containing a particular value. It can also determine whether a value exists at all.
If indexes can increase query speeds so dramatically, why are rows unindexed by default? The main answer is that indexes are written and updated each time an INSERT or UPDATE operation is performed on a table. Since the majority of database queries are SELECTs, in which the index can substantially improve performance, this is normally an acceptable trade-off. However, certain applications must INSERT and UPDATE at maximum speed, in which case creating an index can cause problems.
Since indexes are used in locating columns of a certain value, they are necessary for only those columns that will be named in WHERE clauses. There is no need to index a column that is displayed, but rarely used as a search criterion.
In some cases, it is enough to index the first part of each column rather than the entire column. For example, if we are indexing a column of type VARCHAR(50), then we might be able to index only 10 of those characters. This will retain most of the advantages of a full index (since the first ten characters are rarely identical in such a text field), while reducing the amount of information the index must store.
Now that we have thoroughly examined the tables describing the train system, it is time to put some trains on those tracks. The question of how to model this data is a tough one, since there are a number of ways in which to accomplish it. I decided to split this information into two tables, Trains and DepartureTimes.
Each row of Trains describes a particular train, indicating the line on which it runs, the ID numbers of its origin and destination stations, and the time it departs from its origin:
CREATE TABLE Trains ( id SMALLINT UNSIGNED AUTO_INCREMENT PRIMARY KEY, line_id TINYINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL, origin_id TINYINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL, destination_id TINYINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL, depart_origin_time TIME NOT NULL, UNIQUE(line_id, origin_id, destination_id, depart_origin_time), INDEX(line_id), INDEX(origin_id), INDEX(destination_id), INDEX(depart_origin_time) );
The first column is a primary key, allowing us to describe each train with a single number. The combination of a rail line, origin, destination and hour should be unique, so we ask the database server to enforce this condition with the UNIQUE keyword.
Finally, we define the DepartureTimes table, which stores information on when a train will leave from a particular station:
CREATE TABLE DepartureTimes ( train_id SMALLINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL, station_id TINYINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL, departure_time TIME NOT NULL, INDEX(train_id), INDEX(station_id), INDEX(departure_time) );
Once we enter information into these tables, we can start to perform sophisticated queries. For example, which trains arrive at “Tel Aviv Central” before 8 a.m.?
SELECT train_id FROM DepartureTimes WHERE departure_time < "08:00" AND station_id = 4;Sure enough, this query returns a table containing two rows:
+----------+ | train_id | +----------+ | 1 | | 2 | +----------+Now we know two trains will arrive in Tel Aviv early enough for us to catch a morning meeting. But which trains are those? It would be nice to get more information than that. One possibility is to print the name of the origin station and the hour at which the train leaves:
SELECT S.name, T.depart_origin_time FROM DepartureTimes DT, Trains T, RailStations S WHERE DT.departure_time < "08:00" AND DT.station_id = 4 AND DT.train_id = T.id AND S.id = T.origin_id;Notice how SQL allows us to use < and > when handling dates and times, for columns declared as DATE, TIME or DATETIME. Given the contortions one must use in order to compare dates and times in nearly any programming language, this built-in date comparison is still one of my favorites.
Assuming we want to take the first train of the day (ID 1), we can print the list of when it will arrive at each station:
SELECT T.id, S.name, DT.departure_time FROM RailStations S, DepartureTimes DT, Trains T, StationLines SL WHERE T.id = DT.train_id AND T.id = 1 AND T.line_id = SL.line_id AND SL.station_id = DT.station_id AND DT.station_id = S.id ORDER BY T.id, SL.north_to_south ;
We can even print a full schedule for trains to Tel Aviv (ID 5):
SELECT T.id, S.name, DT.departure_time FROM RailStations S, DepartureTimes DT, Trains T, StationLines SL WHERE T.id = DT.train_id AND T.line_id = SL.line_id AND SL.station_id = DT.station_id AND DT.station_id = S.id AND T.destination_id = 5 ORDER BY T.id, SL.north_to_south ;Finally, we can retrieve a full schedule for trains to Tel Aviv (ID 5) that leave after 9 AM:
SELECT T.id, S.name, DT.departure_time FROM RailStations S, DepartureTimes DT, Trains T, StationLines SL WHERE T.id = DT.train_id AND T.line_id = SL.line_id AND SL.station_id = DT.station_id AND DT.station_id = S.id AND T.destination_id = 5 AND T.depart_origin_time > "09:00" ORDER BY T.id, SL.north_to_south ;
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- Sony Settles in Linux Battle
- Download "Linux Management with Red Hat Satellite: Measuring Business Impact and ROI"
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- Git 2.9 Released
With all the industry talk about the benefits of Linux on Power and all the performance advantages offered by its open architecture, you may be considering a move in that direction. If you are thinking about analytics, big data and cloud computing, you would be right to evaluate Power. The idea of using commodity x86 hardware and replacing it every three years is an outdated cost model. It doesn’t consider the total cost of ownership, and it doesn’t consider the advantage of real processing power, high-availability and multithreading like a demon.
This ebook takes a look at some of the practical applications of the Linux on Power platform and ways you might bring all the performance power of this open architecture to bear for your organization. There are no smoke and mirrors here—just hard, cold, empirical evidence provided by independent sources. I also consider some innovative ways Linux on Power will be used in the future.Get the Guide | <urn:uuid:776ed697-a56f-4809-ba37-d01215b8dec2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/3894?page=0,2&quicktabs_1=2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396224.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00089-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.866376 | 2,067 | 2.953125 | 3 |
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What do genes mean?
If you have a question about this talk, please contact Venkat Ramesh.
Some think the genome is a passive database that contains information used by the cell when it needs it. Others view the genome as active. For them the genome is the regulatory control center of all life. This active view sees the genome as a program that systematically constructs the body of the organism and regulates its processes. We will contrast the active and passive views by going deeper into the meaning of genomes and their genes. Gene networks link genes. But even networks must be interpreted by the cell to give them meaning. How do cells give meaning? How do cells control their activity? How do embryos grow and organize themselves? Multicellular systems biology uses computer modeling and simulation to give us a deeper understanding of the roles played by genes and genomes in living systems. These roles include embryo development, tissue regeneration, wound healing, and evolution. Even diseases such as cancer can be understood as pathological developmental and evolutionary processes. The meaning of genes and genomes begins to emerge in this wider context.
This talk is part of the SciSoc – Cambridge University Scientific Society series.
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Other talksAtria-specific upregulation of microRNA-31 depletes dystrophin and neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), and leads to electrical remodelling in human atrial fibrillation The 2016 Sleep Summit One Loop Integrands for Scattering Amplitudes from the Riemann Sphere Cafe Synthetique: Are synthetic biologists engineers, tinkerers or hackers? Efficiency=Geometry? Decoding the DNA of prediction in gauge, gravity, and effective field theories. The Quest for Innovative Treatments in Psychiatry and Medicine: a personal perspective | <urn:uuid:0fba32c3-0970-4128-b101-c1c02672f8c9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://talks.cam.ac.uk/talk/index/6746 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00161-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.921447 | 419 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Print design – from newspapers to magazines to ads to books – and web design are often linked because of their differences. The two often come up in conversation at the same time as opposites.
But there is more to the story.
Print and web design are more alike than ever before. The lines are fading and the concepts that dictate good design are becoming more universal every day. Designs in the two mediums also look more similar than ever before and more designers are working in both digital and print.
And it is not just because web designers are learning more about design theory from the world of print. More and more print projects (and designers) are learning from the web. Some of this is because many designers work in environments where both skill sets are necessary but moreover more print designers are looking for inspiration and learn from their digital-publication peers.
New Shapes and Bolder Look
There was a time when almost every layout in a print publication came in the shape of a rectangle. Most were designed horizontally, some vertically and occasionally you would find a square in the mix. Colors were limited in most print design – it has only been in the last decade that many newspapers have began using full-color presses that allow for more than just black and white outside a handful of pages.
Welcome to the world of new shapes. Many metro newspapers are experimenting with an upside down L-shaped layout that breaks the box mold. Others are using circular shapes for text on feature pages and using more color for an increased “wow” factor. Look at the baubles coming out of the block on the Oliver Russell site; this style of design is where the trend started.
The brighter, bolder color schemes are a direct take-away from web design. While many digital designers have scaled back on the use of animation and bright flashing colors to grab your attention, print designers have evolved with the trend. More ads appear in full color (and bright color), newspaper pages are built using color navigation tools (similar to those on websites) and sport brighter color palettes than in the past.
New navigational tools are also borrowed from web design. Print design has long used forms of indexing but simple navigational keywords (sometimes matched to specific colors) really gained popularity and functionality on the web.
Rounded corners, more transparent shadows, cutout images and even streamlined typography are just a few of the common web techniques that are becoming more prevalent in print design.
The rigid rectangular form that was used to outline individual stories was also used for all elements in print design. Each photo had corners that came together at 90-degree angles. There were no soft shadows to help “lift” elements off the printed page. These effects, which have been prominent features on websites for a while, can be found in almost any book, magazine or newspaper you pick up now.
Print designers can also thank their web counterparts for eliminating the font mess. There are few restrictions to the number of and type of fonts you can use in print work; this is not the case on the web. The limited font selections used by web designers for years, has helped print designers reign in their desire to use a plethora of typefaces.
The more minimal font palette makes for a cleaner, more streamlined project.
Yes, search engine optimization techniques have helped people working in the print realm write better, sharper, more focused copy.
It has happened over time because most of us publish some form of our print work on the web where keywords of search are key. Rather than rewriting every bit of copy (double the work), designers and writers are using words that provide more information and more description for all of their projects.
Gone are the days of what newspaper editors called the “label headline,” a two- to-three word punch for each story. Now headlines have to sell you each bit of content and filling them with action verbs and impactful keywords are the new norm.
Print designers are learning a whole new set of words that describe things they have been doing for years. Some of the terminology is also changing to reflect the increasingly mainstream web variations as well.
Print designers have always worked in kerning and leading. (Kerning is the space between letters and leading is the space between lines of type). But these terms are becoming replaced with letter-spacing and line-height.
Not only do the web terms sound less jargon-y, they are more easily understandable. There could even come to be a time where letter-spacing and line-height are the common design terms for print and web designers while the terms kerning and leading disappear from the vocabulary.
Software and Technology
Not only are print designers learning more (and emulating) more web design because they are looking at it, they are also using many of the same tools.
Because of products such as the Adobe Creative Suite, which contains software for print and web and tablet design, designers from both disciplines are able to easily learn software that might have otherwise seemed intimidating. Having a set of tools with a uniform look and feel helps encourage designers to cross those borders and work across platforms.
Designers of all kinds must to work harder all the time to stay up-to-date with all the changes in technology. This affects print designers just as much as those working on the web because of cross-platform software. Each update a print designer gets all the same new tools and options that web designers have come to rely on; all designers would be wise to learn and find ways to benefit from those feature updates.
Further, the web world has helped print become more efficient when it comes to file sizes, saving and compression. Working with images that are sized to fit and load quickly is a key part of any web designer’s job – a site that won’t load (or loads slowly) will lose hits. Print designers, too, are learning to better size, scale and package files.
I spent the first part of my career only designing for print. I have learned firsthand how the design industry as a whole has changed and continues to evolve.
At one point, I thought I would be left behind because I was not labeled as a web developer. But what has become increasingly clear is that design skills are design skills. If you have the eye, and a willingness to learn how to work across multiple platforms, you can create beautiful things.
They may have different names, but the concepts are all the same. It’s just the paper, or screen, that’s different.
Credits: featured image background by Anatoli Nicolae | <urn:uuid:b926c74e-5fa4-415d-bbac-9069b8d7984b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://tympanus.net/codrops/2012/06/13/how-web-design-has-changed-print/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00092-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960025 | 1,348 | 2.8125 | 3 |
Lockbolts: An Alternative to Welding
For many decades, welding was considered the only way to ensure joint integrity in demanding load-bearing or high-vibration structures. So, companies manufacturing heavy-duty equipment or fabricating large, metal structures only welded joints.
Today, there is a fastener alternative to welding: direct-tension, swaged lockbolts. These two-piece fasteners are part bolt and part blind rivet. They consist of a short, non-threaded cylindrical collar and a long, headed pin that has both nonhelical threads and a pintail that breaks off during installation.
These fasteners are installed using a direct tension technique, in which the pin is pulled while the collar is simultaneously swaged into the locking grooves of the pin, deforming the collar into the grooves.
Lockbolts produce permanent joints with high clamp loads, stability and excellent resistance to vibration. Because the lockbolts’ installation process is faster and safer than welding, and does not require highly trained personnel, manufacturers are increasingly using them to assemble truck suspensions and chassis, railroad track crossings and heavy defense vehicles.
Over many years and millions of joints, welding has proven to be one of the surest processes for securing a joint. But, it does have several drawbacks. The welding process is time consuming, and it requires several costly and time-consuming quality control procedures. Welding also requires skilled, often highly paid, technicians, who, in industries such as oil and gas, are difficult to find and retain.
Another issue relating to welding is heat. The heat generated by welding can significantly reduce the strength of the metals being joined and damage critical surface coatings. In addition, welding dissimilar metals or pieces of varying sizes can be a challenge. Experienced welders also know that removing and reworking a weld can be problematic.
Finally, welding is dangerous and dirty. Safety is critical and must be practiced continually because a random spark can start a deadly fire. Equally important, spent rods and other remnants of the welding process must be handled properly to keep the work area and plant safe and clean.
Fastener Features and Benefits
Introduced during the mid-20th century, lockbolts are available in a wide range of pin diameters. Alcoa Fastening Systems offers HuckBolts with pin diameters from 0.1875 inch to 1.375 inches. The company also offers similar metric sizes.
Lockbolts are usually made from steel, stainless steel or titanium. However, they can also be made from aluminum because their nonhelical threads do not gall during installation. When a material galls, some of it is pulled by the contacting surface. Helical threads on conventional fasteners often gall during run-down.
Pins can be made with round, brazier, truss, mushroom or countersunk heads. Collars come with or without flanges. Both components can be coated or plated to prevent corrosion.
The main benefit of a lockbolt is its long-term resistance to the effects of vibration. In a conventional bolted joint, there are always gaps between the threads of the nut and bolt. These spaces cause loosening in high-vibration applications. In contrast, an installed lockbolt has no gaps because the collar is fully swaged into the shallow locking grooves of the pin. These shallow grooves produce high joint strength—up to five times that of a conventional nut and bolt.
Other benefits include high shear and tensile strength. Data from Junkers tests—a standard procedure that exposes fastened joints to transverse vibrations—indicate that lockbolts maintain consistent clamp load over time, without requiring secondary devices such as lock washers, wires or threadlocking compounds.
Most lockbolts, including HuckBolts made by Alcoa Fastening Systems, can also be used with virtually any metal. Dissimilar metals with dissimilar coefficients of thermal expansion present no problems. Varying piece sizes in a joint are readily accommodated, and surface finishes are not harmed.
The BobTail HuckBolt is Alcoa’s latest lockbolt. It features gripper threads rather than a pintail. This design offers end-users two important benefits.
First, the BobTail weighs 40 percent less than standard lockbolts and requires that much less force for installation. For example, a 0.625-inch-diameter BobTail requires a 10-pound tool, whereas a similar-size standard lockbolt requires a nearly 20-pound tool.
This lower force produces a jolt-free swaging action, reducing operator fatigue and repetitive stress syndrome. It also makes installation quieter.
Second, the gripper threads stay on during installation. This eliminates a possible initiation point for corrosion, as well as the need for material clean-up.
The fastener also has a specially designed collar with bumps along the flange. When the collar is fully swaged, the bumps crease, providing operators with a visual cue that the fastener is installed correctly.
Lockbolt performance parameters depend on fastener diameter and material. For instance, a 0.1875-inch-diameter Grade 5 carbon steel BobTail delivers 1,200 pounds of clamp load, 2,200 pounds of tensile strength, and 2,430 pounds of shear strength. By contrast, an aluminum version of this same lockbolt delivers 550, 1,000 and 1,050 pounds, respectively.
Similarly, a 0.375-inch-diameter BobTail delivers 5,980 pounds of clamp load, 9,300 pounds of tensile strength, and 9,600 pounds of shear strength. The aluminum version provides 2,200 pounds, 4,200 pounds and 4,200 pounds, respectively.
Installation: Quick and Easy
Standard and BobTail Lockbolts are installed using a direct tension technique. The pin of the standard lockbolt is inserted into a prepared hole, the collar is spun onto the pin, and the installation tool is placed over the grooves on the pin. When the tool is activated, a puller in its nose assembly draws the pin into the tool, causing the swaging anvil to press on the collar and draw up any sheet gap.
At a predetermined force, the anvil begins to swage the collar into the pin’s lock grooves. Continued swaging elongates the collar and pin to produce a precise clamp load. When swaging of the collar into the pin lock grooves is complete, the tool pulls on the pintail and snaps it. This completes installation. With the BobTail, once swaging is completed, the tool releases off the fastener.
A typical lockbolt (0.625-inch-diameter Grade 8 fastener) can be installed in as little as 2 seconds, not counting the time it takes to drill a hole. Cycle time is short because the tool grabs the pin very quickly.
Once the operator engages the trigger, the swage and eject sequence is programmed to complete the cycle without any additional installer input. A quick visual inspection is all that is required to confirm the fastener is properly installed.
In addition, an operator requires minimal training to proficiently install lockbolts—making the use of lockbolt fasteners a cost-effective assembly process.
Lockbolt installation tools are hydropneumatic or hydraulic. Hydropneumatic (also termed as pneudraulic) tools are best for lockbolts less than 0.5 inch in diameter; hydraulic tools are necessary for larger-diameter fasteners. Each tool is versatile enough to install fasteners of various diameters. However, the nosepiece of the tool does need to be changed to match each fastener’s diameter.
Tools are usually operated manually, but semiautomatic workcells also are in operation. In these applications, 0.1875- to 0.25-inch-diameter lockbolts are being installed. The operator manually loads the parts and inserts the pins and collars. Then, with the press of a button, multiple tools mounted on linear actuators simultaneously grab the pins and collars, and swage all of the collars to the pins.
Lockbolts do have one major drawback, though. After installation, a section of the pin remains and protrudes above the collar. For applications where the protrusion cannot be accommodated, manufacturers may be forced to use conventional welding. | <urn:uuid:18d8eee5-3ba9-43a5-98c3-f15af1472100> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.assemblymag.com/articles/91809-lockbolts-an-alternative-to-welding | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00157-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.921298 | 1,745 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Teacher's Guide: Hints for the Active Learning Questions
1. You might ask if any students would like to read their letters to the class.
2. At the start of the discussion, you should remind students of the overriding fact of the Cold War: because the United States and the Soviet Union each possessed enough nuclear weapons to devastate the other, neither side would benefit from an all-out war.
1. Point out that the prisoner's dilemma demonstrates the importance of knowing how other actors will behave. If each prisoner can predict what the other prisoner will do, or if the two prisoners can communicate with one another during the interrogation, both will know not to confess.
2. The discussion should address such issues as how (and at what age) such individuals would be identified, whether individuals should receive assistance even if they belong to wealthy families, and what duties might be imposed on them in exchange for this assistance.
1. Timelines should include basic events such as Nash's birth, his admission to Princeton, his employment at MIT, his marriage and divorce, his reuniting with Alicia, and his being awarded the Nobel Prize.
2. Given the technical nature of RAND research, you might prefer to do this activity as a class.
1. Berlin: Soviet blockade of West Berlin, 1948 and building of Berlin Wall, 1961; Koreas: war between Communist North and anti-Communist South, 1950-1953; Vietnam: war between Communist North and anti-Communist South, 1955-1975; Angola: Cuban intervention on Communist side in civil war, 1975; Israel/Egypt: several wars, with Israel supported by the U.S. and Egypt supported by the Soviet Union.
2. Common themes in Nash's delusions were competition between the United States and the Soviet Union, which reflected Cold War tensions, and alien beings, which reflected the start of space exploration. | <urn:uuid:8f937835-0e9a-464f-8399-9fd6d1fbc2e4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/nash/tguide/hints.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00144-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953912 | 385 | 3.921875 | 4 |
Having a child with food allergies can be a life-changing experience both for the child as well as everyone that takes care of him or her. I know first-hand having children in my family with food allergies. It has given me a passion to help children with food allergies through education, patient care, and research. This is the first of a five part series over the next week in which we will discuss food allergies. We will discuss commonly asked questions about food allergies and tips on how to keep your child safe and healthy. I wish we had enough time and blog space to discuss each and every one of the more than 170 foods that have been reported to cause food allergies but since we don’t I hope that the general tips and answers to the many questions that I have been asked by families like yours over the years will be helpful to you. Thanks so much for reading. I would love to hear your stories, questions, and comments!
What is a food allergy?
A food allergy is a reaction in which one’s immune system thinks of a particular food as a foreign invader. Typical symptoms include itchy red skin, coughing, vomiting, sneezing, and watery red eyes. These symptoms are pathways that the body uses to try and remove the food allergen from the body (with vomiting is the most clear example of how your body expels the food allergen from the body). Typical allergic reactions occur within minutes to an hour upon exposure to the food.
Allergic reactions typically happen after eating the food allergen. It can also occur in other situations such as:
- Touching the food allergen which typically causes red, itchy skin
- Rubbing the food allergen into the eye which can cause swollen, red, watery eyes
- Breathing in the food allergen particles in the air (as a result of steaming, boiling, frying, grating, shedding, or grinding) which can cause difficulty breathing and coughing in highly sensitive children. As a result, children who are highly sensitive should avoid situations in which there is a risk of food allergen inhalation. (Note the peanut allergen from peanut butter does not easily become airborne, but it may become airborne from peanut flour or “dusty” roasted peanuts.)
How can I tell if my child has a food allergy?
The definition of a food allergy is an adverse reaction mediated by the immune system that occurs reproducibly upon exposure to the food. However, it is sometimes difficult to tell if your child has a food allergy or not. For instance, some people who eat or drink milk products then develop bloating and gas. This may be because they cannot break down a sugar in milk products called lactose. In such a case, the bacteria in the gut ferment this sugar and cause gas and bloating. This condition is known as lactose intolerance. Lactose intolerance is not considered a food allergy but rather a food intolerance. It can be helped with products such as Lactaid, an enzyme that breaks down lactose in your body, which can be taken before you eat or drink milk products to prevent symptoms. If you are not sure if your child has a food allergy, it is best to talk to your child’s pediatrician. He or she can also refer your child to an allergist for testing.
How are food allergies diagnosed?
The most important way in which a food allergy is diagnosed is by your child’s history. If the history is consistent with food allergy, your doctor may order allergy skin and/or blood tests to confirm the allergy. If there is doubt about whether the symptoms represent food allergy or not, then a food challenge may be performed. If your child has a food allergy, it is important that your child be seen by a board certified allergist for consultation and at least yearly follow-up appointments.
How common are food allergies?
It is estimated that up to 8% of children and up to 3-4% of adults have food allergies.
What are the most common food allergens?
Milk, soy, wheat, eggs, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, and shellfish cause over 90% of all food allergies. However over 170 foods have been reported in the literature to cause food allergic reactions.
What caused my child’s food allergy?
A combination of genetic and environmental factors. It is estimated that children who are born to parents who have allergies are 60% likely to develop some kind of allergy, whether it be eczema, hayfever, food allergies, or allergic asthma. If only one parent is affected, the child has a 40% risk of being allergic.
Furthermore, in identical twins, if one is allergic to peanut, the other twin has a 67% chance of also being allergic. In siblings, if one sibling is allergic to peanut, the other sibling has a 7% risk.
One of the environmental factors hypothesized to affect the development of allergies is an environment that is “too clean.” This “hygiene hypothesis” posits that when the child’s environment is too clean, the immune system doesn’t have enough “work” to do and it may cause the immune system to skew towards an allergic predisposition since there are very few viruses and parasites to attack. There are many theories as to why food allergies are on the rise, but we do not know with 100% certainty why the number of children with food allergies is increasing. | <urn:uuid:53b88154-2f71-47b8-aeca-c4849e818861> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.drgreene.com/perspectives/food-allergy-series-part-1-does-my-child-have-a-food-allergy-and-if-so-what-caused-it/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00045-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968693 | 1,134 | 3.25 | 3 |
MYRTLE (Heb. הֲדַס; Hadas), Myrtus communis, a shrub, and occasionally a tree, possessing fragrant and glossy leaves.
It grows wild on Mount Carmel and in Upper Galilee, and its use as a decorative shrub is widespread. The leaves usually grow in series of two and opposite each other. Some have leaves arranged in groups of three. Burning the shrubs produces a higher proportion of the latter form. The plant flowers during the summer months and later bears black berries. There are other varieties whose ripe fruit is white and whose small leaves are arranged in groups of four or more. The plant is called asu in Akkadian and asa in Aramaic. The eẓ avot, twice mentioned in Scripture, refers, according to rabbinical tradition, to the myrtle. It is one of the Four Species (Lev. 23:40). The Book of Nehemiah, however, refers to both hadas and eẓ avot, in connection with the observance of the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh. 8:15). In consequence some scholars think that the name eẓ avot applies to any tree whose branches are closely braided together (avotim, "compact"). The rabbis explain that hadas refers to the wild myrtle branches gathered for covering the sukkah, while eẓ avot refers to the twigs of three-leaved myrtles which were "with the lulav" (Suk. 12a). They explained that eẓ avot means a tree "whose branches cover its trunk… is shaped like a plait and resembles a chain" (Suk. 32b). The leaves of the *oleander are of similar form but were declared invalid on the grounds that it is poisonous (ibid.). To satisfy the regulation concerning Tabernacles "a myrtle producing groups of three leaves from a single node" is necessary; there was a dispute concerning the validity of those varieties of myrtle, like the Egyptian myrtle, which produce many leaves from a single node (Suk. 32b–33a).
The myrtle is an evergreen (Targ. Sheni, Esth. 2:7), and the rabbis thus compared it with the good qualities of Esther whose Hebrew name was Hadassah ("myrtle"). Its aromatic branches were used for preparing the bride-groom's wreaths (Tosef., Sot. 15:8). They were used in festivities and betrothal celebrations, and some of the sages would juggle with myrtle branches, throwing them up and catching them (Ket. 17a). The leaves of the myrtle have the shape of the eye (Lev. R. 30: 14). Its fruits, called benot Hadas ("myrtle products"), were occasionally eaten, but are tasteless (TJ, Or. 1:1, 60c–d; Suk. 32b). Some recommended myrtle leaves as a remedy for blood pressure in the head (Git. 68b). The custom still obtains in some places of pronouncing the blessings for spices at the Havdalah on the termination of the Sabbath over myrtle leaves. According to *Bet Hillel the benediction over the myrtle takes precedence over the benediction over aromatic oil (Ber. 43b).
Sources: Encyclopaedia Judaica. © 2008 The Gale Group. All Rights Reserved. | <urn:uuid:94ac2753-949e-462b-81a1-20586de8def1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Environment/myrtle.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399428.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00173-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951147 | 746 | 3.5 | 4 |
There's a gap between child obesity rates and how parents perceive their children's weight.
A new poll shows that only 15 percent of parents consider their children "a little" or "very" overweight, even though about a third of the nation's children and teenagers are overweight or obese.
Researchers also found that among the households they surveyed, only one in five had an adult present who was concerned her or his child would be overweight as an adult. But with 69 percent of U.S. adults qualifying as overweight – and 36 percent falling into the obese category – pollsters said the other 80 percent may be underestimating their children's risk of being overweight later in life.
South Los Angeles has an especially severe problem with obesity compared to the rest of the county. Nearly 24 percent of L.A. County adults are obese, according to the latest figures; that shoots up to 33 percent on the southside.
Child obesity rates in the region aren't that much better. Data from 2008 shows that nearly 30 percent of children in South L.A. were obese, a rate that was among the county's highest; to contrast, the best rate in the county that year belonged to Manhattan Beach, where only 3.4 percent of children were obese.
Other findings from the survey on parents' perception of obesity:
- 81 percent of parents think obesity is a serious problem, but only 20 percent of children in the poll had a parent who was concerned the child would be overweight later in life.
- When parents did consider their child overweight, 60 percent said they were either "somewhat" or "very" concerned. That remaining 40 percent were "not very" or "not at all" concerned.
- Nearly nine in 10 children ate and drank in a healthy way during what researchers called "crunch time" – between 3 p.m. and bedtime. That's according to parents, anyway – even though 48 percent and 18 percent of children were reported to have eaten sweets and fast food, respectively.
Parents' perceptions, in other words, may be in major need of some fine-tuning.
Pollsters focused on that window of time after school and before bedtime, noting that even though parents have more influence over what their children eat and do during that timeframe, it's usually a time "when many are racing home from work, arranging for their children's extracurricular activities, trying to monitor homework, and getting ready for the next day."
Here's what the poll revealed about that timeframe, which surveyors dubbed "crunch time":
- Virtually all (95 percent) of children live with parents who agree that a healthy weight is important – but 44 percent of children have parents who say it's difficult to make sure their children eats healthy. Thirty-six percent of children have parents who express the same sentiment about exercise.
- During crunch time, 60 percent of children are eating something that could lead to unhealthy weight gain, according to their parents. Of those children, 79 percent did so because their parents don't "mind if they have these foods/drinks sometimes," as long they eat healthy in general.
- According to parents, 28 percent of children aren't getting enough exercise during crunch time.
Parents also report obstacles to helping their children maintain a healthy weight that go beyond crunch time:
- 33 percent say unhealthy foods are offered at lunch at school.
- 33 percent say the cost of exercise equipment, gym memberships or sports team fees are too high.
- 31 percent say there aren't good sidewalks near the family home, so the family drives instead of walking.
- 31 percent say there aren't many places for their children to hang out with friends that don't serve unhealthy food.
The poll also suggested that family events where unhealthy foods are plentiful are "fairly common" – 46 percent of parents said their children attended events like that at least once a month over the past year. | <urn:uuid:19fb3e46-d03f-4686-a33f-e3cff9dd51fc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.scpr.org/blogs/southla/2013/02/26/12694/poll-suggests-disconnect-between-parents-perceptio | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00193-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.984858 | 806 | 2.671875 | 3 |
New grazing rules ride on doctored science
Veteran scientists leave the BLM in frustration
When government scientists first reviewed a proposed overhaul of U.S. Bureau of Land Management grazing regulations, the resulting reports read as if they had been written by environmentalists.
In separate internal reports written two years ago, scientists from the BLM and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service warned that the BLM’s new rules could or would damage wildlife, water supplies, streamside areas, vegetation and endangered species. The Wildlife Service’s report also said that the rules would tend to give grazing a higher priority than other uses, remove the public from the decision-making process, and give away public rights on public land.
But higher-ups at the BLM rewrote their scientists’ report. The Wildlife Service’s concerns were rolled into a draft report and sent to the BLM in June 2004. The report was never finalized, says service spokesman Chris Tollefson, because Fish and Wildlife couldn’t get a meeting with BLM officials.
Instead, an environmental impact statement released this summer says that for the most part, the new grazing rules will not do any harm to wildlife, water or other parts of the natural environment.
The new regulations, which take effect in August, require BLM officials to carry out detailed monitoring before saying that a grazing allotment does not meet rangeland health standards. Even if the agency determines that an allotment is in bad shape, it will have to wait two to five years in most cases before reducing cattle numbers.
The new regulations allow ranchers to share ownership of fencing, water wells and other range improvements, traditionally owned solely by the federal government. And the BLM will no longer have to consult with the public before it renews grazing permits or changes the boundaries of grazing allotments.
"The proposed action will have a slow, long-term adverse impact on wildlife and biological diversity in general," the internal BLM report warned. "Upland and riparian habitats will continue to decline due to increasing an already burdensome grazing appeals process, lack of ability to control illegal activities on public lands, and allowing livestock operators to acquire rights to livestock management facilities and vegetation on public lands."
The agency’s final environmental impact statement says that at most, the rule changes will harm wildlife only in the short term, and only in a small number of cases. In some cases, it says, wildlife may even benefit from the changes.
The final statement also says that riparian areas, always a hot-button issue in grazing disputes, will remain in the same condition or even improve slightly under the new rules. The internal 2003 report warned of "degradation of channel morphology and water quality" and "declining vegetative cover," due in large part to what it called "the increasing and burdensome administrative procedural requirements."
Erick Campbell, one of about 15 BLM scientists who wrote the original report, says he had expected his work to be rewritten somewhat, but not in this wholesale manner. He quit his job in March after three decades with the agency because, he says, "The Bush administration is just rolling back any advances made in the last 30 years. We are going back to the 19th century."
Bill Brookes, a hydrologist who also worked on the original report, resigned in January after 25 years with the BLM, in part out of frustration with the administration’s handling of environmental issues. After his group submitted the original report, he says, "We were cut off from the process. A small team of range cons were brought into the Washington office. That group rewrote everything we and other members prepared, casting it all in a positive light."
In a prepared statement, the BLM said this summer that the two men’s work was rewritten after a team of other staffers found it to be "based on personal opinion and unsubstantiated assertions rather than sound environmental analysis."
In its statement, the BLM acknowledged that the new rules are meant to help the ranching community. By keeping ranchers in business, the agency says, it will be able to protect open space and prevent sprawl. The new rules represent the first major changes in BLM grazing standards in a decade, since former Interior Secretary Bruce Babbitt’s range reform program took effect. They retain some of Babbitt’s more controversial changes, such as tougher rangeland health standards and the creation of Resource Advisory Councils, which replaced the old rancher-dominated BLM advisory boards and include a broader base of interest groups. One change goes further, allowing ranchers for the first time to remove cattle from allotments for as long as they want. The old rules forbade more than three straight years of "non-use" (HCN, 4/4/05: The Big Buyout).
BLM spokesman Tom Gorey says the agency retains full authority to remove cattle quickly in emergencies, such as droughts and wildfires, and to protect endangered species — if the agency has the science to back it up. "If you come out with a decision and you don’t have sufficient data to support it, the rancher can make a case that we don’t have data and get a stay, which means it doesn’t go into effect."
Campbell, however, says the land and wildlife will be the losers in this deal, because the BLM will never have the staff to do the required monitoring. "I think my bottom line is that there’s no way we will ever effect changes in livestock grazing," he says. "The cowboys will not allow it."
The author reports for the Arizona Daily Star. Contact him at 520-807-7790 or firstname.lastname@example.org. | <urn:uuid:734fee4e-088c-4548-b4e1-c174d74bd326> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.hcn.org/issues/302/15651/print_view | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00187-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961642 | 1,184 | 3.03125 | 3 |
I began to see light green spots of a fine bladed grass in the lawn after two years. It's fine bladed like a fescue but not as rigid. Each succeeding year these spots grow larger to the point where they will eventually dominate the lawn. Is this a weed that looks like grass? How can I get rid of it without going through the aggressive herbicide procedure? -- G.D., via email.
Dear G.D.: There are many grassy weeds. Any grass species that isn't the desired turfgrass is going to look and behave differently. Weed grasses grow at a different rate, are lighter or darker green, coarser or finer in texture, more or less drought tolerant, on and on. Weed grasses stick out.
The problem in your lawn may be annual bluegrass, Poa annua. The name is a misnomer, as so many Latin names are, because the grass is not necessarily a true annual. There are perennial types as well. It is widespread in the northern hemisphere and is a prolific producer of seed. It thrives in many sites.
This grass is easily spotted because it makes light low growing patches in the lawn that have white flowers early in the season. It is especially noticeable in May and June. Golf course superintendents and turf managers moan about annual bluegrass constantly. Some follow an intense program to minimize its effects. Others have given up and manage the turf for annual bluegrass.
Controlling annual bluegrass in a home lawn can be a challenge. First, cut your grass high to give the turfgrass a boost. Annual bluegrass will germinate in total darkness, so shading the seed with high grass won't help as much as it will with weeds that require light to germinate. But longer turfgrass should outcompete the seedling annual bluegrass. In the spring and early summer, when the annual bluegrass is flowering and making seed, bag your clippings and compost them. Letting the clippings stay on the lawn, although normally the better practice, helps spread the seed around.
Don't water the lawn in late summer. Annual bluegrass is shallow rooted. It will often die under conditions which just make the desirable turfgrass go dormant temporarily. Annual bluegrass loves daily rain, so obviously this wet spring has promoted its unusually vigorous growth. The weed is also tolerant of compacted soil, so aerating the soil if it is compacted will give the turf a better chance.
Overseed the lawn with desirable turfgrass regularly. Bare, damaged, winter killed spots will fill in all right, but with weeds instead of good turf, unless you overseed. Annual bluegrass responds to fertilization in the spring; keep the fertilizer applications minimal at that time.
Carol T. Bradford, of Syracuse, has been gardening in Central New York for more than 25 years. Send questions in care of Home & Garden, The Post-Standard, P.O. Box 4915, Syracuse, NY 13221, by fax to 470-2111 or by email to email@example.com. Letters might be edited for space and clarity. | <urn:uuid:d74f78da-6357-4457-a115-2e1fd4790f32> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.syracuse.com/cny/2011/06/carol_bradford_annual_bluegrass_challenging_to_control.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00022-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959452 | 645 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Leonardo, The Last Supper
The technical problems with the Last Supper began as soon as Leonardo started to paint it. He jettisoned the traditional fresco technique of applying paint to wet plaster, a method unsuited to Leonardo's slow and thorough execution, and created the work instead with an experimental technique that involved painting directly on the dry plaster. With this renegade method, Leonardo rendered one of the most enduring painting techniques volatile and unstable. Added to this initial complication have been centuries of pollution, tourists, candle smoke, and the ravages of age, not to mention food fights in the refectory staged by Napoleonic soldiers and Allied bombs in 1943. By the middle of the twentieth century, the Last Supper was in desperate need of a complete restoration.
Pinin Brambilla Barcilon was chosen to head this twenty-year project, and Leonardo, The Last Supper is the official record of her remarkable effort. It first documents the cleaning and removal of the overpainting performed in the other attempts at restoration and then turns to Barcilon's meticulous additions in watercolor, which were based on Leonardo's preparatory drawings, early copies of the painting, and contemporary textual descriptions. This book presents full-scale reproductions of details from the fresco that clearly display and distinguish Leonardo's hand from that of the restorer. With nearly 400 sumptuous color reproductions, the most comprehensive technical documentation of the project by Barcilon, and an introductory essay by art historian and project codirector Pietro C. Marani that focuses on the history of the fresco, Leonardo, The Last Supper is an invaluable historic record, an extraordinarily handsome book, and an essential volume for anyone who appreciates the beauty, technical achievements, and fate of Renaissance painting.
List of Archival Abbreviations
Leonardo's Last Supper
Pietro C. Marani
The Last Supper (Illustrations)
Pinin Brambilla Barcilon | <urn:uuid:65cab39a-907b-4f06-9700-e3d62af59374> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/L/bo3635797.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00013-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.917799 | 408 | 2.8125 | 3 |
Pronunciation: (set), [key]
—v., set, set•ting,
—n., adj., interj.
1. to put (something or someone) in a particular place: to set a vase on a table.
2. to place in a particular position or posture: Set the baby on his feet.
3. to place in some relation to something or someone: We set a supervisor over the new workers.
4. to put into some condition: to set a house on fire.
5. to put or apply: to set fire to a house.
6. to put in the proper position: to set a chair back on its feet.
7. to put in the proper or desired order or condition for use: to set a trap.
8. to distribute or arrange china, silver, etc., for use on (a table): to set the table for dinner.
9. to place (the hair, esp. when wet) on rollers, in clips, or the like, so that the hair will assume a particular style.
10. to put (a price or value) upon something: He set $7500 as the right amount for the car. The teacher sets a high value on neatness.
11. to fix the value of at a certain amount or rate; value: He set the car at $500. She sets neatness at a high value.
12. to post, station, or appoint for the purpose of performing some duty: to set spies on a person.
13. to determine or fix definitely: to set a time limit.
14. to resolve or decide upon: to set a wedding date.
15. to cause to pass into a given state or condition: to set one's mind at rest; to set a prisoner free.
16. to direct or settle resolutely or wishfully: to set one's mind to a task.
17. to present as a model; place before others as a standard: to set a good example.
18. to establish for others to follow: to set a fast pace.
19. to prescribe or assign, as a task.
20. to adjust (a mechanism) so as to control its performance.
21. to adjust the hands of (a clock or watch) according to a certain standard: I always set my watch by the clock in the library.
22. to adjust (a timer, alarm of a clock, etc.) so as to sound when desired: He set the alarm for seven o'clock.
23. to fix or mount (a gem or the like) in a frame or setting.
24. to ornament or stud with gems or the like: a bracelet set with pearls.
25. to cause to sit; seat: to set a child in a highchair.
26. to put (a hen) on eggs to hatch them.
27. to place (eggs) under a hen or in an incubator for hatching.
28. to place or plant firmly: to set a flagpole in concrete.
29. to put into a fixed, rigid, or settled state, as the face, muscles, etc.
30. to fix at a given point or calibration: to set the dial on an oven; to set a micrometer.
31. to tighten (often fol. by up): to set nuts well up.
32. to cause to take a particular direction: to set one's course to the south.
33. Surg.to put (a broken or dislocated bone) back in position.
34. (of a hunting dog) to indicate the position of (game) by standing stiffly and pointing with the muzzle.
a. to fit, as words to music.
b. to arrange for musical performance.
c. to arrange (music) for certain voices or instruments.
a. to arrange the scenery, properties, lights, etc., on (a stage) for an act or scene.
b. to prepare (a scene) for dramatic performance.
37. Naut.to spread and secure (a sail) so as to catch the wind.
a. to arrange (type) in the order required for printing.
b. to put together types corresponding to (copy); compose in type: to set an article.
39. Baking.to put aside (a substance to which yeast has been added) in order that it may rise.
40. to change into curd: to set milk with rennet.
41. to cause (glue, mortar, or the like) to become fixed or hard.
42. to urge, goad, or encourage to attack: to set the hounds on a trespasser.
43. Bridge.to cause (the opposing partnership or their contract) to fall short: We set them two tricks at four spades. Only perfect defense could set four spades.
44. to affix or apply, as by stamping: The king set his seal to the decree.
45. to fix or engage (a fishhook) firmly into the jaws of a fish by pulling hard on the line once the fish has taken the bait.
46. to sharpen or put a keen edge on (a blade, knife, razor, etc.) by honing or grinding.
47. to fix the length, width, and shape of (yarn, fabric, etc.).
48. Carpentry.to sink (a nail head) with a nail set.
49. to bend or form to the proper shape, as a saw tooth or a spring.
50. to bend the teeth of (a saw) outward from the blade alternately on both sides in order to make a cut wider than the blade itself.
1. to pass below the horizon; sink: The sun sets early in winter.
2. to decline; wane.
3. to assume a fixed or rigid state, as the countenance or the muscles.
4. (of the hair) to be placed temporarily on rollers, in clips, or the like, in order to assume a particular style: Long hair sets more easily than short hair.
5. to become firm, solid, or permanent, as mortar, glue, cement, or a dye, due to drying or physical or chemical change.
6. to sit on eggs to hatch them, as a hen.
7. to hang or fit, as clothes.
8. to begin to move; start (usually fol. by forth, out, off, etc.).
9. (of a flower's ovary) to develop into a fruit.
10. (of a hunting dog) to indicate the position of game.
11. to have a certain direction or course, as a wind, current, or the like.
12. Naut.(of a sail) to be spread so as to catch the wind.
13. Print.(of type) to occupy a certain width: This copy sets to forty picas.
14. Nonstandard.sit: Come in and set a spell.
15. set about,
a. to begin on; start.
b. to undertake; attempt.
c. to assault; attack.
16. set against,
a. to cause to be hostile or antagonistic.
b. to compare or contrast: The advantages must be set against the disadvantages.
17. set ahead,to set to a later setting or time: Set your clocks ahead one hour.
18. set apart,
a. to reserve for a particular purpose.
b. to cause to be noticed; distinguish: Her bright red hair sets her apart from her sisters.
19. set aside,
a. to put to one side; reserve: The clerk set aside the silver brooch for me.
b. to dismiss from the mind; reject.
c. to prevail over; discard; annul: to set aside a verdict.
20. set back,
a. to hinder; impede.
b. to turn the hands of (a watch or clock) to show an earlier time: When your plane gets to California, set your watch back two hours.
c. to reduce to a lower setting: Set back the thermostat before you go to bed.
21. set by,to save or keep for future use.
22. set down,
a. to write or to copy or record in writing or printing.
b. to consider; estimate: to set someone down as a fool.
c. to attribute; ascribe: to set a failure down to bad planning.
d. to put in a position of rest on a level surface.
e. to humble or humiliate.
f. to land an airplane: We set down in a heavy fog.
g. (in horse racing) to suspend (a jockey) from competition because of some offense or infraction of the rules.
23. set forth,
a. to give an account of; state; describe: He set forth his theory in a scholarly report.
b. to begin a journey; start: Columbus set forth with three small ships.
24. set forward,to turn the hands of (a watch or clock) to show a later time: When your plane lands in New York, set your watch forward two hours.
25. set in,
a. to begin to prevail; arrive: Darkness set in.
b. (of winds or currents) to blow or flow toward the shore.
26. set off,
a. to cause to become ignited or to explode.
b. to begin; start.
c. to intensify or improve by contrast.
d. to begin a journey or trip; depart.
27. set on,
a. Also,set upon.to attack or cause to attack: to set one's dog on a stranger.
b. to instigate; incite: to set a crew to mutiny.
28. set one's face against. See face (def. 35).
29. set out,
a. to begin a journey or course: to set out for home.
b. to undertake; attempt: He set out to prove his point.
c. to design; plan: to set out a pattern.
d. to define; describe: to set out one's arguments.
e. to plant: to set out petunias and pansies.
f. to lay out (the plan of a building) in actual size at the site.
g. to lay out (a building member or the like) in actual size.
30. set store by. See store (def. 9).
31. set to,
a. to make a vigorous effort; apply oneself to work; begin.
b. to begin to fight; contend.
32. set up,
a. to put upright; raise.
b. to put into a high or powerful position.
c. to construct; assemble; erect.
d. to be assembled or made ready for use: exercise equipment that sets up in a jiffy.
e. to inaugurate; establish.
f. to enable to begin in business; provide with means.
g. Informal.to make a gift of; treat, as to drinks.
h. Informal.to stimulate; elate.
i. to propound; plan; advance.
j. to bring about; cause.
k. to become firm or hard, as a glue or cement: a paint that sets up within five minutes.
l. to lead or lure into a dangerous, detrimental, or embarrassing situation, as by deceitful prearrangement or connivance.
m. to entrap or frame, as an innocent person in a crime or a criminal suspect in a culpable circumstance in order to achieve an arrest.
n. to arrange the murder or execution of: His partner set him up with the mob.
o. Bridge.to establish (a suit): to set up spades.
1. the act or state of setting or the state of being set.
2. a collection of articles designed for use together: a set of china; a chess set.
3. a collection, each member of which is adapted for a special use in a particular operation: a set of golf clubs; a set of carving knives.
4. a number, group, or combination of things of similar nature, design, or function: a set of ideas.
5. a series of volumes by one author, about one subject, etc.
6. a number, company, or group of persons associated by common interests, occupations, conventions, or status: a set of murderous thieves; the smart set.
7. the fit, as of an article of clothing: the set of his coat.
8. fixed direction, bent, or inclination: The set of his mind was obvious.
9. bearing or carriage: the set of one's shoulders.
10. the assumption of a fixed, rigid, or hard state, as by mortar or glue.
11. the arrangement of the hair in a particular style: How much does the beauty parlor charge for a shampoo and set?
12. a plate for holding a tool or die.
13. an apparatus for receiving radio or television programs; receiver.
14. Philately.a group of stamps that form a complete series.
15. Tennis.a unit of a match, consisting of a group of not fewer than six games with a margin of at least two games between the winner and loser: He won the match in straight sets of 6–3, 6–4, 6–4.
16. a construction representing a place or scene in which the action takes place in a stage, motion-picture, or television production.
a. the bending out of the points of alternate teeth of a saw in opposite directions.
b. a permanent deformation or displacement of an object or part.
c. a tool for giving a certain form to something, as a saw tooth.
18. a chisel having a wide blade for dividing bricks.
19. Hort.a young plant, or a slip, tuber, or the like, suitable for planting.
a. the number of couples required to execute a quadrille or the like.
b. a series of movements or figures that make up a quadrille or the like.
a. a group of pieces played by a band, as in a night club, and followed by an intermission.
b. the period during which these pieces are played.
22. Bridge.a failure to take the number of tricks specified by one's contract: Our being vulnerable made the set even more costly.
a. the direction of a wind, current, etc.
b. the form or arrangement of the sails, spars, etc., of a vessel.
c. suit (def. 12).
24. Psychol.a temporary state of an organism characterized by a readiness to respond to certain stimuli in a specific way.
25. Mining.a timber frame bracing or supporting the walls or roof of a shaft or stope.
26. Carpentry.See nail set.
27. Math.a collection of objects or elements classed together.
28. Print.the width of a body of type.
29. sett (def. 3).
1. fixed or prescribed beforehand: a set time; set rules.
2. specified; fixed: The hall holds a set number of people.
3. deliberately composed; customary: set phrases.
4. fixed; rigid: a set smile.
5. resolved or determined; habitually or stubbornly fixed: to be set in one's opinions.
6. completely prepared; ready: Is everyone set?
7. all set, Informal.in readiness; prepared: They were at the starting line and all set to begin.
(in calling the start of a race): Ready! Set! Go! Also,get set!
Pronunciation: (set), [key]
—n. Egyptian Relig.
the brother and murderer of Osiris, represented as having the form of a donkey or other mammal and regarded as personifying the desert. Also,Seth.
Random House Unabridged Dictionary, Copyright © 1997, by Random House, Inc., on Infoplease. | <urn:uuid:2d1142f8-ed60-4f6d-b5fb-964feded511e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://dictionary.infoplease.com/set | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00127-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.912775 | 3,450 | 2.671875 | 3 |
by Staff Writers
Troy, N.Y. (UPI) Dec 10, 2012
Nighttime flights on an airborne observatory to search newly born stars could turn up evidence of the presence of precursors to life, U.S. astrobiologists say.
A team of researchers, including two from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in New York, will use the observatory's infrared capabilities to search for a collection of molecules in clouds of dust surrounding five young stars, a Rensselaer release reported Monday.
The search will take place aboard a modified Boeing 747 that contains the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy, a partnership of NASA and the German Aerospace Center, that is the largest airborne observatory in the world.
"We're interested in how the matter that you need to make planetary life came to be: Where did it come from and how was it formed?" Rensselaer astrobiologist and physics Professor Douglas Whittet said.
"And since it happened here in our solar system, is it likely to happen elsewhere as well?
"We can't go back in time to observe our solar system when it was born, but we can look at other regions that we believe are similar and use them as analogs for the early solar system."
Infrared observations of newly born stars by ground-based telescopes have shown the presence of organic molecules and water in the dusty remnants of the clouds from which they formed, remnants that are the raw materials from which new planets may coalesce, the researchers said.
The airborne observatory has the capability to gather more specific data, they said.
"We're trying to look at a part of the spectrum that doesn't get through the atmosphere very well," Whittet said, noting atmospheric moisture absorbs most of the infrared radiation astronomers try to detect.
The aerial observatory's 40,000-foot operating altitude puts it above most of that moisture, he said.
Life Beyond Earth
Lands Beyond Beyond - extra solar planets - news and science
|The content herein, unless otherwise known to be public domain, are Copyright 1995-2014 - Space Media Network. AFP, UPI and IANS news wire stories are copyright Agence France-Presse, United Press International and Indo-Asia News Service. ESA Portal Reports are copyright European Space Agency. All NASA sourced material is public domain. Additional copyrights may apply in whole or part to other bona fide parties. Advertising does not imply endorsement,agreement or approval of any opinions, statements or information provided by Space Media Network on any Web page published or hosted by Space Media Network. Privacy Statement| | <urn:uuid:da68f853-163e-4486-b0d3-38da0ec02b83> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.spacedaily.com/reports/Search_for_life_extends_to_the_stars_999.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00157-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.922567 | 542 | 2.546875 | 3 |
MENU – ALL FREE
Lessons on the Basic Theories of Scientific Method
#1 Scientific Method Is the Best of All Knowledge Methods
#2 Value of Method
#3 The Scientific Method Is a General Method
#4 Basic Steps of the Scientific Method
#5 Practical Application of the Scientific Method
Steps or Stages of the Scientific Method – two pages on each
1. Curious Observation
2. Is There a Problem?
3. Goals & Planning
4. Search, Explore, & Gather the Evidence
5. Generate Creative & Logical Alternative Solutions
6. Evaluate the Evidence
7. Make the Educated Guess (Hypothesis)
8. Challenge the Hypothesis
9. Reach a Conclusion
10. Suspend Judgment
12. Creative, Non-Logical, Logical & Technical Methods
13. Procedural Principals & Theories
14. Attributes & Thinking Skills
What Is the Scientific Method?
There are always many general questions about what is the scientific method and the nature of the scientific method. Some of these are:
Guidance for Those Who Ask the Above Questions
These are all somewhat the same.
This entire website provides an answer to these questions. Of special help is my booklet The Scientific Method Today, which explains, describes, introduces, states the purpose, and gives the step or stage order. SM-14 is the most modern scientific method model formula available today.
Scientific Method Definition
Science and the Scientific Method
Today the term science has come to have three major meanings (Source: See
my Research Report #1, “What Is Science?”):
Definition of Scientific Method
A short good definition of scientific method is:
Define Scientific Method
While the method was largely developed by scientists, it is also a general
method for all domains. Thus it is:
The Complete Method of Problem Solving and Decision Making for All Fields
Some Quotations that Support the Above
Campbell (1952): First, science is a body of useful and practical knowledge and a method of obtaining it.
Calder (1962): No, science is not just knowledge; it is knowledge working for its living, correcting itself, and adding to itself. Science, therefore, is a process.
Feibleman (1972): Thus, science serves two human purposes: to know and to do. The former is a matter of understanding, the latter a matter of action.
Nourse (1969) gives this excellent picture of the scientific method:
There is no magic in such a method of finding an answer to a problem. Indeed, it is so simple and logical that all of us, scientists or not, use it to some degree or other every day of our lives in solving everyday problems. It is the time-tested method of telling truth from nonsense and proving it. As such, it is the method that has been used in discovering virtually everything we know about our universe and the way in which it works. | <urn:uuid:f6abdab9-82db-4d9b-aa01-b1c1af4f403d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.scientificmethod.com/sm3_whatissm.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399106.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00113-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.871472 | 622 | 3.640625 | 4 |
And no, I’m not talking about the ribbons marked with measurements used in sewing (although those were probably an inspiration). The steel strip itself inside the first surveyor’s tape measure was first used to make the metal hoops in Victorian skirts.
James Chesterman, who worked for a Sheffield steel manufacturer, came up with the idea for marking this material and using it as a ruling device in 1842. However, he didn’t market this tool until 1865. Check out our new tape measure page to find out why.
Another fun fact about tape measures: Around the turn of the century, the sewing variety, then held in round, celluloid containers, was a popular device for novelty advertisements (see examples below).
These items are huge with collectors now, but when you think about all the logo-stamped letter openers and ballpoint pens and stress balls that have been junking up our homes for decades, you can thank two Coshocton, Ohio, newspapermen for this phenomenon. In the late 1800s, they went crazy with their printing presses, putting logos all over—on book bags, horse blankets, yard sticks, shoe horns, pencils, and horse whips.
Of course, these publishers were also responsible for some of the most stunning tin-lithographed advertisement signs from the early 20th century, so maybe we’ll let it slide.
(Images: A 1957 satirical cartoon at top left is labeled “New Contrivance for Lady’s Maids, adapted to the Present Style of Fashions,” from Sensibility.com; at top right is a vintage Rabone steel depth-gauge measuring tool.) | <urn:uuid:6d6a7072-e80e-48e8-97ce-6a42ab6c0721> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.collectorsweekly.com/articles/from-petticoats-to-construction-sites/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00090-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947324 | 350 | 2.796875 | 3 |
1919] OF SOME BRILLIANT ANIMAL COLOURS 591 certainly there is no improbability in surface-reflexion playing a part. It may be that both causes are operative in a single specimen and even at the same part of it. The next contribution to the discussion is an important one by Mallock*, who brings to bear the instinct and experience of a naturalist as well as of a physicist. His observations were mainly on the feathers of birds and the scales of insects, and they lead him to regard interference rather than selective reflexion as the origin of the iridescent colours. " The transparency or, at any rate, the vanishing of the characteristic transmitted colour in the case of all animal tissues when immersed and permeated by a fluid of the same refractive index is strongly in favour of interference being the source of the colour, but even stronger evidence is given by the behaviour of the structures under mechanical pressure. " If the grain or peculiarities which favour the reflexion or transmission of particular colours is of molecular size, there is no reason to suppose that pressure insufficient to cause molecular disruption would alter the action of the material on light. On the other hand, if the colours are due to interference, that is, to cavities or strata of different optical properties, compression would alter the spacing of these, and thus give rise either to different colours or, with more than a very slight compression, to the transmission and reflexion of white light. " In every experiment of this kind which I have made either on feathers or insect scales the effect of pressure has been to destroy the colour altogether.... " With many feathers the colour returns when the pressure is taken off, but with insect scales the structure seems to be permanently injured by compression, and though when allowed to expand again the material is not colourless the brilliancy which belonged to the uninjured scale is gone, and the colour in general changed. "The facts above mentioned seem to offer stronger reasons in favour of interference than the polarization phenomena referred to by Michelson and Walter do against it." I have already commented on the importance of the evidence afforded by observations with polarized light; and if we have to choose between selective reflexion and thin plates of the type usually considered in theoretical writings, we may find ourselves in a position of much difficulty. The question then arises, Is there any loophole for escape ? I think there may be. The polarizing angle, as given by Brewsber's law, depends much upon what we may call.the smoothness of the reflecting surface. A moderate curvature is of no significance in this connexion, but when the-radius of curvature- becomes co'mpar'able with the wave-length of the light it is another matter. Thus in the case of smooth glass the polarizing angle is about 5*7°that"is, light * Proc. Roy. Soc. A, Vol. LXXXV. p. 598 (1911). - ' grams are rather confusing in that they suggest a phase-difference of 180° between'the two polarized components reflected perpendicularly, when evidently the distinction between the two components disappears. -.;-6,1807). If the mercury be wet, boiling may be dispensed with and negative pressures of two atmospheres are easily demonstrated. | <urn:uuid:9cfc9ba3-7c18-4980-8c76-827028b72501> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.archive.org/stream/ScientificPapersVi/TXT/00000606.txt | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00189-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950862 | 674 | 3.234375 | 3 |
Mectizan (ivermectin, MSD), discovered and developed by Merck*, is a very safe and highly effective drug approved for mass treatment of two of the world’s most disfiguring and disabling tropical diseases: onchocerciasis and lymphatic filariasis (LF). In 1987, Merck committed to donating the drug for as long as necessary for the control of onchocerciasis making the Mectizan Donation Program the longest ongoing drug donation program of its kind.
In 1998, the mandate of the Mectizan Donation Program was expanded to include LF elimination in Yemen and in African countries where LF and onchocerciasis co-exist. In these countries, Mectizan is co-administered with albendazole, donated by GlaxoSmithKline. The remarkable partnership between the two companies continues to scale up to meet the demand for the two drugs for LF elimination in Africa and Yemen.
The donation and distribution of Mectizan and albendazole involves a large, global public-private partnership of UN agencies, bilateral donors, multilateral development agencies, governmental and nongovernmental organizations, local communities, and the private sector.
Today, with more than 1 billion people treated since the program's inception and 80 million people treated annually in Africa, Latin America, and Yemen, blindness caused by onchocerciasis is increasingly rare and there are regions of Latin America and Africa that have elminated the disease altogether. Merck remains steadfast in its commitment to donate “as much Mectizan as necessary, for as long as necessary” to treat river blindness.
Both Merck and GSK are committed to the elimination of LF in Africa and Yemen. By the end of 2008, a cumulative total of more than 304 million treatments of Mectizan and albendazole had been approved for LF elimination through the Mectizan Donation Program. The annual number of people treated in 2008 was 80 million people. The remarkable partnership between the two companies encouraged other companies to donate drugs for "neglected tropical diseases" resulting in a wide network of partners working toward a common goal of enabling access to medicines and, ultimately, to reducing poverty in countries afflicted with these diseases.
*Merck operates as Merck Sharp & Dohme (MSD) in many countries outside the U.S. | <urn:uuid:a810e9b7-5dc3-46ae-b9e4-cb17459630b0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mectizan.org/about/history | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00112-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942122 | 498 | 2.671875 | 3 |
not sure if some citizens of Texas realize just how much they owe
to a handful of ladies who saved from ruin, our most precious historic
structure, the Alamo.
One of those women, Adina De Zavala, has been credited as the one
most responsible for saving the old mission and if it hadn't been
for her efforts, the Alamo
might well have been replaced by a parking lot. It was in her blood
to fight for something she believed in, the lady had an historic legacy
- her grandfather, Lorenzo de Zavala, was the first vice-president
of the Republic of Texas. According to The Handbook of Texas Online,
Miss De Zavala organized a group of women who met for the purpose
of discussion and study of Texas heroes. These ladies became part
of the Daughters of the Republic of Texas in 1893. De Zavala and her
group prevented the destruction of the Alamo chapel, after it had
been purchased from the state by the wholesale grocery firm of Hugo
and Schmeltzer Company
courtesy of Murray Montgomery
|Miss De Zavala
obtained a verbal promise from the company that her chapter of the
DRT would be given the first chance to purchase the Alamo
property. In 1903, Clara Driscoll joined the DRT and De Zavala's group
of preservationist women. Driscoll soon purchased the property from
the grocery firm to prevent it from falling into the hands of another
group, referred to as an "eastern syndicate." In 1905, the Texas legislature
authorized the state to purchase the property from Driscoll and custody
was turned over to the DRT.
However, trouble soon began to brew between De Zavala and Driscoll.
The rift was over Driscoll's desires to tear down part of the old
Hugo and Schmeltzer building, as it was her contention that it had
been built long after the famous battle in 1836. Miss Zavala opposed
this action; as she was sure that the building was part of a structure
know as the "long barracks" which was of great historical value. Even
though Driscoll's group won several decisions in state court against
De Zavala, it didn't deter this granddaughter of a patriot from sticking
to her guns and fighting for what she believed to be the truth of
At one point, in 1908, Miss De Zavala went so far as to barricade
herself inside the north barrack of the Alamo
for three days to protest its destruction. It was her belief that
this section was of even more historical worth than the Alamo chapel.
De Zavala's efforts were not in vain, and history has proved that
she was right in her belief about the value of the old barracks. It
has been confirmed that that section of the Alamo
grounds is where much of the fighting took place in the legendary
showing the Alamo
Postcard courtesy www.rootsweb.com/ %7Etxpstcrd/
noble lady had saved her beloved mission, she never seemed to venture
far away from the place. In her book, The
History and Mystery of the Menger Hotel, Docia Schultz Williams
writes that Adina De Zavala was a resident of the
old hotel, located on Alamo Plaza, from 1926 to 1932. According
to Williams, "She must have lived at the
hotel in order to be close to the shrine which meant so much to
|Alamo Plaza showing
on the right
1915 Postcard courtesy www.rootsweb.com/%7Etxpstcrd/
Adina De Zavala went on to be instrumental in saving the Spanish Governors'
Palace in San Antonio.
She organized, in 1912, the Texas Historical and Landmarks Association.
She also wrote several books about San
Antonio and the Alamo.
She was a member of the Texas Folklore Society, the Philosophical
Society of Texas, and the United Daughters of the Confederacy, the
Texas Women's Press Association, and many other organizations.
This great lady of Texas died on March 1, 1955, and is buried at St.
Mary's Cemetery in San
© Murray Montgomery
April 20, 2004 column
Grave and Historical Marker
De Zavala grave and historical marker
Photo courtesy Sarah
De Zavala historical marker
Photo courtesy Sarah
and preservationist Adina Emilia De Zavala was born in Harris County,
Texas, on November 28, 1861. She was the daughter of Augustine and
Julia Tyrrell De Zavala, and the granddaughter of Lorenzo De Zavala,
first Vice-President of the Republic of Texas. Adina spent her early
years in Galveston,
before moving with her family to a ranch near San
Antonio circa 1873.
Miss Adina was a founding member of "De Zavala's Daughters," one of
the earliest preservation groups in the state of Texas.
Among de Zavala's most renowned contributions to the preservation
of Texas history was her role in saving the Alamo
Long Barracks from demolition. De Zavala not only secured funding
from philanthropist Clara Driscoll for the purchase of the structure,
but she also barricaded herself inside the military quarters in February
of 1907 when she feared the building was to be razed. Besides her
dedication to saving portions of the Alamo
compound, De Zavala initiated a public effort that culminated in protecting
several of Texas' most revered historic
structures and sites, including the legendary missions and Spanish
Governors' Palace in Bexar County, and Mission
San Francisco de los Tejas in east
Texas. In 1938, De Zavala organized the Texas Historical and Landmarks
Association. The civic group installed thirty-eight markers at historic
sites thorughout Texas.
Two months after her death in 1955, the Texas Legislature honored
Adina De Zavala for her "life of devotion to Texas history, folklore,
and general civic and patriotic work," as well as her commitment to
"immortalizing Texas history for the ages."
De Zavala granite marker
Photo courtesy Sarah | <urn:uuid:31fb1a25-5d86-406b-b33a-79e0c2bb14bd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.texasescapes.com/MurrayMontgomeryLoneStarDiary/Savior-of-The-Alamo.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393146.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00096-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941421 | 1,329 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Known by many as the technology underpinning the bitcoin digital currency, blockchain has acquired a new identity in the enterprise. At a time when companies face new challenges in data management and security, it’s emerging as a way to let companies make and verify transactions on a network instantaneously without a central authority. Today, more than 40 top financial institutions and a growing number of firms across industries are experimenting with distributed ledger technology as a secure and transparent way to digitally track the ownership of assets, a move that could speed up transactions and cut costs while lowering the risk of fraud. Some companies see an opportunity to use blockchain to track the movement of assets throughout their supply chains or electronically initiate and enforce contracts.
Blockchain remains in the experimental phase inside many large firms and there are few tested use cases, experts and analysts caution. Here’s a look at how this emerging technology works:
What is blockchain?
A blockchain is a data structure that makes it possible to create a digital ledger of transactions and share it among a distributed network of computers. It uses cryptography to allow each participant on the network to manipulate the ledger in a secure way without the need for a central authority.
Once a block of data is recorded on the blockchain ledger, it’s extremely difficult to change or remove. When someone wants to add to it, participants in the network — all of which have copies of the existing blockchain — run algorithms to evaluate and verify the proposed transaction. If a majority of nodes agree that the transaction looks valid — that is, identifying information matches the blockchain’s history — then the new transaction will be approved and a new block added to the chain.
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The term blockchain today usually describes a version of this distributed ledger structure and distributed consensus process. There are different blockchain configurations that use different consensus mechanisms, depending on the type and size of the network and the use case of a particular company. The bitcoin blockchain, for example, is public and “permissionless”, meaning anyone can participate and contribute to the ledger. Many firms also are exploring private or “permissioned” blockchains whose network is made up only of known participants. Each of these blockchain implementations operate in different ways.
Guardtime, a company that sells blockchain-based products and services to enterprises and governments including Ericsson AB and the country of Estonia, explained its approach like this:
Assume an organization has 10 transactions per second. Each of those transactions receives its own digital signature. Using a tree structure, those signatures are combined and given a single digital fingerprint — a unique representation of those transactions at a specific time. That fingerprint is sent up the tree to the next layer of infrastructure, such as a service provider or telecom company. This process happens for every organization in the network until there is a single digital fingerprint that encompasses all the transactions as they existed during that particular second. Once validated, that fingerprint is stored in a blockchain that all the participants can see. A copy of that ledger is also sent back to each organization to store locally. Those signatures can be continuously verified against what is in the blockchain, giving companies a way to monitor the state and integrity of a particular asset or transaction.
Anytime a change to data or an asset is proposed, a new, unique digital fingerprint is created, Guardtime said. That fingerprint is sent to each client node for validation. If the fingerprints don’t match, or if the change to the data doesn’t fit with the network’s agreed-upon rules, the transaction may not be validated. This setup means the entire network, rather than a central authority, is responsible for ensuring the validity of each transaction.
Where did it come from?
Bitcoin was the first application built on top of blockchain, said Marley Gray, director of technology strategy for financial services at Microsoft In 2008, a person or group of people known as Satoshi Nakamoto published a paper describing bitcoin and how it could be used to digitally send payments between any two willing entities without the need for a third-party financial institution. Each transaction was recorded on the blockchain ledger, the newest block tied to the ones before it using a digital signature. To ensure trust in the ledger, participants on the network ran complicated algorithms to verify those digital signatures and add transactions to the blockchain.
The next few years for bitcoin were tumultuous, including the collapse of the prominent bitcoin exchange, Mt. Gox, and an increasingly sour reputation as the currency fueling the underground online drug bazaar Silk Road.
But many companies saw opportunity in the underlying technology – the blockchain – that made bitcoin’s existence possible.
Todd McDonald, co-founder and head of strategy at R3CEV LLC, a consortium of more than 40 financial institutions working to design and apply distributed ledger technologies to global financial markets, outlined three of a blockchain’s main components: a network of computers, a network protocol and a consensus mechanism.
A blockchain’s network can include everyone with a computer or a small group of known entities that agree to participate. Each computer in a particular network is called a node. In its ideal state, each node has a copy of the entire ledger, similar to a local database, and works with other nodes to maintain the ledger’s consistency. That creates fault tolerance, so if one node disappears or goes down, all is not lost. The network protocol governs how those nodes communicate with one another.
The consensus mechanism is a set of rules the network uses to verify each transaction and agree on the current state of the blockchain. For the bitcoin blockchain, the consensus mechanism is called proof of work, in which participants on the network run algorithms to confirm the digital signatures attached to blocks verify each transaction. In private or “permissioned” blockchain networks, the consensus mechanism may be less stringent since each participant is known. In those cases, “you don’t need the blockchain to establish trust, it already exists,” said Jamie Steiner, general manager for financial services at Guardtime. At this time there is no universally agreed-upon consensus mechanism.
A transaction manipulates ledger data based on rules described by business logic, said Arvind Krishna, senior vice president and director of IBM Research. After a transaction is executed on a node, the result is a proposed modification of the ledger’s data. Before committing the answers to a node’s ledger, the answer is validated locally with other nodes in the network, Mr. Krishna said. Approved transactions are packaged into a block and re-distributed to all the nodes in the network, which re-validate to ensure their records match. Typical transactions can execute in milliseconds, Mr. Krishna said.
Getting rid of the middleman
The blockchain architecture allows a distributed network of computers to reach consensus without the need for a central authority or middleman. A good example is in financial services, where trades are often verified by a central clearinghouse that maintains its own central ledger. Using that process, it can take days to settle a transaction, and the clearinghouse typically collects some kind of fee.
[Note to readers: For more on blockchain’s business implications, see the second half of our Special Report.]
Blockchain technology could eliminate that clearinghouse by giving each bank in the network its own copy of the ledger. A common network protocol and consensus mechanism would allow the participants to communicate with one another. Using this method, transactions could be approved automatically in seconds or minutes, significantly cutting costs and boosting efficiency.
Blockchain in the enterprise
Enterprises are experimenting with different kinds of distributed ledger technologies and applications, analysts and industry participants say, with financial services companies the farthest ahead. In the last year, more than 40 financial institutions said they were working with blockchain, and now other financial firms such as insurance companies are “calling up asking if it’s too late to join the blockchain party,” said Ray Valdes, an analyst with Gartner who covers blockchain technology.
One obstacle to widespread enterprise adoption of blockchain technology is the need to get the network of participants, all of which have their own mix of back-office systems, to agree on a common network protocol and technology stack, Guardtime’s Mr. Steiner said.
There are not yet clear standards to govern how blockchain will be implemented across the enterprise. Some companies may choose to use the bitcoin network, while others may opt for “permissioned” or semi-private blockchains. The development of the technology also will bring its own regulatory hurdles and potential cybersecurity threats, experts say.
Many questions around security and privacy still linger. In financial services, for example, it’s still unclear exactly how much information about a trade each participant needs to be able to see to verify a transaction while still keeping the contents of a particular trade private, R3’s Mr. McDonald said.
The blockchain ecosystem
A number of startups and industry groups are working at different levels of the blockchain, from underlying infrastructure to blockchain-based applications. Some companies continue to develop on the public bitcoin blockchain, but many also are exploring how they can deploy their own blockchain on smaller “permissioned” networks.
Financial institutions are experimenting with many different blockchain implementations from different vendors. Under the R3 consortium, a recent test of a private blockchain among 11 banks took place on a private instance of open-source blockchain technology from Ethereum and hosted on a virtual private network in Microsoft’s Azure cloud.
In December, the Linux Foundation, a nonprofit that champions open-source technologies, announced plans to create an enterprise-grade distributed ledger framework. Participants in the group include R3, Cisco Systems, International Business Machines Corp., Intel and VMware, among others. “We hope to become the default fabric people begin to use,” said IBM’s Mr. Krishna said. IBM said it plans to contribute tens of thousands of lines of code to the project. | <urn:uuid:f7dd6e68-258a-4441-a6da-a08ac3367b89> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blogs.wsj.com/cio/2016/02/02/cio-explainer-what-is-blockchain/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00130-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.926271 | 2,123 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Prospective students considering the field of nursing will find the career rewarding. Financial support for students in the nursing field is also abundant, if the student does the proper research.
Although, there is a shortage of nurses; competition still exists.
Therefore, the applicant for a scholarship or a nursing program must prepare an application that the reviewer will remember and recognize. The essay portion of any application is a perfect opportunity to communicate the student’s skill level, excellence and individuality.
Essay writing preparation involves a number of steps
Determine the Audience of the Essay
The applicant must first identify his or her reviewing audience. Once the student determines the audience, decide what would motivate a reviewer in this field to award a scholarship to an individual. Gather facts related to the particular organization awarding the scholarship, the field the student is pursuing, and the essay topic. Brainstorm to identify any relevant facts that could persuade an individual to accept the student to a program or award the student a scholarship.
Develop an Outline for the Essay
Prepare an outline using the facts gathered in the first stage of the essay development. Incorporate the student’s ability to meet the requirements set forth in the application guidelines. Think of examples of how the student’s lifestyle and academic performance is in congruence with the agenda of the awarding organization. The student should incorporate as much information as possible to convince the reviewer, while still addressing the essay topic. If the organization has a set of guidelines or principles in print, obtain a copy and incorporate the principles, if within the scope of the topic.
The essay should follow a logical progression of information presented. The essay should include an Introduction, a Body, and a Conclusion. The reader needs to know if the writer possesses adequate writing skills and thought processes.
The introduction needs to immediately catch the reader’s attention. The introduction should introduce the main points to be discussed in the body of the essay. For instance, if the essay asks the applicant to describe why the student would like to be a nurse, then the introduction should include two to three main points addressing this topic. Each point introduced will be expounded upon later in the body of the essay.
Sentences should be clear and succinct, yet informative. The reader must understand the writer’s topic within the first few sentences. The student may focus the essay around a relevant quote from a book related to the essay topic or an idea or concept that may be compelling to the reader.
Grammar, spelling, and punctuation should be perfect. This is the first step in any writing process. The essay is akin to meeting the applicant for the first time. The applicant wants to leave a positive impression. Poor grammar and spelling will leave the reader a negative impression of applicant.
The body should provide the details of the main points given in the introduction. The applicant should use these paragraphs to convince the reader why he or she should be chosen for the program or the scholarship. This is the applicant’s moment to persuade the reader. Use these two to three paragraphs to convince the reader to select the student. Cite examples to give the reader a clearer picture of the student’s credentials.
The applicant should use the body of the essay to demonstrate examples of the applicant’s character, goals, and inspirations, such as role models, parents, grandparents, etc. The essay should also indicate the student’s interest in the field of nursing.
The conclusion should summarize the points made within the body of the essay. The conclusion should demonstrate how each of the main points assisted in developing the applicant into the candidate of choice. Tell the reader why the applying student should be selected over other students based upon the information presented. This is the final opportunity to convince the essay reader. Therefore, the student should make the argument compelling.
Review and Revise the Essay
After the student finishes the rough draft of the essay, begin the revision process. Read and reread the essay to determine if the essay communicates what the student intended. Once the student has revised the essay, then the student should allow three to four other individuals to read the essay. Allow those individuals to read the essay for content, grammar, punctuation, and spelling. Make certain your readers are qualified to judge for grammar, content, punctuation, and spelling. Consider each person’s constructive criticism. Incorporate the reader’s comments, if they are congruent with the student’s essay goals.
If the student accurately anticipates the essay reader’s expectations, the essay reader will enjoy reading the essay and remember the applicant. While determining the views of the essay reader is a valid strategy, the student should also develop an essay that is unique. A unique essay will be remembered by the essay reviewer. The reader will be more likely to select the applicant as a finalist in the essay review process.
If the student follows the guidelines set forth in the article, he or she should prepare a well constructed essay and argument. This will convince the reader to select the applicant for the nursing scholarship or program. | <urn:uuid:ccc19175-6b98-4e36-9fe8-30fa78c50aa2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nursingscholarships.org/essay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395621.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00140-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.914153 | 1,047 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Environmental Education Lesson Plans
The lesson plans and accompanying activity sheets provided here were developed by DEC environmental educators. They have proven to be successful at environmental education centers, natural areas, and visits to classrooms These education tools bring young people in touch with the natural world and build their understanding of environmental issues.
The lessons, which are divided into topic themes, are grouped by grade level: preK-3, 3-6 and 6-12. Some of these lessons call for the use of specialized equipment. Feel free to adapt the lessons to accommodate the materials you have available. Please contact DEC's Bureau of Environmental Education if you have any questions.
The links below lead to descriptions of the downloadable lessons and student activity sheets. Bookmark this page and check back regularly as more lessons will be added periodically. Recording and activity sheets for observing nature outdoors are on the Kids G.O. (Get Outside) web pages.
More about Environmental Education Lesson Plans:
- Grades PreK- 3 Lesson Plans - lessons and activity sheets on insects, mammals, reptiles,wildlife, and water
- Grades 3 - 6 Lesson Plans - lessons and activity sheets on insects, mammals, reptiles, wildlife, recycling, conservation, and water
- Grades 6 - 12 Lesson Plans - lessons on mammals, wildlife, recycling, conservation, and water topics | <urn:uuid:1865d4b8-ac6e-4d2e-9019-ff43fbae0e08> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dec.ny.gov/education/73131.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00143-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.916768 | 276 | 4.0625 | 4 |
Second Bishop of Louisiana and the Floridas, Bishop of Montauban, Archbishop of Besançon, b. at Cap Franç, Santo Domingo, 16 February, 1766; d. at Besançon, France, 12 December, 1833. His theological studies were made at Paris, where he was ordained in 1788 and entered the Company of Saint Sulpice. He was superior of the seminary of Issy when the French Revolution broke out, and retired at first to Bordeaux. In 1794 he emigrated to the United States where he was welcomed by Bishop Carroll. He was president of Georgetown College from 1796 to 1799. After an unsuccessful trip to Havana where he attempted to open a school, he returned to Baltimore and became the first superior of Saint Mary's College.
On 18 August, 1812, he was appointed Apostolic Administrator of the Diocese of Louisiana and the Floridas to succeed Bishop Peñalvar y Cardenas promoted (1801) to the archiepiscopal See of Guatemala. The position was by no means an easy one and Father Dubourg was forced, at the beginning of his administration to take up his residence outside New Orleans. However, he gradually overtcame his opponents. On 28 January, 1815, on the threshold of the New Orleans cathedral, he bestowed on General Jackson the laurels of victory.
After settling in a satisfactory way the affairs of the diocese Father Dubourg proceeded to Rome where he was consecrated Bishop of Louisiana and the Floridas, 24 September, 1815. He returned to America in 1817 and took up his residence in St. Louis where he founded a theological seminary and college at "The Barrens". He also founded the St. Louis Latin Academy which developed into the present well-known St. Louis University. The Religious of the Sacred Heart simultaneously opened their first American convent, St. Charles's Academy (1818), and soon after a second one at Florissant. These institutions gave a great impulse to religion in what was then known as Upper Louisiana. The bishop visited yearly the southern part of his diocese, and when Bishop Rosati was appointed his coadjutor, New Orleans became again his residence. In 1826 Bishop Dubourg went again to Europe. He was a brilliant and learned man, but was reluctant to enforce his authority against the cathedral trustees who continually opposed him; therefore he tendered his resignation of the See of New Orleans (November, 1826), thinking that another incumbent would be more successful.
He was not, however, allowed to live in retirement, but was transferred, 2 October, 1826, to the Diocese of Montauban ; then on 15 February, 1833, he was promoted to the archiepiscopal See of Besançon. Archbishop Dubourg was one of the first patrons and beneficiaries of the Society for the Propagation of the Faith , but was not, as has been said, its founder. This society was organized at a meeting held at Lyons by the Abbé Inglesi, Bishop Dubourg's vicar-general, but the chief rôle in its creation is due to a pious woman of Lyons, Pauline-Marie Jaricot.
The Catholic Encyclopedia is the most comprehensive resource on Catholic teaching, history, and information ever gathered in all of human history. This easy-to-search online version was originally printed between 1907 and 1912 in fifteen hard copy volumes.
Designed to present its readers with the full body of Catholic teaching, the Encyclopedia contains not only precise statements of what the Church has defined, but also an impartial record of different views of acknowledged authority on all disputed questions, national, political or factional. In the determination of the truth the most recent and acknowledged scientific methods are employed, and the results of the latest research in theology, philosophy, history, apologetics, archaeology, and other sciences are given careful consideration.
No one who is interested in human history, past and present, can ignore the Catholic Church, either as an institution which has been the central figure in the civilized world for nearly two thousand years, decisively affecting its destinies, religious, literary, scientific, social and political, or as an existing power whose influence and activity extend to every part of the globe. In the past century the Church has grown both extensively and intensively among English-speaking peoples. Their living interests demand that they should have the means of informing themselves about this vast institution, which, whether they are Catholics or not, affects their fortunes and their destiny.
Copyright © Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company New York, NY. Volume 1: 1907; Volume 2: 1907; Volume 3: 1908; Volume 4: 1908; Volume 5: 1909; Volume 6: 1909; Volume 7: 1910; Volume 8: 1910; Volume 9: 1910; Volume 10: 1911; Volume 11: - 1911; Volume 12: - 1911; Volume 13: - 1912; Volume 14: 1912; Volume 15: 1912
Catholic Online Catholic Encyclopedia Digital version Compiled and Copyright © Catholic Online | <urn:uuid:b296419a-adb8-4918-b8e2-2ca256f03038> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.catholic.org/encyclopedia/view.php?id=4046 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00173-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974223 | 1,046 | 2.75 | 3 |
Vitamin B-1, otherwise known as thiamine, is necessary for most every cellular reaction in the body as a participant in an enzyme system known as thiamin pyrophosphate. It is vital to normal functioning of the nervous system and metabolism. It can be found in meat, whole grains, fish, and nuts.
How This Vitamin Works in Your Body:
Maintains health of mucous membranes
Keeps normal workings of nervous system, heart, and muscles
Helps treat herpes zoster and beriberi
Supports normal growth and development
Restores deficiencies caused by alcoholism, cirrhosis, overactive thyroid, infection, breastfeeding, absorption diseases, pregnancy, prolonged diarrhea, and burns
Reduction of depression, fatigue, and motion sickness
Potential improvement in appetite and mental alertness
The Following May Benefit from this Vitamin:
Alcohol or other substance abusers by accelerating metabolism
Those with poor nutritional dietary intake
Age greater than 55 years old
Women who are breastfeeding or pregnant
Recent surgery patients
Those with liver disease, overactive thyroid, or prolonged diarrhea
Where This Vitamin is Found:
Flour; rye and whole grain
Garbanzo beans (chickpeas), dried
Kidney beans, dried
Navy beans, dried
Rice, brown and raw
How to Use:
Liquid: the best form due to its high bioavailability and fast absorption. Always choose liquid as your first choice when supplementing your diet.
Recommended Daily Intakes
Men: 1.2 mg
Women: 1.1 mg
Pregnancy: 1.4 mg
Lactation: 1.5 mg
Consult your doctor if you have:
Liver or kidney disease.
Not overly necessary.
Keep doses within DRI.
Keep doses within DRI.
Out of direct light and away from children in a cool, dry place. Heat/moisture may change effectiveness.
Symptoms of Deficiency:
Symptoms include fatigue, depression, decreased mental functioning, muscle cramps, nausea, heart enlargement, and eventually beriberi. Alcoholics are at increased risk of a deficiency.
Signs of Overdose:
Hypersensitive reactions resembling anaphylactic shock
Reaction or effect: What to do:
Skin rash/itch Discontinue. Consult doctor immediately.
Swelling of face Discontinue. Consult doctor immediately.
Wheezing Obtain emergency treatment immediately.
Interacts with: Combined effect:
Antibiotics: Decreases thiamine levels
Muscle relaxers during surgery: Excessive muscle relaxation.
Oral contraceptives: Decreases thiamine levels
Werknickes encephalopathy treatment: Before taking glucose, take thiamine. | <urn:uuid:3966fb02-2a8d-4ed0-b1cb-a78c773e69f7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.vitamins-nutrition.org/vitamins-guide/vitamin-b-1-thiamine.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00090-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.839702 | 575 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Twenty years ago, in the year Bill Clinton was elected president, scientists first confirmed the existence of a planet outside our solar system. Now, we know there are thousands of other planets just in our galaxy, even if we've only detected them indirectly. We also finally know what it's going to take to glimpse an exoplanet, to actually see the places that might harbor life like ourselves (or otherwise). And the telescope that will eventually do so is on the drawing board. It has a profound name: ATLAST.
During the last three years, we have learned that our galaxy is teeming with planets. Since its launch in 2009, NASA's Kepler Mission has discovered more than 2,200 planet candidates orbiting distant stars in the Milky Way. Every year that goes by brings new exoplanet data, and new reasons to think that planets are a commonplace phenomenon in our universe. And yet, pressing questions about these planets remain. We aren't yet sure how many of them are capable of supporting life. The early data from Kepler indicates that as many as one in ten stars has a planet around it that can host liquid water on its surface. If that number holds up, then our galaxy could be home to more than ten billion watery planets, each a potential home for microbes, plants, or even intelligent beings like us. Some may be so close that we could use telescopes to detect signs of life in their atmospheres. The possibility that undiscovered Earths are hiding in every corner of our galaxy is completely reorienting the future of space science. Astronomers sense that they are on the brink of an epochal discovery, and they are keen to build the telescopes that will enable it.
The Space Telescope Science Institute in Baltimore, Maryland is at the leading edge of this effort. The Institute runs science operations for the Hubble Space Telescope, the most far-seeing instrument ever deployed by humans. The Hubble has had quite a run over its twenty-two years of service, but it is beginning to show its age. In 2009, NASA astronauts serviced the iconic telescope in orbit for the fourth and final time, outfitting it with a new camera and fresh batteries. Still, it's unclear if the Hubble's sensitive instruments can weather another decade of exposure to cosmic rays. Like the Voyager space probes, the Hubble is drifting slowly toward retirement.
The Institute is currently preparing for the launch of Hubble 2.0 -- the James Webb Space Telescope-- a massive infrared instrument that will be one hundred times more powerful than its predecessor. Unlike the Hubble, the James Webb will be difficult, if not impossible, to service. The delicacy of the Webb's infrared sensors require that it be positioned one million miles from Earth, which is too far for tune-ups. Without the benefit of regular maintenance, it is only expected to last five to ten years.
>Because these machines take so long to build, the Space Telescope Science Institute is already planning for Hubble 3.0. A small working group at the Institute is starting to sketch the conceptual outlines of Webb's successor, a still larger space observatory called the Advanced Technology Large-Aperture Space Telescope (ATLAST). This telescope is being designed with a very special purpose in mind: to discover life on planets that orbit other stars. | <urn:uuid:cd16cc4c-895f-460e-9476-9f68673f7428> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nextgov.com/emerging-tech/2012/10/atlast-gargantuan-telescope-designed-find-life-other-planets/58725/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00173-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945407 | 663 | 3.671875 | 4 |
The Occupied Territories is a small place. It does not take long to get from city to city. The trip from Jerusalem to Ramallah takes just 20 minutes by car. That is, it used to. Today, more than 160 Israeli military checkpoints chop up the roads between Palestinian cities, and it no longer takes 20 minutes to get from Jerusalem to Ramallah: Now it is an hour trip, or sometimes two or three. To get from Hebron to Ramallah – normally a less than two hour drive – takes a Palestinian six to ten hours.
Stopping at checkpoints has become a part of the daily routine for Palestinians going to work, visiting family, and even running errands or seeing a doctor. It has become commonplace, but it is not normal. Restrictions on Palestinians’ freedom of movement violate a basic human right, and moreover they contravene the rules governing collective punishment, namely, as stated in Article 33 of the Fourth Geneva Conventions, that "No protected person may be punished for an offense he or she has not personally committed" and that "collective penalties and likewise all measures of intimidation or of terrorism are prohibited."
The first checkpoint sprung up in the West Bank after the beginning of the first Intifada. Before that time, there were no restrictions on movement within the Occupied Territories or between them and Israel. By summer 2002, 120 checkpoints divided up the West Bank into 300 separate areas and the Gaza Strip into 3 areas, and today there are even more. In addition, mobile checkpoints often sprout up unannounced, imposing extra delays on Palestinian travelers.
Checkpoints are one of the on-the-ground facts of the Israeli military occupation that constantly reminds Palestinians what control means. It means restriction of movement of families, of workers, and of goods. It means all movement by Palestinians is not just interrupted but also monitored by the Israeli military. And it means, due to the vastness of the checkpoint infrastructure, that Israel maintains a heavy degree of control over all of the West Bank and Gaza.
In addition, Israeli military checkpoints are notorious for being the site of severe harassment, threats, and violence. Inhumane treatment of Palestinians at checkpoints begins with the herding of large amounts of people into tiny spaces, where they must wait, at times, for hours on end before passage, if they are lucky. It progresses to extreme harassment such as an instance two winters ago, when the Al-Ram checkpoint between Jerusalem and Ramallah was closed. People of all ages were backed up, waiting to get through. Suddenly, a soldier announced that he would open the checkpoint for five minutes to let people run through. After five minutes exactly, he would shoot whoever was left. And the inhumane treatment of Palestinians at checkpoints ends tragically in death – the result for some 65 Palestinians, who have been shot or whose passage has been blocked despite their need for medical attention between September 2000 and the end of 2002.
Effects of Checkpoints
Violence at Checkpoints
Not uncommon at Israeli military checkpoints, harassment of Palestinian citizens includes detention, shackling, blindfolding, and stripping. Moreover, numerous examples of outright Israeli violence can be recounted. Many of these occur at the infamous Qalandia checkpoint. Well-known for its long lines and the harassment delivered on those waiting in them, Qalandia checkpoint has been the site of brute violence, including murder, by Israeli soldiers manning the checkpoint. Not even children remain free from harm. On Friday, March 28, 2003, a group of children were throwing stones at a fence near the checkpoint, when a slew of Israeli soldiers approached them and started shooting. Regulated by the Open-Fire Regulations, Israeli forces are restricted in their use of rubber bullets and are completely prohibited from targeting children with them. But on this day, they shot rubber bullets at the children, one of which entered the skull of Omar Musa Matar, killing him on the spot.
Preventable delays at military checkpoints are the cause of major medical problems as well as death for sick and incapacitated Palestinian civilians. Even when visible evidence of a Palestinian’s illness exists, Israeli soldiers have been known to prohibit entry to the person in need. It is a decisive violation of international law to prohibit sick or wounded persons from getting medical attention. According to articles 16 and 17 of the Fourth Geneva Conventions, occupiers must ensure free access to medical assistance for the sick, elderly, pregnant woman, and children. Every time an Israeli soldier knowingly turns away a sick civilian, therefore, it is a patent violation of international law.
In cases of serious illness, 90 percent of patients held up at checkpoints have died, according to a Red Crescent Society doctor. At least 43 people have died as a result of barred access to medical treatment since September 2000. At least 21 were children and 14 were babies less than one year old. In addition, between September 28, 2000 and November 21, 2002, 557 Red Crescent Society ambulances were barred from passing through Israeli military checkpoints. Moreover, as many as 255 ambulances were attacked between September 2000 and June 2003, 113 of which were damaged; 3 people were killed and 192 injured during these attacks.
The examples of death caused by delay are too numerous to recount, but descriptions of a few such incidents will exemplify the standard treatment of sick Palestinian civilians by Israeli forces. On October 14, 2002, a four-day-old baby girl named Rawan Harizat’s skin turned yellow and she started vomiting. The family doctor told them to rush her to the hospital, just 10 minutes away. Taking a significantly longer route to sidestep Israeli roadblocks and parking at a distance from the hospital to avoid a roving military checkpoint, the family did not reach the hospital until an hour later. By that time Rawan was dead. On June 18, 2002, when ‘Odeh Yaqub ‘Odeh Shahadeh, 57, felt chest pains and collapsed, he was rushed to Ramallah. But the vehicle was delayed at Surda checkpoint for 45 minutes. By the time he reached the hospital, he was pronounced dead. And On December 29, 2002 a Palestinian man named Hussein a-Tamimi, suffered a heart attack. He was immediately rushed to the hospital in Ramallah. But on arrival at the checkpoint, Israeli soldiers refused him entry from his village of a-Nabi Salah. In frustration, they left the checkpoint to try an alternate route. Approaching the Dolev settlement, they were threatened by settlers and soldiers. Hussein a-Tamimi died before he could reach help.
Too many times have pregnant women ready to deliver been prevented by Israeli soldiers from crossing the checkpoint and getting to medical facilities. This means that the women must give birth at the checkpoint. Needless to say, they face terrible conditions, often delivering in the back of cars. Since September 2000, at least 39 children have been born at checkpoints after their mothers were refused passage, and at least 5 were stillbirths. In addition, the psychological effect on pregnant women cannot be understated, because stories of traumatic experiences faced by pregnant women traversing checkpoints are well-known. It is common for pregnant women to have intense – and not unfounded – fears about harrowing checkpoint experiences.
In one week alone, two babies were born dead because of delays in reaching hospitals. On December 10, 2002, Adla Abdel Jaber As-Sayyefi, 37, went into labor. Expecting a breech birth, Adla also experienced early labor. The ambulance could not reach her village because of checkpoints and trenches, so they planned to meet at another checkpoint, to which she could walk. At the checkpoint, the ambulance waited on the other side, but they would never reach it because a tank blocked their path. The soldiers remained unsympathetic to the pleas for help from Adla’s family. Adla’s gave birth five minutes later, but the baby died. Had she reached the hospital, the baby would have undeniably lived.
Earlier in that week, on December 6, Munira Ahmed Kabaha, 30, from Tour Al-Gharbia near Jenin went into labor. Again, the ambulance could not reach her village because of the checkpoints. They arranged another meeting place, but when the family arrived, Israeli soldiers would not let the ambulance pass. By this time Munira started giving birth. Only then did the soldiers examine her and then finally let her through. It was too late, and the baby died when it reached the hospital.
Checkpoints have caused restrictions on travel for all Palestinians, but one particularly affected group is Palestinian youth, who face restrictions traveling to and from school or university. According to a recent report, almost three-quarters of schools reported that checkpoints were the number one problem facing students trying to reach school. In one instance, 80 students withdrew because of the problems caused by checkpoints. Among the difficulties faced by students passing checkpoints – beyond the inconvenience of the checkpoint itself – are: being shot at by rubber bullets; being beaten up; being detained until dark; being hit by sound bombs; and checkpoint closures, which prevent students from attending class for days at a time.
In 2002, conditions were so bad by the second month of the school year – because of checkpoints as well as school closures and curfews – that 226,000 children and 9,300 teachers could not reach their schools, according to UNICEF.
University students are also affected by the checkpoints – for example, students at Birzeit University, located outside of Ramallah, must pass through one of the worst checkpoints in the West Bank, Surda. Notorious for requiring a 2 kilometer uphill walk by all passers-by old and young, Surda checkpoint is responsible for long wait times and unannounced closures – all which regularly disrupt the academic life of Birzeit students.
The effect of the checkpoints on the economy is clear. Checkpoints restrict access by Palestinians to Israel for jobs which they formerly accessed easily. Moreover, internal checkpoints (that is, those between Palestinian towns) also restrict Palestinian employment within the Occupied Territories. For example, Palestinians with West Bank ID cards cannot travel through checkpoints to reach east Jerusalem without a permit, a document not easily attained. Therefore, they can only access jobs there at the risk of being detained. Numerous cases of shooting at Palestinians attempting to cross checkpoints for work have been identified. In 2002 alone, 13 workers were killed at checkpoints or on route to work in Israel, and 220 were injured at checkpoints by beatings or bullet wounds.
In addition, checkpoints restrict movement of goods, which in the case of products such as fresh produce has been known to result in spoilage. In sum, the checkpoints and Israeli sieges have been largely responsible for the current 53 percent rate of unemployment and overall poor economic conditions in the Palestinian Territories.
One of the most visible and harmful restrictions on Palestinian life today is the existence of the checkpoints. Restricting movement of all types for Palestinian civilians, the checkpoints do irreparable harm to Palestinian daily life and economy. Moreover, they stand as a stark reminder of the Israeli military machine’s control over Palestinian life and livelihood. Until all of the checkpoints are dismantled, the chances for a viable Palestinian state, not to mention a thriving economy and resumption of normal daily life, will remain severely debilitated.
“Israel Denying Education to Palestinian Children - U.N.,” by Thalif Deen, October 3, 2002.
“Schooling at Gunpoint: Palestinian Children's Learning Environment in War-Like Conditions,” The Ramallah/al-Bireh/Beitunia urban centre (By Rita Giacaman, Anita Abdullah, Rula Abu Safieh and Luna Shamieh, Institute of Community and Public Health, Birzeit University), December 2002.
“Shadow Report to the United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) Regarding the Report of Israel concerning the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights,” April 2003. | <urn:uuid:7ca28fbb-78b1-49ac-8b4c-ea99363515f7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.miftah.org/Display.cfm?DocId=2294&CategoryId=4 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00138-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970879 | 2,465 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Individual differences |
Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology |
Biological: Behavioural genetics · Evolutionary psychology · Neuroanatomy · Neurochemistry · Neuroendocrinology · Neuroscience · Psychoneuroimmunology · Physiological Psychology · Psychopharmacology (Index, Outline)
Congenital hyperinsulinism is a medical term referring to a variety of congenital disorders in which hypoglycemia is caused by excessive insulin secretion. Congenital forms of hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia can be transient or persistent, mild or severe. These conditions are present at birth and most become apparent in early infancy. The severe forms can cause obvious problems in the first hour of life, but milder forms may not be detected until adult years.
Mild cases can be treated by frequent feedings, more severe cases can be controlled by medications that reduce insulin secretion or effects, and a minority of the most severe cases require surgical removal of part or most of the pancreas to protect the brain from damage due to recurrent hypoglycemia.
This condition has been referred to by a variety of names in the past 50 years. Nesidioblastosis and islet cell adenomatosis were favored in the 1970s, beta cell dysregulation syndrome or dysmaturation syndrome in the 1980s, and persistent hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia of infancy (PHHI) in the 1990s.
Types of congenital hyperinsulinismEdit
- Transient neonatal hyperinsulinism
- Focal hyperinsulinism
- Diffuse hyperinsulinism
- Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome (thought to be due to hyperinsulinism but pathophysiology still uncertain: 11p15 mutation or IGF2 excess)
Common presentations and natural historyEdit
Manifestations of congenital hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia vary by age and severity of the hypoglycemia. Hypoglycemia in early infancy can cause jitteriness, lethargy, cyanosis, unresponsiveness, hypothermia, or seizures. The most severe forms may cause macrosomia in utero, producing a large-for-gestational-age birth weight, often accompanied by enlargement of the heart and liver. Milder hypoglycemia in infancy causes hunger every few hours, with increasing irritability or lethargy if feeding is delayed.
Congenital hyperinsulinism often becomes apparent later in the first year of life, sometimes by a failure to tolerate increasing feeding intervals and an inability to sleep through the night. Sometimes an unusual stress like an illness precipitates a severe hypoglycemic episode.
Milder forms have occasionally been detected by investigation of family members of infants with severe forms. Adults with the mildest degrees of congenital hyperinsulinism may simply have a decreased tolerance for prolonged fasting.
The variable ages of presentations and courses suggest that some forms of congenital hyperinsulinism, especially those involving abnormalities of KATP channel function, can gradually worsen or improve with time.
The potential harm from hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia appears to depend on the severity, frequency, and duration. Children who have prolonged or recurrent hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia in infancy can suffer harm to their brains and may be developmentally delayed.
When the cause of hypoglycemia is not obvious, the most valuable diagnostic information is obtained from a blood sample drawn during the hypoglycemia. Detectable amounts of insulin during hypoglycemia are abnormal and indicate that hyperinsulinism is likely to be the cause. Inappropriately low levels of free fatty acids, beta-hydroxybutyrate and ketones provide additional evidence of insulin excess. If this critical cannot be obtained during an early episode of spontaneous hypoglycemia, a diagnostic fast may be required.
An additional piece of evidence indicating hyperinsulinism is a usually high requirement for intravenous glucose to maintain adequate glucose levels. The minimum glucose required to maintain a plasma glucose above 70 mg/dl is referred to as the glucose infusion rate. A GIR above 8 mg/kg/minute in infancy suggests hyperinsulinism. A third form of evidence suggesting hyperinsulinism is a rise of the glucose level after injection of glucagon at the time of the low glucose.
Once the evidence indicates hyperinsulinism, the diagnostic efforts shift to determining the type. Elevated ammonia levels or abnormal organic acids can indicate specific, rare types. Intrauterine growth retardation and other perinatal problems raise the possibility of transience, while large birthweight suggests one of the more persistent conditions. Evidence for specific type can include responsiveness to some of the therapeutic measures. Genetic screening is now available within a useful time frame for some of the specific conditions.
It is usually worthwhile to identify the minority of severe cases with focal forms of hyperinsulinism because these can be completely cured by partial pancreatectomy. A variety of pre-operative diagnostic procedures have been investigated but none has been established as infallibly reliable. Positron emission tomography (PET scanning) is becoming the most useful imaging technique and usually indicates whether the entire pancreas is producing too much insulin or whether a focal area is to blame.
Acute hypoglycemia is immediately reversed by raising the blood glucose, but in most forms of congenital hyperinsulinism hypoglycemia recurs and the therapeutic effort is directed toward preventing falls and maintaining a glucose above 70 mg/dl (3.9 mM). Some of the following measures are often tried:
- shorter feeding interval (every 2 hours)
- increased calorie density of formula (usually 24 calories per ounce instead of 20)
- continuous feeding with formula through a nasogastric tube or gastrostomy, sometimes with added corn starch
- continuous intravenous dextrose
- hydrocortisone or other glucocorticoid
- diazoxide by mouth
- octreotide (a somatostatin analog) by subcutaneous injection or infusion
- glucagon by continuous intravenous infusion
- nifedipine or other calcium channel blocker
- partial pancreatectomy
Each treatment has its limitations and disadvantages or hazards. Many of the treatments do not effectively maintain a satisfactory blood glucose in the more severe cases. Many of the treatments aggravate the poor feeding behavior that often accompanies severe congenital hyperinsulinism. It is hard for parents to continue frequent feedings for many months. Increased calories and corn starch may produce excessive weight gain. Unexpected interruptions of continuous feeding regimens can result in sudden, severe hypoglycemia. Insertion and maintenance of nasogastric tubes is distasteful to parents. Gastrostomy tube insertion requires a minor surgical procedure. Prolonged glucocorticoid use incurs the many unpleasant side effects of Cushing's syndrome. Diazoxide can cause fluid retention requiring concomitant use of a diuretic, and prolonged use causes hypertrichosis. Diazoxide works by opening the KATP channels of the beta cells, and many of the Kir and SUR mutations are unresponsive. Octreotide must be given by injection several times a day or a subcutaneous pump must be inserted every few days. Octreotide can cause abdominal discomfort and responsiveness to octreotide often wanes over time. Glucagon requires continuous intravenous infusion, incurring the infection and blood clot hazards of prolonged central venous lines. Nifedipine is effective only in a minority, and dose is often limited by hypotension.
Pancreatectomy (removal of a portion or nearly all of the pancreas) is usually a treatment of last resort when the simpler medical measures fail to provide prolonged normal blood sugar levels. For many decades, the most common surgical procedure was removal of about 95% of the pancreas. This cured some infants but not all, and some needed second procedures to remove even the last remnants. Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus commonly develops, though in many cases it occurs many years after the pancreatectomy.
In the early 1990s it was discovered that a sizeable minority of cases of Kir and SUR mutations were focal, involving overproduction of insulin by only a portion of the pancreas. These cases can be cured by removing much less of the pancreas, resulting in excellent outcomes with no long-term problems. The initial pancreatectomy became a prolonged process of repeated microscopic examination of small pieces removed from various parts of the pancreas while the infant was under anesthesia in the operating room, with an experienced surgeon and pathologist attempting to identify a focal region of overactive cells which could be completely removed.
The relative rarity of this condition and the difficulty of both diagnosis and treatment has resulted in only a few centers around the world developing the expertise to achieve optimal surgical outcomes for these infants: the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, the Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children in London, as well as centers in Paris and Israel.
- GeneReviews/NIH/NCBI/UW entry on Familial Hyperinsulinism (FHI)
- Congenital Hyperinsulinism Center @ Children's Hospital of Philadelphia
- Sur1 Hyperinsulinism Website for families of children with hyperinsulinism.
- Congenital Hyperinsulinism International (CHI) A charitable organization dedicated to improving the lives of children, adults, and families living with congenital hyperinsulinism.
- The Children's Hyperinsulinism Fund The Children's Hyperinsulinism Fund helps children in the UK and around the world who suffer from Congenital Hyperinsulinism.
- Netzwerk für Eltern von Kindern mit Hyperinsulinismus
- Collaborative Alliance for Congenital Hyperinsulinism
- Homepage of the Clinic for Pediatric Surgery, Universitymedicine GreifswaldCategoryInsulin
|This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).| | <urn:uuid:7ffe5742-88dc-4aa6-b04f-0bf75342ad75> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Congenital_hyperinsulinism | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00124-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.903027 | 2,078 | 3.03125 | 3 |
Gobekli Tepe, the oldest Temple (or built structure) so far known on earth, raises important questions that lay bare the gratuitous assumptions of the patriarchal historical narrative.
Feb 2010: Newsweek magazine, writing from the standard late-patriarchal point of view, summarizes a conundrum presented to the progressist-patriarchal establishment by the Gobekli Tepe Temple in what is now Turkey:
Standing on the hill at dawn, overseeing a team of 40 Kurdish diggers, the German-born archeologist waves a hand over his discovery here, a revolution in the story of human origins. Schmidt has uncovered a vast and beautiful temple complex, a structure so ancient that it may be the very first thing human beings ever built. The site isn't just old, it redefines old: the temple was built 11,500 years ago—a staggering 7,000 years before the Great Pyramid, and more than 6,000 years before Stonehenge first took shape. The ruins are so early that they predate villages, pottery, domesticated animals, and even agriculture—the first embers of civilization.
What is most remarkable about this account is its implicit faith in the framework of the modern patriarchal narrative of history, even when one of its central pillars is shown to be an illusion.
The article continues:
The new discoveries are finally beginning to reshape the slow-moving consensus of archeology. Gobekli Tepe is "unbelievably big and amazing, at a ridiculously early date," according to Ian Hodder, director of Stanford's archeology program. Enthusing over the "huge great stones and fantastic, highly refined art" at Gobekli Tepe, Hodder—who has spent decades on rival Neolithic sites—says: "Many people think that it changes everything . . . It overturns the whole apple cart. All our theories were wrong."
And yet what astonishes a neutral observer (one who does not take the current patriarchal/ progressist narrative as read) is how many theories remain rather absurdly unquestioned.
And yet what astonishes a neutral observer (one who does not take the current patriarchal/progressist narrative as read) is how many theories remain rather absurdly unquestioned.
We are asked to believe that this temple, with its carved and polished circles of stone, with terrazzo flooring and double benches, was the first structure made by humans and was made by people devoid of any other civilization.
Why would such a complex and elaborate structure be the first ever built just because it is the earliest so far found? The faith that the current state of patriarchal Western knowledge represents the boundaries of all knowledge is almost touchingly childlike.
Before this structure was found, it would have been deemed impossible. Now that it is found, all the assumptions that made it "impossible" are faithfully retained. Somehow, out of nowhere, came this vast and complex project.
The implications of the temple, even on this hypothesis, are fascinating
Schmidt's thesis is simple and bold: it was the urge to worship that brought mankind together in the very first urban conglomerations. The need to build and maintain this temple, he says, drove the builders to seek stable food sources, like grains and animals that could be domesticated, and then to settle down to guard their new way of life. The temple begat the city.
Now while we would dispute the "up from the apes" narrative implied here, the substance is correct. Maid is a fundamentally spiritual being. Her spiritual essence comes first. Her physical manifestation is only a secondary result of that. Similarly, her civilizations are fundamentally outgrowths of her spiritual existence, not of an "animal need to survive".
Certainly, in the very profoundest sense, the Temple begat the city, just as the spirit begat the body.
A blogger summarizes the "scientific" narrative:
Gobekli Tepe is thus the oldest such site in the world, by a mind-numbing margin. It is so old that it predates settled human life. It is pre-pottery, pre-writing, pre-everything. Gobekli Tepe hails from a part of human history that is unimaginably distant, right back in our hunter-gatherer past.
The trouble with this is – if "we" were unaware of a structure of this age and complexity a short time ago, how can "we" be so sure there was no pottery or writing this long ago or longer? And how can "we" be sure "our" assumptions about "hunter-gatherers" have any real validity?
The traditional view of history would place this Temple in the later Dvpara Yuga or Age of Bronze. According to traditional history, maid, originally a purely spiritual being, and later one who manipulated material things by the power of the spirit was finally reduced to a creature who (mostly) had to interact with matter by purely physical means.
While this view of maid is dismissed by the modern "scientific outlook", what is actually more consistent with the facts of Gobekli Tepe? That maid, on her way "down" from a higher state created this huge and complex series of structures? Or that somehow, with no preceding civilization at all, and with no previous attempt to build so much as a hut or to make a pot, a savage group of hunter-gatherers, who had not even the wheel or any pack or draft-animals for transporting huge stones, suddenly organized and constructed a vast series of enormous and intricately carved edifices?
As far as we can tell from reports – and as is usual at ancient sites – the only identifiable human figure at Gobekli Tepe is female. Some of the pillars have stylized hands and archaeologists have not been slow to speculate – and all reports to repeat – that they may represent "priests". Why, when practically every identifiable figure in sites of great antiquity is female, should it be assumed that any indeterminate human figure must be male?
Once again the patriarchal narrative trumps the rules of evidence, past experience and probability.
The female figure has been likened to the Venus acceuillante figures found in neolithic north Africa. Sadly, since the one unambiguous human figure found at the site is so unimportant in the eyes of patriarchal "scholarship", we have been unable to find a photograph of it among many pictures of Gobekli Tepe online.
Many mysteries still surround Gobekli Tepe including the fact that 10,000 years ago, after at least a millennium and a half in use, the entire complex was buried, deliberately and all at once.
What ritual or other reasons lay behind that act, we cannot now know. In the course of her manifestation, maid reaches periodic watershed periods in which radical changes are made in her ways of going about things. This may have been one of those.
Whatever may be the truth, the patriarchal narrative of progressive/evolutionary masculine history fits Gobekli Tepe like a left shoe on a right flipper.
The Gospel of Our Mother God is a collection of inspirational texts, prayers and daily inspiration for the Mother-Faith devotee or household.
The Other Philosophy
Everything you have ever heard comes out of the patriarchal world-view. Its materialism, its religion, even its feminism. Here is the other way of seeing the world; the natural way: the way that everyone saw things before patriarchy and will again when patriarchy is long forgotten. | <urn:uuid:d996a805-29d1-491f-b6f3-fa4a7dbfaef9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mother-god.com/gobekli-tepe.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393146.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00053-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959178 | 1,552 | 3.03125 | 3 |
JEFFREY BROWN: Next: how one public school in New England is taking a different approach to teaching, immersing students in an unusually comprehensive science curriculum that emphasizes problem-solving.
Special correspondent John Tulenko of Learning Matters, which produces education stories for the NewsHour, has our story.
JOHN TULENKO: On a crisp fall morning last October, King Middle School in Portland, Maine, invited eighth graders to what it calls a kickoff, the unveiling of an in-depth project that would be at the center of nearly all the students’ courses for the next four months.
PETER HILL, King Middle School: So, I want to direct your attention to this slide. This is called earth at night.
JOHN TULENKO: Science teacher Peter Hill set the stage.
PETER HILL: There are certain parts of the world that use a ton of energy. Along with that, 25 percent of the world’s population doesn’t have electricity in their home. But enough solar energy hits the Earth every hour to supply the entire world’s energy needs for a year.
So we need to design tools that can capture all that sunlight that’s hitting our Earth or capture all that wind power that’s sitting out in the Gulf of Maine. We need to — wait for it — revolt.
JOHN TULENKO: Hill handed the students an ambitious assignment to fulfill by the end of the project.
PETER HILL: You’re going to create a device that captures natural energy and transforms it into something that’s useful for people in some part of the world.
LIVA PIERCE, King Middle School: I was like, I can’t do that.
JOHN TULENKO: Taking all this in was Liva Pierce.
LIVA PIERCE: That’s — that’s way too much. I don’t know the first thing about electricity. I don’t know the first thing about windmills. I am totally going to fail. I was like, there’s no way that’s going to happen.
JOHN TULENKO: Emma Schwartz:
EMMA SCHWARTZ, King Middle School: First of all, I can’t build anything, and I have never handled a screwdriver in my entire life or an electric drill. Like, this isn’t going to work.
MAN: So I want you to think about the big picture here.
JOHN TULENKO: Projects that take students into uncharted territory are at the heart of teaching and learning at King. Though it’s a regular public school, this approach, called expeditionary learning, is unusual, but could be just the kind of education students need in a rapidly changing world.
This expedition began with a design challenge.
NAT YOUNGRIN, King Middle School: We’re building robots that are made to collect resources, which are Ping-Pong balls.
JOHN TULENKO: Nat Youngrin and his classmates were building their robots from kits that allow for an almost infinite number of possibilities.
NAT YOUNGRIN: You can do whatever you want to make them do this, but they have to be able to go out, get Ping-Pong balls, and bring them back. I made mine completely sound-controlled. And you can control it to turn and move back to your base.
STUDENT: This one has to be much longer.
JOHN TULENKO: Working in teams, students spent four weeks perfecting their robots in a class called tech-ed.
Gus Goodwin is the teacher.
GUS GOODWIN, King Middle School: This kind of really hones in on engineering. What is the design process? They have to program a robot, build it, tinker with it, and get it to work.
JOHN TULENKO: Liva Pierce, who at the kickoff had feared failing, seemed to embrace robotics.
LIVA PIERCE: We made this wide thing that, when it goes forward, will catch the balls. It’s pretty hard.
STUDENTS: Let’s go, chipmunks! Let’s go! Let’s go, chipmunks! Let’s go!
JOHN TULENKO: Just before Thanksgiving, students put their creations to the test at a school competition dubbed Robo-Wars.
Nat Youngrin’s robot started well enough and stalled. The room was too noisy for its sound controls.
NAT YOUNGRIN: Oh, my God.
JOHN TULENKO: As for Liva Pierce, her team finished second.
The objective for all the students was that this activity would somehow bring them closer to designing an energy-generating device of their own.
MAN: The robot competition was really successful.
PETER HILL: Kids are really — I think they have internalized the design process. They know it’s an ongoing process. They know they need to engineer their designs and constantly revise and get feedback. And so we’re on our way.
JOHN TULENKO: By early December, students were on to the second leg of their journey: learning the science and social issues that would be at the heart of their invention.
And the path teachers choose to take students there? An eight-week-long interdisciplinary study of wind power.
Science teacher Peter Hill:
PETER HILL: We started with the wind turbine. How do these things create electricity? And we took apart a motor and we said, well, there’s magnets and wires in here. How do magnets and wires interact to generate electricity?
JOHN TULENKO: To make the learning go deeper, in tech-ed class, students built working model wind turbines.
GUS GOODWIN: The criteria for this project is a wind turbine that is stable and sturdy. It has to generate at least one volt of electricity, and the other piece is we want it to be creative, outrageous, ingenious, and inspirational.
JOHN TULENKO: The politics of wind power was the subject in social studies.
EMMA SCHWARTZ: The point is to find a place where it would be good or possible to have a wind turbine, to see what the environmental impacts might be if there’s a bunch of huge like turbines in the area.
MAN: You get those discussions around, what is a sense of place, and what is scenic beauty, and how do you alleviate that issue?
JOHN TULENKO: Next, Mark Gervais’ students will argue for their turbine in a persuasive essay addressed to local officials. But for their life-improving invention, students would need to know about faraway places. In English class, they read “The Boy Who Harnessed the Wind,” the autobiography of William Kamkwamba of Malawi, Africa.
STUDENT: He managed to build a wind turbine, power his house, and he did it with, like, a book and some trash.
EMMA SCHWARTZ: They went through this awful famine, and that was really shocking to me that he can go through all that and still have hope.
STUDENT: That was — that was a really big theme in the book, like, if you really just try and you don’t really stop, no matter kind of what’s in your way, you will just — you will eventually get there.
JOHN TULENKO: Inspired by the book, students like Liva Pierce pushed ahead with their own model wind turbines.
LIVA PIERCE: I had a lot of struggles with my turbine. And I said, you know what? I’m going to make this generate more than a volt. So I made a whole new set of blades. That worked a lot better. But then I heard about other people that were getting — like, I hear you got six volts. And I was like, oh, I have got to get more than that.
JOHN TULENKO: After eight weeks and three new sets of blades, Liva and her classmates’ wind turbines were finally ready. And King Middle School staged another competition.
LIVA PIERCE: The more I got into it, the more I just couldn’t stop. I was steadily increasing, which is really, really good.
JOHN TULENKO: Each turbine’s electrical output was captured by a computer. Liva’s topped out at 5.9 volts.
PETER HILL: In the team competition …
JOHN TULENKO: And when the final tallies were announced?
PETER HILL: Give it up for the winners: Lobsters.
JOHN TULENKO: Her team finished first.
By February, students had reached the final stage of the project: creating an energy-generating device that improves people’s lives.
PETER HILL: As a team of teachers, we brainstormed, what are 10 things that really need to get solved in the world? We came up with purify water, light a room at night, charge a cell phone, stuff like that, just to kind of get kids rolling, just give them a little push to get the creative juices flowing.
JOHN TULENKO: The assignment was to create a technical drawing. Emma Schwartz designed a light.
EMMA SCHWARTZ: I call it the Rub-a-Dub Scrub. It’s a sponge that generates light, which you might think, oh, my God, everyone is going to get electrocuted. But, no, I’m going to make sure no one gets electrocuted. As you can see, there’s like a little dome with lights at the top. There’s scrubbers on the bottom.
The scrubbers are attached to magnets, which spin around wires. When you rotate it on dishes, the scrubbers rotate. That creates the electrons to flow. And that generates electricity.
JOHN TULENKO: Liva Pierce created a crank flashlight.
LIVA PIERCE: It will have UVB, UVC, and a regular light. UVC kills bacteria in water.
JOHN TULENKO: Her UVB light in supposed to draw insects away from people.
LIVA PIERCE: And it will have off, regular, water, bugs. And I’m calling it the EcoBright.
JOHN TULENKO: For the final event of the project, parents were invited in to hear all about the students’ inventions.
EMMA SCHWARTZ: The Rub-A-Dub Scrub takes the usually wasted rotational kinetic energy of washing dishes.
This is, like, live showing what you’re learning to other people, which kind of gives you something more back, I think.
LIVA PIERCE: And you have to be clear and concise. Giving presentations is so important, because it really arms you with skills that you will need later in life.
EMMA SCHWARTZ: Just think if washing dishes could be fun.
JOHN TULENKO: Like Emma’s invention, the students’ creations will go no farther than the drawing board. What’s more, as they move on to new subjects and new grades, they may forget the particulars of amps and electrons. But some things, they will remember.
EMMA SCHWARTZ: Through this expedition, I have learned how to communicate with other people to make something happen. And I think that’s what changed me most.
LIVA PIERCE: Before this expedition, I kind of always thought of myself as, I’m good at writing and I’m good at reading, and that’s what I’m good at.
This expedition has completely changed my idea of science. Science is doing and science is building, and science is creating.
JOHN TULENKO: What makes this school a success? It’s not because of any charter status. It’s a regular public school. It’s not because it caters to some students over others. It’s diverse with open admission. The secret, as we saw it, was relevance.
LIVA PIERCE: Usually, in school, you learn about things that are happening in the world that are bad. In social studies, you might learn about an earthquake. But I feel that schools shouldn’t just be about learning about problems. I think they should be about solving them, because if you aren’t learning about how to solve problems, then what will you do when you’re out of school?
JOHN TULENKO: The expeditionary learning approach is growing and can be found in 161 schools nationwide.
JEFFREY BROWN: Well, there’s one for all of you who write in asking for positive stories in our world.
And, tomorrow, we will have another look at new ways to engage students in science and promote problem solving, when Spencer Michels reports on the opening of the Exploratorium in San Francisco. | <urn:uuid:d47bfe0d-ad05-489c-9277-76aa8a8c1828> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/education-jan-june13-learning_05-06/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00017-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953607 | 2,798 | 2.71875 | 3 |
A Visual Guide to 700 MHz
Here is how the 700 MHz band fits with the existing major bands in the US:
Major US Bands
The "700 MHz band" is actually two bands: Upper 700 MHz and Lower 700 MHz. Each has its own set of blocks. That means you need to be careful when talking about the 700 MHz "C Block", for example, because there are two different "C Blocks": one in Upper 700, and one in Lower 700.
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To make it even more confusing, the FCC auction that just concluded - Auction 73 - included a mix of blocks from both Upper 700 and Lower 700 MHz bands.
700 MHz Blocks
Prior to the recent Auction 73, there were Auctions 44 and 49. These saw the Lower 700 MHz blocks C and D auctioned off. Auction 44 was a first attempt, but didn't go very well, requiring Auction 49 to finish the process.
By the time Auction 49 was over, a variety of small no-name companies had grabbed various Lower C block licenses, and Qualcomm had grabbed the Lower D block nationwide.
Qualcomm currently uses the Lower D block for its MediaFLO mobile TV service for Verizon, and soon AT&T.
The Lower 700 D and E blocks are unpaired - shown above in purple. Unpaired means it is one continuous block of spectrum, ideal for one-way broadcasting (as Qualcomm does with MediaFLO.)
The alternative to unpaired is paired, meaning there are two separate bands: one for towers to transmit to phones, and one for phones to transmit back to towers. Most popular mobile phone technologies are designed to work with paired spectrum. As you can see above, the Lower 700 A, B, and C blocks are paired, as are the Upper 700 C and D blocks.
The Upper 700 MHz band also includes some very narrow paired bands, shown above in light gray. These are the Upper 700 A and B blocks. They're so small, though (1 MHz in each direction,) that they're not useful for mobile phone service. In slightly darker gray are blocks reserved for public safety radio systems.
Auction 73 included the Lower 700 blocks A, B, and E, plus Upper 700 blocks C and D.
700 MHz Blocks by Auction
Aside from the paired versus unpaired issue, the Lower 700 MHz blocks are all standard fare. The Upper 700 blocks, though, come with strings attached.
The Upper C block has "open access" rules that require the license holder to allow third-party devices and applications to use the network built using that spectrum. This was quite a controversial issue when the rules were being drafted for this band, but in late 2007 - right before Auction 73 - the whole industry magically embraced open access, and has even started to compete on just how "open" they can be. Of course this didn't happen until the FCC was about to force it on them.
The Upper D block had special rules attached that would require the spectrum to be shared with public safety. A number of things went wrong with this plan, and there are even accusations of fraud, although that's beyond the scope of this article. What's important for now is that the reserve price was not met, so the Upper D block was not sold in Auction 73. The FCC is in the process of reviewing various options and will probably re-auction that block at a later date. | <urn:uuid:bd46b8d1-12b1-47d8-9d19-7188fb5d80e9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.phonescoop.com/articles/article.php?a=187&p=232 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00157-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.971679 | 700 | 2.8125 | 3 |
Light therapy helps the baby's body process the excess bilirubin
Health workers should no longer rely on instincts alone to judge the severity of jaundice in a newborn baby, guidance from the health watchdog recommends.
NICE wants blood tests for all newborns with suspected jaundice, a common and usually harmless condition but which can in rare cases be fatal.
The risk of kernicterus, a form of brain damage, can be averted completely if serious jaundice is spotted early.
The guidelines include specific advice on when to start and stop treatment.
Jaundice is prevalent among newborns - around 80% of premature babies and 60% of full-term babies develop it within the first week of life.
The condition is caused by high levels of bilirubin - a waste product created by the breakdown of red blood cells. The baby's immature liver often struggles to remove this substance from the body, so it starts to build up.
Deposited in the skin and eyes, it causes the yellow colour from which jaundice gets its name, but in serious cases it can damage the brain.
The condition, kernicterus, can cause long-term problems such as cerebral palsy and hearing loss, and in a handful of cases can be fatal. It is rare, but thought to be on the increase, affecting up to 12 babies a year in the UK.
But because for the vast majority of babies jaundice is entirely harmless, there has been some uncertainty as to when and how to treat it.
Warning symptoms and signs
Severe jaundice - particularly in the first 24 hours of life
Abnormal muscle tone
Spasms in the head, neck and spine
Health workers tend to rely on the appearance of the baby alone to diagnose the severity of a case of jaundice, but the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) notes that this can be problematic, particularly when it comes to babies with darker skin tones.
The watchdog says all babies should be checked for jaundice regularly in the first 72 hours and, when the condition is suspected, tests to ascertain bilirubin level should be carried out every six hours.
Light therapy should then be used for babies with jaundice above a certain threshold, with treatment intensifying to include blood transfusion for the worst affected.
Dr Fergus Macbeth, director of the Centre for Clinical Practice at NICE, said: "The majority of babies will develop jaundice in their first week of life and it will be generally harmless in most cases.
"Although the condition does have the potential to become serious, it can usually be easily treated with timely and appropriate medical care. This guideline will ensure that happens."
Dr Janet Rennie, consultant neonatologist at University College Hospital London, said: "These recommendations should ensure that babies who have factors associated with an increased likelihood of developing significant jaundice are identified earlier so they receive prompt effective and appropriate treatment, directed at preventing permanent damage."
The Royal College of Midwives welcomed the new guidelines.
"Most cases of jaundice in newborns will be harmless, but a very small number could potentially be dangerous to the baby," said the RCM's education and professional development advisor Gail Johnson.
"We would advise any new parents who may be concerned about possible jaundice in their child to contact their midwife or doctor straight away." | <urn:uuid:50952903-beb8-4cd2-87a3-3a079a744cbc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/8689700.stm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00154-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.927849 | 708 | 2.53125 | 3 |
How to talk health during T-Day
If you’re looking for a conversation starter this Thanksgiving, the country’s top public health doctor has a suggestion – find out about your family’s health history.
Talking about diseases might not be your family's ideal topic for a holiday – but US Surgeon General Regina Benjamin says one approach is to start very general.
"If you start at the dinner table talking about what things run in families, you can take it from there and go deeper later on," she says. After dinner, you might sit down with a parent or uncle or grandparent, and get some details.
Dr. Benjamin spoke by phone from her hometown on Alabama’s gulf coast, where she used to run a rural clinic. She says she's been trying to collect family history for years, and she always learns something new.
"One of my grandfathers, for example, they always said he died of an enlarged heart. We didn’t know what an enlarged heart was -- nobody knew. I eventually found out it was congestive heart failure," she says.
Beyond strokes and cancers, there are eye problems or mental issues that might be passed on, or skip generations. That type of family history can help a doctor customize his or her advice.
Getting started ...
If you’re going to do this, it really helps to have a computer handy – because the Surgeon General's office teamed up with Microsoft to create a website where you can fill in the blanks and end up with a quality health-history in about 15-20 minutes.
The data gets saved to your computer, and you can always add to it later.
From the Surgeon General's office:
"An Internet-based tool, My Family Health Portrait, lets anyone create a portrait of the family's health history. It is available on the Surgeon General’s site at https://familyhistory.hhs.gov.
"How can I encourage other family members to share their health information?
"Privacy is important, and no one should be forced to share personal health information if they don't wish to. But knowledge of family health histories may be spread over different family members, so sharing can help create the best product. Maybe the best way to encourage sharing is to help make it clear how this information can help health care practitioners provide better care and make more informed decisions.
"What security precautions should I take when I share information with relatives?
"Since the information that is aggregated by the FHH tool is personal health information, you should take reasonable precautions when sending this information to relatives. You should encrypt the information before sending it via email. If you don't have access to encrypted email; it may be better to transfer the information on a CD or memory stick; either in person or by regular mail.
"What if my knowledge about my family health history is incomplete or imprecise?
"Very few people are likely to have detailed and precise information about their family members/ health histories. But any information can be helpful. Once you have completed your history, it is important to talk about it with your health care practitioner. He or she may be able to help provide perspective, or even provide more detail based on the knowledge you bring." | <urn:uuid:dbaa5aac-3e68-48ad-849b-dc9736aa8cb6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.kplu.org/post/how-talk-health-during-t-day | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00184-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954105 | 676 | 2.609375 | 3 |
UBC’s Julie Wilson is uncovering innovative approaches to stormwater management, even in your own backyard
As the realities of climate change set in, cities need to pay attention to stormwater management if they want to avoid a flooding crisis, says UBC’s Julie Wilson.
Wilson, along with a team from the Faculty of Land and Food Systems, created a series of videos that show innovative approaches to stormwater management around Vancouver.
She discusses what cities and individuals can do to limit the threat of urban flooding.
Why is stormwater management important for cities?
Urban centres are projected to grow in many parts of the world. They consume large amounts of resources and generate a lot of pollution. Stormwater management can help mitigate some of the environmental impacts. When rain falls onto the ground, especially in cities, the water can’t be absorbed back into the soil. Water that falls on impervious surfaces, like roads and parking lots, creates stormwater runoff, which is a phenomenon we don’t typically see in natural landscapes. During heavy rain events, excess stormwater can lead to flooding, which can have devastating consequences, both environmentally and financially, like in Toronto last July. Stormwater can also pick up oil and grease before going down a storm drain, where it eventually discharges into an ocean, river or lake, depending on where you are. This can have an adverse effect on habitat for fish and other organisms.
Video used in Urban Watershed Management (SOIL 516), an online course. To watch all of the videos, click here
What are some ways people can help manage stormwater at home?
The driveway and the roof are the main sources of run-off to your stormwater system in a single-family home. One way to better manage stormwater is to detach your gutter’s downspout that connects to the storm sewer and replace it with a splash block or gutter chain. This allows water to run down and infiltrate into the soil on your property. Some homeowners create rain gardens below gutter chains, turning them into a water feature. It’s both functional and decorative. Replacing a large asphalt driveway with interlocking paving stones or pervious pavement will also help retain rainwater on your property. Changes on an individual property will not significantly reduce urban flooding, but multiply these small changes across an entire urban watershed and the cumulative effects can be considerable.
Why should the average person know about stormwater management?
Innovative stormwater designs can often be overlooked as we wouldn’t necessarily take notice of them in our everyday lives. But having awareness about these technologies can empower people to think about new developments being built in and around their communities, and ask whether these techniques are being implemented or not. Being knowledgeable about stormwater management makes us think about where we live a lot differently, which hopefully spurs people’s desires to be more environmentally conscious.
Julie Wilson is the academic coordinator for the Master of Land and Water Systems program. | <urn:uuid:99765f7d-79a3-4620-8673-0fd7cb7dec99> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://news.ubc.ca/2014/05/11/shelter-from-the-storm/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00193-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93454 | 616 | 3.453125 | 3 |
residential water sources, whether municipal or on-site
wells, contain hardness (calcium and magnesium ions).
Hardness ions cause scaling in heaters, humidifiers, fixtures
and pipes leaving hard spots and deposits that can restrict
the flow and create energy losses and a lot of extra work.
Hard water also precipitates with soaps causing soap scum
that leaves rough and scratchy residues on bed linens,
towels and clothing that can lead to shorter fabric life,
not to mention, the need for higher levels of detergent.
Hardness in the water also traps alkali used in laundry
soap, creating a high pH residue that clings to the fabric
and can lead to the development of skin allergies and
conventional treatment of choice for solving these problems
is to install whole house water softeners using ion
exchange resins that use common salts such
as sodium or potassium chloride as a regenerant (to restore
capacity). With the increased pressure to minimize the
excess of salt that is discharged to the drain (or septic
system), local regulatory agencies are fighting to restrict
residential water softener usage under the misguided theory
that all of their discharge problems on TDS creep would
residential softener is a highly visible contributor to
the TDS problem but it is not the only source of salinity
in discharge water as the locals would have you believe.
A single textile dye house or a small power generation
station using 800 gpm of city water containing 20 grains
per gallon of hardness must soften their water to keep
their respective plant operating. In the course of a month,
such plants can use over 300,000 lbs of salt to regenerate
their softeners. This equates to about the same amount
of brine discharge as 6600 households using automatic
softeners. With a 20% market penetration, that is equivalent
to a community of over 30,000 homes and more than 100,000
urge you to support the Water Quality Association and
the Pacific Water Quality Association to right this unjust
finger pointing and fight for you right to protect your
home and family from the detrimental effects of hard water. | <urn:uuid:9f4e00da-7cd0-469c-8be9-157129b1894f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.systematixusa.com/products/ion_exchange/softening/residential_softening.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00049-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.901998 | 455 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Harmful algal bloom
Harmful algal blooms or HABs are algal blooms composed of phytoplankton known to naturally produce biotoxins, they can occur when certain types of microscopic algae grow quickly in water, forming visible patches that may harm the health of the environment, plants, or animals. HABs can deplete the oxygen and block the sunlight that other organisms need to live, and some HAB-causing algae release toxins that are dangerous to animals and humans. HAB can occur in marine, estuarine, and fresh waters..
The frequency and intensity of recorded harmful algal blooms has increased worldwide over the past decades. The reason for this is often assumed to be eutrophication. However, many other explanations are possible, for example increased transport of algae with ship ballast water or increased monitoring efforts. For management purposes it is important to understand which are the main factors controlling the risk of harmful algal blooms. For a long time, a link was made between high nutrient concentrations and harmful algal blooms. More recently, researchers point out the importance of interacting biological and physical processes, including effects of wind, currents and water temperature.
- Real-time algae monitoring
- Eutrophication in coastal environments
- Algal bloom
- The Ocean as an economic area - a competitive Europe
- CoPraNet glossary | <urn:uuid:2e5ee3a6-95f8-4863-968a-e032dbd7587b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.vliz.be/wiki/Harmful_algal_bloom | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00123-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.920764 | 290 | 3.765625 | 4 |
Link to this Article: http://www.llewellyn.com/encyclopedia/article/2351
What Makes Runes Powerful?
This article was written by Donald Tyson on February 03, 2004
posted under Rune
Runes are the manifest symbols through which rune magic is worked. They can be employed for all of the magical purposes that other magical systems serve, but they possess unique aspects that make them superior for certain uses.
Because they were forged over the centuries in the same creative fire that shaped the pagan gods of the Teutonic peoples, runes are indispensable in magical dealings that involve the northern hierarchy. They are a key that unlocks the powers of these gods, and they are a book that unfolds the secrets of their personalities. Before the rediscovery of runes, the Aesir, lords of Asgard - who number among their ranks Odin, Thor, Tiw, Heimdall, Baldar, Loki, Frija and Hel - were difficult to integrate into modern ceremonial magic. An elemental wildness distinguishes them from the more civilized gods of Greece and Rome and the abstract, almost technical natures of the angels and spirits of Hebrew occultism. It would be absurd to invoke the Aesir with Hebrew numerology or Greek words. Yet before the rebirth of runes, the magus had little option.
Because runes form the magical language of the northern gods and express the forces upon which those gods are framed, manipulating the runes gives direct control over the actions- not just of the deities but also of the spirits and lesser entities of Norse mythology, which all arose out of the same primeval crucible of mythic archetypes. They are more than just arbitrary symbols chosen to represent occult forces by the Germanic shamans; each rune contains in its structure the same essence that is in the god, spirit, or magical potential to which it corresponds. It is the magical name of that god or natural power.
Anyone seeking to contact and communicate with the northern hierarchy - whether for purposes of worship, divination, or active magic - must use the runes. It is possible to invoke the Aesir without runes, but this is akin to driving a nail with a rock when a hammer is sitting within easy reach. It makes no sense. More and more, those with Teutonic roots are seeking to know the gods of their ancestors. Runes are indispensable in building this bridge to the past.
Perhaps because they rested forgotten for so many centuries, the runes remain undiluted by modem skepticism and rationalization. Of all the symbolic tools of magic, they are the most powerful for causing material change in the world. Rune magic makes things happen - often violently, sometimes unpredictably. Most potent physically, rune magic is also most dangerous to the unwary. The elemental powers contained and defined by the runes are not conscious in the human sense, but they possess a type of animation and awareness not unlike the self-awareness of animals, plants, or embodied spirits - a watchful, quick, sometimes malicious awareness that might almost be called mad in its unexpectedness. But madness is a human concept, and the runes are true to themselves and terribly sane.
All types of occult work that seek material change - or transformations on the human level of emotions and urges that are linked to the body - can be fulfilled with rune magic. Rune magic also embraces the spiritual level of the human soul, and great works of the spirit are possible using the runes. The point that should be grasped here is that runes are weighted more toward the physical, tangible end of the scale than any other ancient magical system. It may be that in their beginnings all magical systems were mainly concerned with material change, but it is only the runes that have descended through time in their pristine, primitive state.
Another unique aspect of the runes has to do with their structure. Because they are simple letters that can be carried in the head and inscribed on any surface as easily as the alphabet, they are the most compact and accessible of magical systems. Bulky temple instruments are not needed in rune magic. They can be written anywhere on virtually anything in moments when an emergency arises. No one can ever take the runes away or destroy them; they live in the mind.
In their portability runes resemble the Hebrew letters, which are combined into magical names and words of power based upon the numerical values of the letters in the system of Jewish occultism known as the Kabbalah. At one time each letter of the Hebrew alphabet also had its elemental meaning, independent of its numerical value. But in modern times, the natural powers embodied in the Hebrew letters have largely been forgotten, displaced by the number values.
As is true of the Hebrew letters, the runes can be combined both occultly in numerical and symbolic groupings and phonetically to form words and sentences. The same runes can both embody a magical desire in their combination of elemental potentials and explicitly define that desire in words. These methods complement and support each other, and are frequently encountered together on rune artifacts made for magical purposes. For example, the sixth-century Lindholm amulet of Sweden bears the intelligible inscription of its magician maker: "I am an Herulian, I am called the Cunning One." But it also bears a string of runes that cannot be translated, because they convey only an occult, not a literal, meaning.
Please note that the use of Llewellyn Encyclopedia articles
is subject to certain Terms and Conditions | <urn:uuid:546181f5-f560-4875-bca8-df5b6c599292> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.llewellyn.com/encyclopedia/print.php?id=2351 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397111.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00084-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949867 | 1,107 | 2.59375 | 3 |
June 4, 2011
Moving Mirrors Make Light From Nothing
Geoff Brumfiel, Scientific American
A team of physicists is claiming to have coaxed sparks from the vacuum of empty space. If verified, the finding would be one of the most unusual experimental proofs of quantum mechanics in recent years and "a significant milestone", says John Pendry, a theoretical physicist at Imperial College London who was not involved in the study.
TAGGED: Light, Quantum Mechanics | <urn:uuid:67374b43-c0f7-49b2-9743-bd8850c4104d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.realclearscience.com/2011/06/04/moving_mirrors_make_light_from_nothing_241452.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00176-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.923423 | 96 | 2.78125 | 3 |
You exercise your body to stay physically in shape, so why shouldn't you exercise your brain to stay mentally fit? With these daily exercises you will learn how to flex your mind, improve your creativity and boost your memory. As with any exercise, repetition is necessary for you to see improvement, so pick your favorite exercises from our daily suggestions and repeat them as desired. Try to do some mentalrobics every single day!
Eidetic imagery is the ability to retain an accurate visual image of a complex scene or pattern shortly after looking at it. The scene can then be described in detail for a short time. Eidetic imagery is a trait possessed by about 5% of children. The ability to form eidetic images is very rare past adolescence.
To produce an eidetic image, a person must study a scene for some time and must actively concentrate on this scene to retain it in memory. These images fade quickly when the attention is diverted to something else. Naming or identifying parts of the scene tend to interrupt the ability to form an eidetic image. Thus it is very difficult to form an eidetic memory of text.
Sometimes eidetic imagery is called photographic memory. This term is not exactly accurate because this type of memory is not formed like a photograph; eidetic images can be fragmentary and are not necessarily more accurate than normal memories. Additionally, photographic memory is a learned skill rather than a trait you are born with. For example, some people demonstrate impressive memory abilities, with feats like memorizing the number pi out to thousands of digits. Sometimes these people are described as having photographic memories. In reality, photographic memory is simply the successful application of effective memory techniques. In that respect, photographic memory is a learned skill that you can eventually acquire.
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Chat about these articles and other mind related topics.
Sudoku Logic Puzzle
This puzzle requires logic and a good memory. | <urn:uuid:88b93dd6-95c2-463f-8882-7f15d46e1c0a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.braingle.com/mind/index.php?yes=238&id=238 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00174-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943764 | 408 | 3.421875 | 3 |
South American Archives Confirm That Thousands of Nazis Fled There after the World War II
Recently-opened archives in some South American countries have shed new light on the influx of Nazis into the Americas. These refugees were seeking to escape from the ruins of the Third Reich – ruins which they themselves had brought about. For a long time it has been known that many high-ranking members of the German Nazi party were helped to escape from Germany. Many were given refuge in the countries of South and Central America. Others were smuggled to the USA, where they found safe haven and set up new lives for themselves. In some cases, the fugitives from justice were acting on their own initiative or with the help of small bands of sympathetic helpers. But in many other cases these movements were part of formal, organised smuggling programmes, set up by countries with ulterior motives.
Conflict-Series: A highly rated strategy game series for Android
If you love classic PC war games and legendary strategy board games make sure to check out the highly rated Conflict-series for Android. Some of the WWII Campaigns include D-Day 1944, Operation Barbarossa, Invasion of Poland 1939, France 1940, Kursk 1943, Market Garden, Iwo Jima, Okinawa, Rommel's North African campaign, the Battle of Bulge, and the Battle of Berlin 1945. In addition there are American Civil War, First World War and American Revolutionary War scenarios available.
(available on Google Play & Amazon App Store)
Most Wanted: The Nine Worst Nazi War Criminals and How They Died
Following the war, the Allies established an International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg to prosecute the twenty-two major war criminals that represented the absolute worst of the Third Reich. --- SS captain Josef Mengele obtained falsified papers and in 1949, fled Germany for Argentina. He later settled in Brazil. Mossad agents spent decades tracking him without success. Mengele drowned in Brazil in 1979 at the age of 67.
German documentary reveals how `butcher of Lyon` Klaus Barbie became a fixer for drug lords when he went on the run in South America
A notorious Nazi war criminal, dubbed the `Butcher of Lyon`, worked as a druglord fixer while on the run in Latin America and helped bring a right-wing dictator into power. Klaus Barbie, one of the Gestapo`s most brutal criminals, reinvented himself with the help of western intelligence agencies after the fall of the Third Reich. Using the money generated from the cocaine trade, Barbie helped put General Luis García Meza into power in Bolivia, a new documentary has revealed. He died aged 77 in a French jail after he was finally deported from Bolivia in the 1980s.
Who let Nazi war criminals escape to South America after WW2?
Many top Nazis fled to South America as Soviet tanks rolled into Berlin, never to pay for the atrocities they wrought across Europe. So why did so many war criminals escape to the continent? Historians have claimed that in both Europe and South America, government officials, police and the courts were reluctant to search for Nazi war criminals. Some, including German historian Daniel Stahl, have said Josef Mengele was never caught because French police officers employed by Interpol had refused to carry out searches for war criminals because they were themselves Nazi collaborators.
Hidden in the depths of the Argentine jungle, secret Nazi bolthole for fleeing war criminals
A secret Nazi bolthole for fleeing war criminals has been found in a jungle area of Argentina. The group of stone structures still hold piles of German coins from the late 1930s, porcelain bearing the `Made in Germany` stamp, and Nazi insignia is scrawled across the walls. Daniel Schavelzon, from the University of Buenos Aires, led a team which spent months exploring the site in the Teyu Cuare provincial park, in the Misiones region of northern Argentina. South America has had an unusual relationship with the Nazis who escaped there in droves after the War. Nazis fled to Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, Chile and Bolivia. Archaeologists suspect that the ruins in the Teyu Cuare park in the north of the country were part of a Nazi hideout built by supporters while the war still raged
Video: 10 Evil Nazis That Escaped Justice
Video: 10 Evil Nazis That Escaped Justice
How did favourite Nazi commando Otto Skorzeny become an Irish farmer?
He was Hitler`s favourite Nazi commando, famously rescuing Mussolini from an Italian hilltop fortress, and was known as "the most dangerous man in Europe". After World War Two, he landed in Argentina and became a bodyguard for Eva Perón, with whom he was rumoured to have had an affair. So when Otto Skorzeny arrived in Ireland in 1959, having bought a rural farmhouse in County Kildare, it caused much intrigue. At 6ft 4in and 18 stone, known as `scarface` due to a distinctive scar on his left cheek, Skorzeny was an easily recognisable figure as he popped into the local post office.
How U.S. intelligence agencies used 1,000 Nazis as Cold War spies - then covered it up
Historians have revealed that J. Edgar Hoover`s FBI and Allen Dulles`s CIA hired at least 1,000 Nazis - if not more. Bits of the story have been reported in the past, but the full scope of the operation has now been reported in Eric Lichtblau`s new book, The Nazis Next Door. "U.S. agencies directly or indirectly hired numerous ex-Nazi police officials and East European collaborators who were manifestly guilty of war crimes. Information was readily available that these were compromised men," University of Florida professor Norman Goda explained.
High-level Nazi scientists helped U.S. test LSD on Soviet spies, new book shows
Nazi scientists who produced chemical weapons for Hitler were hired by the United States to fight the Cold War, and helped U.S. intelligence test LSD and other interrogation techniques on captured Soviet spies, according to a book by U.S. journalist Annie Jacobsen. "Under Operation Paperclip, which began in May of 1945, the scientists who helped the Third Reich wage war continued their weapons-related work for the U.S. government, developing rockets, chemical and biological weapons, aviation and space medicine (for enhancing military pilot and astronaut performance), and many other armaments at a feverish and paranoid pace that came to define the Cold War," writes Jacobsen in "Operation Paperclip: The Secret Intelligence Program that Brought Nazi Scientists to America."
Nazi commander Michael Karkoc, who burnt villages filled with women and children, lives in quiet Minnesota town
A top commander of a Nazi SS-led unit who lied to American immigration officials to get into the US more than 60 years ago said that he `can`t explain` his wartime service. Michael Karkoc, 94, made the remarks to a reporter who knocked on the door of his Minnesota home to ask him about accusations that he burned villages filled with women and children. After the war he concealed his work as an officer and founding member of the SS-led Ukrainian Self Defense Legion and later as an officer in the SS Galician Division. In a Ukrainian-language memoir published in 1995, Karkoc states that he helped found the Ukrainian Self Defense Legion in 1943 in collaboration with the Nazis` SS intelligence agency, the SD, to fight on the side of Germany - and served as a company commander in the unit, which received orders directly from the SS, through the end of the war.
New book called "Nazi Hunt" exposes world`s indifference to Nazis after World War II
A new book claims that governments around the world were unwilling to track down Nazi criminals in the wake of the Second World War because of vested interests. "Nazi Hunt: South America`s Dictatorships and the Avenging of Nazi Crimes," by German historian Daniel Stahl, calls the half-hearted efforts of postwar governments a "coalition of the unwilling." Rhe French feared prosecutions would expose their collaboration during the war, the South Americans feared a spotlight on their own murderous regimes and the West Germans wanted to help "old comrades" get away.
Secret files reveal 9,000 Nazi war criminals fled to South America after World War II
9,000 Nazi war criminals fled to South America after WWII. After receiving tip-offs, German prosecutors were granted access to secret files in Brazil and Chile that confirmed the true number of Third Reich immigrants. According to the documents, 9,000 Nazi war criminals escaped to South America. Most, perhaps as many as 5,000, went to Argentina; up to 2,000 are thought to have made it to Brazil; up to 1,000 to Chile; and the rest to Paraguay and Uruguay. The files also showed that during the war Argentine President General Juan Peron sold 10,000 blank Argentine passports to ODESSA.
Beloved Criminal recounts how author Gisela Heidenreich mother fell in love with a Nazi criminal
The life of Horst Wagner, a man with the blood of at least 350,000 Jews on his hands, is explored in a personal way in "Beloved Criminal: A Diplomat In The Service Of The Final Solution". Wagner was the link-man between the foreign office and the SS In this role, he aided in the extermination of Jews. This first major work on him by Gisela Heidenreich is also a personal one for the author: her own mother Edith met and fell in love with him during the war. During his years in exile Wagner remained in contact with Edith by post, letters which her daughter uses in her work chronicling the escape routes and mini-Reich that the fugitives built in Argentina.
Nazis on the Run: How Hitler`s Henchmen Fled Justice by Gerald Steinacher (book review)
How did so many prominent Nazis manage to escape capture at the end of World War II? Gerald Steinacher is a Harvard Research Fellow as well as being a Lecturer on Contemporary History at the University of Innsbruck, Austria. "Nazis on the Run" traces the complex escape routes of Nazis like Adolf Eichmann through the South Tyrol, into Italy and onward to Argentina and elsewhere. The detailed research poses many awkward questions including the way in which the Vatican and the Red Cross helped the Nazi escapees. And why were so many ex-Nazis recruited by Allied Intelligence services?
Eva Peron allowed Nazis to hide out in Argentina in exchange for treasures looted from Jewish families
The former first lady of Argentina has been accused of accepting Nazi treasures stolen from Jews during the Holocaust in return for using her country as a safe haven. According to a new book, Eva Peron and her husband, president Juan Peron, kept quiet about the number of Nazis who were hiding out in Argentina after the Second World War. In "The Politically Incorrect Guide to Latin America," authors Leandro Narloch and Duda Teixeira wrote: "It is still suspected that among Eva Peron`s possessions, there were pieces of Nazi treasure that came from rich Jewish families killed in concentration camps."
ICRC archives reveal that Red Cross and Vatican helped thousands of Nazis escape
The Red Cross and the Vatican helped thousands of Nazis to escape after WWII, according to a new book that researches previously unpublished documents. The Red Cross has previously acknowledged that its efforts to help refugees were used by Nazis to escape, but the new research reveals that the numbers escaping were much higher than believed. Gerald Steinacher, author of "Nazis on the run: How Hilter`s henchmen fled justice," was given access to internal ICRC documents. They reveal how and why mass murderers such as Adolf Eichmann, Josef Mengele and Klaus Barbie were able to evade capture by the allies. Such was the chaos after the war ended, that Britain and Canada alone took in 8,000 Waffen-SS members in 1947.
America`s Nazi Secret: An Insider`s History by John Loftus (book review)
In "America`s Nazi Secret" John Loftus, a former U.S. government prosecutor and a former U.S. Army intelligence officer, reveals how a secret group in the State Department began in 1948 - unbeknownst to Congress and the public - to hire members of the Nazi-created puppet government of Byelorussia. It was all supposed to be for the Cold War cause, but Loftus raises more ominous motives: American industrialists and bankers hiding their business connections with the Third Reich.
Richard Essex arrested high-ranking SS officer Kurt Becher, only to see him escape prosecution
People tend to think the high-ranking Nazis can easily be classified as pure evil based on their actions. However, surprisingly many of them both worked for the Final Solution and, at the same time, saved Jews - at least once they realized the end of the Third Reich was nearing. How do you judge such persons?
In 1945, Richard Essex was a U.S. Army counterintelligence agent controlling the Czech border as surrendering German troops marched west. Then one day SS Colonel Kurt Becher, in a Mercedes-Benz sedan ans wearing SS uniform, arrived, in vain attempting to bribe Essex.
As the Commissar for Nazi Germany`s concentration camps, Becher worked with Final Solution architects Heinrich Himmler and Adolf Eichmann. However, Becher avoided because he allegedly helped hundreds of Jews get to Switzerland.
Guy Walters provides facts about Odessa: The mythical Nazi escape organization for SS men
After the war, there were several groups that assisted escaping Nazis - they operated like an old-boy network - and some of them had names (such as Konsul, Scharnhorst, Sechsgestirn, Leibwache, Lustige Brüder) and some did not. One of the first recorded mentions of "Odessa" is in a US Counterintelligence Corps (CIC) memo dated 3 July 1946, which reveals that "Odessa" was a codeword for getting better food.
American intelligence created a safe haven in the U.S. for the Nazis, claims 600-page Justice Department report
600-page report - which the Justice Department has kept secret for years - about the US Nazi-hunting operation looks into some of the Nazi cases: Adolf Eichmann`s associate Otto von Bolschwing worked for the CIA, Nazi scientist Arthur Rudolph (the father of the Saturn V rocket) actively exploited slave laborers, "only" up to 10,000 Nazis lived in the US.
Nazis who escaped to Argentina often ended up in San Carlos de Bariloche
San Carlos de Bariloche - the biggest town in Argentina`s Lake District - is a tourist haven. It`s also the city to which the Nazis - like Erich Priebke - fled, making it their stronghold after the collapse of the Third Reich. (Note: This article has some errors, for example Martin Bormann did not make it to Argentina).
Spain`s Costa Blanca provided a safe haven for many Nazis
Over the last year in Spain, 2 books have been published that deal with the subject of Nazis who found refuge on the Costa Blanca. The first is Clara Sánchez`s critically acclaimed bestseller and prize-winning novel, "What Your Name Hides" (Lo que esconde tu nombre). The second book, "The Footprint of the Boot" (La huella de la bota), is the work of journalist Joan Cantarero, who devotes a chapter to the Nazis who found refuge in that part of Spain. His research reveals the close ties between Spain`s legally established neo-Nazi organizations and the Nazis who escaped to Spain after the Third Reich collapsed.
Hunting Evil: The Nazi War Criminals Who Escaped and the Quest to Bring Them to Justice by Guy Walters (WW2 book review)
Over 60 years after the end of World War II, there are still Nazi mass murderers and Nazi guards among us who have escaped justice. The book reveals how Hitler`s henchman Martin Bormann was thought to be living in South America long after his actual death. Bormann was reported dead by the Hitler Youth leader Artur Axmann, who escaped with him from Hitler`s fuehrerbunker in 1945 and saw Bormann dead. Yet nobody believed it. The body of the Gestapo chief Heinrich Müller was found with his id papers near the Reich Chancellery and laid to rest in a mass grave - but many still claim his disappearance is a WW2 mystery.
Study: Up to 13.6% of top communist functionaries in East Germany were Nazis
Members of Adolf Hitler`s Nazi party climbed top positions in communist East Germany, reveals a research at the University of Jena. The study reviewed 441 top communist functionaries in the current eastern state of Thuringia 1946-1989. 36 of these joined the Nazi party. That rate (13.6%) was a higher proportion than for the overall population of the region. The study shows that the belief that West Germany tolerated former Nazis in leadership posts, while East Germany`s "anti-fascist" stance barred them, is a myth. Among the top Nazi members in the East German state was Hans Bentzien: minister for culture (1960s) and the last director of East German state TV.
How Catholic priests helped Nazi war criminals to escape Europe after the end of World War II (Article no longer available from the original source)
The Catholic priests turned more than a blind eye to the pasts of the Nazis they helped, and without the assistance of such priests, the Nazis could never have escaped Europe in such vast numbers - or with such a style: carried around in cars with Vatican diplomatic plates. The two most important priests in the system that enabled the Nazis to escape through Austria and Italy were the Croatian Mgr Krunoslav Draganovic and the Austrian Bishop Alois Hudal. When Franz Stangl, the commandant of Treblinka (who oversaw the murder of 780,000 Jews) arrived in Rome in 1948, his first call was Hudal, who arranged Stangl a safe passage to Syria.
After World War II SS lieutenant Friedrich Buchardt was hired as a spy by British MI6
Friedrich Buchardt led a death squad (Einsatzgruppen) that followed the Nazi military machine to the Soviet Union to wide out tens of thousands of Jews and communists. He should have shared the fate of SS commanders who were hanged after the war. Instead he was hired as a spy by Britain`s MI6. In a British PoW camp, he wrote document called "The Handling of the Russian Problem during the Period of the Nazi Regime in Germany" - a rundown of his espionage operations. For MI6, struggling to make the switch from Adolf Hitler`s Third Reich to Josef Stalin`s communist regimes, this was gold. MI6 made it the blueprint for its spying activities behind the Iron Curtain.
The hunt for the last Nazis - Efforts to capture the Nazis faltered as the Cold War set in
Contrary to popular belief, most former Nazis did not go into hiding after WW2. Most did not even change their name: they simply took off their Nazi/SS uniforms, went home. And for a crucial period in the 1950s, little was done to hunt them down. In 1953 the Nazi trials stopped, because of the Cold War: The West needed a strong West Germany and did not want to hunt for Nazis, many of which were part of the society and the Federal Republic government. But in the 1970s there was a shift: the second generation began to question what their parents did in the war. US files show CIA often hunted Nazi war criminals to use them, not to bring them to justice.
Journalist Gustavo Sanchez tracked Klaus Barbie, the Butcher of Lyon in 1983
After World War II many leading Nazis fled to South America. One of them was the head of the Gestapo in Lyon, a man responsible for the deportation of Jews to Auschwitz and the torture of members of the French Resistance. Hiding in Bolivia, Klaus Barbie, the Butcher of Lyon, changed his name to Klaus Altmann and made himself useful to drug lords and dictators. American intelligence officials helped Barbie, who was a kind of counter-intelligence official, to become established in Bolivia as part of their battle against communism. Bolivian journalist Gustavo Sanchez tells what happened when he tracked Barbie down in 1983.
Nazi Klaus Barbie boasted of hunting down Che Guevara for CIA
Was Che Guevara`s capture in Bolivia directed by the Nazi war criminal Klaus Barbie, as the CIA made use of his anti-guerrilla skills? Barbie was the Gestapo chief in Lyon whose crimes included the murder of 44 children and the capture of French Resistance leader Jean Moulin. Documentary My Enemy`s Enemy, by Kevin Macdonald, probes how Barbie`s record was brushed off when he was enrolled by CIA as a useful tool against communism. He avoided French justice by fleeing to Bolivia where, under the alias Klaus Altmann, he was welcomed by fascist sympathisers. Alvaro de Castro, a confidant of Barbie, told that Barbie had no respect for "pitiful adventurer" Che Guevara.
US derived no clear benefit by recruiting ex-Nazis as Cold War spies
The U.S. government derived no clear benefit by recruiting ex-Nazis as Cold War spies, but huge gaps remain in the public record of U.S. ties to World War II war criminals. The report to Congress, by an interagency group that examined the United States` use of German and Japanese war criminals, also said the CIA had no set policy for hiring former war criminals to spy on postwar foes including the Soviet Union. The group has released more than 8.5 million pages of classified documents dating back to 1933. The list includes the entire 1.2 million-page operational file of the CIA`s WWII forerunner OSS, the Office of Strategic Services.
Lawsuit charges that Nazi gold funded Vatican ratlines
"From money stolen from the gold teeth of my relatives, the Vatican enabled Nazis to escape to Argentina," claims William Dorich. Together with other survivors he has launched a suit against the Vatican Bank and the Franciscan order, claiming that they helped members of a pro-Nazi regime in Croatia hide and launder millions of dollars worth of loot. Robert Lee Wolff, professor of History at Harvard calls "a historic fact that certain members of the Croat Catholic hierarchy ... endorsed the butchery, and some members of the Franciscan order took an active part in the forced conversions of the Serbs and also in the massacres."
Dutch airline accused of helping Nazis to flee to South America
KLM, Royal Dutch Airlines, is facing calls for an inquiry into its role in helping Nazis to flee to South America. KLM has always denied that it had a policy of assisting Nazis to escape. But papers about Herr Frick: trying to help Germans to cross, without the proper papers, into Switzerland then to Buenos Aires conflict that. "The documents give the distinct impression that KLM was intensively involved," said aviation historian Marc Dierikx. After WWII Argentina provided sanctuary for many Germans, like Joseph Mengele and Adolf Eichmann. A network of Nazi sympathisers organising the escape route was depicted in Frederick Forsyth’s novel The Odessa File.
US Recruitment of Nazis and Croatian Ustasha - Klaus Barbie
After World War II, the US helped accused Nazi and Croatian Ustasha war criminals. Albanian fascists and Nazis were helped by the US to escape from Europe. Priest Krunoslav Draganovic had been a part of the NDH Ustasha regime allied to Nazi Germany. After WW2 he travelled back in the Vatican where he established escape routes for Nazis. In 1942 SS Hauptsturmfuerer Klaus Barbie became the Gestapo chief in Lyons. He was accused of killing 4,000 persons and he was responsible for the torture of French Resistance Movement leader Jean Moulin. In 1947, the US Counter Intelligence Corps (CIC), hired Klaus Barbie to be an intelligence agent for the US.
Bishop with golden Nazi Party badge helped nazis to flee (Article no longer available from the original source)
The Vatican is to release archives showing if a senior bishop helped Nazis escape justice. Monsignor Alois Hudal gained the nickname Black Bishop for his pro- Hitler views. He even had a golden Nazi Party membership badge. He has long been suspected of providing passports and other help for Nazis trying to flee as the allies tracked down nazi war criminals after the Second World War. They included Adolf Eichmann, who was found in Argentina.
Strange Allies - Bosnian Muslim division of the Waffen-SS
There have been four phases of cooperation between militant Islam and the extreme right, stretching back to Germany`s Third Reich and World War II. As WWII progressed, al-Husseini helped organize a Bosnian Muslim division of the Waffen SS. After Hitler`s defeat, as Nazi Germany crumbled, Hitler`s erstwhile officers had to flee. It was natural that many of Hitler`s men travelled to the Middle East. After Gamal Abdel Nasser became Egypt`s president, a number of Nazis were given prominent positions. Nazi commando Otto Skorzeny trained thousands of Egyptians in guerilla and desert warfare.
Which Nazis fled to South America - and why?
ODESSA (Organization of Former SS Members) choose South America because many Germans began to immigrate there since the mid-19th century and Germany had long ties with the power structures in these countries - Prussian military officers trained the Chilean army in the early 1900s. During WWII, Argentina declared its neutrality but continued to trade with the fascist regimes. Allegedly, President General Juan Peron sold 10,000 blank passports to ODESSA. Body of Joseph Mengele is said to have been identified on June 6, 1985, but some have doubted this, since posing dead was a ploy often used by fleeing Nazis, as in the case of high ranking SS officer Walter Rauff.
Why capture of Eichmann caused panic at the CIA
When Adolf Eichmann was captured, US and West Germany reacted with alarm. CIA`s nazi agents were beginning to panic. One of them, Otto Albrecht von Bolschwing - who had worked with Eichmann and Heinrich Himmler - asked his old CIA case officer for help. After the war he had been recruited by the Gehlen Organisation, the prototype German intelligence agency set up by the US under Reinhard Gehlen, who had run network on the eastern front. US also had set up "stay-behind networks" to get info from behind enemy lines - riddled with ex-Nazis. Network codenamed Kibitz-15 was run by a former German army officer Walter Kopp, described by US as an "unreconstructed Nazi".
CIA knew where Eichmann was: US releases documents
The CIA knew the whereabouts of the Nazi war criminal Adolf Eichmann in Argentina more than two years before his capture by Mossad agents, but kept the fact secret to protect its anti-Communist efforts. The documents, among 27,000 pages of CIA records released, indicate that the agency was told in 1958 by then West German intelligence that Eichmann was living under an alias in the Buenos Aires. But the CIA did nothing. In the case of Eichmann, the documents show the CIA was desperate not to compromise Hans Globke, a former Nazi who stayed on in West Germany and helped organise anti-Communist initiatives.
Ex corporal and medic in Nazi SS jailed in Chilean colony
Paul Schaefer, an unrepentant Nazi who presided over a secretive German enclave behind barbed wire in Chile, has been jailed for 20 years for the abuse of 25 persons. He fled similar charges in Germany in 1961, and with financial support from the underground network of escaped Nazis in South America, he purchased 70 square miles of farmland which reminded him of Bavaria. Schaefer, a former corporal and medic in the Nazi SS and later a Lutheran pastor, faces further charges by using his Colonia Dignidad, or Dignity Colony to help his Nazi-sympathiser friend, General Augusto Pinochet, get rid of opponents.
DNA tests to solve if a man is a descendent of both Hitler and Himmler
A Spanish university is making DNA tests on a man who is trying to prove he is a descendent of both Adolf Hitler and the Gestapo chief Heinrich Himmler. The man`s claim is based on physical similarities and childhood memories. A photograph shows a resemblance to a image of Himmler, whom he believes is his maternal grandfather. Guillermo also claims his father is the son of Hitler, born in 1931 of a affair between the Führer and Geli Raubal. Should DNA tests validate his claims, he hopes to show that high-ranking Nazis did more than pass through Spain on route to South America. Spain gave more than 100 Nazis asylum and new identities, according to unclassified documents.
Nazi hunter brands Austria a "paradise" for Nazis (Article no longer available from the original source)
Austria`s legal system and its insufficient zeal in investigating alleged crimes committed under Hitler`s Third Reich make it a "paradise for Nazi war criminals," a top Nazi hunter said. Frustrated at slow progress in finding suspected war criminals in Austria and bringing them to court, Simon Wiesenthal Center director Efraim Zuroff came to Vienna for talks with ministers aimed at accelerating the process. "The law in this country does more to protect Nazis than to bring them to justice," Zuroff told. "There is a system here that makes Austria a paradise for Nazi war criminals, plain and simple."
Lawsuit: The Vatican Bank profited from looting, funded Nazi escape to South America
The US Supreme Court allowed Holocaust survivors to proceed with a lawsuit claiming that the Vatican Bank and a Franciscan religious order profited from property stolen by Croatia`s pro-Nazi WWII government. The suit claimed the Order of Friars Minor conspired with the Vatican Bank to facilitate the transfer of gold and other looted valuable assets - property stolen from victims of Croatia`s brutal Ustasha regime from 1941 to 1945. The lawsuit claimed that the stolen property was used after the war to help Nazi war criminals escape from Europe to South America.
CIA to Release More Papers About Nazi War Criminals it hired
The CIA has agreed to release more information about Nazi war criminals it hired during the Cold War. The law has led to the release of more than 8 million pages of documents, including 1.25 million from the CIA, which showed that the agency or its predecessor, the Office of Strategic Services, had a relationship with some individuals later found to be war criminals.
East German Stasi offered Nazis a second career
The former East Germany`s feared Stasi secret police set Nazi officers to work as spies and shielded them from prosecution for war crimes, according to a book that belies the official anti-fascist stance of the communist regime. Historian Henry Leide drew on Stasi files that have not been opened to the general public since the fall of the communist regime in 1989 to trace the often well-paid careers of 35 of Hitler`s men who found a reprieve in the secret police.
Did Hitler`s SS General Heinrich Müller chief of Gestapo escape?
Sixty years ago in the burning ruins of Berlin, SS General Heinrich Müller, chief of Hitler’s secret police and one of the most wanted Nazi war criminals, took refuge in his bunker from the advancing tanks of the Red Army. By the time the smoke cleared and peace was declared — on May 8, 1945 — he had vanished. As far as public records are concerned, he was never seen again. Now, six decades on, the truth seems to be coming to light. Two former senior intelligence officers, a Frenchman and an American, have unveiled a secret that they have been keeping to themselves for many years.
Hitler of the Andes - Studying rumors that Hitler survived and escaped
When Russian troops entered Berlin in 1945 confusion surrounded the fate of Adolf Hitler. Witnesses were questioned and 2 charred bodies, said to be those of Hitler and Eva Braun, were discovered. But the Russians kept quiet about their findings, causing rumours that the Fuhrer had escaped. The hunt for Hitler continued after 1945. Reports reached J. Edgar Hoover, who send agents to South America. For 11 years FBI followed up sightings of Hitler in the Andes, where many high-ranking Nazis had found shelter under the Peron regime. Documentary explores the psychological reaction of the public that occurs when a dictator who has obsessed the imagination melts away.
Captain Ernst Koenig reveals Nazi escape plan to fly Nazi leaders to Greenland
A german navigator has described for the first time a daring plan by the Nazis to evacuate their surviving leaders by flying boat to Greenland at the end of the Second World War. The plan, which was scuppered by the German surrender, would have involved Hermann Goering, Heinrich Himmler and other senior figures taking off from north Germany to continue their struggles from abroad. The Greenland operation has been revealed by Captain Ernst Koenig, who had previously been determined to keep the story secret until after his death. He was persuaded to speak by friends in Britain.
Austria`s pro-Nazi priests, who helped Hitler`s henchmen escape
Stefan Moritz`s book about Austria`s pro-Nazi priests, who helped thousands of Hitler`s henchmen escape, is raising enormous controversy in the 80% catholic Austria. A listing of pro-Hitler Austrian clergy staying in or promoted to leading positions after the war. It included Bishop Alois Hudal, who boasted of helping about 50,000 war crimes suspects to hide or escape. Among them was Franz Stangl, commander of Treblinka concentration camp in Poland where 800,000 Jews were killed. He was arrested in Brazil after two decades on the run with a false passport procured through Bishop Hudal.
From Berlin to Buenos Aires (Article no longer available from the original source)
At the end of World War II hundreds of wanted war criminals succeeded in fleeing to Latin America to escape justice. This much is well known. Yet how was it done? Peron wanted Adolf Hitler to win the war. When defeat seemed inescapable he sent emissaries to Spain to provide material aid - false papers, immigration certificates, boat tickets - to war criminals who had fled there. In 1946 new escape routes were forged from Denmark and Italy, where many Nazis had fled and where governments wished to get rid of them. Quite the most shocking is the role played by the Catholic hierarchy in offering succour to fascists from Catholic Europe trying to evade the law. | <urn:uuid:37464a12-5372-48fd-9696-955482dd0128> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://hitlernews.cloudworth.com/how-and-where-nazis-escaped-after-the-war.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00093-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.96059 | 7,251 | 2.53125 | 3 |
The Sept. 11, 2001, tragedies have left an indelible scar on America. It's still difficult to fully comprehend that thousands of innocent people can wake up one morning, leave for work and not return home because of a premeditated act of hatred perpetrated by an unseen enemy. As terrible as the events of that day were, they have left most Americans worried of other potential episodes of terrorism.
As part of the effort to prevent future attacks on our homeland, Americans must assess the threat of terrorism against every sector of society.
Production agriculture is only now beginning to understand the possibility of such threats. There's a significant lack of awareness and concern at the producer level of the philosophies and mechanics of agroterrorism.
Intentionally introducing a foreign animal or plant disease into the U.S. would not be terribly difficult, according to most agronomic and veterinary terrorism experts. Generally, such acts of agroterrorism are regarded as more benign and less offensive than if humans were the direct targets of an assault.
Biological weapons are attractive because they don't necessarily need to be “weaponized” and generally pose little risk of harm to the terrorists. If the medium is a non-zoonotic organism, perpetrators needn't worry about becoming their own victim.
Contributing to the vulnerability of U.S. agriculture are the trends of intensive production methods, vertical integration of food production, and an increasing industrial dependence on import and export markets.
Agricultural terrorism is not about killing animals or destroying crops, it's about crippling an economy. Unlike most weapons directed toward killing people, some diseases of livestock and crops are relatively easy to produce and stockpile. In fact, fewer controls exist for monitoring the possession of microorganisms that infect only plants or livestock than those that can harm or kill humans.
Specific agroterror attack strategies range from simply making false statements to incite fear, to performing acts designed to destroy property, crops, animals or people. In bioterrorism, threats can be as effective as actually doing something. Both can cause consumers to lose confidence in the safety of the food supply.
While foreign-based terrorism garners most of the public attention, there are homegrown elements within the U.S. opposed to the use and development of our natural resources.
Opposition to “factory farming,” the development and use of genetically modified organisms, and large-scale “imprisonment and exploitation” of animals is escalating. From the perspective of environmentalism and animal rights, Marxists and other social radicals have been extremely reactionary in combating industrialized agriculture, liberalized international trade and meat consumption.
Law enforcement officials warn foreign terrorists may seek collaboration with these radical, domestic elements. It's critical to note that extremist and criminal organizations opposed to the industrialization of U.S. agriculture are increasingly seeking to ally with the “grass roots” agricultural community.
Potential targets of both foreign and domestic agroterrorism include primary and secondary producers, processors, and warehousing and distribution systems. Potential targets also include agricultural research programs supported by multi-national corporations held in contempt by anti-industrial groups that believe scientific advances in agro-sciences are creating a perversion of the natural order.
Whether an act of terrorism is probable against agriculture is an issue for anti-terrorism specialists and law-enforcement agencies. But, awareness is the first step toward preparedness in keeping U.S. agriculture from becoming a victim. We must all assess our roles in keeping this industry from being a target in a larger effort to bring America to its knees. | <urn:uuid:8c1006fb-58de-46a6-b9d2-d920de8d3db4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://beefmagazine.com/print/mag/beef_part | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00103-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946187 | 731 | 2.703125 | 3 |
While drivers are accustomed to using traffic reports to assess road conditions, pedestrians who navigate cities are typically left without aid to determine the best route. But researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology using wikis and the Semantic Web look to change the way people map and navigate their cities.
The Wiki City project, run by MIT's SENSEable City Laboratory, aims to apply wiki technology to the map-making process. The project's ultimate product will permit anyone to upload content to a map and utilize Semantic Web principles to cross search multiple layers of information.
Wiki City Rome, an early incarnation of the project's user-generated maps, used GPS (Global Positioning System) and cell-phone data to produce a real-time map during an all-night festival held in the city on Sept. 8. A Web site featuring a satellite image of Rome displayed event locations and the position of buses and pedestrian traffic in real time. Buses equipped with GPS devices fed their locations to the project every minute while cell-phone data was constantly received to show how crowds were moving around the city. An image of the map was also projected in one of Rome's main squares.
"If people know about the state of their environment in real time (as opposed to a static map), they can make better informed decisions about how to move about in the city which in term increases efficiency," Kristian Kloeckl, one of Wiki City Rome's team leaders, wrote in an e-mail interview.
Wiki City Rome served as an initial step in the Wiki City project. Future projects involve introducing the wiki city concept to other cities that have partnered with the SENSEable City Laboratory. The list currently includes only European cities because their public transportation networks and outdoor spaces correspond with the project's aim of studying how people react and move about in public spaces, Kloeckl said. But the project is applicable to non-European cities, he said. He mentioned that a Boston area furniture company is interested in placing displays in their products that would show a wiki city map.
Wiki City reseachers ultimately want to introduce full wiki concepts to the project and allow any person or business to upload information to a map, Kloeckl said. The wiki method of permitting anyone to add any information lends itself to fraudsters. One possible resolution involves introducing a ranking system similar to the one eBay Inc. uses with sellers.
"Users supply the rankings. The system is completely independent. People gradually acquire reliability. This approach would be the most coherent for this type of structure," Kloeckl said in a telephone interview. | <urn:uuid:a61cdc70-d874-4390-9c7d-81b5f7cd07d9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pcworld.idg.com.au/article/195381/wikis_semantic_web_head_streets/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398209.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00094-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946107 | 526 | 2.75 | 3 |
When someone says “computer networks,” the first thing you think about is fruit flies, right? Well, maybe it should be. According to Dr. Ziv Bar-Joseph, associate professor at Carnegie Mellon and one of the authors of a paper called “A Biological Solution to a Fundamental Distributed Computing Problem,” fruit flies and parallel processing share a similar problem.
I’ll let him explain:
Network applications rely on organizing nodes to determine routing and how to control processors. One method uses a Maximal Independent Set, a technique that identifies a subset of computers that together connect to every other node in the network and provide structure. Determining how to select a MIS is difficult and has been under scrutiny for many years. It turns out that fruit flies solve a similar problem. During brain development, a process called Sensory Organ Precursor selection occurs.
As in computer networks, some cells (SOP) in the brain will become local leaders (MIS) and convey information from the environment to neighboring cells. It’s true, methods for selecting an MIS in computer networks exist. But, until our work with flies, selecting the MIS could not be solved without knowing how many neighbors each network node has. Since flies solve the problem without relying on such knowledge, determining how they do it becomes an important question. The answer could lead to robust and efficient computational methods.
It’s a solution that came around by accident–one of Bar-Joseph’s co-authors on the paper had a student studying fruit flies–but not necessarily a surprising one. According to Dr. Bar-Joseph:
Biological systems address many challenges presented by computer networking. For instance, biological processes are often distributed, as are communication systems used by computers. Thus, I believe, solutions for many computer-network problems can be based on what we learn from biological systems… While biology doesn’t necessarily try to find the optimal solution every time, solutions it does come up with (at least the ones that survive) are often robust and adaptable.
As long as this doesn’t mean that we’ll have to feed the internet olives in order to work in the future, I’m all in favor of this bio/tech crossover. Just don’t worry if your computers start to make a buzzing sound anytime soon.
More on TIME.com: | <urn:uuid:aa56bca2-a30c-4620-8329-8ba6541af78b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://techland.time.com/2011/03/25/could-fruit-flies-brains-make-computers-faster/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397864.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00077-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953354 | 492 | 3.078125 | 3 |
Screening the Sun
The first prototype of a new UV-protection suit to help people suffering from the genetic disorder xeroderma pigmentosum (XP) - causing extreme sensitivity to the Sun’s ultraviolet (UV) rays - was presented at this years Le Bourget air show. It has been developed taking advantage of innovative ESA space technologies, and consists of two items; a headgear protecting the head and face, and a suit covering the rest of the body, both filtering out 100% UV-light from the Sun. Eight-year-old Alex Webb, diagnosed with XP, is here trying the new suit.
Along with another child in France, eight-year-old Alex Webb in the UK will try out the first prototype of a new UV-protection suit to help people suffering from the generic disorder xeroderma pigmentosum (XP). It has been produced based upon ESA technologies developed for Europe’s space programmes. Maybe this new “friend from space” may improve his quality of life – so he can more easily get together with his friends on Earth during the daytime. | <urn:uuid:28ad7f4d-c3c2-42f6-a75d-c511cb4afa92> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.esa.int/esaKIDSen/SEMP6LXJD1E_Technology_1.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397744.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00058-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94243 | 227 | 2.671875 | 3 |
BRKSection: Linux Programmer's Manual (2)
Index Return to Main Contents
NAMEbrk, sbrk - change data segment size
int brk(void *end_data_segment);
DESCRIPTIONbrk() sets the end of the data segment to the value specified by end_data_segment, when that value is reasonable, the system does have enough memory and the process does not exceed its max data size (see setrlimit(2)).
sbrk() increments the program's data space by increment bytes. sbrk() isn't a system call, it is just a C library wrapper. Calling sbrk() with an increment of 0 can be used to find the current location of the program break.
RETURN VALUEOn success, brk() returns zero. On error, -1 is returned, and errno is set to ENOMEM. (But see Linux Notes below.)
CONFORMING TO4.3BSD; SUSv1, marked LEGACY in SUSv2, removed in POSIX.1-2001.
NOTESVarious systems use various types for the parameter of sbrk(). Common are int, ssize_t, ptrdiff_t, intptr_t.
Linux NotesThe return value described above for brk() is the behaviour provided by the glibc wrapper function for the Linux brk() system call. (On most other implementations, the return value from brk() is the same.) However, the actual Linux system call returns the new program break on success. On failure, the system call returns the current break (thus for example, the call brk(0) can be used to obtain the current break). The glibc wrapper function does some work to provide the 0 and -1 return values described above.
SEE ALSOexecve(2), getrlimit(2), malloc(3) | <urn:uuid:30841aec-93f7-4207-9ccf-4c4471915e8a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thelinuxblog.com/linux-man-pages/2/brk | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403825.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00006-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.744821 | 398 | 2.703125 | 3 |
From Health Facts
Optic neuritis, also known as retro-bulbar neuritis, is a leading cause of vision loss, which can occur acutely in hours to days, or chronically over the course of years. It can be caused by a variety of processes leading to inflammation and damage to the optic nerve.
|Causes||Environmental Toxins, Smoking, Infections, Trauma|
|See Also||Neurological Conditions, Diabetes, Multiple Sclerosis, Autoimmune Disease, Lupus, Stroke|
|Books||Books on Neurological Conditions|
|Articles||Articles on Neurological Conditions|
In order to stimulate the innate ability of the body to heal the causes of disease must be identified and addressed. With optic neuritis the causes are variable. A detailed assessment is required to determine which etiologic factors are contributing to optic neuropathy.
- Injury to the optic nerve caused by penetrating trauma, as well as indirect trauma from external force can cause damage and subsequent optic neuritis.
- Fungal infections, including Cryptococcosis
- Bacterial infections, including tuberculosis, syphilis, Lyme disease, and meningitis
- Viral infections, including viral encephalitis, measles, rubella, chickenpox, herpes zoster, mumps, and mononucleosis
- Respiratory infections, including Mycoplasma pneumonia and common upper respiratory tract infections.
- Several hereditary conditions are known to cause optic neuritis including: Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy, Kjer's dominant optic atrophy, and Wolfram's syndrome.
- Prescription Medications
- Use of several pharmaceuticals may cause optic neuritis, including: amiodarone, disulfiram, ethambutol, and isoniazid.
A complete health history is required to rule out underlying conditions that may be contributing. Eye tests would include color vision testing, visual acuity testing and visual field testing. A thorough nerological examination, and dilated opthalmoscopy are important in identifying the etiology of optic neuropathy.
- Blood tests indicated in cases of optic neuropathy include: CBC, ANA, ESR, HIV testing, Lyme titer, mitochondrial DNA mutation testing.
- Imaging studies indicated include: MRI of the brain and optic nerve.
Related Symptoms and Conditions
Optic neuropathy is often associated with the following conditions:
The optic nerve caries visual information from the eye to the brain. Sudden swelling or damage to this nerve can result in destruction of the myelin sheath which insulates the nerve thus causing visual loss that is often permanent. Optic neuritis can be caused by any process leading to damage to the optic nerve, including inflammation, ischemia, toxic exposure, or anatomical damage.
The following is a short summary of common optic neuropathies.
- Glaucomatous Optic Neuropathy
- Glaucomatous optic neuropathy occurs due to increased stress in neurons or glial cells in the retina and their subsequent destruction. Etiology of glaucomatous optic neuropathy is not completely known, although hypotheses indicating mechanical, vascular, inflammatory, oxidative, immune, and toxic processes are being explored.
- Ischemic Optic Neuropathy
- Posterior sschemic optic neuropathy is associated with Giant Cell Arteritis, or a combination of hypotension and anemia from blood loss.
- Anterior ischemic neuropathy is caused by vasculitis and is associated with temporal arteritis, or systemic hypotension.
- Leber's Optic Neuropathy
- Leber's optic neuropathy is a hereditary disease caused by a mutation in mitochondrial DNA. Patients suffering from Leber's have varied presentation, and may experience loss of vision with an onset of days to weeks, or over a period of many years.
The presentation of optic neuropathy is varied, and depends on underlying cause and rate of progression. Common symptoms include:
- decreased visual acuity
- blurred vision
- visual field defects
- abnormal or loss of colour vision
- progressive vision loss or dramatic vision loss in one eye over an hour or a few hours
- changes in the way the pupil reacts to bright light
- pain with movement of the eye
The goal of naturopathic treatment is to support and work in tandem with the healing power of the body and to address the causal factors of disease with individual treatment strategies. Optic neuritis can either be an acute condition where vision often returns to normal within a couple of weeks without aggressive treatment or if there is an underlying condition that is associated with the vision loss it may be a chronic disease and requires individualized, long-term treatment and monitoring.
It is always advisable to work with a naturopathic doctor before engaging in any treatment plan.
- Working with an occupational therapist or other trained professional to identify specialized furniture and appliances when visually impaired can be very useful and can decrease the stress and emotional impact associted with chronic vision loss.
Lifestyle recommendations include:
The prescribing of naturopathic therapies requires the guidance of a naturopathic doctor as it depends on a number of factors including the causal factors, a person's age, prescription medications, other conditions and symptoms and overall health. It is always advisable to work with a naturopathic doctor prior to taking any natural therapies.
Naturopathic Therapies for optic neuropathy include:
- Clinical Nutritional Supplementation includes
- Herbs such as Bilberry (Vaccinum myrtillus), Ginkgo (Gingko biloba), Coleus (Coleus forskohlii), Red Sage (Salvia miltiorrhiza).
Reviewed by Iva Lloyd, BScH, RPE, ND
- ↑ Dains JE, Baumann LC, Sceibel P (2007) Advanced Health Assessment and Clinical Diagnosis in Primary Care 3rd ed. Mosby.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 Van Stavern GP, Newman NJ (Mar 2001) Optic neuropathies: An Overview. Opthalmology Clinics of North America;14(1).
- ↑ Duong et al. (2008) Neuro-Ophthamology. Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America;Feb;26(1).
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Ferri (2012) Ferri's Clinical Advisor, 1st ed. Section O. Optic Neuritis. Mosby.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Yanoff and Duker (2008) Opthalmology 3rd ed. Mosby.
- ↑ Popivker L et al. (Dec 2010) Eyes on the prize: Life goals in the context of visual disability in midlife. Rehab;24(12):1127-35.
- ↑ Pizzorno Joseph E, Murray Michael T (2006) Textbook of Natural Medicine 3rd ed, Elsevier.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Head K (2001) Natural Therapies for Ocular Disoders Part Two: Cataracts and Glaucoma. Alt Med Rev;6(2):141-166. | <urn:uuid:129270ed-b3ea-43ac-bd38-8eda5bba1220> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ndhealthfacts.org/wiki/Optic_neuropathy | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394605.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00154-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.862824 | 1,504 | 3.21875 | 3 |
President Barack Obama restated the United States' commitment to preventing human atrocities and genocide across the globe on Monday during a speech at the national Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, where he introduced a new executive order authorizing U.S. officials to impose sanctions on countries that use technology to infringe on human rights.
Preventing genocide is an achievable goal, but it's one that doesn't start form the top, Obama said. It starts from the bottom up.
The president signed the executive order on Sunday, aimed specifically at imposing sanctions on nations that provide technology to help the Syrian and Iranian governments carry out human rights abuses. Both countries have used technology to stop citizen uprisings through moves such as cell phone tracking, blocking access to the Internet, or using the web themselves to maintain surveillance on protesters.
These technologies should be in place to empower citizens, not to oppress them, Obama said on Monday.
Mobile technologies have taken on a new significance for social change in the 21st century. Cell phones and social media websites such as Twitter and Facebook helped foster the Arab Spring, with citizens using those tools to launch protests and organize civil uprisings against oppressive regimes.
Continue Reading Below
The new executive order uses sanctions and a visa ban to target people who have sold to the Iranian and Syrian governments, or helped put in place, technology that facilitates computer or network disruption, monitoring or tracking to enable human rights abuses. The order is part of a broader strategy intended to strengthen the administration's ability to prevent atrocities, including the creation of an Atrocities Prevention Board that Obama said will meet for the first time on Monday.
This novel sanctions tool allows us to sanction not just those oppressive governments, but the companies that enable them with technology they use for oppression and the 'digital guns for hire' who create or operate systems used to monitor, track, and target citizens for killing, torture, or other grave abuses, according to a White House statement.
The new Atrociites Prevention Board will include members from several government agencies, including the departments of State, Defense, Treasury, Justice and Homeland Security.
Obama was introduced at Monday's remembrance ceremony by author Elie Wiesel, a Holocaust survivor who was imprisoned at the Auschwitz and Buchenwald concentration camps. Wiesel emphasized the need for individuals and nations to speak up and act when confronted with atrocities taking place against any human being, even those half a world away.
One thing we know is that it could have been prevented, Wiesel said, referring to the Holocaust. The great tragedy in history could have been prevented, had the civilized world spoken up and taken measures in 1939, 1940, 1941 or '42 even.
Wiesel urged Obama and world leaders to prevent atrocities such as the widespread attacks on political dissenters occurring in Syria. In particular, Wiesel said the international community needs to confront threats by Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad to use nuclear weapons against Israel.
Obama, who emphasized on Monday the nation's commitment to always be there for Israel, has been criticized by Republicans and some pro-Israel groups for not taking stronger steps to prevent Iran from developing a nuclear weapon.
While discussing the situation in Syria, Obama once again said President Bashar al-Assad must be ousted from power for using his army in violent crackdown against opposition forces. He also said the U.S. is not giving up on the Syrian people and will continue to provide humanitarian aid as it increases sanctions and documents human rights abuses.
We need to be doing everything we can to prevent and respond to these national atrocities, Obama said. Because national sovereignty is never a license to slaughter your people. | <urn:uuid:3c79bc00-cd59-41e5-91a8-e5d06c1a8097> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ibtimes.com/obama-order-targets-human-rights-abuses-iran-syria-440556 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00032-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949735 | 735 | 2.8125 | 3 |
MASYITO KARTIKA, DEWI (2008) STUDI PENGETAHUAN DAN SIKAP MASYARAKAT TERHADAP KECENDERUNGAN MEMISAH SAMPAH KERING DAN BASAH DI DESA PENDEM KECAMATAN JUNREJO KOTA BATU. Other thesis, University of Muhammadiyah Malang.
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Garbage is material which castaway or thrown from result of man activity and also nature process which still have not owned economics value. Based on its (the source, garbage can be grouped to become two types, that is domestic garbage and domestic xenon garbage. Domestic garbage gives big contribution to garbage amounts stepping into TPA. The biggest domestic garbage producer is household, what consisted of dry garbage and wet garbage. Mixing impact between dry garbages and dangerous sanngat wet. Meanwhile, DKP still implementing method Open Dumping, therefore management technique of effective garbage, environmental friendliness and health need to be dug remembers improvement of number of garbages to compare straight with improvement of number of residents. One of alternative of management of garbage which able to be done is by doing garbage sorting, but sorting of garbage is new behavior in public therefore knowledge study and position of public need to be done. Purpose of this research is image knowledge to position and of public to management of garbage, and looks for relation between knowledge and position of public to management of garbage. Research type applied is quantitative and qualitative descriptive research, its (the population is housewife living in Pendem Village District of Junrejo Batu City. Its (the sampling systems using technique random sampling ( 96 responders). This research depicts knowledge aim to position and of public Pendem Village to management of garbage, in this case sorting of dry garbage and wet. Besides also will be searched how magnitude relation between knowledge and position of public to garbage sorting. From result of research, known that in general knowledge of public most of good ( 28,13%), but position value of management of garbage most of public has position is not good ( 33,33%). Correlation between knowledges and position of public to sorting of garbage has the relation of positive linear, tetepi its (the relationship is happened less low or tightlyly but still be assumed signifikan ( r = 0,353; p<0,05). Result of this inferential research that there is relation between knowledge and position but its (the relationship not tightly, in this case applies assumption that man who is having high knowledge to sorting of garbage is not guaranted do garbage sorting, so also on the contrary.
|Item Type:||Thesis (Other)|
|Subjects:||Q Science > Q Science (General)|
|Divisions:||Faculty of Teacher Training and Education > Department of Biology Education|
|Depositing User:||Anggit Aldila|
|Date Deposited:||15 May 2012 07:08|
|Last Modified:||15 May 2012 07:08|
Actions (login required) | <urn:uuid:f2980723-5953-4cfe-8103-ceb43bd6afef> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://eprints.umm.ac.id/5351/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00182-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.888479 | 637 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Traditionally, a Marine Corps was part of a nation's Navy, based around an infantry component of special operations capable troops that specialized in conducting high-threat naval security operations, rapid-response global force projections and force-in assaults of contested zones, as well as conventional warfare. They incorporated their own armor and air support, enabling them to operate independently and without reliance on external support.
"Marine Corps" can refer to the following:
- Continental Marines - The predecessor to the USMC.
- United States Marine Corps - The Marine Corps of the United States of America.
- United Nations Marine Corps - The Marine Corps of the United Nations.
- UNSC Marine Corps - Marine Corps of the United Nations Space Command.
- UNSC Marine Corps/Gameplay - The UNSC Marines in Halo gameplay.
- This is a disambiguation page - a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. If an article link referred you here, you might want to go back and fix it to point directly to the intended page. | <urn:uuid:558bb9fe-1b35-465c-9db0-c12325e3ee9d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://halo.wikia.com/wiki/Marine_Corps_(disambiguation) | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00143-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.914265 | 219 | 2.671875 | 3 |
“I wish to put it plainly that the government has taken a firm decision to release Mr Mandela unconditionally. I am serious about bringing this matter to finality without delay.”
With those words, said on 2 February 1990, then-state president FW de Klerk set a remarkable chain of events in motion. An electorate that, to a large extent, was enjoying the right to vote for the first time in their lives, led to a democratic
De Klerk, who had assumed the presidency just four months earlier, wasted no time in bringing about long-overdue change.
He was making his inaugural State of the Nation address at the 1990 opening of Parliament in
The 2010 event will also be significant as it will be the first time the State of the Nation address is delivered in the evening. By arranging the speech for a more convenient television time, rather than the traditional morning delivery, the government is encouraging more citizens to tune in.
Understanding through dialogue
Addressing the nation in 1990, De Klerk went on to say that the agenda for negotiation was now open. He invited “sensible” leaders to come forward and begin talking, so that an understanding may be reached through dialogue.
De Klerk’s government had a number of firm goals in mind, among them a new democratic constitution; protection of minorities and the rights of the individual; an independent, unbiased judiciary; religious freedom; better housing, education, social and health services for all; and a strong economy.
This could only be achieved with the abolition of apartheid laws and restrictions, a fact of which De Klerk was very well aware.
Not only did the president decide to release Mandela, he implemented other changes on a scale that nobody had anticipated.
Several political parties were unbanned. These were the African National Congress (ANC), the Pan Africanist Congress, and the South African Communist Party. He also lifted restrictions on 33 other opposition groups. Prisoners who were in jail merely for belonging to one of the banned organisations were pardoned immediately.
De Klerk also lifted certain media, education and security restrictions, paving the way for the eventual lifting of the latest state of emergency, by then in place since 1985. The death penalty was suspended and the controversial and deplorable Land Act was repealed.
The remaining apartheid laws were dismantled over the next three years, and
Peace and reconciliation
The country had endured tension and violent conflict for decades, said De Klerk, and it was time to break out of that cycle and strive for peace and reconciliation. The silent majority yearned for it, he said, and the youth deserved it.
De Klerk was emphatic in urging South Africans to come to the negotiation table. “On the basis of numerous previous statements there is no longer any reasonable excuse for the continuation of violence. The time for talking has arrived and whoever still makes excuses does not really wish to talk.”
His decisive actions, which would eventually cut short his own political career as he made way for a new party to take over the government, earned him the praise of the nation, and the world.
Archbishop Emeritus Desmond Tutu, speaking to the press at the time, exclaimed: “What he said has certainly taken my breath away … give him credit, man."
The BBC reported then-US president George Bush as saying that he welcomed the decision to dismantle apartheid, although more had to be done before the
Others, such as current UN secretary-general Perez de Cuellar and presidents Mario Soares of Portugal, Francois Mitterand of France, and Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia, also expressed their joy and approval.
Some were more cautious. The late ANC president Oliver Tambo, speaking from Stockholm where he was receiving treatment for a stroke, described De Klerk’s steps as progressive, but pointed out that two of the ANC’s main demands were not fully realised – the release of all political prisoners, and the complete lifting of the state of emergency.
Nelson Mandela was released on 11 February 1990 from the low-security Victor Verster prison, now known as the Drakenstein Correctional Centre, in the
Mandela had been relocated from
“When he built a home in Qunu after his release,” said Mandela’s daughter Zindzi, “he insisted that it be a duplicate of his house in Victor Verster, where he felt comfortable. My father often said that he missed his time in prison because it allowed him time to reflect.”
Zindzi Mandela received news of her father’s imminent release while she was at the funeral of her partner Clayton Sithole, who died while in detention at the former John Vorster police station,
She described the day of her father’s release as emotional, painful and chaotic. “I was terrified. There were so many people, which I never expected. As much as I wanted him to come home as a father, I knew he would come back as a leader first. And I was in mourning for the father of my child.”
Straight after his release Mandela addressed thousands of supporters from the balcony of the
Mandela flew to
In 1993 De Klerk and Mandela jointly received the Nobel Peace Prize for their work in abolishing the apartheid policies that had held
The laureates also jointly received the 1991 Unesco Félix Houphouët-Boigny Peace Prize.
The announcement of the latter prize, made by former US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, read: “For their contribution to international peace, to encourage them to continue in their effort and as a tribute to what they have done to educate their people towards an understanding and towards an overcoming of prejudice that many would not have thought possible a few short years ago."
Bringing the struggle to life
In February 2009 the National Heritage Council announced the first site in the new National Liberation Heritage Route (LHR) – the house at Victor Verster prison where Mandela spent the last few years of his incarceration.
Making the announcement, CEO of the National Heritage Council Sonwabile Mancotywa said that the prison had transformed from a place of pain to one that honoured the final stretch in the struggle for freedom. “It is a place of history that has contributed to
Mandela’s former wife Winnie Madikizela, also in attendance, expressed her pleasure that the LHR was going all out to recognise the country’s struggle heroes: “We hope that it can include the history of all those who gave up their lives for freedom,” she said, “and tell the story of the Tambos and the Sisulus and others as much as the Mandela story has been told.”
The South African LHR, a network of historically valuable sites that reflects key aspects of the country’s struggle for freedom, is modelled on the Australian convict sites. In July 2007 it was submitted to Unesco for nomination as a world heritage site, and is currently on the tentative list.
The route consists of a host of stops that cover critical aspects of the liberation struggle, such as the women’s movement, youth and student movements, massacres and assassinations, and sites of historical significance.
A few examples are Constitution Hill, once a notorious prison and now seat of South Africa’s Constitutional Court; Sharpeville, site of the massacre in 1960 where 69 protesters died; the Isandlwana battlefield, where Zulus and British colonial troops faced off in 1879; and Olive Schreiner House in De Aar, Northern Cape, once the home of the renowned author of The Story of an African Farm and opponent of women’s oppression.
The Mandela section of the route includes his birthplace Mvezo in Mthatha, Eastern Cape province; Qunu in Mthatha where he grew up; the Clarkebury Institution which schooled him; the house in Alexandra, Johannesburg, where he lived for three years in the early 1940s; Fort Hare University; the site in Howick where he was captured by police in 1962; Liliesleaf Farm; Robben Island; Victor Verster prison; and the Mandela family home in Vilakazi Street, where Winnie lived with their children while he was in prison.
It is hoped that other countries in the Southern African Development Community will make similar submissions. | <urn:uuid:6a314fb1-78e9-4a02-af18-8ea491782971> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mediaclubsouthafrica.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1508:20-years-100210&catid=43:culturenews&Itemid=112 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00092-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.980253 | 1,743 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Ebola virus: busting the myths
- 22 September 2014
- From the section Health
As the Ebola virus continues to spread in Sierra Leone, Liberia and Guinea, health officials are concerned that myths and misinformation may continue to spread too.
The virus has claimed more than 2,800 lives so far, and experts say a key part of fighting the disease is to make sure people are armed with the facts.
We take a look at some of the rumours surrounding Ebola - from false claims of miracle onions to condensed milk.
MYTH: Salt water or raw onions can protect you
Salt water simply cannot stop you from catching Ebola.
In fact drinking salty water, particularly in hot conditions, can be dangerous.
The WHO says at least two people in Nigeria died from this practice, believing it could prevent them from getting the disease.
And health workers in Guinea have been asked whether eating raw onions once a day for three days or a daily drink of condensed milk can keep Ebola away.
Though having a diet of nutritious food can keep you generally healthy, raw onions and milk do not stop you getting the infection.
Ebola is spread through close contact with the bodily fluids of someone who has the disease - for example the virus is present in vomit, urine, tears or saliva.
People can help protect themselves by avoiding close contact with anyone who has signs or symptoms of the disease.
MYTH: You cannot catch Ebola from a deceased person
Even when someone has died of Ebola, the virus may still be present.
Health officials are concerned the disease might spread during traditional funeral practices that involve close contact with the deceased person.
The WHO says people who have died of Ebola must be handled using strong protective clothing and gloves, and they must be buried immediately.
Officials recommend burials should be conducted by people who have had training in how to stop the infection from spreading further.
MYTH: It cannot be caught through sexual contact
If a man has Ebola, the virus may be present in his bodily fluids - including his semen.
And the World Health Organization says Ebola can remain in semen for seven weeks after recovery. Other experts suggest it may be present for up to three months - even if doctors have confirmed there is no longer any viral particles in the blood.
Anyone who has had Ebola should avoid sexual intercourse or use condoms during this time.
MYTH: Health care workers brought the disease into affected countries
There have been recent reports that health workers in Guinea were attacked because residents believed they had brought Ebola into the country.
But this was not true.
The WHO says the initial source of the Ebola virus was likely to be human contact with wild animals through hunting, butchering and preparing meat from infected wild animals.
It is possible, for example, that close contact with infected bats, shrews or small rodents passed on the disease.
During this outbreak, experts have advised people not to hunt or eat this type of bush meat.
MYTH: Expensive hand sanitizers are needed to kill the disease
Frequent hand washing with soap and water is recommended, particularly if you are in contact with an Ebola patient or his/her surroundings.
Alcohol gel can be useful but if the hands are visibly dirty it is important to wash your hands with clean water and soap, health officials say. | <urn:uuid:6145d0a3-2476-4bcc-9ceb-c3c3c9cb7db0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bbc.com/news/health-29311659 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00060-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968134 | 679 | 2.921875 | 3 |
by guest blogger, Kezia Huseman
Many people think of Brazil when they think of Carnival, but actually it is a celebration that occurs all over the world. Carnival is traditionally a Catholic celebration that coincides with Lent. Historically, the Catholic Church required all alcohol and rich foods to be discarded during Lent prior to Easter, but instead of simply discarding the alcohol and food, townspeople would gather in large celebrations to enjoy their beverages and eats prior to their 40 days of prohibition. Today, Carnival is celebrated for more-or-less the same reasons.
Peru, being a predominately Catholic nation, celebrates Carnival all over the country. When asked, “What is Carnival?” many Peruvians answer with, “A reason to drink and eat and spend time with friends and family.”
On Carnival, like any good celebration, there is plenty to eat and drink, but it isn’t all about the food and booze. In fact, in Peru, there are also parades, tree cutting ceremonies, and water. O, yes! Water… A water fight, to be exact. A country-wide water fight. This water fight has no age limits, no escape, and no winners. Everyone becomes some degree of wet. Weapons include water guns, water balloons, spray bottles, buckets of water, and foam spray.
In Cusco, the weapon of choice is foam, for its quick drying properties and far dispersal. The culmination of the battle is in the Plaza de Armas. Truly, this celebration is for everyone. Parents teach their children how to fire foam aerosol cans, and complete strangers bond by dousing each other in water or foam. The only rule is: don’t douse your same gender. Some people may think that they don’t want to participate or get wet, but, the reality is, everyone enjoys themselves. Getting sprayed and getting wet are just part of the fun.
In the afternoon, after the water fight has calmed and the sun begins to set, neighbors gather together to take part in a yunsa celebration. A yunsa is the tree cutting ceremony. A tree is decorated with ribbons, blankets, plastic containers, tires, balloons, clothes, toys, and other prizes. Then, people dance around the tree in a circle, drinking and chatting, and couples take turns attempting to chop down the tree with an axe. This goes on for hours, because each person is only allowed three swings at a time. Once the tree actually falls, everyone scrambles to claim their prize, like with a piñata. The couple that eventually strikes down the tree becomes responsible for getting the celebration ready the following year.
Long into the night of Carnival, even after the water fight has ended and the tree has fallen, families and friends dance and eat and drink and simply enjoy each other’s company. As far as celebrations go, what more could one want? | <urn:uuid:e81f1825-08f6-4330-9e42-bd1d23962a08> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.peruvianconnection.com/food-and-drink/carnival/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00084-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964597 | 607 | 3.109375 | 3 |
In anticipation of the opening of the Arts of the Islamic World Gallery at the MFAH in January 2013, Paradise Underfoot: A 17th-Century Carpet from Iran presents one of the earliest works of Islamic art to enter the museum's collection.
This magnificent carpet exemplifies the “golden age” of Persian carpet weaving—rugs created in the 16th and 17th centuries, renowned for their beauty and durability. Fabricated in the 1800s in what is now Iran, this wool carpet was acquired by the Bayou Bend Collection in 1960.
Carpets in the Islamic world defined different spaces in the lives of their owners, such as a sacred space for prayer or an imagined space for brilliant ornamentation in a simple, nomadic dwelling. Another role was as a reverent space for the privileged or wealthy to sit, as demonstrated in the accompanying painting Layla and Majnum in School.
The design woven into this carpet reflects the vision of gardens that figures prominently in the Islamic faith and Muslim arts and culture. Gardens held great social significance, because they were seen as a luxury, as well as spiritual importance because of their allusions to a celestial paradise. The intricately woven palmettes, vine tracery, and abundance of other floral motifs covering this example allowed its owner to create a portable, paradisiacal garden on earth.
This exhibition is organized by the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston. | <urn:uuid:9dc22d94-e4cf-4074-8b41-77331d375cc5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mfah.org/exhibitions/past/paradise-underfoot-17th-century-carpet-iran/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00187-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959979 | 293 | 2.734375 | 3 |
nucleotide is a valid word in this word list. For a definition, see the external dictionary links below.
The word "nucleotide" uses 10 letters: C D E E I L N O T U.
No direct anagrams for nucleotide found in this word list.
Words formed by adding one letter before or after nucleotide (in bold), or to cdeeilnotu in any order:
s - nucleotides
Try a search for nucleotide in these online resources (some words may not be found):
Wiktionary - OneLook Dictionaries - Merriam-Webster - Google Search
Each search will normally open in a new window.
All words formed from nucleotide by changing one letter
Browse words starting with nucleotide by next letter | <urn:uuid:7aa947ea-425b-4c19-b6e3-ab330098db78> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.morewords.com/word/nucleotide/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396222.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00120-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.838634 | 166 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Hybrid Pedagogy is an academic and networked journal of teaching and technology that combines the strands of critical pedagogy and digital pedagogy to arrive at the best social and civil uses of technology and digital media in education.
E-portfolios are a valuable learning and assessment tool. An e-portfolio is a digitized collection of artifacts including demonstrations, resources, and accomplishments that represent an individual, group, or institution. This collection can be comprised of text-based, graphic, or multimedia elements archived on a Web site or on other electronic media such as a CD-ROM or DVD. An e-portfolio is more than a simple collection—it can also serve as an administrative tool to manage and organize work created with different applications and to control who can see the work. E-portfolios encourage personal reflection and often involve the exchange of ideas and feedback. Three types of e-portfolios are described in this report: student e-portfolios, teaching e-portfolios, and institutional e-portfolios. E-portfolios can support student advisement, career preparation, and credential documentation; the sharing of teaching philosophies and practices; department and program self-studies; and institutional and program accreditation processes. This report defines and categorizes e-portfolios, offers examples of higher education e-portfolio implementations, reviews e-portfolio technology, and addresses adoption issues.
E-portfolios are a valuable learning and assessment tool. An e-portfolio is a digitized collection of artifacts including demonstrations, resources, and accomplishments that represent an individual, group, or institution.
Almost 25 years have passed since Chickering and Gamson offered seven principles for good instructional practices in undergraduate education. While the state of undergraduate education has evolved to some degree over that time, I think the seven principles still have a place in today’s collegiate classroom. Originally written to communicate best practices for face-to-face instruction, the principles translate well to the online classroom and can help to provide guidance for those of us designing courses to be taught online.
Sharing your scoops to your social media accounts is a must to distribute your curated content. Not only will it drive traffic and leads through your content, but it will help show your expertise with your followers.
How to integrate my topics' content to my website?
Integrating your curated content to your website or blog will allow you to increase your website visitors’ engagement, boost SEO and acquire new visitors. By redirecting your social media traffic to your website, Scoop.it will also help you generate more qualified traffic and leads from your curation work.
Distributing your curated content through a newsletter is a great way to nurture and engage your email subscribers will developing your traffic and visibility.
Creating engaging newsletters with your curated content is really easy. | <urn:uuid:d6408a45-bb79-48fc-8a86-06af67dd1be5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.scoop.it/t/kgitch-on-elearning/p/3995787617/2013/01/31/100-quotes-on-presentations-by-soap | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00087-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.932771 | 577 | 2.765625 | 3 |
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