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The gigantic sinkhole that opened up in Guatemala City on Sunday has geologists scratching their heads and observers calling for better safety controls, but the more interesting question is: “What to do with a giant Guatemala sinkhole?“
For a small sinkholes in your yard, experts recommend dropping a slab, gravel, or other solid material to the bottom and filling it with clay-like soil. The material will usually settle, and it may be necessary to add more soil over time. However, for a giant sinkhole in your city, experts are flummoxed.
“You need to have some sort of mechanical structural support at the base of your fill material,” says Jim Currens, an expert on sinkholes, caves, and springs with the Kentuck Geological Survey. But Guatemala’s sinkhole is on an exploded scale, and the geological makeup of the region makes predicting the cause and any effective remedies difficult.
The geologist added that the new sinkhole shares remarkable similarities with a sinkhole that formed in Guatemala City in 2007, when a 330-foot-deep sinkhole opened up in Barrio San Antonio, just 15 blocks away from the current one in Ciudad Nueva. That sinkhole is thought to have been caused by a broken storm drain pipe that over time weakened and washed away the ground above it.
“Both of these things occurred in the same general part of town. They look the same,” Sam Bonis, a geologist at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire, who is currently living in Guatemala City, said. “It’s more than a coincidence, especially if they trace” any faulty pipes associated with the 2010 sinkhole to pipes near the 2007 sinkhole. “
Some believe the two Guatemala City sinkholes are linked to government neglect of the area, and are calling for better accountability so that something like this doesn’t happen again with worse results.
The danger should not have been news to officials in Guatemala City, noted Bonis, who used to work for the Guatemalan government’s national geology institute. As part of a volunteer team that investigated the 2007 sinkhole, Bonis co-authored a report warning the Guatemalan government that similar holes will very likely keep appearing unless action is taken to inspect the city’s sewer system for weaknesses.
The government never replied, Bonis said—possibly due to a lack of funds. “There’s a minimum of regulation, because that’s money that the government doesn’t have,” he said. “There’s got to be ways of inspecting the sewer system. These are things that have to be done,” he added.
But geological experts are cautious about assigning blame. Looking at photos of the most recent Guatemala sinkhole, it’s clear that there were preexisting conditions – an underground cavity that may have been present for generations, says Mark Kasmarek, a groundwater hydrologist with the United States Geological Survey (USGS). “Once the roof of that cave becomes compromised through time, it can no longer support what’s on top of it,” he says.
Simply filling the hole won’t help, says Mr. Kasmarek, without first studying the geological makeup of the surrounding area to determine the underlying factors that caused the collapse. [via Christian Science Monitor and National Geographic]
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Along Yellowstone National Park's East Entrance Road, a resourceful combination of topsoil and on-site organic material has restored native vegetation, ground cover, a natural setting, and roadside habitats for birds and small mammals. When biologists from the Western Federal Lands Division of the Federal Highway Administration, in partnership with the National Park Service, revegetated the disturbed slopes along Yellowstone National Park's East Entrance Road, they didn't lose scarce topsoil to construction "cut and fill," and they didn't have to truck in soil supplements. They accomplished the revegetation by saving the construction-site topsoil, storing it in mounds just beyond construction limits, and later combining it with forest duff, boulders, and tree snags and trimmings to spread on the road's roughened slopes.
--Apr 25, 2003
|Photo by Allan Stockman, Western Federal Lands Highway Division|
|Roadside landscape with diverse native vegetation, Yellowstone National Park|
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Teachers and students, we want to welcome you to our website. Here you can find Free Math Worksheets to help you teach and learn math. But that's not all, here you will be able to learn math by following instructions from our experienced math professors and tutors.
Worksheets are grouped into sections: Geometry and Algebra and Pre-Algebra. Each section contains worksheets with different complexities, each worksheet has 10 assignments each with 24 questions and answer sheet. So each free math worksheet has 240 unique questions.
Our mission is to create a website that would be a main place for students and teachers when it comes to finding free math materials and learning how to solve math problems. For that we have combined a team of high quality math professors and tutors with years of experience in teaching math from elementary to collage level to help you and guide you through solving math problems.
Every week we will have our math professor solve minimum of three questions from each category and then we will publish the video with each worksheet so you can see exactly how to solve the question.
So please follow us so you can stay up to date with new categories that we will be adding every week.Beginning Trigonometry-Finding missing sides of triangles category worksheets.
And here is a example for Geometry - Circles Arcs and Chords category of math worksheets.
We hope that the information you find here will be helpfull and that you will return to our site and use it for your math studies.
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Tom Patterson, U.S. National Park Service
This tutorial introduces an easy technique for draping raster geo-images, including satellite images, aerial photographs, and rasterized vector linework, onto DEM surfaces in Bryce 5. Using a pre-registered 1,024 x 1,024 DEM and satellite image of the Island of Hawaii, you will be shown how to make a 3D landscape visualization similar to the image below. It is just a matter of pushing the right buttons, arrows, knobs, widgets, and other miscellaneous objects that comprise Bryce's unique graphical user interface.
In addition to Bryce 5 for Mac 9.x, Mac OSX, or Windows, for this tutorial you will need the sample Hawaiian DEM in Portable Grayscale Map (PGM) format and the satellite image in Photoshop (PSD) format:
Zip archive (3.0MB)
Also, you can download the ready-to-use Bryce 5 file (3.3MB) of Hawaii used to make the scene above. Mac and Windows Bryce 5 files are interchangeable provided that the file includes a ".br5" extension.
Initial Bryce setup
The default settings in Bryce 5 assume that you work on a 13 inch monitor and use the application for creating artistic landscapes from low elevation views. These need to be reconfigured before making 3D maps viewed from higher elevations:
1. After launching Bryce, delete the default infinite plane, which appears as a wireframe grid at the bottom of the scene. Do this by selecting the infinite plane (click on it once, it will turn red when selected) and press the delete key.
2. The cramped default Bryce GUI can be expanded to completely fill larger monitors by clicking on the Interface Min/Max icon at the right side of the desktop (see the illustration below). Since the Bryce GUI completely takes over your desktop anyway, there is no advantage in using the smaller size.
3. The Bryce project window (the hairline rectangle within which the scene is constructed and rendered) is preconfigured to 540 x 405 pixels. You can give yourself a larger size and/or a different format by going to File/Document Setup. I generally find 800 x 600 pixels to be a good starting point.
4. Bryce opens with default sky and fog settings turned on, which, although great for making artistic landscapes, need to be disabled for cartographic work (at least initially). The following steps will yield a plain vanilla Bryce environment with a white background and white illumination, and without clouds, atmospheric haze, or cast shadows:
A) At the top of the Bryce desktop click the Sky and Fog label to activate the Sky and Fog palette (see illustration below).
B) Click on the small triangle next to the Sky and Fog label to enter the Sky and Fog Presets. Choose "Simple White Background" from the scrolling list.
C) To remove cast shadows from the scene, click-drag to the left in the Shadows window until the numerical amount reads 0 (displayed at the lower left corner of the Bryce desktop as you click-drag).
DEM importing and editing
DEM importation in Bryce 5 is a snap providing that the DEM is quadratic-sized and in Portable Grayscale Map (PGM) format. The sample DEM of Hawaii just so happens to meet these requirements:
1) In the drop menu, go to File/Import Object and select the hawaii.pgm file that you downloaded earlier. When imported, the DEM will appear as a wireframe terrain object at the bottom center of the Bryce project window.
You will undoubtedly notice the excessive vertical exaggeration on the imported DEM. This can be diminished by two methods:
METHOD 1 - With the DEM selected, in the Edit palette (see the illustration below) , click-drag the upper Y axis of the Resize icon to the left until the topographic vertical exaggeration looks about right. Although unscientific, this method is quick and effective for making visual adjustments.
METHOD 2 - For the numerically inclined, click on the tiny "A" next to the selected DEM to activate the Object Attributes dialog (see illustration below). Lessen the Y size at the bottom of the dialog. (Note: sizes are indicated in Bryce units, a somewhat arbitrary unit of measurement unrelated to real world elevations or percent vertical exaggeration, but nevertheless useful for making relative adjustments to vertical scaling). In general, high elevation views require more vertical exaggeration than low elevation views of the same area. Experiment.
In Bryce, as with all 3D landscape software, the image and the DEM upon which it will be draped must register to one another perfectly. Although DEMs in Bryce must conform to quadratic sizes, a draped image can be a square of any size, quadratic or otherwise. I usually prefer that the image used for draping have a resolution at least twice that of the DEM beneath--for instance, draping a 8,192 x 8,192 image on top of a 4,096 x 4,096 DEM, to show surface features with utmost detail and sharpness. However, this approach translates into huge file sizes. In the interest of download time, the tutorial satellite image of Hawaii is a modest 1,024 x 1,024 pixels, the same resolution as the DEM upon which it will be draped.
1. In the Edit Palette, click on the small arrow to the right of the Material Editor icon (see the illustration below) and choose the Edit 2D Pict Textures option.
2. The Pictures library then appears (see the illustration below). Load the satellite image of Hawaii into the Pictures library by clicking the empty square to the right of Leo, the default Bryce picture of a da Vinci-like human figure. In the open dialog box that appears, choose the downloaded satellite image named drape.psd.
3. Close the Pictures library by clicking the check mark "okay" at the lower right.
4. In the
main Bryce window click the render button (the lowest ball on the left
side of the desktop) to render the draped satellite image and DEM. Congratulations,
you are done.
Additional Bryce 5 techniques for the adventurous...
Return to Shaded Relief home
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- Preventing theft
Art Hand Jr., assistant superintendent of facilities and planning at Lodi Unified School District, offered advice to keep classrooms safe from theft:
Do not leave small portable electronic devices near windows. Keep them out of sight in a cabinet or near the center of the room.
If your classroom has blinds or curtains, close them at the end of the day.
"It's about visibility," said Hand. "Make it so people can't walk by and see what's available."
Posted: Friday, May 11, 2012 12:00 am
Lightweight, portable technology might be a boon for teachers, but the devices make easy targets for would-be thieves.
Art Hand Jr., assistant superintendent of facilities and planning for Lodi Unified School District, said he has seen a rise in the number of thefts of portable devices in the last few years.
More about Theft
Friday, May 11, 2012 12:00 am.
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High-Quality Picture Transmission in a Digital Audio System
A high-quality digital video signal is transmitted with low bit rate in a digital audio system. Several digital audio systems have been developed for professional and consumer use. The transmission rate of most two-channel digital recorders is approximately 2 Mbit/s. For digital television, systems have been worked out by CCIR, SMPTE, and EBU. Digital video tape recorders are also under development; their transmission rate is about 300 Mbit/s using a component television signal. Since the ratio of video to audio rates is more than 100, it is difficult for digital audio recording media to capably record a television video signal. A new signal format for still-frame picture transmission is presented. The advantages and disadvantages of composite-signal and component-signal methods have been studied. The format can be extended to partial moving pictures, computer-generate moving graphics, and still pictures for high-definition television (1125 lines).
Click to purchase paper or login as an AES member. If your company or school subscribes to the E-Library then switch to the institutional version. If you are not an AES member and would like to subscribe to the E-Library then Join the AES!
This paper costs $33 for non-members, $5 for AES members and is free for E-Library subscribers.
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Law violators have fled from authorities for as long as the police have been chasing them. Stories of bank robbers riding horses out of town followed by the sheriff's posse fill the folklore of the Old West. The Keystone Cops once provided comic relief in cinema as they depicted officers chasing-but never catching-hoodlums and scoundrels.
As cars replaced horses and trains as the preferred means of escape, the Prohibition Era brought reality and folklore together. Not only did the police pursue violators suspected of transporting illegal caches of alcohol (the bootleggers), other "crimes of flight" such as auto theft and joyriding were added to this high-stakes game of "cat and mouse."
Today, with the immediacy of worldwide coverage through streaming video and airborne news cameras, Hollywood and the media have found a niche market in the coverage of endless police pursuits as well as creating fictional ones in film. This glamorization of "the chase," however, is at odds with policing efforts to limit the number of pursuits and end them without loss of life or property. Now, emerging technologies may offer a solution once thought impossible: to stop a fleeing violator quickly, yet safely. The news may be more boring without a pursuit to break the tedium, but the police and the citizenry will breathe easier knowing their communities are safer.
Limiting the number of pursuits and ending them without loss of life or property, sadly, is a continuing challenge for law enforcement. In fact, the number of deaths each year following a police pursuit typically exceeds that due to any other police activity.
The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) recorded a total of 2,654 fatal crashes involving 3,965 vehicles between 1994 and 2002 as a result of police pursuits in the United States. Unfortunately, 3,146 persons lost their lives in these incidents.
Of the total number of fatalities, 1,088 deaths were of persons not in the fleeing vehicle (the vast majority of which were not involved in the pursuit in any way prior to their death). 102 of the fatalities were pedestrians or bicyclists, 40 were police officers, and 946 were occupants of vehicles uninvolved in the police pursuit.
Additional research with agencies in Florida, Nebraska, and South Carolina revealed that in more than 1,200 police pursuits, property damage occurred 20 to 40 percent of the time, and injuries from crashes resulted 12 to 41 percent of the time.
The Pursuit Management Task Force
The National Institute of Justice's Office of Science and Technology, in conjunction with the National Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Center, formed the Pursuit Management Task Force (PMTF) in August of 1996 to consider these types of issues related to police pursuits. More than 400 police agencies nationally participated in a PMTF survey.
A central theme of the survey was the potential of "vehicle stopping" technologies to aid in the termination of a police pursuit. The PMTF concluded that any vehicle stopping technology must not only pass the Fourth Amendment test for reasonableness, but also must fit within general legal mandates for the appropriate use of force by the police.
PMTF members also concluded no singular technological solution had yet appeared to address the issue of how to stop a vehicle during a pursuit, and that government and researchers had not yet found "the way" to stop a fleeing car.
As a component of its research, the PMTF contacted Dr. Edward Scannell, the U.S. Army's Research Laboratory Specialist, to provide technical expertise regarding vehicle stopping technologies. Dr. Scannell and PMTF members identified three vehicle stopping methodologies considered to be capable of stopping police pursuits: mechanical, chemical, and electrical.
Mechanical stopping devices (tire deflation, wire or metal barriers) are found most commonly in the form of spike strips. While spike strips were one of the few current technologies shown to be successful in stopping vehicles being pursued, this device has an inherent weakness. During a high speed pursuit, an officer(s) would be required to deploy this device ahead of the violator, thus creating undue risk to the officer and to the offender, as well as to any civilian vehicle in or around the area.
Chemical systems (gaseous, liquid, or solid such as powder) were another method to stop fleeing vehicles. According to the PMTF, a chemical would be introduced through a delivery system such as shooting a gas-filled projectile that explodes over or on top of the fleeing vehicle that would alter the fuel-to-air ratio and, in effect, disable the combustion process. One danger for law enforcement with this technology would be the exposure to potentially hazardous materials; however, the main limitation for this technology was the impracticality of an effective delivery system during the actual vehicle chase.
Electrical systems were the third category reviewed by the PMTF. While this technology was not fully developed at the time of the PMTF report, researchers projected the use of a preinstalled computer with a shut-off switch that could be used to "kill" the engine upon command initiation.
PMTF members also noted that some type of frequency emitting technology (microwave or electromagnetic pulse) could be developed to emit waves that would "short circuit" the vehicle being pursued, forcing it to stop. Using high-tech intervention offers the promise of capturing suspects safely in a way less damaging to vehicles or other property. These means offer the best solutions for the police to consider as they seek to mitigate the litany of problems caused by pursuits.
Since the time of the PMTF report in 1998, a number of significant advances in the private sector have been developed that may have future potential for law enforcement. Notably, almost as quickly as one technology is developed, a similar yet more advanced version seemingly appears on the horizon. To be effective, a pursuit termination technology must provide utility and transportability for use by the officer on the street. This would include the officer's ability and willingness to apply that technology in real-world settings.
While it may always be possible to compromise the effectiveness of any technology, the utility of pursuit termination technology should also include the political and social debate regarding how these tools should be applied and what would really happen if that chosen technology proves to be inefficient or ineffective.
Radio Frequency Modulation (RFM)
Perhaps the most widely known technology using a type of radio frequency modulation is General Motors' OnStar service, marketed worldwide as a means to aid motorists in need and track stolen vehicles. OnStar technology can remotely unlock a vehicle as well as immobilize it in the event of theft.
GM has added other services to include hands-free calling and automatic collision notification. GM hopes to improve its market share where stolen vehicle tracking is in high demand. In a similar way, this technology may have future utility for law enforcement as a pursuit stopping and anti-theft technology.
Matco Industries has also developed an on-board diagnostic system with remote capabilities. Using wireless technology, Matco has been able to integrate wireless networks in combination with the Internet to allow remote tracking of vehicle movements and speed as easily as accessing an Internet mapping program.
This technology was developed for the trucking industry to provide, among other services, speed threshold setting, automated collision notification, vehicle engine diagnostics, and anti-tampering detection. Interestingly, Matco claims that it can use encrypted data transmissions to locate and disable any vehicle equipped with this device.
The limitation of this technology is that it only works when a vehicle is equipped with the appropriate "hardware." This notion raises political and economic dilemmas. Would this technology be mandated for all vehicles, much in the same way that seat belts are now mandated? Would the oversight and control for this technology rest with private industry, or would government be required to manage and operate this system? What would be the cost?
And, while the PMTF panel recommended appropriate action be taken in the development of new technology, it stopped short of suggesting that all vehicles be equipped with an on-board disabling technology.
Texas Instruments is yet another innovator in the area of RFM, combining two technological approaches (immobilizer technology and remote keyless entry) in its Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) System. Texas Instruments intended RFID to help curb auto theft.
If a vehicle is equipped with Remote Keyless Entry (RKE) in addition to an immobilizer, the RKE controller can produce a new Ultra High Frequency (UHF) or "rolling code" each time the push button is used. This gains access to the vehicle. The transponder then encrypts the request from the reader based on a security algorithm, resulting in an encrypted message that is transmitted to the engine for evaluation.
If the encryption code is properly received, the vehicle will start. If the encryption code is not properly received, the vehicle will not start. Texas Instruments claims this technology is the first of its kind.
One inherent challenge with every technology is that someone will undoubtedly attempt to defeat it. This was true of the RFID technology developed by Texas Instruments.
A research team at John Hopkins University discovered a way to defeat the immobilizer security system by cracking the code and, in essence, stealing its own cars. Fortunately, researchers also developed a better encryption device to make this transponder more secure.
Targeted impulse (TI) systems are another category of remote stopping technologies that are also challenging fundamental assumptions. This technology was first observed in the defense industry during the early testing of nuclear weapons as an electromagnetic pulse (EMP) effect.
The effect was a production of very short but intense electromagnetic shock waves. This pulse of energy produced a powerful electromagnetic field sufficient to produce a strong burst of volts on exposed conductors. The military significance was the potential damage to computers, radio systems, and radar receivers, where TI ordnance could literally shut down an enemy's computer systems. The problem with this form of TI is that all computer equipment in the path of the impulse would be particularly vulnerable to electromagnetic effects.
Since the military's delivery system is not suitable for police use, another means must be found to disable a pursued vehicle while not also impacting the other automated systems in the path of the EMP.
Dr. David Giri, former physics professor at the University of California Berkeley, founded the company ProTech to address civilian applications of radio wave technologies for police use. He has been working with law enforcement to develop a radio wave stopping system that could deliver a blast powerful enough to knock out vital engine electronics, making the targeted vehicle stall and slowly come to a stop.
The battery and capacitors to store the electrical charge are designed to fit into the trunk of a car. The officer would just need to "flick a switch" on the dashboard to send a burst of electricity into the antenna mounted on the vehicle. The antenna would produce a narrow beam of intense radio waves aimed at the vehicle being pursued, causing a surge of electricity in that vehicle, upsetting the engine firing signals, forcing it to stop.
One problem with this technology, however, has been the specific modality to be used by law enforcement. While law enforcement officials have reviewed this particular device, the delivery platform is still too bulky and large to fit effectively inside or onto a police car.
More importantly, the potential for collateral damage ("zapping" someone else's vehicle beyond the intended target) is an unresolved issue impacting its possible use. Additional research and development will be necessary before this product can become available as an effective pursuit intervention technique.
A prototype variation of the targeted impulse system is the StarChase system currently being tested by the Los Angeles Police Department. The pursuing officer would literally fire a GPS "tag" from a compressed-air launcher at the vehicle being pursued. This tag would stick to the vehicle and transmit the vehicle location to pursuing units. Officers would then follow (but not pursue) the vehicle to a coordinated location, in hopes of alleviating the need for high-speed pursuits.
Cutting to the Chase
While the emergence of RFM and TI technologies hold promise, they must be tailored for specific application by law enforcement. Unfortunately, with any new technology, there is no track record upon which to depend because the technology itself has not yet been fully developed. Other issues such as privacy and functionality also pose concerns.
While the public may readily support safety initiatives such as mandatory vehicle air bags, concern is often voiced when allowing the police greater authority to stop and detain an individual. For example, existing GPS systems offer tracking hardware for police to install onto a vehicle to follow in surveillance. If the officers hardwire this technology to the vehicle battery, they need to get a search warrant. If they instead covertly attach this technology temporarily to the underside of a vehicle using an independent battery source, they do not need a search warrant.
New technology requires an organization to move from the traditional to the innovative. Law enforcement should be willing to look to the future without the blinders of the past. In our voyeuristic society, we anxiously crowd around the television to watch when the news helicopters film the police pursuit of yet another criminal.
To elude arrest, violators often travel over 100 mph in 3,500-pound cars through red lights, against opposing traffic, and through the residential neighborhoods where our children play. As the chase entertains us from the safety of our living rooms and the news station's ratings spike, every car the criminal recklessly speeds by is put in very real and severe danger.
Some pursuits last a few minutes and others last a few hours. Some end with the violator giving up; others end in violent confrontations or suicide; and some end when the violator's high-speed vehicle crashes into an innocent family, ending their lives.
If the intervention technology detailed in this article could eliminate or mitigate a portion of high-speed pursuits, then its employment would be well worth the cost. Consider the devastating impact of more than 100 innocent people who are killed each year by criminals in cars that otherwise may have been safely stopped through the application of technology.
Lt. Gary Montecuollo is a 26-year veteran of law enforcement. He has worked as a detective, sergeant, and commander, and is currently assigned to the Special Investigations Bureau of the Glendale (Calif.) Police Department.
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08 May 2012:
Highly Endangered Gorillas Are Captured in Rare Video Footage
A camera trap video in Cameroon has captured nearly two minutes of film of the Cross River gorilla, the rarest of the four sub-species of gorillas and one that is seldom seen in the wild. The footage shows a group of eight gorillas walking through the forest in Cameroon’s Kagwene Gorilla Sanctuary, their feet loudly crunching over the leaves on the forest floor. Suddenly, a silverback gorilla, perhaps sensing the camera trap, bluff-charges past the camera, pounding its chest as it runs. The New York-based Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), which helped set up the traps, says it is the best footage ever captured of Cross River gorillas, a sub-species with fewer than 250 individuals remaining. In the footage, one of the gorillas is clearly missing a hand, perhaps the result of it getting caught in a snare. Hunting and habitat destruction in the creatures’ last refuge — the mountainous border region of Cameroon and Nigeria — have whittled away populations of the Cross River gorilla. But the Cameroon government, WCS, and local wardens have launched an improved system of protection that seems to have halted the animals’ decline.
Watch the video
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CFM stands for ColdFusion Markup language, also referred to as CFML. CFM files can contain code to dynamically generate a web page by accessing a database, generating Flash forms and creating reports as needed.
CFM files can also be used in conjunction with a ColdFusion server to deliver web based applications. CFM files can be opened and edited using ColdFusion 9.
MIME type : magnus-internal/cold-fusion
Learn more about .CFM files:
Berni McCoy compares ColdFusion and .NET.
Visit the ColdFusion web page.
Read ColdFusion-related questions or ask your own questions on IT Knowledge Exchange.
This was last updated in July 2010
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Fried has described his approach to composition and technology in four related principles:
Interrogation: the exposure and exploitation of a machine's basic functions and assumptions. The Jamaican 'dub' producers of the 1970s used the multi-channel mixer to create drastically altered versions of reggae recordings. What is being interrogated in this case is the paradigm of multi-track with its long rows of meters and volume controls; just how this is accomplished electronically, whether by tubes or transistors (or running mice) is irrelevant.
Differentiation: the use of musical applications that are necessarily unique to the equipment employed. Wendy Carlos and others used early Moog and Buchla synthesizers to create sounds that were specifically unique to the synths, not as substitutes for other instruments. They were exploiting the range of the innate characteristics that the instruments made available, rather than trying to re-create something else.
Catalysis: the use of machinery in the service of a live event that is unique to the moment. Cage used live radio. Arguably the piano serves the same function in 4'33". The catalyst, a substance which fosters a reaction among other substances, itself comes out of the process unchanged. Fried uses live radio and other indeterminate elements, however, unlike Cage, he aims for a rather more conventional musicality and theatricality. Sometimes a chance decision is simply the best, most musical decision - if the context is creatively and intelligently controlled.
Subversion: the use of tools in ways not originally intended (by the manufacturer). The early 'scratch' disc-jockeys manipulated phonograph players by hand. John Cage in Cartridge Music (1960) suggests that feathers and toothpicks be inserted into a phono cartridge instead of the needle. The most popularly-known technological subversion might be the intentional pointing of an electric guitar into its amp to (musically) create feedback.
Copyright © 12 February 2000 Jeff Talman, Saratoga Springs, NY, USA
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Phocaea (fōsēˈə) [key], ancient city, W Asia Minor, N of Smyrna (Izmir), in present Turkey. It was northernmost of the Greek Ionian cities. In the 7th cent. B.C. it grew into a maritime state; its chief colony was Massilia (now Marseilles). In 540 B.C., after a siege by the Persians, most of the inhabitants left, going mainly to Elea in Italy. The city never recovered from the loss. The modern Foça is on the site.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
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Ancient Near East
Images & Art
Maps & Geography
Mythology & Beliefs
People in History
Timelines & Charts
Job 1:9-11 - Then Satan answered the LORD, and said, Doth Job fear God for nought? Hast not thou made an hedge about him, and about his house, and about all that he hath on every side? thou hast blessed the work of his hands, and his substance is increased in the land. But put forth thine hand now, and touch all that he hath, and he will curse thee to thy face.
Job 2:9-10 - Then said his wife unto him, Dost thou still retain thine integrity? curse God, and die. But he said unto her, Thou speakest as one of the foolish women speaketh. What? shall we receive good at the hand of God, and shall we not receive evil? In all this did not Job sin with his lips.
Job 19:25-27 - For I know [that] my redeemer liveth, and [that] he shall stand at the latter [day] upon the earth: And [though] after my skin [worms] destroy this [body], yet in my flesh shall I see God: Whom I shall see for myself, and mine eyes shall behold, and not another; [though] my reins be consumed within me.
Job 38:31-33 Canst thou bind the sweet influences of Pleiades, or loose the bands of Orion? Canst thou bring forth Mazzaroth in his season? or canst thou guide Arcturus with his sons? Knowest thou the ordinances of heaven? canst thou set the dominion thereof in the earth?
Bible Survey - Job
Hebrew Name - Iyov "object of enmity" (meaning uncertain)
Greek Name - Iob (Greek form of the Hebrew)
Author - Job (According to Tradition)
Date - 2180 BC Approximately
Theme - Trusting the Lord in the midst of evil and suffering
Types and Shadows - In Job Jesus is the ever-living redeemer
Quick Overview of Job. 1-2 The historical background of Job 3-31 Job's dialogue with his three friends 32-37 the speeches of Elihu 38-41 God intervenes and gives His speech 42 the conclusion of this matter
The Book of Job is the first of the five books of Hebrew poetry, and is also been classified with the wisdom literature of the Bible. Regardless of its classification the book of Job has been known to be one of the greatest literary writings in all of history. Except for a few chapters it has a very formal style of Hebrew poetry, and the beauty of the book is not in meter or rhyme, but in the use of parallelisms, repetition, and contrast.
The book of Job takes place in an area called in the Bible "the land of Uz" (Job 1:1), which is believed to have been the area southeast of Israel on the Arabian border. There is no way to identify this area precisely, and for that reason people from all the world wonder at the book of Job. Ancient tradition identifies Moses as the author of the book of Job, having traveled through the wilderness of Midian (Exodus 2:15) near the area that was believed to be Uz.
The man Job is a biblical patriarch who is well-known for his integrity and his devotion to God, he had great wealth and much happiness in life. The time came to prove Job's loyalty to God and he was deprived of all of his blessings. The book of Job was written like a historical poem, but was treated as an actual event in the Bible. The difficulty in the book of Job is over the nature and the cause of his afflictions, it touches on the philosophical discussion about the problem of evil, and human suffering which is a classic problem that has yet to be given a classic answer. The book of Job teaches that God's people should not envy the prosperity of the wicked, nor try to answer the question God as to why this happens and why the righteous are afflicted at times. There is no perfect solution to the problem of evil in the book of Job, and the obvious conclusion is that it is impossible for finite man to fathom the secrets of an infinite God. Job's miserable comforters (friends) were limited in their understanding of the suffering of man and how affliction enters into it. Job does not give a reason for his misery but he remained faithful to God and clearly denied that it was because of his sins against the Lord. The book of Job gives a good prologue that informs the reader of Job's faithfulness to God in the midst of affliction, and God's pleasure in Job for his faith and trust.
The big lesson to be learned from the Book of Job is that man does not know the reason for the things going on in his life, but he should trust the Lord at all times. Man can never plumbed the depths of God, and how God deals with each man and all men, therefore man is encourage to look steadfastly at the Lord, trust him and be devoted to him because God is loving and merciful and all of his purposes are part of his ultimate plan which no one can understand.
|The book of Job. Job is the
name of the principal character in this book and the title is the
same in Hebrew as it is in English. It is uncertain exactly when the
book was written and who wrote it. It is interesting that the name
of Yahweh appears over and over in the book of Job, and his name was
unknown prior to the time of Moses (Exodus 6:2-3). The name of the
Egypt is used in poetic form a couple times (Job 9:12-13, Job
26:12-13) and when it is used this way there is implications that
the author of the book new about the exodus from Egypt. The big
question in the book of Job is why do the righteous suffer? But this
is not actually the main question in the book, the big question is
seen in Job 1:9-11..."Why does Job remain faithful to God?"
The book goes on with the story about God and Satan arguing over Jobs reasons for obeying God and Job has various catastrophes which causes him to lose everything in order to test him of his faithfulness as to whether or not Job is serving God because of His wealth and God"s blessings of prosperity. There are also jobs friends who make a case against Job siding with what Satan was accusing Job of, their point of view was the Job was only serving God because of his wealth and prosperity. Job continually refutes them.
Joe desired to know the reason for his suffering and God remains silent concerning this. Instead the Lord asks Job questions that are too difficult for Job to answer, and God's point is that there are many things that Job will experience and mankind experiences in life that do not have a clear explanation, and it is more wise to not question God's wisdom. Gervis situation was no different than what is common to man.
The events in the Book of Job may be summarized as follows :
Outline of the Book of Job
Job 1-2 forms a prologue in prose to the debates, giving a picture of Job's prosperity, the "wager" between God and Satan, and the resultant affliction which was Job's. Job 3-31 contain three series of speeches between Job and his companions, in which he defends himself against their assertion that he is being punished for some secret sin which is known only to God. Elihu's speech, recorded in Job 32-37, points out that there is a hidden purpose in God's discipline of Job. Job 38-41 contain the statements of God to the participants in the discussion; these witness to the futility of man's trying to comprehend the actions of God. Job 42 records the restoration of Job's lost blessings.
© Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)
The Story of the Bible - The Old Testament, Quick Summary, About, Divisions, Timeline, Charts, Maps, Creation, Adam and Eve, The Flood, The Tower of Babel, Abraham the First Hebrew, Isaac, Son of Promise, Jacob and the 12 Tribes, Joseph and Egypt, Moses and the Exodus, The Giving of the Law, The Tabernacle, The Wilderness Wanderings, Joshua and the Promised Land, The Judges, Samuel the Prophet, Saul, Israel's First King, King David, King Solomon, The Divided Kingdom, The Northern Kingdom of Israel, The Southern Kingdom of Judah, The Assyrian Captivity, The Babylonian Captivity, The Return From Babylon, The Prophets, The Messiah, Conclusion, Bibliography and Credits
Summary of the Old Testament Books - Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi
Bibliography Resources on the Old Testament
A Survey of Old Testament Introduction, Revised and Expanded by Archer, 508 Pages, Pub. 2007
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Mobile phone is a telephone system that works without any wire. Mobile phone is one of the wonderful wonders of science. It has added a new dimension to our life and to communication system. It can be moved easily and quickly from place to place.
Through mobile phone, we can send messages to distant places, play games and sports, know about time. Solve the work of calculation, be aware of different kinds of news and view. At present the popularity of the mobile phone is increasing. Many companies are also being set up for selling mobile phone. The price of mobile phones also decreasing in comparison with the past. People are being encouraged to buy a mobile-phone set a t a cheaper rate. However with the touch of science and technology, the whole world seems to be a global village, in a very single moment, we can communicate with the people living in a very distant place. With all its advantages, the mobile phone has still some drawbacks in disguise. Though the price of it is decreasing, per minute bill is not decreasing. So everybody cannot possess it. Scientists have recently discovered that mobile phone can cause cancer to the users. Besides, it has become a fashion with the young people. Last but not the least, terrorists are using it to spread out terrorism all around the world. But in spite of all these disadvantages, it can be finalized here that the necessity of a mobile phone in exchanging messages, cannot be denied in the true sense of the term in our practical life.
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Squash is among the most commonly grown plant in the vegetable garden. This crop is fairly easy to grow and establishes itself quite well in most regions of the United States.
Varieties of Squash
There are many varieties of squash, most of which are vine plants; there are a number of bush types as well, however. Before you grow squash, be sure you know which type you have and plan your garden accordingly. There are two types of squash varieties: summer and winter.
Summer varieties of squash are large and bushy. These types of plants do not spread as the vine types do. There are several types of summer squash which come in a variety of shapes and colors. The most common types include:
Most winter varieties of squash are vine plants and will spread throughout the garden. Winter squash is often categorized according to fruit size and there are a number of sizes, shapes and colors available. Winter varieties include:
Growing Squash Tips
As with other vine-growing crops, squash prefers heat, but it is often somewhat hardier than melons or cucumbers. Squash plants require full sun, fertile soil and sufficient moisture. The use of well composted material mixed into the soil is recommended.
Summer and winter squash grow best in fertile, well-drained soil containing high amounts of organic matter in areas of full sun. Organic matter can be added by incorporating compost into the soil as well as decomposed manure.
Squash can be sown directly into the garden or started indoors. Summer and winter squash are commonly planted in hills about 1 inch deep. Sow seeds only after any danger of frost has ended and the soil has warmed. Usually, only 4 to 5 seeds per hill is plenty, thinning down to 2 or 3 plants per hill once the seedlings have developed their true leaves.
Hills and rows of summer squash should be approximately 3 to 4 feet apart while winter squash should be spaced approximately 4 to 5 feet apart with 5 to 7 feet between rows and with the hills spaced about 3 feet apart.
Squash can be started indoors 3 to 4 weeks prior to the planting date. Start seeds in peat pots but be sure the squash seedlings do not suffer root disturbances during transplanting. You can plant 3 to 4 seeds per pot and thin to 2 plants later. Be sure to harden the plants off prior to planting in the garden to lessen the shock of transplanting and wait until all danger of frost has passed. It helps to mulch squash plants generously; mulching maintains moisture and reduces weeds.
Check daily when harvesting squash plants, as these crops grow quickly, especially in hot weather. You should harvest squash frequently to encourage more production and pick the fruits while still small. Squash that is overly ripe becomes hard, seedy and loses its flavor. The summer varieties should be gathered before the seeds have fully ripened and while the rinds are still soft. The winter varieties should not be picked until well matured.
Summer squash can be stored cool, moist areas up to two weeks. They may also be canned or frozen. Summer squash is commonly used in salads, stir-fried, steamed, or cooked in various dishes.
Winter squash can be stored in a cool, dry location for 1 to 6 months. Winter squash is commonly used in baked, steamed or boiled dishes.
Growing Squash Problems
Most varieties of squash are susceptible to a variety of bacteria and fungal diseases. Powdery mildew and bacterial wilt are the most common. Disease problems are most common in hot and humid weather. These diseases can be treated with organic fungicides. A variety of other pests also can cause problems, depending on your particular area.
Squash bugs and squash vine borers can be serious pests. These insects can cause entire leaves to wilt, turn brown and die. Squash is also susceptible to cucumber beetles, which feed on the leaves of the plants and spread disease from one plant to another. Most adult insects can be easily removed by hand, or you may apply an appropriate insecticide to the base of the plants.
With proper garden planning, growing requirements and maintenance, many of these problems can be avoided. After the final harvest, remove and destroy all plant debris to prevent insect or disease infestations.
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Homemade home: creating in the face of the nostalgic impulse
Metadata[+] Show full item record
Nostalgia is a pervasive and widely accepted form of dishonesty. Throughout American history, people have made and collected objects, upheld traditions, and revered styles and forms of past eras with the aim of recreating or re-experiencing some past good, but omitting large portions of the history surrounding the sentimentalized object or idea. That nostalgia is an ongoing and thoroughgoing fixture of American life is not surprising, considering the comfort that many of its practitioners claim it yields. The promise of comfort in the face of the difficulty and isolation of individualism may even seem so appealing as to elicit a potent pang of nostalgia that is nearly compulsory. This initial nostalgic experience, if indulged, can become a practice of reliance on the familiar and denial of the unknown, for the sake of comfort. The cost of this perceived comfort, however, is the honesty required for self-creation. Idealization of the past, faulty remembering, and the blind acceptance of traditions all create the illusion of comfort and prevent an understanding of reality. A large number of contemporary artists address issues related to the experience of nostalgia, such as idealization, memory, tradition, and the meaning embedded in found objects. The artwork discussed in this document, including that of the author, deals specifically with what will be termed "The Problems of Nostalgia," and contains commentary on the aforementioned issues.
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Open source makes it possible for anyone to design their own computer
Could the Girl Scouts position themselves as a tech giant?
Now that full-fledged computers are approaching the size of a USB Flash drive and are being sold for less than $75, my interest in designing a Linux computer of my own has been re-awakened.
As an educator, I would stock that computer full of free creativity and learning software, logic puzzle games, tutorial screencasts, engaging multimedia and artwork created with open source software. Naturally, I would use Linux as the operating system for that computer.
No matter how hard I worked designing such a computer, finding purchasers would not be easy. People are naturally wary of spending money on a computer designed by an unknown entity. So I started thinking, could I volunteer my time to support some well-known entity to sell a very affordable, very lightweight Linux computer that would benefit students worldwide? This entity or organization would need to composed of millions of smart and energetic youth and parents who already collaborate effectively to raise funds for their cause. I'm thinking the Girl Scouts of the USA.
Imagine if the Girl Scouts designed their own Linux computers. Right off the bat you would have 2.3 million minds working on the project. That's not including the 879,000 adults who are involved in supporting them. Can three million minds design an awesome computer? Most assuredly yes.
And if that computer were sold in large numbers, the profit margin for the computer need not be large. Maybe $5 or $7 per computer. That's a vast difference from the 100% profit margin that Apple charges for its computers.
Let's take this idea one step further. How about if the Girl Scouts offered multimedia advertising space on their Linux computer—in a way that does not intrude on the general usage of the computer. Such advertising might focus on educational and other community supportive products and services, with a discount to woman-owned businesses. The advertising revenue could push down the price of the computer even further.
In thinking about the prospect of a Girl Scouts' computer, I visualize a television advertisement with individual Girl Scouts appearing on screen saying: "Apple, meet your new competitor. We're the Girls Scouts. 3 million minds strong. Are you ready?" Substitute any other computer manufacturer's name for the next Girl Scout who appears on the screen.
Computer companies maximize many things when they design their computers. One thing they don't maximize: the educational benefits that can occur from the computers they sell. For too long they have omitted excellent educational software, tutorial screencasts, and other learning materials from their computers.
Thanks to open source software, the mainstream computer companies do not have a chokehold on computer design. Anyone can now jump into the game. Standing on the shoulders of giants—the programmers worldwide who have created Linux—the Girl Scouts could be poised to be the greatest tech giant of all.
The process of designing this computer would itself be a worthy use of Girl Scouts' time. Some scouts would create tutorials about programming in Python and Scratch. Some would create tutorials about Inkscape, Blender, Scribus, OpenShot, and all the other wonderful open source programs out there—not to mention the open source programs that have yet to be invented. The yet-to-be invented programs will find a fertile soil in which to grow.
I broached the idea of a Girl Scouts Linux computer to several people I know. One of the smartest among them lit up at the mention of this idea. In my imagination, I have been trying out this computer and I like what I see. And I believe this is an idea whose time has arrived.
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As telecommunications policy expert Susan Crawford pointed out to Bill, over the past decade, America has fallen behind many other wealthy countries in access to high-speed Internet. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) recently ranked America 15th internationally, with broadband available to only 68.2 percent of households. Compare that with 87 percent in Iceland or 97.5 in Korea. Our slower Internet is also more expensive than in other parts of the world.
According to a report from the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA), a certain amount of America’s lack of high-speed Internet can be attributed to population density. America is far more spread out than, say, Korea, and faster connections are possible when the length of the wires from the phone company to your home is shorter. But that’s not the full story — in Canada, a country far less dense than the US, 72.2 percent of households have broadband.Across America, access to high-speed Internet varies tremendously — even within a single community — an issue several federal communications commissioners have committed themselves to addressing.
Where does your community fall within the spectrum of connectivity? The National Broadband Map can tell you (click “Explore the Maps”).
Before exploring the data, you can test your own connection speed using the FCC’s quality test. The New York City-based Moyers & Company Web team gets about 10 mbps, if you’re interested.
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Saturday, 09 March 2013
Wildlife and Industry: A Kentish Heritage
Community Arts and Education day school
Tutor: Tutor: Peter Flower
Date: Saturday 9 March 2013 | 10am-4pm
When we look at the countryside of Kent we think of a rural idyll. But historically Kent has often been at the centre of industrial development. This day school will look briefly at some of the many industries which have developed in the county and the effect they have had on our countryside and wildlife.
The day will start with an overview of how Kent`s geology has influenced the various industries and wildlife. We will then investigate extractive industries including the iron industry in Roman and Medieval times, coal mining and other quarrying. The role of manufacture, such as the gunpowder and paper making industries will be examined and then finally we will look at farming and the wildlife that inhabits the Kentish landscape today.
This event is open to the public.
Time: All Day
Contact: April Doyle (email)
Telephone: 01227 863451
Email April Doyle by using this form:
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Pliny the Younger
Pliny the Younger was an author who attests, in a letter to the emperor Trajan about a grant of citizenship for a therapist named Harpocras, that citizenship was granted to some Egyptians, though far from open-handedly. He states in his letter that , since he was an Egyptian, Pliny should have obtained for him Alexandrian citizenship, then Roman. Since he didn't realize that there was a difference, he merely wrote to the emperor that Trajan was a freedman of an alien woman and that his patron had died.
Back to Who's Who of Ancient Egypt
Last Updated: June 19th, 2011
Who are we?
Tour Egypt aims to offer the ultimate Egyptian adventure and intimate knowledge about the country. We offer this unique experience in two ways, the first one is by organizing a tour and coming to Egypt for a visit, whether alone or in a group, and living it firsthand. The second way to experience Egypt is from the comfort of your own home: online.
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What is encapsulation?It is the fundamental principles of object-oriented programming. It hides all the internal details of an object from the outside world. It hides its data and methods from outside the world and only expose data and methods that are required. It provides us maintainability, flexibility and extensibility to our code. It makes the fields in a class private and providing access to the fields using public methods Encapsulation allows us to create a "black box" and protects an objects internal state from corruption by its clients.
VB.NET method overloading
VB.NET - Define method overloading - It allows several methods with the same name but different signatures.....
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In this interesting op-ed theoretical physicist Mark Buchanan argues that Economists Have a Lot to Learn From the Weather. I could not agree more.
He makes the case that most modern economists dismiss the inherent instability of economy. That they are wrapped up in tidy models of how the everything is supposed to work. Meanwhile the real economy spins and gyrates all around them. These same economists then wonder why it is that their predictions often are wrong. Though as you may have noticed they rarely admit to their mistakes.
I believe, as it seems Mr. Buchanan does, that there is nothing inherently special about economics versus any other part of the universe. Like weather which allocates energy derived from the sun (mostly) in the fairly closed system that is planet Earth, economics is the study of the distribution of wealth, which as you may have noticed is also subject to both fair winds and gales.
It can even be argued that wealth really comes from nature itself, but I won’t go into that now.
I believe that nature is full of useful metaphors for economics beyond just weather.
For instance, a managed economy can be thought of as similar to a river with engineered banks. Dykes and berms are built up along a river to channel it away from towns and into irrigation ducts, but sooner or later mother nature always makes her presence known. A flood comes. Though the levees and berms may have held for years, one day they fail and the river rushes into the countryside.
In this metaphor the levy engineers can be thought of as the central banks, the river breakthrough as a recession or a depression. Had there never been a levy in the first place the flood would have been much smaller and would have been shorter in duration. The waters would have receded and a welcome layer of silt would have renewed the soil.
Instead the berms (economic actions created and manipulated by the Fed) eventually let forth a torrent (a recession) that destroys everything in its path and which goes farther out across the plain than the flood would have had man just left the shores of the river alone.
Sure without the levees and dykes floods would still come, and sure some land would be unusable often because of these floods, but overall the dislocation for the river community year to year would be less.
Hydrodynamics and aerodynamics have much in common. Essentially they are the study of swirls and the distribution of energy. Economics is the same. Money swirls here and there. Wealth (not just money but wealth) is accumulated and is dispersed. To the degree that we intervene this living system is mutated and often creates unintended consequences.
If indeed the economy is similar fundamentally to the weather or to a river, perhaps it would be wisest to accept that we will likely never be able to control it, or even understand it completely. Perhaps we should learn to bend to the economy instead trying to make the economy bend to us.
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There are a few variations in how chord charts are shown. But, since they’re a fairly intuitive picture of what to do, it’s not hard to work out.
The type of chord chart I use shows the ukulele fretboard as if it’s pointing upwards and facing towards you. The strings are the vertical lines (starting with G at the left) and the horizontal lines are the frets.
Chord shapes are shown by dots at where each finger should go.
For this G chord, you play the C string at the second fret, the E string at the third fret and the A string at the second fret. Wherever there is a ‘o’ at the top of the string, that means the string is played open (it is not fretted at all).
The numbers at the bottom refer to the finger that you use rather than the fret. So a 1 would mean you fret that string using your index/pointer finger, a 2 would mean you use your middle finger and so on. It’s important to remember that the refer to fingers not strings (often they’re the same so it can be confusing).
For example, the G chord. You fret the A string at the second fret with your second finger, the E string at the third fret with your third finger and the C string at the fourth fret with your first finger.
These fingerings are just suggestions. If there’s another way of arranging your fingers, that’s not a problem.
Some, such as this ukulele chord chart, show the fingerings within the dots themselves.
You’ll sometimes see an ‘X’ at the top of the string. This means the string is not played at all. You might need to rest one of your fretting hand fingers against the string (without actually fretting it) to make sure it doesn’t sound.
Chords Up the Neck
When a chord is played higher up the fretboard, the lowest fret played is indicated at the top right (sometimes it’s on the left). In this example, the C and A strings are played at the seventh fret, the E string at the eighth fret and the G string at the ninth fret.
Sometimes, when I want to refer to chord shapes quickly, I just use four numbers like this 2100. These refer to the fret numbers for each string in the order gCEA. So the 2 means you play the g-string at the second fret, the 1 means you play the C-string at the first fret and the 0s mean you play the E and A-strings open. Giving you the standard A chord shape.
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If I'm reading a paper map how do I determine what projection was used to draw the map if such information is not explicitly labelled on the document?
Online it is easy to find resources (for example, Wikipedia or GIS Wiki) that describe and classify the various projections in use. However, as a non-expert map user I find it difficult to use the construction details in reverse, to determine what projection has been used to draw a particular map. I thought perhaps there might be a flow chart or other classification process that could help a map user determine the projection in use?
For example, at my local library and archives there is a copy of a map lithograph from the Dominion Lands Office (Canada) dated 1878. The map has curved parallels and meridians that are wider at the bottom than the top (the top being closer to the pole in this case). I think this makes the map a conical projection, but I'm not sure. And, if that is correct I am interested in learning if it is possible to classify the projection more precisely (e.g. Lambert conformal).
I have made a partial scan of this 1878 map (it is too large to scan the whole thing with the equipment I have available) in case that helps anyone answer my question.
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Warren’s debut provides a much-needed biography of a heroine in the struggle for migrant farmworkers’ rights.
Dolores Huerta, often relegated to a secondary character in books about César Chávez, takes center stage in this accessible story. Huerta’s story begins with her realization that migrant farmworkers’ conditions and pay are the root causes for her own students’ poor health, hunger and lack of shoes. The author chronicles Huerta’s journey by emphasizing her various roles: teacher, friend, warrior, organizer, storyteller, peacemaker, mother and woman. After Huerta fails to get the workers’ bosses to improve conditions and raise wages, she organizes a strike. Eventually, her efforts help change working conditions. In watercolor with pastels, Casilla captures Huerta’s strength and the resilience of Latino migrant farm works. With the notable exception of a single, stark-white offset, the text blends beautifully with the illustrations in form and substance. A detailed chronology (in which Chávez appears) and a list of books, articles and websites enrich the simple text. While the book alone will work with younger children, the backmatter makes this title an exceptional resource for both Hispanic Heritage and Woman’s History months.
A welcome title for children and educators alike. (Picture book/biography. 6-10)
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The Division of Pediatric Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery at Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center provides this glossary to help you understand words you may hear during your child's evaluation and treatment.
Congenital Aural Atresia
Aural atresia refers to a failure of the ear canal to develop and open properly. Patients may or may not have a normal outer ear, but do not have a patent ear canal and do not have a normal eardrum.
In many cases of microtia or aural atresia, the inner ear hearing structures have formed normally, and nerve hearing levels may be normal. In such cases, a child’s hearing loss will likely be conductive in nature since sounds cannot be transmitted to the inner ear efficiently. It is not uncommon for the middle ear structures to be affected (abnormally developed) when the external ear is affected. Structures such as the ear canal, the eardrum and the middle ear hearing bones are often underdeveloped, fused or absent.
Evaluation for microtia and aural atresia often involve a comprehensive examination, audiologic testing and imaging studies (e.g., CT scan) to evaluate the middle and inner ear structures.
Since these congenital abnormalities are usually noticed at birth, early management concepts include ensuring that a child’s hearing is normal in at least one ear (or both ears are adequately amplified) such that communication skills develop. Any type of hearing restoration or ear reconstruction (if desired by the family) is usually delayed until the baby is older − for functional, aesthetic and patient safety considerations.
Newborns are obliged to breathe through their nose. After several months, they develop an ability to breathe through both the mouth and nose. Whenever the posterior aspect of the nasal passages does not open during development, known as choanal atresia, children typically develop significant respiratory distress.
The condition can be on either one or both sides. When it is one-sided, children often present with a prolonged history of one-sided nasal drainage and not much in the way of nasal obstruction. In contrast, children with bilateral choanal atresia generally present with significant respiratory distress that is relieved only by crying and mouth breathing. When either is suspected, the inability of a physician to pass a catheter through the nose will lead on to suspect the condition. A CT scan can be obtained to confirm the diagnosis.
Once this has been accomplished, definitive surgical repair may take place either through the mouth or the nose, depending on the severity of the condition. Prior to the repair, placement of an oral airway may be helpful in “buying time” until surgery. Oftentimes, children with choanal atresia have other congenital abnormalities. Consultation with a genetics expert should be considered.
Complete Tracheal Rings
Although complete tracheal rings are extremely rare, they are still the most common cause of congenital tracheal stenosis. Complete tracheal rings (or “O” rings) are always smaller than normal “C”-shaped rings and may severely compromise a child’s airway. While some children with complete rings will have a large enough airway not to need surgery, more than 80 percent will need an operation to correct the narrowing of the airway.
Children with a narrow trachea due to complete tracheal rings usually have noisy breathing that gets worse as they grow. The noise classically sounds like they have something to cough up, but can’t (“washing machine” breathing). Children may also retract as they breathe, and when the condition is severe, may have near-death experiences. More than 50 percent of children with complete rings have other congenital anomalies. Often there are heart or other vascular abnormalities, and these may need to be fixed at the same time as the airway.
Some children with few symptoms do not need urgent surgery. We monitor several such children, some for as long as 16 years, and a proportion will never need surgery. Some will require surgery later, but the operation is easier in a bigger child. However, most children need urgent surgery, especially if they present as a baby. Surgical correction is a highly specialized area, usually requiring a team approach. There are several possible operations, but in our hands, the slide tracheoplasty (which shortens the trachea, but makes it much wider) has been the most successful. In 2001, we performed six successful slide tracheoplasties. In some cases the trachea can be repaired through a neck incision, but more commonly the airway repair requires a sternotomy, with the child placed on cardiopulmonary bypass.
One out of every 2,000 children born in the United States has moderate or worse hearing loss, making congenital hearing loss one of the most common birth defects. Of these cases, half will have a genetic / hereditary basis to their deafness. Therefore, the study of genes involved in hearing and deafness is crucial to our understanding and care of children with hearing loss.
After a hearing loss has been identified in a child, a comprehensive evaluation is begun to seek the cause. Most cases of hearing loss are from an obvious cause (e.g., ear infections) and no further diagnostic testing is needed. In most cases of sensorineural hearing loss, the cause is not obviously known and an ear specialist (pediatric otologist) will take a thorough medical history and perform a physical examination. Many factors can cause SNHL, with genetic causes accounting for more than 50 percent of cases. Nongenetic (hereditary) factors that can be identified include infections (meningitis, cytomegalovirus, syphilis), hyperbilirubinemia (jaundice at birth), medications (aminoglycoside antibiotics and cisplatin chemotherapy), trauma (skull fractures), immune dysfunction (autoimmune inner ear disease) and blood dyscrasias (hypercoagulable states, sickle cell disease).
The appropriate evaluation for children diagnosed has long been controversial. It is well accepted that talking with and examining child and family are the most important tools to determine the cause of hearing loss. Many of the syndromes associated with SNHL can be diagnosed in this fashion. Further testing remains controversial. The debate centers on the yield and cost-effectiveness of specific tests in contrast with the risks of failing to identify a potentially significant disorder. Possible diagnostic tests include various urine and blood tests, electrocardiograms and imaging studies. Recent studies have suggested that the high-resolution CT scan (“CAT scan”) may identify the reason for the SNHL in 15 percent of cases.
Genetic testing is a process by which one’s unique genetic code is determined to discover the cause of a particular disorder. Currently, three genes are available for routine screening, and as technology and our knowledge improve, complete panels of all deafness related genes will be realized. Approximately one-third of all children with significant hearing loss will be positive for testing for the GJB2 gene (or Connexin 26). It is now recommended that all children with hearing impairment be screened with this simple blood test. Besides being able to diagnose many of these children with a single test, this may prevent the need for other time-consuming and expensive tests.
Hearing impairment, or “deafness,” is actually fairly common in the United States. Hearing impairment − from the typical “age-related hearing impairment,” to noise-induced hearing loss, and even congenital hearing impairment − affects a significant number of Americans every year.
Hearing can be impaired by numerous factors. From a clinical standpoint, hearing impairment is usually broken down into conductive (i.e., mechanical) or sensorineural (i.e., nerve) hearing loss. A conductive hearing loss is due to abnormal transmission of sound energy through the external and middle ears. As an example, ear wax or a foreign body in the ear canal can mechanically block the transmission of sound to the inner ear. Similarly, fluid in the middle ear space or a defect in the eardrum can cause decreased transmission of sound through the ear. Such conductive hearing losses can routinely be addressed to improve hearing sensitivity (e.g., clean the ear canal of wax or repair an eardrum perforation). In contrast, a sensorineural hearing impairment is usually irreversible. In the vast majority of these cases, hearing loss is due to problems of either the cells of the inner ear (so-called hair cells) or the hearing nerves themselves. It’s relevant to note that people are born with a fixed number of hair cells in their inner ears and do not “regenerate” or grow new hair cells after damage. As a result, it is nearly impossible to recover nerve hearing either medically or surgically.
A common inquiry from patients and their families is to describe how much hearing loss a person has sustained. Patients commonly want to know if they have a “50 percent hearing loss” or “80 percent hearing loss,” for example. However, hearing loss is rarely well described using such terms. To illustrate why, it is necessary to understand that most people can hear sounds from a very low frequency (i.e., low-pitch sounds) to very high frequencies (i.e., high-pitch sounds). People with normal hearing thresholds can typically hear tones as soft as 20 decibels. In contrast, people with hearing impairment need louder tones (25 decibels or greater) to hear them. In many cases of hearing loss, individuals do not show an equal hearing loss across all the frequencies or pitches. Instead, patients may show a selective high-frequency hearing loss with normal hearing in the lower frequencies (as might be seen in age-related hearing loss). Or conversely, some individuals might show poor hearing in the low frequencies with more normal hearing in the higher frequencies (as might be seen in diseases such as Meniere’s disease). Accordingly, when a patient’s hearing loss is not “flat,” or equal, across all the frequencies, it is difficult to describe that type of hearing loss as a single percentage. Routine audiologic tests (hearing tests) assess a person’s hearing across all these frequencies to get a better understanding of a person’s hearing level.
Children with Down syndrome will commonly have ear, nose and throat problems. This includes chronic ear infections and hearing loss, an increased incidence of upper respiratory tract infections and sinus infections, as well as problems with airway obstruction and sleep abnormalities.
It is important to be aware of these common ENT problems and to treat them aggressively and not just accept that they are “part of Down syndrome.” About 40 percent of children with Down syndrome have very small ear canals, making diagnosis of ear infections difficult. If your child has very small ear canals, and your primary care physician cannot see the eardrums, a referral should be made to an ENT doctor for evaluation. We have special instruments to assist with examination of even the smallest ear canals. Ear infections should be treated with both antibiotics and pressure equalizer tube (PET) placement if the infections do not resolve. Hearing levels need to be followed closely with an auditory brain stem hearing test (ABR) at birth and then audiograms (hearing tests) every six months until your child is able to have the right and left ear tested separately.
Sinus infections usually respond to antibiotics, but it is important to eliminate risk factors that can trigger the infections such as cigarette smoke and large day care classes. Allergies should be considered also.
Studies are showing that sleep abnormalities are much more common in children with Down syndrome than previously thought. A formal evaluation of your child’s sleep should be done around age 7, even if you think his or her sleep is OK. If there are signs of obstructions (snoring, restless sleep, odd sleeping positions, struggling to breathe during sleep, pauses in the breathing), an evaluation by an ENT doctor should be done right away.
Learn more about the Thomas Center for Down Syndrome Services.
Under normal conditions the mouth produces a teaspoon of saliva every five minutes. Saliva keeps the mouth moist, initiates food digestion and helps fight infections. Saliva is produced by four large glands and hundreds of small glands throughout the lining of the mouth. Two of the large glands, the parotid glands, are in front of the ears, in the soft tissues of the cheek. The other two large glands, the submandibular glands, are in the neck, on either side of the chin. The saliva produced by the glands empties into the mouth by the way of a duct or tube. The parotid and submandibular glands produce most of the saliva generated in the mouth. The small glands, or minor salivary glands, located throughout the lining of the mouth, are responsible for generating a small fraction of the total saliva.
Saliva is swallowed periodically and unconsciously, so that this fluid does not accumulate in the mouth. However, saliva can accumulate if the glands produce too much, or if the saliva is not periodically swallowed. When saliva accumulates in the mouth, it eventually spills over the lips and onto the chin. This is defined as drooling. Children with neurological problems are often unable to periodically swallow their saliva, and in these kids, drooling becomes a chronic problem. The excess saliva can even drain down the back of the tongue into the airway and lungs, instead of the stomach, causing a continuous cough.
The treatment for drooling is to surgically reduce the amount of saliva produced. This is accomplished by removing the submandibular glands from the neck through a small incision on either side of the chin. Additionally, the duct emptying the saliva from the parotid glands, found easily on the inside of the mouth next to the molars, is sewn closed. This operation successfully reduces drooling in the majority of children.
Other than well-child care, the most common reason that children see a physician is for treatment of otitis media (middle ear infections). Though ear infections often start with a viral upper respiratory tract infection, bacterial organisms frequently are involved. Signs and symptoms of an ear infection include fever, irritability, pain, tugging at the ear, loss of balance and lack of hearing, with the presence of fluid leaking from the ear canal. These infections should be differentiated from external otitis, or swimmer’s ear, an infection of the external ear canal.
Though treatment usually involves administration of antibiotics, recent studies indicate that observation without medical therapy may be appropriate in some children. When ear infections are recurrent or if the fluid associated with the infection does not clear, ventilating tube placement may be appropriate. Additionally, removal of the adenoids may be helpful in some children who have had repeated problems or who have severe nasal obstruction. Recurrent or chronic problems may prompt a visit to an ear, nose and throat physician where a hearing test may be obtained as part of the standard evaluation of the child.
Facial Plastic Surgery
There are many conditions that call for plastic surgery in children. While today’s culture may think of plastic surgery as a way to simply improve one’s appearance, in children, plastic surgery may be needed to correct important functional deformities that may have been caused by anomalous growth before birth. For instance, if a child is born with a very small malformed ear or without any external ear, reconstruction of the ear is needed to provide better hearing in addition to correcting the cosmetic problem. Children born with cleft lips or cleft palates, or both, need surgical correction to improve not only their appearance, but also to allow proper feeding and speaking abilities. Some children may be born with an abnormal nose with obstruction from this abnormality. Reconstructive surgery is needed to correct both the cosmetic problem but also the airway obstruction associated with it. Newborns know only how to breathe through their noses, and obstruction of the nose in a newborn can be very serious.
Some children are born with abnormal functioning in the palate such that they are unable to close off their nasal airway from their oral airway when they speak. This is a condition called velopharyngeal insufficiency and results in nasal sounding speech, sometimes to the point of being very difficult to understand. It is more frequent in children who have required a cleft palate repair. Although the opening in the palate is surgically closed, the palate may still not function correctly, and further intervention is needed.
Other times when plastic surgery may be needed, not necessarily at birth, include the need for scar revisions on the face or neck due to poorly healing wounds, commonly from trauma. Although there will still be a scar, its appearance can be minimized.
Otoplasty, or correction of external ear deformities, is commonly done. Because the ears form from six different mounds of tissue, called hillocks, there can be variation in the way that the ears look, and abnormalities can range from very minor to quite severe. This is most commonly seen in children with absence of the upper creases in the ear (the posterior and anterior crus of the antihelix), resulting in an ear that sticks out. Surgery is done to reconstruct the missing folds, resulting in the ears being pulled back toward the head.
Rhinoplasty, or nasal reconstruction, and septorhinoplasty, if combined with surgery on the nasal septum, can be done to improve one’s appearance. However, this surgery is also needed in cases where the nasal deformity is contributing to nasal obstruction, and nasal breathing function is being affected.
When considering plastic surgery for your child, it is important to understand that function must come before appearance. It doesn’t matter how good the nose looks if your child can’t breathe. It is therefore important to discuss the issues of both appearance and function with your surgeon. Limitations in both regards must also be discussed prior to the surgery.
Some surgeries need to be done when the child is quite young. In others, it is better to wait until the child is older. The pro’s and con’s of timing of the surgery also need to be discussed with your surgeon. Issues of facial growth that might be altered by the surgery, vs. poor function, vs. the emotional factors associated with a deformity must be considered.
Head and Neck Tumors
Head and neck tumors in children are relatively rare. They may be classified as malignant vs. benign, or tumors of childhood vs. tumors that are also seen in adults. Benign tumors of childhood include hemangiomas, lymphangiomas, juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibromas (causing nasal blockage) and a variety of congenital neck cysts. Malignant tumors characteristic of childhood include rhabdomyosarcomas and lymphomas.
As with all tumors, there are four main modalities of treatment. Some tumors will naturally involute (e.g., hemangiomas), and nothing may need to be done. Some tumors require excision, particularly benign tumors. Some tumors require chemotherapy or radiotherapy, usually malignant tumors. Of course there is overlap between all these groups, and some tumors require more than one form of treatment.
There are many sorts of laryngeal stenosis, with the most common being airway narrowing just below the vocal cords (subglottic stenosis). This may be a problem a child is born with, but more commonly it results from scarring caused by intubation. Very premature babies who are intubated for many weeks are at particular risk. Mild subglottic stenosis may have few symptoms. Moderate narrowing may cause noisy breathing (stridor) and may limit activities as the child gets short of breath. In babies there may be feeding problems. Severe subglottic stenosis usually requires a tracheotomy tube to allow the child to breathe. The voice is usually normal unless the stenosis is very severe or complete. Other causes of laryngeal stenosis include laryngeal atresia and laryngeal webs (affecting the vocal cords and voice).
Children with subglottic stenosis often have other problems. These include lung problems (like BPD needing oxygen), gastric reflux problems and feeding problems. It is important that any other problems are taken into consideration when treatment of subglottic stenosis is planned. For children with many problems, we take an interdisciplinary approach to treatment (see Aerodigestive and Sleep Center) and try to optimize a child’s health before we correct subglottic stenosis.
All forms of laryngeal stenosis can be improved, but some children may not need surgery, and in some cases surgery is better delayed. Our unit has performed more laryngeal reconstructions than any other and has particular expertise in managing the very complex airway. There are two main operations used to correct subglottic stenosis − laryngotracheal reconstruction (LTR) and cricotracheal resection (CTR). Laryngotracheal reconstruction increases the size of the airway by inserting cartilage grafts (usually from a rib). Our unit developed this operation in the 1970s, and we have performed more than 1,000 LTRs. Cricotracheal resection is more technically challenging and required for more severe stenosis. We have performed more than 70 CTRs in children.
Laryngomalacia is the most common congenital cause of noisy breathing, or stridor, in the newborn. Laryngomalacia describes a condition where the tissues of the larynx (the voice box), above the vocal cords, are soft or floppy. When a baby with laryngomalacia breathes, these floppy tissues may fall over the vocal cords and partially block the opening into the windpipe or trachea. This results usually in a high-pitched, fluttery inspiratory noise. It can be worse when the baby cries or eats.
Laryngomalacia is believed to represent an immaturity of the tissues of the larynx. Diagnosis is most easily done by a flexible laryngoscopy in the office. A small, flexible fiber-optic telescope is used to visualize the larynx and the vocal cords to see if there is any collapse of the tissues just above the vocal cords.
In the majority of cases, laryngomalacia resolves on its own without specific treatment. The tissues of the larynx become more firm as the child grows, and the stridor usually resolves slowly over the child’s first 18 months of life. The stridor may be worse with feeding because of the increase in negative inspiratory pressures associated with sucking, and it is suggested that feeding be done slowly, allowing the child frequent rest periods. In a small percentage of children with laryngomalacia, the obstruction caused by the collapsing tissues is more severe. This can result in poor weight gain because the baby is unable to eat without developing airway obstruction. It can also cause severe oxygenation problems and even heart complications. In these more severe cases, surgery may be needed to trim away some of the collapsing tissue.
The development of the larynx, or “voice box,” is a complex process. The result of normal development is a larynx that is completely separated from the esophagus “food pipe.” This separation is important, so that when we swallow food, the food particles go down the esophagus and not into the larynx. Sometimes, for unknown reasons, the larynx does not develop properly. One abnormality that can arise is a laryngeal cleft, which is a defect in the separation between the larynx and esophagus. In other words, there is a communication or opening between the larynx and esophagus. This communication can range from small to large and can allow food to pass into the larynx, trachea (“air pipe”) and lungs. This leads to problems swallowing, chronic cough and lung disease.
If the laryngeal cleft is small and the child does not have problems with feeding or aspiration (food going into the lungs), then the child can simply be observed. However, in most cases the laryngeal cleft is a problem and has to be surgically closed. The most common procedure for the repair of a laryngeal cleft involves making an incision in the neck, opening up the larynx and suturing the laryngeal cleft.
Microtia refers to abnormalities of the external ear (the pinna or auricle) due to abnormal development of the ear during gestation. Since these portions of the external ear are forming during the end of the first trimester of pregnancy, it is believed that some kind of altered development during this time is responsible for ear malformations. While a few specific causes for abnormal development have been identified (rubella infection, abnormal vitamin A levels during pregnancy, some hereditary conditions), the cause in a majority of cases is likely unidentifiable. Microtia can affect either one or both ears and can occur along with other congenital (present at birth) abnormalities (cleft lip or palate, jaw and facial abnormalities).
Nasal obstruction is of particular concern in newborns. At birth, the child knows only how to breathe through his or her nose. Breathing through one’s mouth is a “learned” behavior that develops over the first 6 months of age. Total obstruction of the nose can lead to very serious complications in the newborn, even death. Therefore, one of the first procedures done in the delivery room is to suction the child’s nose. This clears the nasal passages of any secretions, but more important, confirms that the nasal passages are open. Whereas total obstruction is a very serious condition, partial obstruction can cause difficulties breathing and eating.
One of the most common causes of nasal obstruction in the newborn is due to dried secretions or crusts in the nose. This is a common problem in the winter months when the humidity is low. In addition, some of the hormonal changes that occur in the mother with pregnancy that cause nasal swelling can also affect the child, who also has swelling of the nasal tissues.
The endoscopic swallow study is just one way to assess the safety and integrity of the swallow mechanism. It defines the anatomy and demonstrates the safety of swallowing. It is useful in those patients who will not accept food into their mouth. It is also helpful in patients where questions of aspiration of saliva are being considered. It is also useful as a preoperative evaluation prior to the reconstruction of the airway to predict which patients will be at risk for aspiration during the postoperative period.
Nasal obstruction could also be due to choanal atresia or stenosis, a condition where the posterior openings of the nose do not form correctly. Nasal obstruction can be caused by a crooked nasal septum. In the newborn, this may occur if the nose is compressed coming down the birth canal. The nasal septum may also become deviated from trauma (falls or getting hit in the nose) or may simply grow crooked as the facial bones develop. Nasal septal hematomas, or blood accumulating under the tissue layers of the nasal septal cartilage, can occur similarly from nasal trauma.
Obstruction of the nose can also be caused from masses or growths in the nose. This can include nasolacrimal duct cysts, where the distal opening of the tube draining the tears into the nose doesn’t open. There can be abnormal vascular growths in the nose, including hemangiomas. Because the brain is just superior to the nose, abnormal brain tissue can sometimes be found in the nose.
One of the more common causes of nasal obstruction in the 3- to 4-year-old child is from a foreign body in the nose. The child frequently presents with nasal drainage and obstruction on just one side of the nose. In addition, adenoid growth can cause blockage of the nasal airway.
Examination and evaluation of the cause of the nasal obstruction must first be done. If a foreign object, such as a piece of a toy or a bead is seen, simple removal is done. If the obstruction is due to dried secretions in the nose, the use of saline nose drops, three to four times per day, will help clear the nasal passages. Swelling due to hormonal effects from the mother usually goes away within the first few days after birth and can also be treated with saline drops. Occasionally, a short course of steroid nose drops is needed.
If there is obstruction due to dislocation of the nasal septum at birth, the otolaryngologist can replace the septum to the midline position where it belongs. It is important to recognize this within the first days after birth, before scar tissue forms, holding the septum in its new location. If there is obstruction due to accumulation of blood under the lining tissues of the septum, this needs drainage immediately.
Evaluation of obstruction caused by the adenoids (the tonsil tissue sitting in the nasopharynx behind the nose) can be done either with a flexible telescope or by an X-ray of the area.
Although we have very small flexible telescopes to look into the nose, evaluation of total nasal obstruction or nasal masses usually requires a CT scan. The CT scan helps define the cause of the obstruction or the mass, and a treatment plan can be made.
Newborn Airway Disorders
There are many forms of airway problems that may affect babies. These may range from nasal blockage to tracheal stenosis (see choanal atresia, nasal obstruction, laryngomalacia, laryngeal stenosis, tracheal stenosis and complete tracheal rings). Newborns have not yet learned to breathe through the mouth, so nasal blockage may cause severe airway problems and may even be life threatening. The most common cause of noisy breathing in a baby is laryngomalacia, a condition most babies grow out of without surgery. However, many of the other causes of breathing problems are more severe and important, even though they may sound very similar. We recommend that an expert (pediatrician, ENT surgeon, pediatric pulmonologist, pediatric ENT surgeon) assess any baby with noisy breathing or an airway problem.
Symptoms of neonatal airway problems include apnea, cyanosis (blue spells), noisy breathing, retractions, an abnormal cry and feeding difficulties (feeding is the most strenuous activity for a baby). Some babies need to be intubated at birth, and may have difficulty with removal of the tube (extubation). This may be due to airway problems, or other underlying health problems.
Some problems improve with growth and time, while others will require surgery. Some children require placement of a tracheotomy tube. While often the tracheotomy may be removed in the future, it may require an operation in some children, and in others should not be removed.
Respiratory papillomatosis is the most common tumor of the upper airway in the pediatric patient. It is estimated that four out of 1,000 children under 14 years of age have laryngeal papillomatosis. This equates to approximately 2,500 new cases and 6,000 active cases per year in the United States.
The most common symptoms associated with laryngeal papilloma are hoarseness and change of voice quality. Difficulty with breathing may also be present although acute respiratory distress is rare because of the gradual growth of papilloma within the airway. The average length of time between when the symptoms first present and the papilloma are properly diagnosed is often greater than one year.
The treatment for recurrent respiratory papillomatosis has as its goal maintaining an adequate airway until the patient is able to spontaneously correct the problem. Surgical treatment will not cure a patient of laryngeal papilloma. The exact mechanism whereby the papilloma spontaneously regress is unclear although the patient’s immune status seems to be an important factor.
Various surgical treatment modalities exist for removing papilloma from the larynx. Lasers are able to vaporize the papilloma tissue with the precision necessary to protect adjacent normal tissue. Mechanical shavers have been developed where the papilloma can be suctioned into a device and cut free from the surrounding tissue with great precision. Grafting devices have also been utilized to remove large clumps of papilloma from the airway.
Several ancillary types of medical treatments have also been explored in the treatment of laryngeal papilloma. Interferon is a glycoprotein produced by various cells in the body in response to viruses. The main side effects of interferon treatment are flu-like symptoms. Ingol-3-corbinol is a chemical found in high concentrations in cruciferous vegetables (broccoli, cauliflower). It has been shown to alter the growth factor of papilloma cell cultures. Acyclovir is an antiviral drug active against the herpes simplex virus group. Its mechanism of action is not understood in respiratory papillomatosis. Cidofovir is an antiviral medication effective against DNA viruses. Intralesional injections of this drug are being investigated.
The natural history of recurrent respiratory papillomatosis is one of spontaneous resolution. Surgical intervention is necessary to maintain an airway until the papilloma regress. All treatments utilized must not create any damage to surrounding laryngeal structures. Extension of papilloma into the trachea and bronchi can occur. This makes treatment of the disease much more difficult, and life-threatening problems may develop.
Pierre Robin sequence occurs when a baby is born with a short lower jaw (micrognathia), which in turn makes the tongue sit high in the mouth causing a cleft palate. The prominent tongue may cause breathing problems as it blocks the back of the throat. If this is not severe, nothing need be done, as most children will have catch-up growth of the jaw and grow out of the problem within a year or two. If there are breathing problems, a sleep study may show the severity and whether intervention is required.
Some children have a less severe form with no cleft palate. However, they may also have very compromised breathing. Children with Pierre Robin may be very difficult to intubate.
If the baby’s breathing is blocked, a tracheotomy is usually needed. Other treatments are rarely effective. The tracheotomy can usually be removed once the jaw has grown. In a few children the jaw does not grow sufficiently and an operation (mandibular distraction) is needed to lengthen the jaw. Children with Pierre Robin are more prone to have suprastomal collapse (at the trach site), and tracheomalacia, which may delay removal of the tracheotomy tube. The cleft palate is usually repaired before 1 year of age.
Salivary Gland Disease
Saliva is produced by three pairs of major salivary glands as well as many minor salivary glands, which are located throughout the oral cavity. The major glands include the parotid glands (in front of the ear), the submandibular glands (just below the jaw) and the sublingual glands (under the tongue). These are all paired glands. In addition to producing a baseline amount of saliva, production increases with food consumption.
Diseases of the salivary glands usually involve infections or tumors. Infections of either the parotid or submandibular glands are marked by swelling in the area of the gland that is made worse during eating. Treatment usually involves fluids, antibiotics, heat, massage, and the use of sour candy to stimulate salivary gland drainage. In younger children, the infections may be recurrent in the parotid glands. In all situations, antibiotics usually resolve the infections but, in a few circumstances, surgery may be necessary to remove a chronically infected gland.
When a tumor is suspected, removal of the gland is often necessary. Specialized X-ray studies may be obtained before surgery, and the use of a needle to perform a biopsy may be an option as well. The risk of malignancy is relatively high in salivary gland tumors, and aggressive management of suspected tumors is encouraged.
Viral upper respiratory tract infections are extremely common in children under the age of 5. In children who are in a day care setting, this number is much higher. Though most of these infections will resolve spontaneously with symptomatic treatment in 10 days, sinusitis is thought to be present in those children who do not improve over this time. This condition may be marked by fever, facial pain, profuse nasal drainage, cough and headache. Acute sinusitis should be differentiated from chronic sinusitis in which symptoms may persist for more than three months.
Though antibiotics are the mainstays of treatment for acute sinusitis, routine use of saline nose drops may be helpful in addition to decongestant therapy and nasal steroid spray. Prolonged therapy is necessary frequently. In children who do not respond to conventional therapy, a CT scan of the sinuses may be obtained. X-rays are not used frequently, as the information they provide is limited. In some children who do not respond to medical therapy, drainage of the sinuses may be appropriate. Adenoidectomy may be helpful in certain individuals as well. In those children who require prolonged medical or surgical treatment, evaluation for allergies may be helpful.
Complications of sinusitis often involve the eye or brain. In these situations, intravenous antibiotic therapy is usually required, as is surgical drainage of the sinuses.
Sleep apnea is a condition where the normal sleep patterns of a child are disrupted. The word “apnea” refers to a condition where breathing stops. This can be due to central causes, where the brain no longer transmits signals to the body to actually breathe, or can be due to an obstruction in the airway where breathing is curtailed because of a blockage. Most causes of central apnea are due to neurologic abnormalities and will not be addressed here as they are usually cared for by neurologists or pulmonologists. Obstructive apnea, however, is most frequently treated by the otolaryngologist (ear, nose and throat specialist).
Within sleep apnea, there is a broad range of sleep disordered breathing abnormalities, including obstructive hypopneas, where the child doesn’t totally stop breathing, but there is enough obstruction in the airway such that the breaths taken are too small and not effective.
The most common cause of sleep apnea in children is due to enlarged tonsils and adenoids. However, any obstruction, from the level of the nose down to the voice box, or larynx, can cause sleep obstruction and apnea.
In adults, obesity has been shown to be a major risk factor for sleep apnea, but this is not always the case in children. Very thin children can have sleep apnea.
Untreated sleep abnormalities can be associated with behavioral problems and learning difficulties. In addition, more serious, irreversible health problems can occur including heart failure and pulmonary hypertension.
Sleep disordered breathing includes snoring, snorting, restless sleeping and pauses in the respiration. Some children can sleep only in a sitting position because of the obstruction. Parents are usually the first to notice that their child is having difficulties breathing during sleep. Sometimes, however, if the problem has been present for a long time, the parents may assume that this is simply “normal” for their child and it is only identified when another family member or a friend sleeps over. Sometimes it’s identified when the family is on vacation at a hotel and everyone sleeps in the same room together.
Once the problem is identified, an examination of the child is needed to determine the cause of the obstructed breathing. If the history is clear by the parents’ description of their child’s breathing, and the examination is consistent (i.e., very large tonsils and adenoids), treatment can proceed. If however, it is unclear whether the obstruction is truly dangerous or of concern, parents can supply a videotape of the child sleeping to their physician. Audiotapes can also be helpful. Sleep fluoroscopy or even the use of cine-MRI can be used in more complicated cases of sleep apnea to determine the exact level in the airway where the obstruction is occurring.
If there is still a question about the diagnosis, further documentation is available with a polysomnogram, or sleep study. This is a study where the child comes to the hospital and sleeps overnight attached to different monitors that record many parameters including obstructive apnea and hypopnea, central apnea and hypopnea, oxygen levels, carbon dioxide levels, heart tracing and brain wave tracings. This study is also helpful for children with underlying medical problems that can be associated with different causes of airway obstruction or in children where the obstruction may occur at different levels in the airway.
Most commonly however, sleep apnea is due to enlarged tonsils and adenoids, and treatment consists of removal of the tonsils and adenoids. Other times it may be due to the adenoids alone or from nasal obstruction from a deviated nasal septum. Surgery is then tailored to fit the child’s specific problem.
Children with craniofacial anomalies, such as Down syndrome or Pierre Robin sequence, will have a higher incidence of sleep apnea. More extensive evaluations will be needed for these children both before and after treatment.
For more information about sleep apnea, visit the Upper Airway Center.
Stridor is noisy breathing in children. It may be due to a narrow or obstructed airway. The obstruction may be above, at, or below the larynx. The doctor begins evaluating stridor by checking the patient’s history for whether the onset of stridor was gradual or sudden, the relationship of stridor to feeding, previous intubation and careful questioning for aspirated foreign bodies. A physical evaluation is given to record the pitch, duration and timing of the stridorous noise, breathing rate and degree of breathing distress. X-rays may be taken of the neck and chest. It is also possible that the doctor may suggest a flexible laryngoscopy.
The therapy options for stridor vary greatly depending on the cause, which is determined by the evaluations performed by the doctor.
Subglottic cysts are fluid-filled lesions that occur in the lower part of the larynx, or subglottis, just below the vocal cords. They are a fairly common cause of airway blockage in children. There may be one or more cysts that block the airway below the larynx. Subglottic cysts are often treatable, but can cause total airway obstruction and even death if they are large enough and not treated immediately.
A hemangioma is the benign overgrowth of small blood vessels. Hemangiomas can appear on the skin, commonly considered birth marks, or in the larynx and trachea (air pipe). Though hemangiomas are benign, they can cause problems when they occur in the larynx or trachea. Hemangiomas of the larynx and trachea can significantly reduce the amount of air that can pass into the lungs. This causes the child to make noise when breathing (“stridor”) and work hard to get a breath of air. Hemangiomas of the airway, for unknown reasons, commonly occur just below the vocal cords in a part of the airway called the subglottis.
If the hemangioma does not significantly compromise or reduce the airway, the child can be treated with a class of medications called steroids. Steroids help reduce the size of the hemangioma. Sometimes, babies are born with large subglottic hemangiomas. In these situations, the baby has considerable difficulty breathing and has to be intubated immediately. A surgical airway (tracheotomy) may have to be placed below the level of the subglottic hemangioma for long-term airway support. In the case of large subglottic hemangiomas or hemangiomas that do not respond to steroids, a surgical procedure can remove the hemangioma. An incision in the neck and the larynx is opened. The subglottic hemangioma is resected and the neck incision is closed. The child is usually intubated for several days after the procedure, until the swelling in the airway resolves.
Subglottic / Supraglottic Stenosis
Our lungs receive air through a pipe-like structure called the larynx and trachea. The larynx begins at the very back of the mouth, below the tongue. The larynx is often referred to as the “voice box.” The voice box connects to the trachea, a tube-like structure, which connects to the lungs. The larynx contains the vocal cords, which help us generate sounds to communicate. The supraglottis is the area directly above the vocal cords, and the subglottis is the area directly below the vocal cords. In children, the subglottis is the narrowest part of the airway.
Some children are born with a narrowing of their supraglottic or subglottic airway. This causes the child to make excessive noise when breathing and appear short of breath. Some children can develop narrowing of the supraglottis or subglottis after birth, usually associated with long-term intubation or previous airway surgery.
The most important part of treatment is to characterize or describe the subglottic or supraglottic narrowing. Temporary treatment may involve the placement of a surgical airway (tracheotomy) below the level of airway narrowing. Definitive treatment is aimed at surgically enlarging the area of narrowing or stenosis. This is accomplished by adding cartilage to the wall of the airway to increase the diameter of the airway. Rib cartilage is routinely used for this reconstruction.
The tonsils are a collection of lymphoid tissue located on either side of the back of the throat. In contrast, the adenoids are a similar type of tissue located behind the nose and above the palate. These structures can become inflamed secondary to either viral or bacterial infections, the best known being “strep throat.” In children with a positive strep culture, use of antibiotics is necessary to treat the infection and to prevent potential complications such as rheumatic fever. In some children with severe tonsillitis, an abscess may form in the tissue around the tonsil.
In children with a positive strep culture, antibiotic treatment is needed. When infections become recurrent (greater than four to six per year), removal of the tonsils and adenoids is helpful. Additionally, children who have extremely large tonsils and obstructed breathing may benefit from removal of the tonsils and adenoids.
Tracheal stenosis is much less common than subglottic stenosis (which affects the lower part of the larynx). Congenital tracheal stenosis is usually due to complete tracheal rings. While there are many causes of acquired tracheal stenosis, the most common include neck trauma, burns and prolonged intubation.
Children (and adults) with tracheal stenosis may have symptoms of shortness of breath on exertion, stridor (noisy breathing) and retractions. In severe cases a tracheotomy may be required. In some children, the tracheotomy may be the cause of the narrowing of the trachea. The voice should be normal unless there is a severe narrowing, or unless there is a second problem affecting the voice.
If there is only mild narrowing of the trachea, with few symptoms, nothing may need to be done. If there are symptoms, or if removal of a tracheotomy is desired, surgery is required. Tracheal stenosis usually affects the upper trachea and may be corrected through a neck incision. Lower tracheal narrowing may need a sternotomy for repair. In some instances stenosis may be fixed endoscopically (through the mouth), sometimes with temporary placement of a stent. The two most common forms of repair are removal of the narrow area (resection), or increasing the size of the narrow area with cartilage grafts. We have considerable expertise with these techniques in both adults and children.
Velopharyngeal Insufficiency (VPI)
Velopharyngeal insufficiency refers to the inability to separate the nasal cavity from the oral cavity during speech. The result is abnormal resonance and the production of distracting noises during speech. Decreased intelligibility results due to the distortion of consonants and vowel sounds.
Not all velopharyngeal insufficiency requires treatment. In those cases where speech intelligibility is affected, various treatment options are available and need to be tailored to the findings obtained on nasopharyngoscopy.
Speech therapy may be an option in those patients where articulation errors are the source for the hypernasality. Speech therapy is often necessary to correct compensatory speech problems that develop secondary to velopharyngeal insufficiency. Speech therapy is generally required after surgical intervention so that the patient can obtain maximal benefit from the surgical procedure.
Physical intervention varies from procedures lasting less than 10 minutes to those requiring 1½ hours to complete. The areas where the patient is losing sound energy from the oral cavity into the nasal passages require some form of treatment to obstruct this abnormal escape. Generally, tissues from the back wall of the throat are rotated in such a way that the patient is able to separate the nasal cavity from the oral cavity during speech.
Vocal Cord Paralysis
The vocal cords should separate during inspiration to provide a wide opening into the windpipe. If the vocal cords do not move normally, difficulty with inspiration can develop. Difficulties with vocal cord motion can involve one or both vocal cords.
Bilateral vocal cord paralysis generally causes significant airway difficulties in children. Unilateral vocal cord paralysis, while increasing the noise associated with respiration, is generally tolerated by the child.
Vocal cord paralysis may be secondary to compression of the brainstem, as in a Chiari malformation. Neurologic problems such as stroke or tumor resections can lead to vocal cord paralysis. In the newborn the vocal cords may be paralyzed with no etiology identified. In these idiopathic cases it is thought that stretching of the nerves controlling the vocal cords may be the etiology, and spontaneous recovery over time can occur.
Surgical correction of vocal cord paralysis results in the creation of an opening into the airway that allows adequate respiration. This generally requires moving the vocal cord to a more lateral position or removing a portion of the vocal cord to increase airway size. In some cases, scarring within the larynx will tether the vocal cords, preventing their movements. Repairing these areas of scar can therefore return mobility to the vocal cords.
In general, unilateral vocal cord paralysis requires no treatment. The airway is usually adequate. Voice production improves as the opposite mobile vocal cord compensates by crossing the midline to approximate the paralyzed vocal cord in its resting position. Vocal range and voice quality may not be completely normal. Voice quality can be improved in late childhood by surgically moving the paralyzed vocal cord closer to the midline to improve contact with the mobile vocal cord.
For more information about the Division of Pediatric Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, or to refer a patient, contact us.
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The lot on Duero Street looks pretty much like any other slightly overgrown site to passers-by, but for archaeologists it’s a treasure trove.
There is no gold or silver here, but lots of fragments of Native American pottery and some European pottery, signs this is the remains of a farmstead that was once part of an 18th-century mission site known as Pocotalaca.
“The thing that makes this site exciting as far as archaeologists are concerned is it’s a very rare find,” said Carl Halbirt, archaeologist for the city of St. Augustine. This is only the fourth such farmstead found; the other three were discovered across Lake Marie Sanchez at a mission site known as La Puenta.
Pocotalaca and La Puenta are two of six Spanish missions that once surrounded St. Augustine. From 1717 to 1752, the Pocotalaca site was home for a small group of the Yamassee, a Native American group that came to Florida from South Carolina.
Their houses would have been huts of pole and palm frond construction. A small church was at the mission as well as a building that could serve as a casa fuerte or fortress. Franciscan friars served the missions.
Only about 20 of the simple huts were in Pocotalaca.
“Finding one in this 30 acres is like finding a needle in a haystack,” Halbirt said. “But when you’ve hit it, you know you’ve hit it.”
A 1737 map of the St. Augustine area, drawn by Spanish engineer Antonio de Arredondo, also shows missions and structures, tiny little squares in the midst of waterways, fields and shorelines. The map features Arredondo’s fortification plan for St. Augustine, one that would have made the Castillo de San Marcos a cornerstone of a walled system surrounding the oldest part of St. Augustine. The map includes what was then the edge of town and where the missions were once located.
On an overcast and drizzly Wednesday morning, Halbirt and volunteers with the northeast region of the Florida Public Archaeology Network were at work on the Duero Street lot, where a house is scheduled to be built. It falls in one of the city’s designated archaeological zones and that triggered a required survey.
When Halbert did a posthole survey, he decided to dig one narrow trench, and came across a stain indicating the one-time location of a hut post hole. He found next to it a black smudge, an area where corncobs were once burned in order to keep away the mosquitoes. Halbirt calls it the “early version of Off.”
The imprint of the corncobs, down to individual kernels, is still visible. To volunteer Emily Jane Murray went the honors of digging out the section along with orders from Halbirt to “keep it intact.”
Some volunteers worked on other shallow trenches. Still others sifted through the dirt being dug up.
They only had to go about six or eight inches down before hitting artifacts including deer bones, Native American pottery, pipe stems, European pottery, deer teeth and clam shells. It’s an indication of the way the people lived and ate.
A CHANGING CULTURE
The area may later have been under crop cultivation and that would explain why the artifacts are so near the surface.
“This wasn’t swamp, this was high ground,” Halbirt said, noting the pottery artifacts give an indication of who inhabited the land — 5 percent of the broken pottery is European, 95 percent is Native American.
Based on Spanish census records, the mission was never very big. The 1717 census shows 96 individuals living there. The 1739 census shows the population had dropped to 56. The numbers reflect the decline of the Native American population by death, by assimilation, by movement.
“The communities were kind of in a state of flux. At some times they were living near the town, at other times the Spanish governor was moving them farther away,” Halbirt said. “It was partially military necessity. They were … on the front line, providing a warning for St. Augustine in case of attack.”
Historian Susan Parker, executive director of the St. Augustine Historical Society, said around 1740 the Yamassee of Pocotalaca were moved down to the area around what is now Marineland.
“The [Spanish] governor moved them out of town, probably about the same time he was setting up Fort Mose,” she said. Fort Mose, now a state park north of St. Augustine, was the site of the first legally sanctioned free African settlement in what is now the United States. Both formed a sort of early warning system for St. Augustine.
“The real interesting question is how many people left the Pocotalaca village and went to Cuba. … about 84 or 85 left with the Spanish in 1763 when the British acquired Florida,” Parker said.
Other drops in population came when the Native American women began marrying Spanish soldiers, leaving their villages and becoming part of St. Augustine. In addition, once the Indians began having their own income, they “started to lose their Native American identity in the records,” Parker noted.
A few stacked bricks are all that remain of the 20th-century house that once rested on brick piers. Given the location in Lincolnville, a traditionally black neighborhood, the residents were probably African-Americans, Halbirt said, adding he still has to go through deeds to find that answer.
The dig is set to go on for a couple of more days. Then the owners of the property can begin constructing their house. Because of the shallowness of the habitation area, once the digging starts what artifacts are left will be destroyed.
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Every time it rains, workers in Long Beach rush to the mouth of the Los Angeles River to scoop up the floating islands of plastic bottles, grocery bags and other debris before it's all swept onto local beaches or pulled out to sea.
Now, a deceptively simple solution is underway to fight the ongoing problem of river trash by intercepting it before it's washed into the river in the first place.
Over the next year, 16 cities in southeastern Los Angeles County are installing screens beneath nearly every storm drain that flows into the lower Los Angeles River.
Once the custom-built stainless steel devices are installed inside nearly 12,000 catch basins, authorities expect them to keep 840,000 pounds of debris — the equivalent of about 450 Volkswagen Beetles — from reaching the ocean each year. The garbage that washes off city streets and highways has long been identified as a major source of pollution that can degrade coastal habitat and float thousands of miles away on ocean currents.
The project will also help communities along the Los Angeles River comply with state and federal clean-water rules that require they capture nearly all the trash that for years has washed into the river.
"This stuff is not just going into the ocean and disappearing," said Jonathan Bishop, chief deputy director of the State Water Resources Control Board. "The long-lasting parts of it, which are primarily the plastics, are essentially moving their way through the currents, impacting marine life and impacting our beaches and our local waters too."
Described as the largest debris-capturing project in the nation, the clean-up effort is being undertaken by the Gateway Authority, a coalition of cities and public water agencies in southeastern L.A. County, using $10 million in federal stimulus dollars.
The project could serve as a model for similar plans to use grates to cut down on the garbage released in the San Francisco Bay Area. Public works officials have also proposed the same protections in other urban waterways in the Southland, including the San Gabriel River and Ballona Creek.
Crews have gradually been installing a few thousand similar devices in unincorporated Los Angeles County, but this latest project marks the largest and most aggressive attack on river trash.
Officials hope the screens will not only stem the flow of trash onto local beaches and harbors, but also prevent the junk from being carried to the distant reaches of the Pacific Ocean, where scientists have documented a massive vortex of marine litter known as the Great Pacific Garbage Patch. Some researchers say the high concentration of floating plastic debris spreads over an area larger than Texas.
Of greatest concern to environmentalists is discarded plastic packaging such as food wrappers, bottle caps and straws, which easily float through unprotected storm drains and toward the coast.
A soda bottle tossed to the curb in Downey, for instance, is destined for the storm-water system, which will shuttle it to the Los Angeles River and eventually to the ocean about 15 miles away.
The screens to be installed in southeast L.A. County represent a simple, even low-tech, concept, serving as strainers just below the drains where water from city streets flows into the storm-water system. The 5-millimeter mesh will catch debris as small as a cigarette butt. Workers will have to periodically open a manhole and suck out the trash with a vacuum truck.
Several thousand storm drains in the most littered areas of the county will also be outfitted with street-level retractable screens that act as a second-level of defense, keeping most trash above ground level.
Long Beach, where nearly a third of the devices are being installed, stands to benefit the most because it is at the receiving end for trash flowing from dozens of communities upstream.
"You've seen the little signs that say 'Drains to Ocean'?" said Long Beach City Engineer Mark Christoffels. "Look, that hamburger wrapper that you just tossed in the gutter, it goes through and eventually ends up at our beaches and in the ocean. Now, we're making a statement here, that we've got to capture as much of this as we can."
But don't expect the immediate elimination of all trash along the coast, experts said.
The grates, of course, do nothing to reduce littering at the beach or wind-blown debris, and the smallest fragments of plastic and foam will flow through the screens. To avoid flooding, the devices are also designed to swing open during heavy rains.
"It's certainly not a permanent solution in the sense of eliminating the plastic discharge to the ocean," said Charles Moore, founder of the Algalita Marine Research Foundation, who has studied the flow of garbage through the Los Angeles and San Gabriel rivers and trawled for trash thousands of miles away on expeditions to the North Pacific.
Moore said much of the debris making it to the ocean is less than 5 millimeters across, mostly industrial plastic and foam pellets that won't be caught by the screens.
Gateway Authority officials say making the grates any finer would make it difficult for water to flow through them. If the project is successful, they hope communities farther upstream will follow their lead and install the same equipment.
At as much as $4,000 per catch basin, however, the sheer expense is likely to deter many cash-strapped local governments.
Moore of the Algalita Foundation said plastics manufacturers ought to shoulder some of the cost of keeping their products out of the ocean.
"You can't put this external cost to the throwaway society onto the municipalities and taxpayers," he said. "They're asked to do all that work, when really, the plastic industry itself needs to be held responsible."
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In this chapter may be found the answer to the question of James Bryce (1 The American Commonwealth, 77) as to why our Presidential Office has not been oftener filled by the most competent men. He wrote that Europeans ask and Americans do not always explain "how it happens that this great office, the greatest in the world, unless we except the Papacy, to which any one can rise by his own merits, is not more frequently filled by great and striking men."
That it should be so filled always, was the careful design of the Constitutional Convention.
Let us proceed to search out the causes of the condition which seemed strange to Bryce and which we have tolerated too long.
The constitutional government of the United States is scientific. Science is defined as classified knowledge, or the conclusions which the classification compels. The causes of all the breakdowns of governments in history were gone over in the Constitutional Convention and it was concluded that law making, law enforcing, and law interpreting must be definitely in different hands.
All national and foreign concerns were assigned to the Nation and all others were retained by the States or the people.
All officials, State and National, were put under oath to support the Constitution and observe the boundaries to power specified in it. As far as could be, men with power were chained.
Education in this science is indispensable. It is badly lacking.
"The Executive of our Government is not the sole it is scarcely the principal object of my jealousy," wrote Jefferson from Paris, urging upon Madison the need of amendments making a Bill of Bights additional to the twelve provisions already in the Constitution; "the tyranny of the Legislature is the most formidable dread at present, and will be for many years. That of the Executive will come in turn, but it will be at a remote period."
The tyranny of the Executive has come.
The field of the President's authority under the Constitution is very limited. It does not include the States, to say nothing of the external world. In No. 75 of The Federalist that was pointed out by Hamilton:
"The execution of the laws and the employment of the common strength, either for this purpose or the common defense, seems to comprise all the functions of the Executive Magistrate."
Yet the Press, instead of dealing with the great committees of the Senate and the House on Ways and Means, on Banking, on Foreign Relations, and others unwittingly abandoned Congress as the constitutional General Manager of the United States and gave itself over to the President as a sounding board for him to proclaim his "plans" and "policies." Dispatches from Washington daily refer to the President as "the administration." To be sure, an inferiority complex in the Congresses which brought upon them the description of "rubber stamp" contributed to this unfortunate situation.
To illustrate what a change has come in the strength of constitutional Government, a quotation is made from the Autobiography of Seventy Years of Senator George F. Hoar of Massachusetts (vol. 2, p. 46):
"The most eminent senators Sumner, Conkling, Sherman, Edmunds, Carpenter, Frelinghuysen, Simon Cameron, Anthony, Logan would have received as a personal affront a private message from the White House expressing a desire that they should adopt any course in the discharge of their legislative duties that they did not approve. If they visited the White House, it was to give, not to receive, advice. Any little company or coterie who had undertaken to arrange public policies with the President and to report to their associates what the President thought would have rapidly come to grief."
They ask him for guidance now.
Maurice Francis Egan, our Minister to Denmark during World War I, noticed this change in the Congress when he returned home in 1918. Mentioning in Recollections of a Happy Life the change which he had found in the city, in the clubs, in the offices, and elsewhere, he added:
"The quality of our Legislature seemed to have deteriorated greatly. One had only to go to the Senate or the House and compare the speeches of Senators and Representatives with what one heard in the seventies and eighties to feel strongly that there was something radically wrong with the American people if these men were their voluntarily chosen delegates. A recent visit to Milwaukee and an examination of the Wisconsin legislators, as expressed in their speeches, has corroborated this impression.
Too much "democracy" and not enough republicanism. Those who promised to cure the evils of democracy by "more democracy" propagated more evils.
Jefferson wrote to Francis Hopkinson that even with a Bill of Rights added to the Constitution, "it would still have one fault in my eye, that of perpetual re-eligibility of the President."
Through absence of mind, especially on the part of the Bar, which, by reason of its education, should have known better than shirk the duty accepted in its oath, the election of the President of the United States has descended to what too closely resembles the popular vote for party nominees, the very course which the Constitutional Convention employed all its ability to prevent.
By force of the evil machinery which has been developed, the President, as it has several times been demonstrated since 1904, is able, through the use of patronage and other pressure, to control the National Nominating Convention of his party and renominate himself or pick his successor.
It being in the nature of unchecked power to spread itself, conditions eventually enabled the President to step with impunity over the strong customary law of the American people against a third term. With that step, "new powers," as he called them, were accumulated so that nomination and election for a fourth term were even easier than they had been in the previous adventure. For the President had raised the number of nonelected Federal executive employees throughout the States from about 500,000 in 1932 to 3,121,153 on June 30, 1944.
It is in human nature that such a body of appointees will support the appointing power to which they are indebted for their pay envelopes. Those men and women, and their children of voting age, must have cast 5,000,000 ballots in November, 1944, when ambition achieved its fourth term. In addition to that, many of the big cities to which Washington had been lavish in the unconstitutional granting of the money of the taxpayers for "relief" and for "development" supported the President for the fourth term.
From 13 Northern and Western cities he received 2,280,000 votes of his plurality of about 3,500,000. It is therefore manifest that, without the vote of those who were beholden to the President for personal favors, he would have been defeated.
"A power over a man's support," wrote Hamilton in No. 73 of The Federalist, "is a power over his will."
In 1948 the electoral conditions were so extravagantly bad that they should convince the most enthusiastic advocate of "democracy" that a popular election of the President and the Vice President would be the worst blow possible to our representative form of Government, and that the design of the Constitutional Convention, "that every practicable obstacle should be opposed to cabal, intrigue and corruption," has been proved by our experience to be sound.
The first eleven Presidential elections took place without the help of the spectacular National Nominating Convention. There was no "campaign" supported by contributors expecting something.
That successful history shows that the National Nominating Convention is unnecessary we can get along without it. The record which it has made discredits it.
Washington (twice) was chosen without a National Nominating Convention, so were Adams (once), Jefferson (twice), Madison (twice), Monroe (twice), and Jackson the first time. The convention for the second term of Jackson was rather a popular gathering to ratify his course during his first term, and not the Nominating Convention which we know.
So the American people and the Republic had a very good line of Chief Executives without the aid of machinery external to Government.
And during that half century Congress enacted no Corrupt Practices Laws.
After the ratifying convention mentioned, in 1832, Van Buren was nominated by a Democratic Convention in 1836. But the Whigs did not hold a convention.
For the first nine elections there was no platform and there was no popular vote.
And the people lived through those years in content without long platforms promising that Government would "give every body every thing." They were then so close to the Declaration of Independence that they still believed the Government to be a protector and not a provider.
Their experience proves to us that it would be very practicable for the States to resume control of their Union by returning to the constitutional election of the President and the Vice President.
And our latter-day experiences prove beyond argument that the National Nominating Convention will no longer do.
In "Thirty Years' View" the National Nominating Convention was condemned (1859) by Senator Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri thus:
"An irresponsible body (chiefly continued, and mainly dominated by professional office-seekers and officeholders) have usurped the election of the President (for the nomination is the election, so far as the party is concerned); and always making it with a view to their own profit in the monopoly of office and plunder."
In 1872 Charles Sumner spoke of the Convention as "the engine for the nomination of the President, allowing the people little more than to record its will" and becoming "the personal instrument of the President when elected, giving him dictatorial power, which he may employ in reducing the people to conformity with his purposes and promoting his re-election, all of which is hostile to good government, and of evil example."
Sumner favored the popular election of the President, but recent elections have demonstrated that the officeholders beholden to the Chief Executive would then control there would be no real "popular" choice.
In the Executive Department there were more than 2,000,000 on the pay rolls in 1948. In 1933, when Franklin D. Roosevelt took office, there were 575,123 on the rolls.
At his next inauguration, in 1937, there were 859,668. At his third inauguration, in 1941 (before World War II), there were 1,164,463 payrollers. At the fourth inauguration of President Roosevelt, in 1945, the number on his pay rolls was 3,465,420 (figures from Senate Committee Print No. 53, May-June, 1948). His plurality at the election was 3,596,227.
Thus, the payrollers alone, with the voting members of their families, could give him victory.
But in the election of 1948, giving the regime of Socialism, miscalled the "New Deal," the embryo of Communism, its fifth term, there were receiving checks from Washington, in addition to the 3,000,000 pay rollers, 2,500,000 beneficiaries of the Social Security Law, 3,500,000 farmers enjoying unconstitutional subsidies from the taxpayers of the country, 6,500,000 veterans, and 1,500,000 in the armed services.
The Presidential Office must be dissevered from that situation.
Customary law, made not by legislatures or constitutional conventions, but by the people themselves in daily life, has always been recognized in England and America as the very strongest form of legislation. Yet the customary law against a third term for the President went down in the election of 1940. That levee broken, the flood of Socialism took the land. In 1944, and again in 1948, it was, of course, irresistible.
It cannot be said that those elections were turned in the best interests of the United States by the best sections of the people. Indeed, at none of them was a representative poll made. In 1948 the votes for all candidates aggregated 47,500,000. The Bureau of the Census informs us that in the country there were 95,000,000 eligible to vote.
Did the half of the voters who remained away from the polls do so from disgust or from despair?
It may have been a feeling of discouragement that they could accomplish anything against the multitude that kept them away from the polls in 1948, as they had been staying away for many years. Bryce wrote in The American Commonwealth (vol. 2, p. 331) on "the fatalism of the multitude" and "the tyranny of the majority" as they appeared to him in our country:
"Thus, out of the mingled feelings that the multitude will prevail, and that the multitude, because it will prevail, must be right, there grows a self-distrust, a despondency, a disposition to fall into line, to acquiesce in the dominant opinion, to submit thought as well as action to the encompassing power of numbers."
There never was a stronger statement made in support of the conclusion reached by the Constitutional Convention, namely, that the President and the Vice President should be selected and elected, not by the people at large (democracy), but by representatives of the people "appointed" as directed by the Fundamental Law.
We have only to return to the barricades which the Constitution erected and which delinquent States, for one reason or another, or for none, abandoned. When the legislatures of the States take hold of the subject as the Constitution directs and themselves "appoint" electors to choose the President and the Vice President, the Corrupt Practices Acts as to the Presidential election will become dead letters, and the power of the pay rollers and the donees will be extinguished.
Then we shall have the Government of the days of George Washington.
It was of the direct popular vote, liable to "cabal, intrigue, and corruption," that the Constitutional Convention stood in most fear. Our election of late years has given demonstration that they were right. From the fourth day of the Convention, when Edmund Randolph of Virginia presented a plan for a Constitution under which "a National Executive" was provided for, "to be chosen by the National Legislature," until the last day of the sessions, the subject of a Chief Executive was under almost continuous discussion. To no part of the Constitution did the Convention of able men at Philadelphia give so much patient care as they bestowed upon the plan to keep the choice of the first two officers protected from possibility of corruption, and also from domination by Congress.
The members of the Convention intended that the States would choose the chief officers of the United States, or, as someone has well put it, "the States united." This is a Government of States resulting from a Union of States which had won their independence as States by the prosecution of a Revolutionary War. The conception was that the States should pick and choose the Chief Executive of their Union.
On July 31, 1787, "the questions not yet settled" were referred to a Committee of Eleven, which brought back on September 4 substantially what went into the Constitution for the choice of President. The Committee introduced to the Convention the idea of a Vice President. Its report was worked over from day to day until this second paragraph of Article II finally resulted (italics inserted):
"Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector."
It is an erroneous idea that whatever the Legislature of a State may do, or permit, with respect to the appointment of electors is valid.
Clearly, the language quoted commands that the electors be agents of the State as an entity of the Union which they, as States, established. For the plan of the Constitutional Convention, as extensively shown later herein by Hamilton, was that the States should themselves select and elect the two chief officers of their Union.
"Although the spirit of an instrument, especially of a Constitution, is to be respected not less than the letter," said Chief Justice Marshall for the Supreme Court (4 Wheaton, 122) in 1819, "yet the spirit is to be collected chiefly from the words."
It was the spirit of the Constitutional Convention, acting as States, that the States should, as governmental entities, select and elect the President and the Vice President. Then that spirit was expressed in the plainest words, emphasized by the imperative shall "Each State shall appoint."
If the Legislature does not wish to make the appointment itself, as legislatures did from the beginning down through many years, Colorado so appointing them when it came into the Union in 1876, then any other mode that it may establish must operate as an organ of the State so that the result will be the appointment by the State. Any other reading is disregardful of both the spirit and the letter of the provision of the Constitution quoted.
In view of the importance given to Statehood from the Declaration of Independence "that these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be, Free and Independent States" down through the Articles of Confederation "each State retains its sovereignty and independence" and the closing words of the Constitutional Convention "Done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States present" ending with "Each State shall appoint" electors to select and elect the President, the idea is wholly untenable that the legislatures of the States can turn over the choice by States of the Chief Executive to political groups or parties.
In the provision just before quoted there is no roving commission to legislatures to have their will in the choice of electors of the President, or to abandon to political parties, or to conventions of parties, or to Presidential primaries, their constitutional duty. Electors appointed for a State by a committee of a political party, or by a convention of the party in the State to send delegates to a National Convention to nominate a Presidential ticket, or by primaries designed to express a choice of President, are not constitutional electors. They are not constitutional electors even where their names have been put on the national ballot of the party, as the practice was long ago, now largely abandoned through the "short ballot," and the people vote for them at the polls. For the voters are powerless to validate, as an appointment by the State, an appointment by a political committee or party, or by any other political machinery.
According to Beard's American Government and Politics, a number of States not half allow voters at primaries for choosing delegates to the National Nominating Convention of the party to express preference for Presidential nomination. That tends toward selection and election by the people directly, who were excluded by the States in the Constitutional Convention from such a direct participation in the choice of President. Their direct action was to be at the polls choosing legislators to appoint electors. An expression at the primaries is an introduction of "more democracy" against the representative structure.
In some States a list of the Presidential aspirants is printed on the primary ballot of each party and the voter may indicate at the polls his choice for President. That, also, tends toward the prohibited popular choice, and against the constitutional action of the people in voting for legislators to appoint electors.
In other States, candidates as delegates to the National Nominating Convention of the party may specify on the ballot whom they will favor in the convention for President.
"Thus," wrote Beard, "the voters may disclose their will indirectly." But the will of the voters cannot be legally so expressed. The constitutional expression of the will of the voters is given in their ballots for the members of the Legislature which is to choose the electors. At that election the people participate (or were intended to) in the election of the President. Their will so expressed constitutionally cannot be expressed again along the way to introduce "democracy" or "populism" against the representative system.
The early appointive system of the States, by which only the Governor and other top officers were elected by the vote of the people, gave way to "democracy," until all persons in public service, down to the least important, were named on the ballot. In one Congressional district in Chicago the voter was perplexed by the names of 334 nominees on the ticket. The evil had become so great and general that an agitation was begun for return to the appointive method, and the short ballot resulted. It struck from the ticket all the names of the Presidential electors, leaving the voter to cast a ballot directly for the President and Vice President named at the head of the ticket, which the Constitution plainly does not permit.
The short ballot was adopted by States with 350 of the 531 electoral votes. "The Book of States" for 1948-1949 says that 70 per cent of the voters ballot for the two candidates named at the head of the ticket. This, it should be repeated, they have no right to do. And so electors not appointed by the Legislature, or by any constitutional organ set up by it, and not voted for in most of the States, meet and vote for the nominees of the party and report the result to the President of the Senate!
Here is the most censurable default of the States in constitutional obligation. They can easily get right, and reduce the President from Imperator to constitutional Executive with limited powers.
Members of Congress and all holders of office or trust were carefully prevented by the provision just before quoted from participating in election of the President. The Constitutional Convention seemed to have fear of the time when it would become to the interest of members of the Senate and the House, and of Federal officeholders generally, to control the choice of the President. With the introduction of the unconstitutional National Nominating Convention, at times overrun by members of Congress, members of the Cabinet, postmasters, and other Federal payrollers executing the will of the President by renominating him or nominating his pick for a successor, the very evil feared was brought to pass.
Although section 1 of Article II sternly commands that "no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector," the spirit of that has many times been disregarded by National Nominating Conventions controlled in whole or in part by members of Congress and other Federal officeholders.
The Constitutional Convention foresaw that the separation of powers which it designed would be undone if the Executive Department should become the creature of the Legislative Department and the officeholders. Both Madison and Jefferson expressed fear of the combining of powers in one hand or in one group.
In Henry L. Stoddard's It Costs to Be President, published by Harper & Brothers in 1938, it is shown that in the Republican National Convention of 1920 there were 18 Senators who had themselves chosen as delegates from nine States, and 4 more who were chosen singly from different States.
The Senators represented, or assumed to represent, 400 of 984 delegates.
Senator Lodge of Massachusetts was Chairman of the Convention.
Senator Watson of Indiana headed the Committee on Resolutions.
Senator Harding of Ohio was nominated for President.
Senator Lenroot of Wisconsin was almost nominated for the Vice Presidency, but the best heads thought that that would be going too far. So Governor Coolidge of Massachusetts was given second place.
While those Senators were not acting as the electors of the Constitution, they influenced the naming of, if they did not name, the two men for whom, under our degenerated system, the electors would be obliged to vote. Virtually they were acting as the forbidden electors. In 1948 a Member of Congress was chairman of the National Committee of each party.
The Legislatures of the States must take over their duty.
The assumption in this relation of the unschooled commentators, as in several other instances, that the electoral system prevents the people from exercising their prerogatives, is wholly unsound. For the legislature of the State is elected by the direct vote of the people, and what the legislature does as the agent of the people who choose it is an expression of the will of the people. All that the legislature does from year to year in the management and support of the Government of the State is an expression of the will of the people through the agent which they choose for that purpose. No worry has ever been manifested that the legislature cannot be trusted to do the will of the people who elected it in framing and enacting laws, in raising, by taxation, money for the essential needs of Government, in providing means of education, in exerting its power of police for "the health, morals, safety, education and general well-being of the people," and in performing all the other obligations inherent in the State, of which it is the General Manager.
Why, then, should anyone have fear that in appointing electors of a President and a Vice President, as commanded by the Constitution, the legislature of the State is likely to be faithless to the people? As officers of the State, the legislators are put under oath by the Constitution of the United States to support the Fundamental Law of the Nation. Trusted in all other relations, why should anyone question their fidelity here?
Besides, as profound historians the members of the Constitutional Convention knew that eventually the crowd becomes unmanageable, even in its own interest.
Much historical learning, legal scholarship, and sound thinking underlay that system, which Washington hoped would influence nations (as it has), which Webster called "the last hope of the world," and which Bryce and other foreign scholars declared to be the greatest expression of genius in the field of government.
Let Alexander Hamilton tell just what the Constitutional Convention, of which he was a member, had in mind respecting the choice of a President. Discussing in The Federalist (No. 68) the electoral plan, and especially referring to "cabal, intrigue, and corruption," he wrote "to the people of the State of New York" that the most plausible of the opponents of the Constitution who had appeared in print admitted "that the election of the President is pretty well guarded." Hamilton proceeded (italics inserted):
"I venture somewhat further and hesitate not to affirm that if the manner of it be not perfect, it is at least excellent. It unites in an eminent degree all the advantages the union of which was to be wished for.
"It was desirable that the sense of the people should operate in the choice of the person to whom so important a trust was to be confided. This end will be answered by committing the right of making it, not to any pre-established body, but to men chosen by the people for the special purpose, and at the particular conjuncture.
"It was equally desirable that the immediate election should be made by men most capable of analyzing the qualities adapted to the station, and acting under circumstances favorable to deliberation, and to a judicious combination of all the reasons and inducements which were proper to govern their choice. A small number of persons, selected by their fellow citizens from the general mass, will be most likely to possess the information and discernment requisite to such complicated investigations.
"It was also peculiarly desirable to afford as little opportunity as possible to tumult and disorder."
If Hamilton and his coworkers in the Constitutional Convention could have foreseen the "tumult and disorder" of our National Nominating Convention, what might they have done to prevent its coming!
"This evil," he went on, "was not least to be dreaded in the election of a magistrate who was to have so important an agency in the administration of the Government as the President of the United States. But the precautions which have been so happily concerted in the system under consideration promise an effectual security against this mischief."
On the need for prompt action and security from interference and what we call "pressure," Hamilton wrote:
"And as the electors chosen in each State are to assemble and vote in the State in which they are chosen, this detached and divided situation will expose them much less to heats and ferments which might be communicated to them from the people than if they were all to be convened at one time in one place."
That is to say, any such aggregation as the National Nominating Convention would be abhorrent to Hamilton and his coworkers.
Addressing himself to what in time brought about the Corrupt Practices Acts of Congress, Hamilton said:
"Nothing was more desirable than that every practicable obstacle should be opposed to cabal, intrigue, and corruption....
"But the Convention have guarded against all danger of this sort with the most provident and judicious attention. They have not made the appointment of the President to depend on any pre-existing bodies of men who might be tampered with beforehand to prostitute their votes; but they have referred it in the first instance to an immediate act of the people of America, to be exerted in the choice of persons for the temporary and sole purpose of making the appointment.
"And they have excluded from eligibility to this trust all those who from situation might be suspected of too great devotion to the President in office."
Pointing out that members of Congress and others holding office cannot be electors, Hamilton continued:
"Thus, without corrupting the body of the people, the immediate agents in the election will at least enter upon the task free from any sinister bias. Their transient existence and their detached situation, already taken notice of, afford a satisfactory prospect of their continuing so to the conclusion of it. The business of corruption, when it is to embrace so considerable a number of men, requires time as well as means... .
"Another and no less important desideratum was that the Executive should be independent for his continuance in office on all but the people themselves. He might otherwise be tempted to sacrifice his duty to his complaisance for those whose favor was necessary to the duration of his official consequence."
About the second term, Hamilton said:
"This advantage will also be secured by making his re-election to depend on a special body of representatives deputed by society for the single purpose of making the important choice."
That would prevent him from renominating himself, as he does now.
Passing over some details as to the casting and counting of the votes of the electors, we come to this:
"The process of election affords a moral certainty that the office of President will never fall to the lot of any man who is not in an eminent degree endowed with the requisite qualifications. ... It will not be too strong to say that there will be a constant probability of seeing the station filled by characters pre-eminent for ability and virtue."
Quotation has been made at some length to show with what care the Constitutional Convention considered the choice of the two Chief Officers of the Republic, a subject which was under discussion from the opening of the Convention until near its close. The electors spring from the people. Recently elected legislators take immediate steps to carry out the will of the voters under the direction of the Constitution.
The growth of the evil which the Constitutional Convention endeavored so faithfully to forestall has long been watched with apprehension by capable men. Thirty years before the election of 1944, when the Federal payrollers through the land (3,121,153), with the vote of the big cities which were supporting the administration at Washington in its quest for a fourth term, were larger in number than the plurality (3,596,278) which the President received, Senator George W. Norris of Nebraska said this:
"When this influence [patronage] is combined and used for the perpetuation in office of the head of our Government, it is a danger to free institutions and strikes at the very root of democracy. Such a danger leads directly toward a monarchy and takes away from the people themselves the right to select their own Chief Magistrate....
"It exists now to a greater extent than it did, because Federal offices have been multiplied manyfold and partisan political machines ... are now enthroned in power greater than ever in our history."
In 1914, when Senator Norris made that statement, there were 482,721 Federal payrollers living on the taxpayers and "doing politics" throughout the country for the administration in power. As previously seen from a report of a committee of the Senate, there were 3,596,278 of them in 1944 within the Executive Department of the President.
Even had an amendment to the Constitution made legal the direct vote of the people for a President, as some persons have advocated, the free will of the people would have been frustrated in 1940, 1944, and 1948 by that controlled vote and the vote of like inclination which went with it. The constitutional vote is needed.
Since 1907 Congress has been striving unsuccessfully to keep suppressed the corruption and the peril to Government necessarily latent in this burlesque on constitutional procedure which we call the Presidential campaign. Corrupt Practices Laws have been enacted, amended, and rewritten, but to no effect. A revision in 1925 of the Corrupt Practices Law made it unlawful for any corporation "to make a contribution in connection with any election" for the choice of Federal officers, including a President and a Vice President.
In 1939 an Act to Prevent Pernicious Political Activities forbade persons to contribute, directly or indirectly, in excess of $5,000 a year in connection with a Federal election. That would allow a person to put up $20,000 during a Presidential term. It also prohibited intimidation of Federal employees, the promise of employment, the use of relief funds, and some other activities respecting such an election. Then it forbade those in the Executive branch "to take any part in political management or political campaign." The present-day extraordinary campaigning activity of the President is seemingly covered by that prohibition, as it should be.
In 1940 the foregoing act was amended by an act retaining in effect the act of 1925 and prohibiting a political committee from collecting and spending over $3,000,000 a year in relation to a Federal election. That would permit the gathering of $12,000,000 by a political committee during the term of the President! It also prohibited the purchase of advertising or any commodity in connection with a Federal election.
In 1943 an act relating to the use and operation by the United States of plants, mines, and facilities for the promotion of war amended the act of 1925 by writing "labor organization" along with "corporation," which was the first contributor to be checked by Congress. It forbade contributions respecting a Presidential or other Federal election and fixed a penalty of $5,000. Every officer was made liable to a fine of $1,000, or imprisonment for one year, or both. This law did not come until seven years after a reported contribution by a labor union of $60,000 to the support of President Roosevelt in the campaign of 1936. It is stated in Beard's American Government and Politics that "labor organizations contributed $770,218 to the Democratic National Committee in 1936."
Thus the corporation, the person, the political committee, and the labor organization have been successively brought under the Corrupt Practices Laws. But with the extension of the laws the collecting and spending of money in Presidential campaigns have grown larger in amounts and more offensive in methods.
The only way to prevent "cabal, intrigue, and corruption" in relation to the election of the President was thought out in the Constitutional Convention with an imperative direction that it be followed.
The act of 1940 undertook also to cure a sore which appeared in the Democratic campaign of 1936, when the party was in debt $400,000. In addition to Jackson Day Dinners at $100 a plate in Washington, and at lower prices throughout the country, which were addressed by the President by radio, and which yielded $315,000, the "Book of the Democratic Committee" was prepared and autographed by the President the autographed copies selling for $100 each. They were taken in large numbers by the heads of corporations. Of course, the general manager of a great company had to consider what might happen if he should decline to buy a dozen or two of the books. While the money was gathered to meet the debt of a campaign gone by, and the Corrupt Practices Act relates to an election "to be held," the spirit, if not the letter, of the law was violated by the transactions. The Attorney General ruled that the law was not violated, but Congress expressed its dissent from that ruling by providing in the Act of 1940 that it would be unlawful for any corporation or person "to purchase goods, commodities, advertising, or articles of any kind or description" where the proceeds would benefit candidates for Federal elective offices (italics added).
From advertisements and sales the book brought in $860,000. As before stated, the Jackson Day Dinners yielded $315,000, making the two devices for avoiding the Corrupt Practices Act a total of $1,175,000.
Almost another million was raised and spent by organizations outside of the political party the Good Neighbor League, the Progressive National Committee, Labor's Non-Partisan League, Young Democratic Clubs, and many others.
In the campaign of 1940 the Democratic Committee prepared to repeat the use of the book autographed by the President, but the Second Hatch Act, of July 19, 1940, dashed the plan. Already contracts for advertisements in the book had been made up to $340,000.
In the campaign of 1944, the use of the money-coining book autographed by the President in 1936 having been prevented by an act of Congress, which made the transaction illegal, President Roosevelt proposed the formation of a Thousand-Dollar Club of at least a thousand members. A million or more was raised almost on the instant. It was promised that each person contributing $1,000 would be taken into the councils of the Government and that he would be treated with special favor during the services of inauguration. The dispatches from Washington on January 20, the day of the fourth inauguration of the President, told of the presence of the contributors and of "a full-scale program of Inauguration Day social events" which had been prepared for them.
What activities to occupy the mind and time of the President of the United States!
And what will the authorities in Moral Philosophy say (leaving to one side the question of constitutional observance) of the offer of the administration to take into the councils of the United States nonelected and nonchosen persons in consideration of money! And what should the people say?
As long as there are so many persons and "interests" seeking advantage or pecuniary gain from the party in control of Government, and as long as the party must look to them for funds with which to function, corruption will necessarily underlie the nomination and election of a President by the present unconstitutional method.
When the States resume their constitutional function in the choice of a President and a Vice President, then the members of the legislatures chosen at the ballot box by the people will "appoint" electors of a President and a Vice President who will look over the country and vote for the two men standing highest in their opinion or in public esteem. That will produce nonpartisan and highly competent Executives. We shall have a President of the United States instead of a political party. That is to say, for illustration, a President so chosen would not appoint to the courts of the United States 185 Democrats and only 3 Republicans, most of them neophytes in law; ignoring in his selections seasoned jurists on the Supreme Courts of the 48 States. Nor would he name to the Supreme Court of the United States 9 of his political supporters, because he would not be in debt for the help of a party. Nor would he be interested in caring for persons rejected by the people at the polls, affronting their former constituents by giving to "lame ducks" offices, in some instances for life, with good salaries.
He would not be forced by political considerations "a very difficult letter to write," asking one of the ablest men in the service to resign to make place for one who "deserves almost any service which he believes he can satisfactorily perform: I told him this at the end of the campaign, in which he displayed the utmost devotion to our cause." The President should not become involved in a debt like that, nor should the people be given service measured by such a standard.
In short, we should have in every instance a nonpartisan President.
The electors will be able to consider governors who have won public approval by wise and economical administration. They will weigh in the balance members of Congress who have exhibited in service true American vision of the proper place of this Republic in the family of nations, and who have been guided in all their actions by the provisions of the Constitution.
Those two classes are mentioned because, generally speaking, no one without the training of experience in the field of government or law should be thought of for the Presidency.
How many Presidents of this century would have been kept out of the White House had the constitutional method of choosing been employed! And how much of the disastrous to constitutional Government would have been prevented!
The party organizations could be maintained in the States as usual. They could send Republican or Democratic believers to Congress as they are doing now. Congress could then resume its constitutional function as General Manager of the United States, which would have administration according to the tenets of the party in control. The President would withdraw from determining policy and new laws and confine his industry to the comparatively few duties assigned to him by the Constitution.
There is just one way to put the President in his constitutional place. That is to elect him by electors "appointed" by each State "in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct," the members of the legislature having just come from the people at the ballot box. They act quickly in voting for a President and a Vice President. It was this which made the members of the Constitutional Convention feel that they had, by shortening the time and quickening the action, removed the subject from the opportunities for the cabal, intrigue, and corruption to which Hamilton referred in The Federalist and which have been among the most striking features of the National Nominating Convention and its "campaign."
The tyranny of the Executive which Jefferson said would come "at a remote period" is here. By the power of patronage, chiefly, and money he has overcome the Legislative Department and reduced the Judicial Department below respect. The craven Senate enabled him to set up a Judiciary to his liking. The farcical vote for "electors" of a President is controlled by his appointees on the rapidly enlarging pay rolls of the Executive Department.
No other practice in Government has gone so far from the Constitution, and that transgression has been attended by correspondingly bad results.
Most of the evils in National Government of which people complain will disappear when the States take back their Union. The third term and the fourth have told what to the observing and educated American was not in need of telling. "A conclave of anthropophagi" has ousted the Government of the Constitution.
In support of the proposition of this chapter, that the present method of selecting and electing the President and the Vice President is a disgrace to our constitutional system, another quotation from Henry L. Stoddard's It Costs to Be President is made.
In the Democratic National Nominating Convention of 1932 Franklin D. Roosevelt could not muster the number of delegates required by the two-thirds rule of the party established by Andrew Jackson to prevent the choice of a man not in the very highest favor. Stoddard wrote:
"Roosevelt realized that he must make a drastic move. He had to have aid.
"There was just one man who could supply enough votes in a bunch to insure success. That man was William Randolph Hearst. He was sponsor for the John Nance Gamer boom. He had persuaded the Texas Congressman into the race and had aided him to carry the Texas delegation. He was solely responsible for defeating Roosevelt in the California primaries, and for instructing the Golden Gate delegates, headed by William Gibbs McAdoo, for Gamer.
"Roosevelt knew that there was no need to open negotiations with Gamer and his lieutenants; the real decision was with Hearst the others could be talked with later. Farley was given the job of telephoning Hearst at his San Simeon ranch in California. He did it. Straight to Hearst went the Roosevelt argument that 'if you don't take me you will get Smith or Baker.' That was no news to Hearst; he had foreseen that possibility. He preferred Roosevelt to either of the other two.
"Two hours later Paul Block, the well-known publisher, and I sat in his room for a good-night exchange of opinion. He then said that he had been talking over the telephone with 'W. R.' and that a deal had been arranged by which the 69 Texas and California delegates, after complimenting Garner on two or three ballots, would swing to Roosevelt. He added that Gamer would go on the ticket as Vice President and McAdoo was to have no opposition in California for the Democratic nomination for V. S. Senator.
"The news was in confidence, however, for Hearst, of course, had no power to release delegates pledged to any candidate. That was for Garner and McAdoo to do. Hearst, however, undertook to talk with both of them and with Mayor Cermak of Chicago, who controlled the Illinois delegation. He persuaded all three that after a few ballots they should turn to Roosevelt, and they did.
"It all happened that way, as the convention records attest, but it also happened that 190 delegates, including a majority from Roosevelt's home State of New York, stubbornly refused to make the nomination unanimous.
"When Roosevelt airplaned from Albany to Chicago to accept '100 per cent' the tendered leadership and party platform he faced the only National Convention that had ever failed to give its entire vote finally to its nominee except the Republican National Convention of 1912, when Taft had his battle with Theodore Roosevelt.
"So turns the wheel of fortune in politics."
But what the Constitutional Convention strove from first to last to exclude from the choice of the President and the Vice President was "politics" what Hamilton described as cabal, intrigue, and corruption.
A resolution to amend the Constitution is pending in Congress by which, instead of letting all the electoral votes of a State go to the candidate carrying the popular vote, the electoral votes would be apportioned between or among the candidates according to the shares of their parties in the popular poll.
In case of failure of choice by that method, the proposal would send the election to Congress in joint session, where the vote would be by members, not by States. That would give the large States control. Equality among the States is the first idea of the Constitution.
And the emphatic design of the Constitution (Twelfth Amendment) is that when the electors appointed by the States fail to choose a President and the election thus goes to the House of Representatives, "the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice."
Therefore, the new resolution, which passed the Senate on February 1, 1950, by a vote of 64 to 27, is at war with the paramount idea of American constitutional government as repeatedly expressed from the Declaration of Independence down the equal position of the States in the Union. Indeed, the only amendment forbidden by Article V is one by which a State, "without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate."
In the Farewell Address, Washington cautioned that we resist "the spirit of innovation" upon the principles of the Constitution, "however specious the pretext." What is the pretext for the resolution? That the Presidential election should be determined by an approximation of the direct popular vote for candidates named by the parties.
But the idea is quite erroneous that the electoral system of the Constitution denies to the people a voice in the election of the President. In The Federalist (No. 68) Hamilton wrote (italics inserted):
"It was desirable that the sense of the people should operate in the choice of the person to whom so important a trust was to be committed."
On the same point, Jay wrote in No. 64 of The Federalist:
"They [the States in the Convention] have directed the President to be chosen by select bodies of electors, to be deputed by the people for that express purpose."
That is where begins the choice of the President and the Vice President by the people at the polls.
No voting at primaries, or for the head of the ticket, or otherwise, has any constitutional relation to the election.
The manacles which the Constitutional Convention put on the Chief Executive to prevent him from becoming Caesar manacles which he has slipped must be restored to place by the lawful election.
But what good would such an amendment accomplish after a man over two thousand miles from the National Nominating Convention had named for the Presidential ticket the two candidates of a party to which he had not consistently belonged? Or, after external and presumably mercenary forces had nominated a Democrat for the Republican ticket? Or, after an aspirant reputed to be a master of organization had snuffed out other candidates in the Nominating Convention and taken the place on the ticket for himself? Or, after a President had nominated himself for a second term and then picked his successor? Or, after another President had nominated himself for the second, third, and fourth terms?
It is not a pro rata distribution of the electoral vote of a State that is called for. Indeed, strictly speaking, there is now no electoral vote. What is called the electoral vote is an amorphous creation rising from the delinquency of the States and the permitted, if not invited, manipulations of party organizations and politicians.
The idea behind the resolution to change the Constitution for the removal of misunderstood factors in the problem dates back at least to 1893, over 56 years, nearly half of the 160 years that our Fundamental Law has been in effect. It is the idea from which the Initiative, the Referendum, and the Recall came, which brought the direct primary and the "presidential preference" primary, and which broke down the House of States the idea that democratic or popular action should supersede the representative Government by which George Washington and his compatriots put the United States "in the forefront of nations," as the British historian Green expressed it.
It is an alarming fact that for more than half a century the pressure for "more democracy" has not been relaxed in seats of learning, so called, in parts of the Press, in some political groups, and in organizations of the social minded.
The pending proposal to amend the Constitution by introducing the popular vote to a dangerous degree never before legally involved in determining the result of the election, would be the beginning of the end of the representative or Republican process.
Nor would the suggestion from several quarters, that Congress (the taxpayers, now so comfortable financially!) put up a campaign fund of $3,000,000 to each of the two parties and thus keep out "contributors" in quest of something, help against the evil which the delinquent States have brought upon the country.
The paramount question in this land today is whether the representative method of the Constitution will be restored as to the choice of the President and the Vice President, or whether the democratic or popular infiltration of the last half century and more will be extended to that.
Writing ninety years ago (2 Thirty Years' View, p. 787) in condemnation of the National Nominating Convention, Senator Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri put the choosing of the President with slavery as one of the two "trials" confronting the Republic. War disposed of slavery. The other "trial" remains before us.
The jurisdiction of the problem and the plain solution are wholly with the States.
In 1874 a committee of the Senate made use in a report of the following language:
"Whatever provisions may be made by statute, or by State constitutions, to choose electors by the people, there is no doubt of the right of the legislatures to resume the power at any time, for it can neither be taken away nor abdicated."
That language was quoted by the Supreme Court of the United States (146 U. S. 1) in an election case in 1892.
It is for the people of each State, who cannot be unaware of the peril of present conditions, to rouse themselves and direct their legislatures to appoint presidential electors in pursuance of the constitutional command and in protection of the Republic.
This vigilance has become the more imperative because correspondents in Washington, who scatter to the country curbstone opinions on the laws and the Constitution, have begun to write frequently of the "inherent powers" of the President and what he may do by the use of them perhaps in retiring Congress altogether! To accept that notion would be to turn him loose in "a boundless field of power," of the dangers in which Jefferson gave warning, "no longer susceptible of any definition."
The man in the White House has heritable rights and powers, like every other individual, "among which are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness."
But the Chief Executive in the White House, an altogether different character, is Just as much a manufacture as a child's doll absolutely without any power not specifically conferred by some provision of the Constitution. No power can inhere in this creature apart from those given by the States when they created it to serve not to master them.
When the legislatures of the States return to their constitutional duty of appointing as electors the most able and discerning men in their respective commonwealths to vote for a President and a Vice President, the Chief Executive will be a person with adequate understanding of and respect for our governmental theory and practice.
When the first session of the 81st Congress ended in 1949, there were remaining on the calendar a score or more of demands for unconstitutional legislation from the "program" of the President, who is not authorized by the Constitution to have a program and take control of legislation. He is required to "recommend" measures, but Congress may accept the recommendations or not.
We have learned from Madison, Hamilton, Wilson, and others of the Constitutional Convention; from Jefferson, President Cleveland, and other Presidents, that the limitations in section 8 of Article I against spending by Congress "to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States" only restrict it to the enumerated instances following in that section, namely:
And make all laws "necessary and proper" to execute the foregoing.
In all other relations the American makes his way untouched by the National Government. In 1933 that had been the settled doctrine. Legislation since then touching other matters has been unconstitutional.
From what has been shown, it is plain that in the message of the President to the second session of the 81st Congress, on January 4, 1950, on the state of the Union, these requests for legislation were beyond its constitutional powers to spend money:
Those subjects that touch "the health, safety, morals, education, and general well-being of the people" fall within the police power of the States, which, we have heretofore seen, the States cannot constitutionally abdicate and Congress cannot constitutionally take over. The others are completely "out of bounds" as to any American government.
It is tragic that the failure of the educator to inculcate in the youth of the land American constitutional principles, together with the abandonment by the States of their constitutional duty to elect the President, should bring from the White House such a message.
It is equally tragic that a Congress of 531 members should have received without rebuke or protest proposals for such unconstitutional outlays of money, when the spending of the Government in time of peace was 45 billion a year as compared with 81 billion a year during World War II.
President Truman employed more than 5,500 words in urging Congress to take legislative action on 22 matters over which the Constitution gives it no jurisdiction. A character in English fiction set for him an example which he would have done better to imitate. Addressing the voters (as President Truman really was doing), Tittlebat Titmouse promised them that when elected to Parliament he would put through A Bill for Giving Every Body Every Thing.
The philosophy of Titmouse has superseded the constitutional principles of American Government.
1. This quotation from an article in a magazine in July, 1949, by one of the personal secretaries of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, is not so humorous as the writer thought it. One of the great perils of the times is revealed:
"Hannegan [Democratic Chairman] had a lengthy palaver with the Boss, and when he came out of the President's sitting room he was carrying the letter [of the President] naming Douglas or Truman as an acceptable running mate.
"'Grace, the President wants you to retype this letter and switch these names so it will read "Harry Truman or Bill Douglas."' The reason for the switch was obvious. By naming Truman first it implied that he was the preferred choice of the President The Convention took it that way and Truman was nominated."
So have gone the safeguards set up by the Constitutional Convention for selecting the two chief Officers of the Republic.
2. Report Joint Congressional Committee on Reduction Non-Essential Federal Expenditures.
3. From the speech of acceptance of Grover Cleveland in 1884 and one speech thereafter, and the address of acceptance of William McKinley from the front porch of his home in Ohio in 1896 and two or three others from the same standpoint to visiting groups, we have come a longer way than the years indicate to the "sound and fury" of the late Presidential campaigns, with the nominee racing around the country in special trains and calling at every stop to the people to support him. Since the special train was first employed, the radio has come, and both means are availed of by the candidate for presenting to the masses the merits of his party and himself. The spectacle presented is far from edifying.
Choice of the President by the electors of the Constitution will stop that unseemly exhibition, along with the grotesque Nominating Convention and the evils of the campaign fund.
4. The Lord High Chancellor of England, whose duty is to select and appoint the judges of the Kingdom, spoke to the American Bar Association in 1947 and mentioned that he had never appointed to the Bench a member of his own political party.
5. The legislators should themselves "appoint" from among the competent people of the State the number of electors to which the State is entitled. In view of what has resulted from allowing political parties to name electors to be voted upon by the people, the legislature should return to first principles and allow no intermediary to have anything to do with the great duty. It should courageously perform this function in relation to the choice of a President and a Vice President of the Union of States.
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The Peanuts Comic Strip
Why is the comic strip named Peanuts?
Originally, Charles Schulz named his strip Li’l Folks, but when it became syndicated in 1950 by United Feature Syndicate, there was concern about possible copyright infringement with a cartoon called Little Folks by Tack Knight that had been published in the 1930s. Schulz suggested Charlie Brown or Good Ol’ Charlie Brown, but the syndicate decided upon Peanuts. The name Peanuts was likely chosen because it was a well-known term for children at the time, popularized by the television program The Howdy Doody Show, which debuted in 1947 and featured audience section for children called the “Peanut Gallery.”
“I don’t like the name of my strip at all. I wanted to call it Good Old Charlie Brown, but the person at the syndicate who selected Peanuts just picked it at random from a list of possible titles he jotted down. He hadn’t even looked at the strip when he named it. The syndicate compromised on Sunday, though. Once I rebelled and sent it in without any title. We finally agreed to put Peanuts at the top and include Charlie Brown and His Gang in the sub-title on Sunday.”
– Charles M. Schulz, 1969
Peanuts debuted in seven newspapers on October 2, 1950: The Washington Post, The Chicago Tribune, The Minneapolis Star-Tribune, The Allentown Call-Chronicle, The Bethlehem Globe-Times, The Denver Post, and The Seattle Times. Shortly after Schulz’s passing in 2000, Peanuts was reported to be printed in 2,600 newspapers in 75 countries in 21 languages.
The Peanuts strips were drawn on Strathmore 3-ply paper with India ink. For lettering, Schulz used a Speedball C-5 pen and for drawing the strip he used an Esterbrook 914 radio pen. When Schulz learned that the company that manufactured the nibs for this pen was going out of business, he purchased their entire inventory of nibs.
Schulz kept fairly regular office hours, Monday-Friday, working from about 9am-4pm. On average, he drew about seven strips per week, generally keeping six to eight weeks ahead of the publication schedule. He worked out his ideas on lined paper with sketches and notes; when he was satisfied with the idea, he would create the finished strip. Schulz said he could draw a daily strip anywhere from ten minutes to an hour, but that the Sunday strips always took longer.
Charles M. Schulz created a total of 17,897 Peanuts strips of which there are 15,391 daily strips and 2,506 Sunday strips. All Peanuts strips were originally created with black ink on white paper, whether they were dailies or Sundays. To indicate his color choices on the Sunday strips, Schulz would have a copy of the strip produced at a local print shop, then, using a color chart, he would select colors for each portion and send the syndicate a colored version along with corresponding color number IDs.
In addition to being printed in numerous newspapers as reprints today, most of the Peanuts strips can be viewed online at Go Comics. High-resolution reprints of Peanuts strips can be ordered through the gocomics.com web site.
Strip reprint books can be found at new and used bookstores or local libraries. Peanuts is currently being collected in its entirety and published as The Complete Peanuts by Fantagraphics Books. When complete, this set of 25 books will reproduce every strip in chronological order; each book contains two years of strips; two books will be released each year for 12 1/2 years (the first book was released in 2004).
Peanuts Animation and Musical Productions
When was the first Peanuts animation created?
Peanuts was first animated by Bill Melendez in 1959 for the Tennessee Ernie Ford Show sponsored by Ford Motors. Melendez eventually formed his own company, Bill Melendez Productions, animating and directing all of the Peanuts television specials and full-length movies until his death in 2008. Melendez also provided the “voice” of Snoopy and Woodstock in Peanuts animation.
The next instance of Peanuts animation was created for a documentary produced in 1963 by Lee Mendelson. The documentary, called A Boy Named Charlie Brown, never aired on television but included some animation by Melendez interspersed throughout the show. This documentary is now available on DVD only in the Schulz Museum Store. Lee Mendelson Productions produced all of the Peanuts animated television specials and feature films beginning with A Charlie Brown Christmas (1965) through He’s a Bully, Charlie Brown (2006). Mendelson has also written several books about the making of the early animated specials and has been featured in numerous documentary interviews speaking about the history of Peanuts animation.
A total of 45 Peanuts animated television specials, a Saturday morning television show (1983-1985) and an eight-part television mini-series on American history (1988) have been produced over the past five decades. Four full-length Peanuts motion pictures have been released in theatres: A Boy Named Charlie Brown (1969), Snoopy Come Home (1972), Race For Your Life, Charlie Brown (1977), and Bon Voyage, Charlie Brown (and Don’t Come Back!!) (1980).
I had to animate Sparky’s [Charles Schulz’s] characters in such a way that you wouldn’t see the turns. I found ways of animating this and hiding the fact that [the] scope of the movement was very limited. … Snoopy saved me because Snoopy is more like a real animated character. He can do anything—move and dance—and he’s very easy to animate, whereas the kids are nearly impossible! I’ve always had to think quickly and learn how to cope with the limitations of the design.
– Bill Melendez, 2005
The last animated special, Happiness Is a Warm Blanket, Charlie Brown, was released to DVD on March 29, 2011, and its first airing on television was on November 24, 2011. This special was animated by Wild Brain Entertainment and was directed by Andy Beall and Frank Molieri.
The songs Linus and Lucy and Christmas Time is Here are probably the two most well-known songs composed for Peanuts specials. Jazz musician Vince Guaraldi composed Linus and Lucy for a documentary on Charles Schulz which never aired, called A Boy Named Charlie Brown (1963). Lee Mendelson, the producer of the 1963 documentary and most other Peanuts specials and films, wrote the lyrics to the song Christmas Time is Here, and Guaraldi composed the tune. Guaraldi went on to compose music for 15 Peanuts specials and films until his untimely death in 1976.
In addition to Guaraldi’s many Peanuts compositions through 1976’s It’s Arbor Day, Charlie Brown, the renowned Sherman Brothers wrote the original music for the full-length feature film Snoopy, Come Home in 1972. Richard and Robert Sherman’s legacy includes composing much of the celebrated music from the Disney films of the 1960s and 1970s. Ed Bogas began composing music for Peanuts animation in 1978 with What a Nightmare, Charlie Brown and contributed to much of the original Peanuts music through the 1980s. Bogas partnered with either Judy Munsen or Desiree Goyette on many of the animated Peanuts television specials and films in the early 1980s, with Munsen receiving full credit for supplying music for several of the specials through 1992’s It’s Spring Training, Charlie Brown.
The eight-part animated mini-series This is America, Charlie Brown (1988) included many well-known composers in the credits: Ed Bogas, George Winston, Wynton Marsalis, Dave Brubeck, The Winans, David Benoit, and Dave Grusin. With the release of It’s Christmastime Again, Charlie Brown in the fall of 1992, David Benoit was again enlisted, arranging and performing the music of Vince Guaraldi in several of the television specials produced in the 1990s.
The music for Happiness Is a Warm Blanket, Charlie Brown (2011) was composed by Mark Mothersbaugh, co-founder of the band Devo. Mothersbaugh has a long history of scoring television and film productions including many of the films of noted director Wes Anderson, who cites Peanuts animator and director Bill Melendez as an influence on his films—bringing the legacy of original Peanuts compositions full circle!
A summary of Peanuts music would not be complete without mentioning that Ludwig van Beethoven’s compositions can be heard in many of the Peanuts specials, due to Schroeder’s passion for this brilliant composer and pianist. One of the most memorable instances in A Charlie Brown Christmas is when Schroeder soulfully plays Bagatelle No. 25 in A minor for solo piano—commonly known as “Für Elise.”
Sheet music for many of the compositions heard in Peanuts specials and films can be purchased at music stores, bookstores, and online retailers.
There are only two official Peanuts musicals: You’re a Good Man, Charlie Brown and Snoopy!!! The Musical. You’re a Good Man, Charlie Brown is the most well-known and considered to be one of the most performed musicals in the United States since its debut in 1967.
Peanuts Worldwide, LLC, which owns and manages the rights to Peanuts, does not at this time license the rights to A Charlie Brown Christmas for live performances due to various legal restrictions.
What are some of the significant Peanuts licensing milestones?
- The first licensed Peanuts products were paperback books published by Rinehart & Co. in 1952.
- The first Peanuts toys were manufactured by the Hungerford Doll Corporation in 1958 and included Charlie Brown, Snoopy, Linus, Lucy, and Schroeder with his piano.
- Hallmark first began producing Peanuts greeting cards and booklets in 1960 and has continued to create Peanuts-themed cards and other items for over 50 years.
- Happiness is a Warm Puppy was published in 1962 by Determined Productions, Inc., landing on the New York Times best-seller list for 45 weeks.
- Macy’s has included a Peanuts character balloon in all Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Parades since the debut of a Snoopy balloon in 1968.
- Charles Schulz used MetLife as his personal insurer from at least 1967, but Peanuts wasn’t associated with the company until Snoopy became the MetLife Spokes-Beagle in 1985 with the launch of the “Get Met. It Pays.” advertising campaign. The MetLife Blimp Program debuted in 1987 and currently has three ships named after Snoopy: Snoopy One, Snoopy Two and Snoopy J.
See more about the history of the partnership between Peanuts and MetLife.
- Camp Snoopy opened at Knott’s Berry Farm in Buena Park, California in 1983, launching the first of many Camp Snoopy theme parks across the country. In 1992, the Mall of America opened its own Camp Snoopy, making it the largest indoor theme park in the nation (the Mall of America theme park is no longer associated with Camp Snoopy).
Did Charlie Brown always wear his iconic zigzag shirt?
“I think anybody who is writing finds he puts a little bit of himself in all of the characters, at least in this kind of a strip. It’s the only way that you can survive when you have to do something every day. You have to put yourself, all of your thoughts, all of your observations and everything you know into the strip.”
– Charles M. Schulz, 1984
Charlie Brown appeared in the first Peanuts comic strip on October 2, 1950, but his first appearance in the famous zigzag shirt didn’t occur until the strip published on December 21, 1950.
In the Peanuts comic strip, Snoopy has five named siblings: Spike, Belle, Marbles, “Ugly” Olaf, and Andy. However, in the June 18, 1989 strip, Snoopy states that “there were eight of us in the litter.” In the animated special, Snoopy’s Reunion (1991), Snoopy’s other two siblings are mentioned by name; they are Molly and Rover.
Although Snoopy’s possessions are periodically described in Peanuts (including records, books, a Van Gogh painting, and a pool table), the interior of Snoopy’s doghouse is never actually shown in the comic strip. The only time the viewer sees inside Snoopy’s doghouse is in the 1981 animated special, It’s Magic, Charlie Brown.
“Snoopy’s appearance and personality have changed probably more than those of any of the other characters. As my drawing style loosened, Snoopy was able to do more things, and when I finally developed the formula of using his imagination to dream of being many heroic figures, the strip took on a completely new dimension.”
– Charles M. Schulz, 1975
Charles Schulz had many dogs in his life, from his childhood dogs Snooky and Spike to the dogs his family had after he was married with children. Spike was cited as the biggest influence on the creation of Snoopy. Other dogs in the Schulz family included Major, Lucy, Carmel, Dropshot, and Andy. Schulz said that his favorite dog was Andy, a mixed-breed dog that was rescued by Jean Schulz from a fox terrier rescue group in 1988.
“I usually say that they [adults] do not appear because the daily strip is only an inch and a half high, and they wouldn’t have room to stand up. Actually, they have been left out because they would intrude in a world where they could only be uncomfortable. Adults are not needed in the Peanuts strip. In earlier days I experimented with off-stage voices, but soon abandoned this as it was not only impractical but actually clumsy. Instead, I have developed a cast of off-stage adults who are talked about but never seen or heard.”
– Charles M. Schulz, 1975
This Peanuts strip was originally published on May 30, 1954.
This Peanuts strip was originally published on August 14, 1960
Although Linus has much deeper philosophical visions in mind while cloud gazing, it is Charlie Brown who responds with his everyman response of seeing a “ducky and a horsie” in the Peanuts strip originally published on August, 14, 1960.
Peanuts strip originally published on March 10, 1997
That character is named “Crybaby” Boobie. She was introduced into the Peanuts strip in 1978 and is usually shown throwing her head back, crying about some injustice she has observed on the tennis court. Although she is most often shown wearing a polka dot dress and without the viewer seeing her face, the strips in the days leading up to this one indicate it is indeed “Crybaby” Boobie who Snoopy may have kicked at the end of another contentious tennis game.
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Piebald or Jacob Sheep
A rare olde breed
with distinct color and horn patterns
Jacobs were probably first imported to Canada and the United States as zoo animals due to their exotic appearance, but records are scarce. Some individuals acquired Jacob sheep from zoos around the 1960s, but the breed remained very rare in North America for several decades. Identification of the breed as endangered and ensuing registration of sheep began in 1985.
Jacob sheep are hardy animals with high resistance to parasites and disease. Hooves generally only need trimming once a year, even on soft pasture, and sheep only need shearing once a year. Jacobs are seasonal breeders and twins are common.
Jacobs do not need supplemental grain. Feeding grain during pregnancy can cause birth complications. Adequate pasture, hay, and loose minerals (formulated for sheep, not cattle) fulfill the Jacob's nutritional needs. Shelter from rain and weather is needed, but the shelter can be open and simple.
The wool of the Jacob sheep varies with the animal in question. In general, Jacobs have open fleeces weighing no more than about five pounds and of medium-fine quality. The fleece of a Jacob feels somewhat springy. Many Jacobs have some kemp (coarse, hair-like fibers) in their wool, which is natural for primitive breeds, but excessive kemp throughout the fleece is considered undesirable. Quality of wool often ranges from flock to flock.
Jacobs are shorn once a year. Some individual sheep will show a natural "break" in the fleece in springtime, which sometimes leads to a natural shedding of the fleece, particularly around the neck and shoulders. The wool is sought after by handspinners.
In some sheep (particularly British Jacobs, which have denser fleeces), the black wool will grow longer or shorter than the white wool. This is called "quilted fleece" and is an undesirable trait.
Piebald or Jacob Sheep are an English Breed with a Scandinavian Background. They are descendants of the sheep the Norse traveled the Seas with as they sought new lands to colonize!
Two Horn and four horn ewe lambs out a four horn ewe
Photo By James E. Boyle
Four Horn Ram,
1974 Fairyland Forest Conneaut Lake, PA
Ewes at Thistledown Croft
Certain faults in Jacobs show that there is blood of another breed in the mix. This is considered disqualifying from all US registries since the hope is to preserve a distinct breed of very old lineage. One of the most obvious signs of cross breeding is white horns. Likewise solid black animals that have mostly black wool. There is a fairly wide range of variation and progeny testing is a very good way to insure your stock will breed true to breed type. There are allot of crossbreds out there being sold as purebreds so buyer beware!
From an 1860 Encyclopedia
It is myth that Jacobs are related to the fat tailed sheep of the Middle East
18th Century Four Horn Ram
Jacobs can have two four and can even have more horns. They have a spotted or piebald fleece which is genetically black with white spotting. The legs should also have knee patches of black and or ankle spots. Horns can be black or striped but not pure white. Legs should not be all white either. These are breed standards and not every animal is perfect. The breeders hope is that the sheep he or she raises will come close to that ideal standard with as few serious faults as possible.
In the UK the Breed has been "improved" with Dorset and other Blood!
And they no longer resemble a primitive breed. They are bulky, much larger than those in the USA and no longer have the knee spots on most individuals. Most American breeders prefer the Jacob to remain more like the original smaller more feral looking examples common in the UK prior to the 70s. The beginnings of Jacob sheep preservation in the USA is closely associated with the ALBC and other groups wishing to preserve our livestock heritage. It is an entirely different emphasis than commercial sheep breeding. The UK has the Livestock Survival Trust but somehow they were unable to keep the Jacob from being commercialized to the point there are few flocks of old style Jacobs left. perhaps the Jacob in the UK is a victim of too much popularity. Other primitive breeds in the UK have faired better.
Click here to see the UK Breeders Organization,
Other Breeds with four horns
However Romantic it may be the Jacob Sheep does not have a Biblical Connection other than the modern name. The closest relatives to Piebald sheep are the Hebridian and Manx Loghton sheep of the UK which are also four horned. Other close relatives are the Icelandic and Gotland Sheep. The Jacob has a tail that stops at the hocks, small eyes and small ears, all characteristics of a Northern breed not a Middle Eastern one. Middle Eastern and Eastern breeds have a broad flat tail that is very fatty.
These facts may not be politically correct with some Jacob breeders but it's good science not fairytale and fancy. Before it became desirable to have all white sheep for the purpose of dying, most early breeds came in black or were spotted like the Jacob Sheep. Jacobs survived principally as park sheep and were never "improved" like commercial breeds until recently in the UK. In the USA and Canada breeders prefer to preserve the genetics of this unique wool breed and have not introduced blood to make the breed bigger.
Many Nordic breeds also retain the wonderful colors and spots as the Jacob or Piebald sheep do. The name Piebald in fact means spotted! Shetland Sheep may also be distant relatives of the Jacob.With the high number of large commercial and improved sheep breeds it seems shear folly to change such and ancient and majestic creature as the Jacob Sheep to meet the demands of fashion and fancy. After all we are talking about animals that date back to the Viking age!
Breeder, Timothy Charles
Ewes breed by Barking Rock Farm
Facing off with the Border Collie
In recent times unenlightened breeders have put too much emphasis on perfect horns which is a dangerous trend in a rare breed with a limited gene pool. The horns on Jacobs often become distorted when broken and horn pattern genetics have not yet been adequately documented.
Shepherds Crooks USA
copyright 2002 , Jim & Beth Boyle, All Rights Reserved
No part of this website may be used for any purpose ( including using images )
without written consent from The Rams Horn
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Translation of machine gun in Spanish:
- (before noun) machine-gun firefuego (masculine) de ametralladoraExample sentences
- It was a giant machine gun that fired plastic bullets and grenades.
- The most important of these were the bolt action rifle and the machine gun, and hand grenades and mortars.
- She felt several bullets strike her helmet as she fired the machine gun at the remaining attacking soldiers.
also: machine-gun transitive verb present participle machine gunning past tense, past participle machine gunned
What do you find interesting about this word or phrase?
Comments that don't adhere to our Community Guidelines may be moderated or removed.
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First, consider the preliminaries:
- Steadiness is an extension of obedience. Ensure compliance with obedience commands prior to enforcing steadiness.
- Avoid too many meaningless retrieves for pups; they serve only to overexcite the dog. Keep retrieves between 2 to 4 per week in pre-training, 6 to 8 marks per week in early basic training and reduce marking drills to perhaps 1 session in 5 as training progresses. Concentrate on memories, site blinds, diversions, etc. Read more about meaningless retrieves and other training don'ts in Retriever Training: What Not to Do!
- Don't expose your retriever prospects to hunting situations until basic training is complete. Ideally, the age for a pup's first hunt should exceed 12 months, allowing greater maturity.
- Too many birds at a young age overexcites pups. Keep bird exposure limited to brief sessions reintroduced periodically throughout basic training. Avoid bird-crazy training sessions unless you have a very low-drive dog needing motivation.
- Involve dogs in group work where the retriever must remain patient, still and quiet while honoring other dogs. The quietest dogs gets the retrieve, thereby making them realize that patience brings about the reward of a retrieve.
- Make the association between gunfire and something to retrieve the best-kept secret between you and your young dog. The connection will be realized quickly enough. Train young dogs to sit at the sound of gunfire.
- Pick up 75 percent of all downed birds yourself the first hunting season, keeping the rookie tied in the blind or at heel to avoid mishaps. We do not want to reward running in with a retrieve, thereby reinforcing negative behaviors.
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A handheld tool is under development to diagnose traumatic brain injuries on the spot using technology developed by a University of Nebraska-Lincoln chemist. Such a device could yield critical and in some cases life-saving information to guide triage decisions from the battlefield to the football field.
SFC Fluidics, a Fayetteville, Ark.-based biotechnology company, recently entered into a license agreement with UNL's nonprofit affiliate, NUtech Ventures, to use technology developed by David Hage, professor of chemistry. NUtech is responsible for building partnerships between the University of Nebraska and the private sector.
Hage, a bioanalytical chemist, develops methods to separate and measure specific compounds in complex fluids, and in some cases to do so quite rapidly -- on the order of minutes or even a fraction of a second. He might be looking for a drug in a drop of blood, a pesticide in water or an explosive dissolved in a liquid. In applications seeking to assess the severity of a traumatic brain injury, his methods can measure specific proteins in blood serum that are released by the brain. In other words, the severity of brain injury can be diagnosed with a simple blood test.
"So if you have a test that is fast enough to detect this protein in a few minutes, you can tell pretty quickly if someone with a potential head injury has to go back to the hospital or if they're OK to keep doing what they're doing," Hage said. "Having a fast test for this process would help improve the likelihood of successful treatment and having a good outcome for the individual."
Both Hage's technology and SFC Fluidics' technologies are microfluidic, meaning they work with very, very tiny amounts of fluid. A microliter droplet, by way of comparison, is about the diameter of a grain of salt.
Hage continues research, meanwhile, to make the test more sensitive to provide more information about the severity of a head injury.
"Detecting whether or not a traumatic brain injury occurred is good," Hage said. "Determining severity is better."
An estimated 1.7 million Americans suffer head injuries each year, resulting in 275,000 hospitalizations and 52,000 deaths, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Traumatic brain injuries also are a serious threat for active duty U.S. military personnel who are exposed to blasts in war zones.
SFC Fluidics sought to incorporate Hage's technology because it fits well with the speed and sensitivity demands of traumatic brain injury diagnostics, said Sai Kumar, the company's vice president for research and development.
David Conrad, NUtech Venture's executive director, said the project is exciting because it has the potential to directly improve people's lives.
"This project is a great example of how a university researcher can partner with industry to create real value," Conrad said. "It will take the combination of Dave Hage's innovative approach and SFC Fluidics' platform technology to create the diagnostic device, and the result has the potential to help a lot of people."
Hage has spent more than two decades designing separation and measurement techniques, many of which are patented, for a wide range of applications. These applications have ranged from new clinical tests to improved methods for forensic testing, drug development and environmental monitoring.
His research has been supported by the National Institutes of Health, the Environmental Protection Agency, the Nebraska EPSCoR program, and Nebraska Center for Nanohybrid Functional Materials, among others.
The Department of Defense supports the development of SFC Fluidics' handheld device.
Clinical trials for the device are expected to begin in spring 2014.
Explore further: Majority of Americans think they pay more toward social security and medicare than they do
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Please help me correct this writing if it has mistake. Thank you
PRODIGY CAO BA QUAT
Cao Ba Quat was born into a scholarly simple family. In his childhood, he was well known for his cleverness, strong character, good literature and fine writing.
In 1831, he got Bachelor of Degree. In 1841, he was convened to the royal court and appointed an officer in the Department of Rites. When he was assigned to be an examiner at Huong examination in Thua Thien, he together with his friend Pham Nha corrected royally critical mistakes in excellent exam papers in order to help talented persons. Such bold actions were found and he sentenced to death but then King Thieu Tri pardoned him, just dismissed him.
Afterwards he joined the envoy to Singapore, he made some noted feat to compensate for his blames. After his return, he was restored to his former post and then promoted.
In 1854, he was Education Principal of Quoc Oai District. Because of his love for the miserable people and discontent at the feudal court, he followed Le Duy Cu as his advisor to fight the royal court. The peasant’s insurgence in My Luong failed; he was captured and executed together with his two sons.
Cao Ba Quat was born in Gia Lam, Bac Ninh (Hanoi today) to a poor family which had good scholarly and studious tradition. Right from his childhood, he was well known for his cleverness, good literature and fine hand-writing, quick eloquent reaction as well as his bold and unruly characters.
Once Quat went down to Thang Long from Bac Ninh for pleasure while King Minh Mang was visiting the North. That day, the King together with his convoy went sightseeing o Tay Lake.
The curious people gathered, pushed one another noisily over the lake bank. Cao Ba Quat was also present among the crowd. Finding it not easy to meet the King, the clever boy found out a bold scheme. He quickly took off his clothes, then jumped into the lake enjoying his bath naturally.
The royal troops had to handle the curious crowd with much difficultly, now they felt more confused and difficult to treat the naughty boy that was boldly bathing in the lake right at the time when the King came to enjoy the beautiful scene of the lake. Without a mere delay, some troops with spears in their hands waded into lake, seizing Quat and bring him ashore to rope him.
However, roping the boy was not an easy job. Quat was struggling hard with his hands waving around, legs kicking about and mouth shouting loudly. He caused such a disturbing sight that had ever seen.
At that time, the King’s palanquin just came. Hearing the noisy sounds outside, the King rolled up the curtain, looked out asking: “Is that the way the Northern people welcome me?”
Finding the King disappointed, the palanquin guard officer hurriedly reported the incident to the King. After hearing the story, the King could not help being angry; he ordered his men to bring the unruly boy before him for interrogation.
King Minh Mang was said to be talented at ruling the ruling the country but very hard and cold to merciless level. The King had used to have his maid’s head cuff off because of her careless touch on his cheek while she was fanning him during his sleep. There for, the people were very worried for the safety of the boy.
The troops asked Quat to put on his clothes and roped his hands tightly then brought him before the King. Quat declared that he came from the country, enjoyed bathing in the lake without notice of the King’s appearance. On finding the insolent trouble-maker just an innocent small boy, the King partly cooled his anger.
At the time, there was a school of fish chasing one another in the lake, the King felt highly inspired and wanted to test the talent of the pupil. He asked Quat:
- I’ll compose the first parallel sentence. If you can compose the second to make a good pair of parallel sentences, I’ll spare your life.
Hearing the order of the King, Quat right away clasped his hands and replied respectfully:
Yes! My Highest Majesty!
King Minh Mang composed the first sentence easily:
- In the clear water, fish is catching fish.
To everybody’s surprise, just a moment later Quat composed a very good parallel sentence:
- In the sunny sky, man is roping man.
The whole convoy of the King held their breath in silence, secretly looking at one another and wondering: “Where is this boy from? How dare he make a joke with the King?” They were waiting for a fury to happen.
The smile on the King’s lips disappeared, his face turn pale. He stood up. The boy parallel sentence was a surprise to the King, moreover it seemed to be ironic and insolent.
However, Quat was really lucky; King Minh Mang was a good and wise king who loved literature. He recognized the talent and bravery of the boy.
Finally, the King respected Quat’s talent for retort and he turned his anger into joy, having the smart and naughty boy untied and pardoning his deadly misdeed.
The people had been standing watching nearby. Finding the country boy was pardoned after he had been given a chance of composing parallel sentences with the King, they were very happy and they acclaimed “Long life” to the King. They praised the generosity of the King and admired the talent of the infant prodigy.
At the age of 12, Cao Ba Quat together with his twin brother Cao Ba Dat attended the examination. They finished and sent in their exam papers early. Not knowing what to do in the remaining time, they both went out to kick a shuttle cock in the yard.
One examiner came to them and reprimanded:
- At the exam compound, every candidate is trying his best to pass the exam. Are you coming here just for playing around?
Quat quickly replied:
- The exam is easy and we’re finished our exam papers so we’re just kicking shuttle cocks. We dare not play around here, teacher!
The official was very surprised at the smart and bright appearance of the boys. He required about their family then to try their talent, the official composed the first parallel sentence:
- Two boys of one fetus, difficult to tell the senior, the junior.
Without consulting with his brother, Quat kindly composed:
- One time in thousand years, lucky to have wise king, good subjects.
The court official goggled his eyes in amazement. How good the retort from such a small boy was! He nodded repeatedly and praised:
- So good! So good!
Right after that, the official ordered his man to open the gate for the two brothers to go home. He felt great admiration towards the boy.
Both of them passed that examination. On the ceremony of calling out the names of the successful candidates, everybody was very surprised to see that two new graduates were just two cute small boys with tufts of hair on the head.
As a small boy, Cao Ba Quat showed himself to be very clever, brave, so good at literature and fine hand-writing, eloquent retort that even the King and officers had to admire him. Quat is really an infant prodigy of Vietnam.
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Margin of Safety
What it is:
How it works (Example):
The formula for margin of safety is:
Margin of Safety = 1 - Stock's Current Price / Stock's
Let's look at an example.
Assume an investor pays $9.50 for a stock he believes to be worth $10.00.
Because the investor is paying 95% of the estimated inherent value ($9.50 / $10.00), his margin of safety is 5%. If the same investor refused to buy the stock unless it was trading at $7.00 per share, he would have a much greater margin of safety of 30%.
Obv farther a company's shares have been pushed beneath their intrinsic value (sometime called "fair value"), the larger the margin of safety will be. Conversely, if a stock is trading at or even above its , then the margin of safety on that type of an investment would be zero, making the shares theoretically subject to more risk.
Once the investor determines the benchmark rate of return on a low-risk investment. (In most cases, U.S. Treasuries are used as a benchmark for this risk-free rate of return.) By comparing the potential return of a stock or other investment to that of a risk-free bond, the investor can get a better sense for whether the margin of safety will adequately compensate him for the risk involved.of a stock and can therefore calculate its margin of safety, he must compare this to a
If risk-free rates (and thus, demand for fixed-income investments) are relatively high, investors might demand a larger margin of safety on their riskier stock investments. However, if risk-free rates are low, then investors might accept a lower margin of safety.
Why it Matters:
When the term "margin of safety" was introduced, it suggested that a stock's could be methodically calculated. Benjamin Graham, the conceiver of margin of safety, suggested this could be done by analyzing a company's assets and business model and forecasting its future earnings. Virtually all methods of calculating involve making predictions that may eventually prove to be inaccurate and/or could be influenced by unpredictable factors down the road. Decisions based on these methods therefore involve some degree of risk.
How large of a margin of safety is needed for a stock to be considered a true value investment? This depends on several factors, including market conditions, risk tolerance, and even the fundamental prospects for the company in question. When an investor feels very confident that his/her inherent value figure is accurate and unlikely to fluctuate substantially, then a thinner margin of safety might be suitable. This is usually the case with well-established firms in mature industries with clear earnings visibility and stable cash flow track records. Trying to pin an exact on other companies, particularly younger ones operating in volatile industries, can be an exceedingly difficult task. In this case, prudent investors should generally demand a higher margin of safety to compensate for the uncertainties behind the calculation.
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|Search ON THIS DAY by date|
The first American soldiers, members of the 5th Army, reached the centre of Rome late last night after encountering dogged resistance from German forces on the outskirts of the city.
Early this morning it was announced the German troops had been ordered to withdraw.
Rome is the first of the three Axis powers' capitals to be taken and its recapture will be seen as a significant victory for the Allies and the American commanding officer who led the final offensive, Lieutenant General Mark Clark.
In a broadcast in the United States this evening, President Franklin D Roosevelt welcomed the fall of Rome with the words, "One up, two to go." But he gave a warning that Germany had not yet suffered enough losses to cause her to collapse.
In Rome itself, the people have been celebrating. Shops have closed and huge crowds have taken to the streets, cheering, waving and hurling bunches of flowers at the passing army vehicles.
First reports from the city say it has been left largely undamaged by the occupying German forces.
The city's water supply is still intact and there is even electricity - recent blackouts are reported to have been caused by engineers reluctant to restore power for the occupiers.
Most Romans remained in the city during the occupation and many refugees also fled here. Food supplies are now extremely short with bread rationed to 100g per person per day.
A report from Hitler's headquarters said he had ordered the withdrawal of the German troops to the north-west of Rome in order to prevent its destruction.
The statement said: "The struggle in Italy will be continued with unshakable determination with the aim of breaking the enemy attacks and to forge final victory for Germany and her allies."
The Pope appeared on the balcony of St Peter's this evening and addressed the thousands of Italians who had gathered in the square.
He said: "In recent days we trembled for the fate of the city. Today we rejoiced because, thanks to the joint goodwill of both sides, Rome has been saved from the horrors of war."
The American military authorities in London have broadcast a tribute to the British General Sir Harold Alexander, who has been in overall command of Allied forces in Italy.
It described the campaign as "daring, unconventional and brilliant" and said his methods had compelled the enemy to evacuate Rome without destructive fighting within the city itself.
The American commander of the 5th Army, Lieutenant General Mark Clark, chose to strike for Rome from the Anzio beachhead, after the fall of Monte Cassino, rather than chase after the retreating German forces as he had been ordered by the British officer in overall charge, General Sir Harold Alexander.
This decision has since been described by eminent American military historian Carlo D'Este as "as militarily stupid as it was insubordinate". Although Rome was liberated, the Germans were not decisively defeated.
After the fall of Rome German forces fell back to the so-called Gothic Line of defence, running across Italy just north of Florence.
The Allies did not breach this line until September 1944. The Allied front then stalled again until a breakthrough in April 1945 when their final assault broke German resistance and led to capitulation on 2 May.
The Italian campaign had tied down more than 20 German divisions - while the Allies concentrated on the battle on the western front. Although some have argued it was the Germans tying down the Allies.
But the Italian campaign was not in itself decisive and in the end victory in Europe was won only through direct attacks on Germany itself.
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Aspiring engineers and scientist swarmed the Austintown Middle School gymnasium during the district's first FIRST Lego League competition Jan. 11.
FIRST, which stands for, For Information and Recognition of Science and Technology, is a program designed to inspire students to become excited about science and technology. The event also was in partnership with the AMS STEM, or Science Technology, Engineering and Math, program.
"We're in partnership with Project Lead The Way and Mahoning County Education Services Center," said STEM teacher Danielle Chine. "We're focusing on career readiness, education, technology skills and concepts of engineering and math to prepare students to solve real-world problems."
Town Crier photos by Eartha Terrell
FLL Maniac Machine team member Haley Woods shows off her team's invention during the FIRST Lego League competition at Austintown Middle School Jan. 11.
Ten teams from surrounding schools in northeast Ohio including two middle school teams competed during the event in the hope their robots would qualify for the upcoming state competition in Dayton. Middle school participants included Jackson Belknap, Anthony Delbene, Micheal Spear, Alex Giovannone, Jeremy Selby, Zachary Easton, Nathan Spalding, Isaac Robbins, David Varley III, Daniella Varley, Daniel Varley, Kyle Anderson, Alexis Clark, Walter Woods, Haley Woods and Bob Malizia.
This year's theme was Nature's Fury. Along with showcasing their Lego League robots, students were responsible for using technology to create remedies for potential disasters as well, and were judged based on their project presentation, robot design and core values.
"This year's theme is called Nature's Fury," said event coordinator Andy Yantes. "In August they were asked to come up with a national disaster, a location where that disaster would occur and an innovative solution to solve that natural disaster."
AMS team, The Mad Scientists, used colorful rubberbands and battery-powered lights to create the Brifelet, which is a bracelet that could be used to locate people with asthma or diabetes during a flood.
According to Team Coach, Mike Malizia, students gained hands-on experience practicing team work and cooperation.
"It's an all- encompassing activity for the kids," Malizia said. "They're not just learning to build robots, they're learning to do presentations and public speaking and teamwork. Throughout the halls you can hear teams wishing each other luck," he said.
The Fitch High School robotics team also attended the event and gave AMS students a look into their future of robotics at the high-school level. The team showcased two of their older robots and provided helpful insight and tips for their younger counterparts.
"They're learning some pretty high-level concepts that most people don't understand, whether they know it or not," said high school senior Michael Jadue. "This is a great experience to have in a time where technology is so prevalent," Jadue said.
While science and technology were at the forefront of the day-long event, some students took advantage of the time to also meet new people and have fun.
"It's a great experience. You meet people from all over the state and country and you really connect with your team more than you thought you ever could," said eighth-grader Robert Malizia.
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Pansy flowers come in a wide variety of color combinations, from the solid yellow or blue pansies with black pencil lines pointing out from the center to a combination of two to three bright colors with a dark center called a face. Pansies grown in U.S. Department of Agriculture hardiness zone 10 will bloom in the spring, fall and winter months. Pansies take two weeks to germinate and 15 weeks to sprout and bloom.
Start germinating your pansy seeds 12 weeks before the last frost. Moisten a paper towel and set it out on a work space. Place the pansy seeds in the moistened paper towel. Gently fold the paper towel to cover the seeds. Set the towel in a plastic resealable bag. Place the bag in the refrigerator and keep it refrigerated for 14 to 20 days. Pansy seeds germinate best in cool, dark, moist environments. Check the paper towel daily and moisten as necessary with a fine mist of water from a spray bottle. Do not allow the seeds to dry out or they will not germinate for you. If kept wet and cool, the pansy seeds will start to germinate within two weeks.
Fill the seeding pots with potting soil. Generously water the soil.
Plant the pansy seeds in the seeding pots. Place them 1/8 inch down into the soil and space them 1/2 inch to 1 inch away from each other.
Store the seeding pots in a room that has an average temperature range of 65 degrees Fahrenheit to 70 degrees Fahrenheit. Set a black plastic bag over the seeding pots, as pansy seeds require darkness to germinate.
Monitor the seeding pots and water daily or as needed to keep the soil moist. When the pansies sprout and seedlings emerge from the soil, remove the black plastic bag from the seeding pots.
Fertilize your pansies with liquid fertilizer when the first green leaves appear on the seedlings. Apply liquid fertilizer every two weeks or according to the packing instructions. When the first three or four adult or "true" leaves of the pansies appear, move the pansies to individual plastic pots with drain holes. Set them in a sunny area, where the temperature is 50 degrees Fahrenheit.
Place the pansy seedlings in a cold-frame shelter for one week once they have six to eight true leaves to harden the seedlings. Position the cold frame to get southern sun exposure, where the soil drains well. Water your pansies each morning while they are hardening in the cold frame. If the night temperatures drop below 55 degrees Fahrenheit, cover the cold frame with its sash. Expose the pansies to the sun and wind by opening the sash of the cold frame a little wider each day over the period of a week. Leave the sash open wide on the last one to two days and then remove the sash to expose the seedlings to full sun and wind.
Prepare the flower bed by adding organic fertilizer such as manure to the soil. Turn the soil of the flower bed over five times with a shovel to thoroughly mix in the fertilizer. Plant the pansies after the last frost, in full sun where there is moist, well-drained soil, 8 inches to 12 inches apart.
Things You Will Need
- Paper towel
- Plastic resealable bag
- Spray bottle
- Seeding pots with drain holes
- Potting soil
- Black plastic bag
- Plastic pots with drain holes
- Cold frame
- Pinch off flower blooms once they are spent or have wilted and are dying. This encourages the pansies to produce more flowers and can extend the overall blooming period of your flowers.
- Add 2 inches of mulch around your pansies to keep moisture in the soil and stop weed growth.
- Water your pansies in early morning to prevent diseases such as mold or fungus. Mold spores are often released in the late afternoon or evening.
- During hot summer months, cut back the pansies. When cooler temperatures start in the fall, the pansies will grow back and give you more flowers.
- Do not allow your seeds to dry out while germinating or they will die.
- George Doyle/Stockbyte/Getty Images
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Appendix vs Annexure
Appendix and Annexure are two terms between which certain differences can be identified. These two words are often confused in terms of their meanings. They are two different words that convey two different meanings and connotations. An appendix is a section of additional information in a book. Mainly when we go through academic books, research projects, and papers, we find an appendix. This usually provides a lot of information to the reader. The nature of the information can differ from one document to the other. The overall intention of an appendix is to strengthen the arguments made by the writer. On the other hand, an annexure provides the reader with later additions. This is the main difference between an appendix and annexure. Through this article let us examine the concepts of appendix and annexure, while highlighting the differences.
What is Appendix?
An appendix is a section of additional information in a book. These additions are made towards the end of a thesis or a dissertation. An appendix should contain any matter that strengthens the purpose of the subject matter of the thesis as a whole. An appendix is a term used in the research field.
A researcher that works in the field of language, for example, writes a thesis based on the contribution of rhetoricians to the field of rhetoric, especially figures of speech. In such a case, the researcher would include appendix related to the subject matter, namely figures of speech. The appendix can be ‘the list of figures of speech dealt by various rhetoricians of the past’.
It is interesting to note that the word ‘appendix’ has its plural as ‘appendices’. An appendix strengthens the amount of research done by the researcher. He can show various appendices in support of his research findings too. Appendices bestow an advantage on the researcher. This highlights that the function of an appendix is mainly the provision of extra information that were not provided in the earlier chapters. By providing more information, the researcher has a greater possibility of sustaining his conclusions and findings. In the case of an annexure, it is quite different. Now let us move on to an understanding of an annexure.
What is Annexure?
An annexure is an addition to a document. It is a term used mostly in business models and ideas. This highlights a difference between an appendix and an annexure. While an annexure is can be seen in business models, an appendix is a term used in the research field. An annexure is added towards the end of a document indicating later additions to the document. There is no intention of the later addition in the case of an appendix. This is also an important difference between an appendix and an annexure. It is interesting to note that an annexure would also mean a separate or added building, especially for extra accommodation. The idea of ‘extra’ prevails in the addition of an ‘annexure’. This highlights an appendix and an annexure are not the same but two different words. Now let us summarize the difference in the following manner.
What is the Difference Between an Appendix and Annexure?
- An appendix is an addition made towards the end of a thesis or a dissertation whereas an annexure is an addition to a document used mostly in business models and ideas.
- An annexure is added towards the end of a document indicating later additions to the document whereas an Appendix does not have later additions.
- An Appendix provides further information that strengthens the arguments made by the researcher, but in an annexure this is not the case.
2. “Urval av de bocker som har vunnit Nordiska radets litteraturpris under de 50 ar som priset funnits (3)” by Johannes Jansson [CC BY 2.5], via Wikimedia Commons
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University of Wisconsin students win divestment from apartheid South Africa, 1969-1978
Madison Wisconsin was one of the first communities in the United States to recognize apartheid in South Africa as a serious and international issue that could potentially be addressed in part through American activism and solidarity. The University of Wisconsin-Madison was a focal point for this activism, due to the dedication and engagement of its students and professors. Although most American activism on South African apartheid did not begin until the mid 1980s, Madison began protesting the situation in the 1960s. Before 1969, there was largely disjointed and uncoordinated activism on the subject, which culminated in two radically different protests in May of 1968: one, on the 17th, was a large-scale seven hour long sit-in where hundreds of students protested the university's investment in Chase Manhattan Bank, whose investment policies toward South Africa perpetuated apartheid. The second event, carried out the very next day, was the infamous firebombing of the University's South Hall (which, due to misreporting, is often cited as having been in protest of the Vietnam war).
Although the firebombing seems to have been a major catalyst for organized protest in Madison, it also breaks with subsequent activism in Madison. The true beginning of the Madison campaign for divestment began the next year, 1969, with the formation of the student group MACSA (The Madison Area Committee on Southern Africa). The group was symbolically formed one day after the nine-year anniversary of the Sharpeville Massacre in South Africa, and it proved itself to be an extraordinarily powerful force in Madison’s struggle for apartheid divestment. MACSA’s tactics were explicitly nonviolent.
As a group, MACSA focused on lobbying and persuasion, and its first few years (1969-1975) were devoted to gathering information on injustices committed in South Africa and on educating the American populace. It ran frequent teach-ins and trainings, and a main project during the 6-year period was the creation of MACSA News, a newsletter on the conflict that by 1975 was subscribed to by over 400 homes. MACSA also published three influential papers: Is Southern Africa Wisconsin's Business, Wisconsin Corporate involvement in Southern Africa, and Israel and Southern Africa. These contributed to Wisconsin’s growing uneasiness with its own ties to the situation in Southern Africa.
The campaign continued in this vein of education until the 1976 Soweto uprising in South Africa enabled it to use the information and support-base it had collected to push for substantive policy change. Over the next two years, aided by the publicity from the Soweto uprising, MACSA was able to achieve three major victories, commonly referred to as the Mad Town Victories.
During its fledgling years, MACSA had developed strong ties with local policymakers and was able to draft a symbolic resolution expressing condolences to the people of South Africa and condemning apartheid. This was passed by the Madison Common Council. MACSA continued its heavy lobbying, thanks to which a second resolution was also passed. This one had substantially more power: it required the city of Madison – whenever possible – to award contracts to companies entirely unaffiliated with South Africa. This was the first resolution of the sort to be passed in the United States, and served as an example to the 92 other cities to eventually pass similar resolutions.
Along with the legislative pressure exerted by MACSA, there were also student members simultaneously participating in direct action: in May of 1977, 12 students occupied the Chancellor’s office demanding divestment. This, along with MACSA’s now serious legislative momentum and the growing unpopularity of apartheid in South Africa, gave MACSA the political clout to draft and pass another resolution like the first, this time through the Board of Supervisors of Dane County, of which Madison was the capital. The entire county was now required to award contracts to businesses with no involvement in South Africa when at all possible.
The final Wisconsin giant to divest from South Africa was the entire University of Wisconsin system. Although the University was well acquainted with MACSA thanks to the group’s strong publicity and many meetings held on campus, MACSA can claim little direct credit for the Board of Regents’ decision to divest. Instead, the credit goes to a close ally of the movement, whom MACSA almost undoubtedly influenced to take a stand. This ally was Wisconsin Attorney General Bronson LaFollette. LaFollette announced that the Wisconsin Stature 39.29(1), which prohibited “the purchase of stocks in firms practicing racial discrimination”, made the University’s investment in companies supporting Apartheid illegal. This resulted in a resolution passed on February 10, 1978 by the Board of Regents that divested the University system of all its holdings in offending companies. This was the largest divestment before or since from South Africa, totaling $14 million worth of stocks.
With the major goals of the campaign accomplished, MACSA no longer met regularly, and eventually dissolved. Another group, the Madison Anti-Apartheid Coalition (MAAC) was to form in 1985 and continue general Anti-Apartheid activism, yet after MACSA’s end Madison was no longer a center for Anti-Apartheid action.
The University of Wisconsin-Madison campaign for divestment from South Africa was an enormous success, especially considering that it came nearly a decade before most other divestment campaigns. It served as an inspiration to other schools and activist communities struggling for divestment, and as the largest University system to divest it sent a strong message to those to come that divestment was a feasible tactic for addressing injustice abroad.
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Scientists Grow Miniature, but Distinctly Human, Brain in the Lab
Austrian researchers have used regenerative techniques to grow a miniature human brain in the lab, they reported recently in the journal Nature.
The researchers started with pluripotent human stem cells, or stem cells that are capable of developing into various kinds of specialized cell. After letting them develop, they removed proto-neural cells and placed them on a scaffold. Using a bioreactor to improve cellular growing conditions, they obtained a brain-like organ that exhibited differentiated brain regions.
The mini-brains developed into distinct regions, including a cerebral cortex, retina (pictured), meninges and choroid plexus. But they stopped growing after two months. The Austrian researchers, led by Jurgen Knoblich of the Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, said that in the absence of a circulation system, the core of the mini-brains probably didn’t receive adequate nutrients or oxygen to continue growing.
So what would you want with a tiny lab-grown brain? Growing organs from stem cells is a hot field of research right now, with everything from teeth to hearts being grown in the lab. Most of those efforts aim eventually to use the organs as custom-made transplant organs. Such a system would solve the serious shortage of some organs and reduce the chances of patients rejecting transplanted organs.
A brain transplant has, of course, never been performed — although an Italian researcher recently argued that such an operation would be possible, if bizarre. (The recipient of a transplanted brain would also receive the donor's knowledge and personality.)
Instead, the Austrian researchers think that lab-grown mini-brains could help advance research into the brain and its disorders.
Medical researchers urgently need better models for developmental brain diseases, because the animal models commonly used lack the structural complexity that characterizes human brains and therefore often do not adequately simulate human disease.
The IMBA team demonstrated that the mini-brains could offer such a model. They first produced induced pluripotent stem cells from the skin tissue of a patient with microcephaly. By developing a mini brain from these cells, the scientists were able to grow a mini brain that had the same problem. Microcephaly is characterized by an abnormally small brain, which causes potentially serious developmental problems.
Observing the microcephalic mini-brain led the researchers to hypothesize that the disorder occurs when neural differentiation happens too soon during brain development, stymieing stem and progenitor cells which would otherwise spur additional brain growth.
The hope is that mini-brains can be produced to model other brain disorders as well. They could also provide a means of testing new drugs to ensure that they don't cause brain defects or other disorders.
Photos courtesy IMBA
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- Lab-Grown Retina from Stem Cells Responds to Light - July 4, 2014
- New Material Sucks Water From the Air and Stores It - June 30, 2014
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Observations of Atmospheric Gases Using Fourier Transform Spectrometers
MetadataShow full item record
Remote sensing of atmospheric gases improves our understanding of the state and evolution of the Earth’s environment. At the beginning of the thesis, the basic principles for the retrieval of concentrations of atmospheric gases from spectra are presented with a focus on ground-based observations. An overview of the characteristic features of different platforms, viewing geometries, measurement sites, and Fourier Transform Spectrometers (FTSs) used in the measurements are provided. The thesis covers four main projects. The first study of the global distribution of atmospheric phosgene was carried out using a total of 5614 measured profiles from the satellite-borne Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment FTS (ACE-FTS) spanning the period February 2004 through May 2006. The phosgene concentrations display a zonally symmetric pattern with the maximum concentration located approximately over the equator, at about 25 km in altitude, and the concentrations decrease towards the poles. A layer of enhanced concentration of phosgene spans the lower stratosphere at all latitudes, with volume mixing ratios of 20-60 pptv. The reasons for the formation of the phosgene distribution pattern are explained by the insolation, lifetime of phosgene and the Brewer-Dobson circulation. The ACE observations show lower phosgene concentrations in the stratosphere than were obtained from previous observations in the 1980s and 1990s due to a significant decrease in source species. The Portable Atmospheric Research Interferometric Spectrometer for the Infrared (PARIS-IR) is a copy of the ACE-FTS that was designed for ground-based and balloon-borne measurements. The first balloon flight was part of the Middle Atmosphere Nitrogen TRend Assessment (MANTRA) 2004 balloon payload. Some useful engineering information was obtained on the thermal performance of the instrument during the flight. As part of the MANTRA program, a ground-based inter-instrument comparison campaign was conducted with the objective of assessing instrument performance, and evaluating data processing routines and retrieval codes. PARIS-IR provides similar quality results for stratospheric species as does the University of Toronto FTS. An advanced study was carried out for the Carbon Cycle science by Fourier Transform Spectroscopy (CC-FTS) mission, which is a proposed future satellite mission to obtain a better understanding of the sources and sinks of greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere by monitoring total and partial columns of CO2, CH4, N2O, and CO in the near infrared together with the molecular O2 column. To evaluate the spectral regions, resolution, optical components, and spectroscopic parameters required for the mission, ground-based Fourier transform spectra, recorded at Kiruna, Kitt Peak, and Waterloo, were used. Dry air volume mixing ratios of CO2 and CH4 were retrieved from the ground-based observations. A FTS with a spectral resolution of 0.1 cm-1, operating between 2000 and 15000 cm-1, is suggested as the primary instrument for the mission. Further progress in improving the atmospheric retrievals for CO2, CH4 and O2 requires new laboratory measurements to improve the spectroscopic line parameters. Atmospheric observations were made with three FTSs at the Polar Environment Atmospheric Research Laboratory (PEARL) during spring 2006. The vertical column densities of O3, HCl, HNO3, HF, NO2, ClONO2 and NO from PARIS-IR, the Eureka DA8 FTS, and the ACE-FTS show good agreement. Chorine activation and denitrification in the Arctic atmosphere were observed in the extremely cold stratosphere near Eureka, Nunavut, Canada. The observed ozone depletion during the 2006 campaign was attributed to chemical removal.
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Funk's Grove - Also
getting its start by the Funk family, the grove was first settled by
brothers Isaac and Absalom Funk, who came to the region from Kentucky in
1824. Choosing the location for its water supply, fertile soil, and
timber, they were soon joined by Robert and Dorothy Funk Stubblefield who
followed from Ohio. Though the Funks may not be household names in
Illinois history, they were a very influential family. Isaac Funk soon
amassed some 25,000 acres of land and was the first
to start cattle-feeding operations in the Midwest. He and his brother Absalom built the meat-packing house in Chicago - then known as Fort
None other than
Lincoln served as the family attorney and he and
Isaac Funk were largely responsible for bringing the Chicago & Alton
Railroad through the region, sidetracking it from its planned route
through Peoria. he would also serve as an Illinois State Representative
and Senator, and was one of the founders of
the Illinois Wesleyan
University in Bloomington.
Isaac and his wife Cassandra, would have ten children, all of which would
have important leadership roles in
government, banks, universities, and private ventures.
would play a major role in the cattle business, was the
co-founder and boss of the Chicago Union Stockyards, and an
Illinois State Senator. In 1863, he built a home for his wife, Elizabeth,
in nearby Shirley, Illinois. The couple were known to have harbored
escaped slave on their farm during the Civil War. The home still stands in
Shirley today and is open for tours.
LaFayette's son, DeLoss would create a power plant for the
homestead in 1905 and would later wire all the Funk farms for telephone
service. Another of LaFayette's sons, Eugene, along with 11 other Funk
family members, founded Funk Bros Seeds in Bloomington
in 1901. It still operates today under the name of Ciba Seeds.
The family was also responsible for bringing the first
modern soybean crushing plant to the Midwest, the development of hybrid
corn, and other improvements to the region.
While I daresay that most people don't know
about the rich contributions made by the Funk Family to the area, they do
know that Funk's Grove is
home to "Maple Sirup." Upon nearing this old community, a rustic sign stands on a grassy embankment with the simple words "Maple Sirup.” Here, amongst the prairie, sits a natural maple grove dominating
the landscape and filled with sugar and black maples of record size. The
actual site of the syrup operation is about ¼ mile to the south.
At the sign, situated at Funks Grove Road,
turn west to the sleepy little hamlet of Funk's Grove. Here sits the old
Walker Store which once operated as a grocery store and gas station.
Later, it was utilized as an antique store, and though still filled with
dusty relics, it is closed today. The historic depot that stands in the
middle of the clearing was actually the passenger depot in nearby Shirley
before it was moved to Funk's Grove. The original Funk's Grove Depot is located at the Funk's Grove
Camp to the south.
Passing by still utilized grain silos, the
road continues westward about a mile to the old cemetery and Funk's Grove Church which
dates back to 1845. Adam Funk, Isaac's father, chose the location
of the cemetery and in 1830, he was the first to be buried there.
the Funk and Stubblefield families first came to the area church services
were first held in their private homes before a log school building was
constructed in 1827, at which time they were held there. Though the
building is gone, it is marked with a large stone just west of the still
standing church building. However, Robert Stubblefield would later insist
on building a "real" church building and he, along with Isaac and their
sons erected the building in 1864-65. The church, an outdoor "chapel," and
the cemetery are now owned and managed by the Funk's Grove Cemetery
Association. The church, which still features its original walnut pulpit
and altar rail, white pine pews, and original glass is open year round and
can be rented for weddings.
On down the road about another mile is the
original homestead site of Robert Stubblefield. All that's left today is a
rustic barn sitting in the middle of a field. Near here also was once the
Burger Sawmill and Farm. There is nothing left of the sawmill, but a sign
marks the spot.
The Sugar Grove Nature Center, which protects
over 1,000 acres of the largest remaining intact prairie grove in
Illinois, is just south of the old townsite of Funk's Grove. It includes
over five miles of trails and hosts various events throughout the year.
After having visited the sites of Funk's Grove, return to Route
66 and continue ¼ mile south to Funk's Grove Camp, the site where maple
sirup is made. For generations the Funk family used the many maple trees
to make syrup and maple sugar for their personal use. Years later, Arthur
Funk, Isaac’s grandson, capitalized on this when he opened the first
commercial sirup camp in 1891. In 1896 Arthur’s brother, Lawrence, took over
the operation and in the 1920's the sirup operation was passed to
Hazel Funk Holmes.
came through about this time, the Maple Sirup business boomed and
hardly could the sirup be made for the season when it was already sold
When Aunt Hazel was ready to retire she asked her nephew, Stephen
Funk, and his wife, Glaida, to take over the grove and the surrounding
farm in 1947. However, before transferring the operation, she arranged
for a trust insuring that Funk's Grove Pure Maple Sirup would be around for generations to
come. Although the trees are worth millions, the trust stipulated that
it would never be used for anything other than making maple sirup. The
trust also stipulated that the spelling of the word "Sirup” remain the
As to the spelling of
the word, a sign at Funk’s Grove had this to say:
Historically, according to Webster’s
Dictionary, "sirup” was the preferred spelling when referring to the
product made by boiling sap. "Syrup” with a "y”, however, was
defined as the end product of adding sugar to fruit juice. Though the "I” spelling is no longer commonly used, the United States
Department of Agriculture and Canada also still use it when referring
to pure maple sirup. Hazel Funk Holmes, whose trust continues to
preserve and protect this timber for maple sirup production insisted
on the "I” spelling during her lifetime. It’s another tradition that
will continue at Funks Grove.
In 1988, Stephen Funk
retired and his son Michael and wife, Debby took over the business.
Today, a seventh generation of Funks
continue to make sirup at this historic place that feels as though it
stepped right out a century ago, yet is just miles off of busy
The Funk family also still continues to farm
about 2,000 acres of the original homestead and manages about 1,000 head
Continue your journey down
Route 66 for more vintage peeks of the
Mother Road at
of America, updated June, 2016.
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Case File: United Kingdom Crop Circles
Location: Numerous locations through Southern England
Date: June 15, 1988
Description: Scattered over bumous sites across the country, hundreds of crop circles in strange, complex shapes have been found throughout southern Englan since the 1970s. Some people believe they are connected to sightings of strange lights or UFOs that are seen the night before the circles are discovered.
CaseEditHistory: Crop circles are a recent new phenomenon that has been occuring within the last thirty to forty years. Nearly 95% of the circles in England are located near the mysterious landmark known as Stonehenge, and near other rock monuments. Charity Down is a farm located several miles away from London. On June 15, 1988, farmer Chris Woods drove a tractor through one of the wheatfields when he saw a giant circle that had appeared in the field, and nobody can explain how it got there. Since the late 1970s, hundreds of circles similar to that one have been found in fields throughout southern England, some as large as 100 yards, apparently forming over night in fields of wheat, rice, and corn. The circles are never cut, but pressed down in a swirling pattern both clockwise and counterclockwise, but the crop is not damaged and is harvested normally. There is never any footprints or tire tracks found near the circles, and some appear in twos, threes, or even in fours or fives that make complex geometric shapes. Some have satellites, or smaller crop circles around them, while some have rings around them, and some, amazingly, have both satellites and rings. Several researchers, including Pat Delgado, Colin Andrews, and Archibald Roy have studied the crop circles, and do not believe that they are hoaxes, and some claim, due to the detail that have been put into the circles, and the large amount of circles. As part of a televised experiment, British military personnal tried to create a crop circles with several mechanical tools. Researchers determined that the difference between the "hoax" circles and the "real" circles is what is happening to the plants. The roots in the real circles are softened, bended, and hardened. If the circles are not a hoax, then what are truly creating them? Several theories have been brought up and discarded.
Infared technology showed that there was no evidence of sinkholes, or anything similar that could have caused it, and although some believe that whirlwinds are the cause of the circles, other scientists and farmers believe that whirlwinds could not do that. Regardless, the crop circles appear to form over night and are believed to be related to lights that are seen during the night near where the circles are found. One sighting occurred on July 6, 1985, while Pat and Jack Colins were driving in farmland near Stonehenge. They saw a circle with lights all around it in the sky and they believe that it may have been a UFO. That same night, according to Colin Andrews, two circles were found the next day that was in a direct alignment with the UFO. In the summer of 1988, a British scientist team began a surveillance operation to watch to see if a crop circle is made. The operation went of eight days and nights, but none of it formed. Interestingly, no circles appeared throughout most of Southern England, and that whatever did create the circles apparently knew about the watch, bringing the possibility that intelligent life might exist outside of Earth. Even though they didn't find any circles, they did find that there was an energy field in one of the circles, which many scientist believe are very significent. Nobody has any idea who made the circles, and why they were made.
Investigations: Richard G. Andrew has investigated the England crop circles. Pat Delgado and Colin Andrews have spent over a decade studying the crop circle phenomenon, and have even written a book about. Originally they received reports of one or two in the late 70s, ten to twenty in the early 80s, and in 1988, 98 circles formed in five months. Then, in 1989, there has been over 200 circles in just a few months, according to Delgado and Andrews. They don't believe that the crop circles could be weather-related. Some researchers believe that the England crop circles are a hoax. Glasgow University professor Archibald Roy has studied the circles since 1980, and he has found that no theories that have been presented to completely explain what causes them. Some theories he have found include: circles formed by hundreds of hedgehogs, imprints of UFOs, caused by helicopters, whirlwinds, and hoaxes by humans. However, Archibald does not believe that they were hoaxes because of the large amount of the circles that have been discovered.
Extra Notes: The case was featured as a part of the January 31, 1990 episode. An update to this segment aired on September 12, 1990.
Results: Unresolved. Since the story aired, 500 more crop circles were discovered in England, and several other countries, including the United States. Several new and more complex designs were found, including one that had rectangles through the center. In June, three pictograms were made making it the largest crop circle formation in the world. Colin Andrews believes that because the circle was so large, it seems that it would be impossible for it to be man-made. Then another experiment was done to try to capture a circle on film. For three weeks, scientists and other experts monitored one of the most active crop circle areas. Amazingly, four circles formed there, and even though two were dismissed as hoaxes, the other two appear to be genuine. Botanists recently compared the samples of the plant inside the circle to the ones outside of the circle, and surprisingly, they were much different in patterns. Some believe that the causes of the circle formations are supernatural, mainly because the structure of plants cannot change because of human or natural reasons. Most amazing to many is the circles that are forming throughout other countries. Then, in 1991, two men, Doug Bower and Dave Chorley, came forward claiming that they were responsible for several crop circles that occurred in 1978 in England. Several other crop circles in England have also been proven to be hoaxes, but many of the crop circles in England and in other countries still cannot be explained.
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Playgrounds and outdoor play equipment offer kids fresh air, exercise and the chance to make new friends. With active supervision, every day at the playground can be nonstop fun.
The hard facts
Every year approximately 205,860 preschool and elementary children receive emergency department care for injuries that occurred on playground equipment. Falls are the most common type of injury and account for more than 75 percent of all playground-related injuries. Adult supervision can help prevent injuries by making sure that kids proper use playground equipment and don't engage in unsafe behavior around it. Lack of or improper supervision is associated with approximately 45 percent of playground-related injuries.
- Teach your kids never to roughhouse or push while on jungle gyms, slides, seesaws, swings and other playground equipment; it can be extremely dangerous.
- Take your kids to parks that have shock-absorbing surfaces, such as mulch, wood chips, sand, rubber or synthetic turf. If your child falls, the landing will be more cushioned compared to concrete, grass or asphalt.
- Check the playground equipment in the summertime. Playground equipment can become uncomfortably or even dangerously hot, especially metal slides, handrails and steps. If the equipment is hot to the touch, then it is probably not safe or fun to play on.
- Teach your kids to dress appropriately when going to the playground. Drawstrings, necklaces and purses can get caught on equipment and accidentally strangle a child.
To learn more about playground safety tips, read our literature below:
Prevent Injuries to Children on Playgrounds (PDF, 36 KB)
Playground Safety (PDF, 408 KB)
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Purpose: To allow students to
observe what happens when salt is added to
icewater. This will help them understand . .
With most lab-activities I give the students a handout that includes pre-lab questions, procedures, data tables, follow-up questions, etc. Occasionally I like to get away from this and have the students listen to instructions and make their own tables and graphs. This activity works well with this approach.
Materials per group (shown in photo below)
Here's what to do.
1. Explain the procedures (see below) to the students.
2. The students will need to use their own paper. On the paper they should include a data table, a line graph (two lines), observations, conclusion(s), and a theory. You may want to walk them through the design of the data table and the graph.
1. Results will vary. Typically, the control may end up between 0 C and 3 C, whereas the cup that salt was added to may get as cold a -12 C. The students will notice the difference when they place their fingers in the cups.
2. A good experiment includes only one "variable". Ask the students if this activity had only one. They should realize that there were two . . . the addition of salt to only one of the cups, and the fact that only one of the cups was stirred. Ask them how they might design the experiment to eliminate this variable. (answer: stir both cups)
3. Explain why the temperature of the one cup dropped so low. The addtion of salt lowers the freezing point, forcing the ice to melt. To make this phase change, (from solid to liquid) the water molecules absorb heat from their surroundings. This causes the extreme cold observed in the cup. Ask them why adding salt to a glass of water (that doesn't contain salt) will not make the water colder? (answer: There is no phase change taking place.)
|Back to RODNEYS HOMEPAGE For Earth Science Teachers|
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The Edo Period (1603-1867) of Japan is well known for its economic growth and strong social order, but a lesser known fact is that people of this era also enjoyed comedy.
Comedic ukiyo-e (woodblock prints) were particularly popular and they typically depicted anthropomorphic interpretations of plants or animals, showing them in human-like poses and comical contexts.
This exhibition features the work of Utagawa Kuniyoshi, one of the last great masters of ukiyo-e, as well as prints by those who studied under him. Such early comedic works also reveal how ukiyo-e helped shape comedy in Japan today; Oct. 1-Nov. 26.
Ukiyo-e Ota Memorial Museum of Art; 03-5777-8600; 1-10-10 Jingumae, Shibuya-ku, Tokyo; Harajuku Station, JR Yamanote Line. 10:30 a.m.-5:30 p.m. ¥1,000. Closed Mon. (except Oct. 14, Nov. 4), Oct. 15, 28-31, Nov. 5. www.ukiyoe-ota-muse.jp
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By: Richard Flynn |Audience: All
The use of e-raters, also known as e-readers, to mark students' writing in computer based tests (CBT) is set to increase in the next few years. GMAT is using them, and TOEFL and GRE are to follow. Critics claim that running algorithms through a text is not as good as having a human mark, though there is evidence suggesting that an e-rater produces results broadly similar to those of human markers, and likely to improve as the algorithms and measures improve over time. One area where the critics would appear to have a point is the seeming inability of an e-rater to respond to creative language used, though I think that there is probably not enough genuinely creative language use turned out in answers to fairly standard and often dull questions used in so many English language tests.
E-raters have obvious advantages in terms of speed and cost, which may fuel the luddite conspiracy view. If they can do the job, I see no reason, however, why they shouldn't. Just as multiple choice tests and others are marked by machine, it seems logical to me to let computers do the writing too if they can handle it.
In a 2004 TOEFL report about e-raters (1), Chodorow and Burstein say that "E-rater features are based on four general types of analysis: syntactic, discourse, topical,
The first, syntactic, involves parsing the texts and identifying word types, which is something reasonably well-established, so an e-rater should be able to do this. This information is used to identify certain features to establish the essay's syntactic variety. The second stage builds on the first and tries to identify discourse markers to establish the structure of the argument. The third stage weights words to assess topical relevance, in much the same way as search engines and other tools, using the discourse items identified in the second stage. The last stage looks at the general vocabulary in terms of length of words, variety, etc. There are also features to identify errors.
In many exams, writing and essays are impression marked, so the fact that an e-rater doesn't identify every single good point and every error doesn't trouble me. I think that the methodology described in the paper will lead to a reasonable conclusion for the majority of cases, even if it fails to spot great style and imaginative writing.
In terms of teaching for an algorithm, there doesn't seem to be that much that isn't already being taught in writing classes the world over- the use of discourse markers and other organizational features, relevant vocabulary and avoidance of repetition. It all seems pretty standard to me. I don't honestly see that much to fear from a well-tested e-rater going through CBT writing to assess it.
(1) Martin Chodorow & Jill Burstein Beyond Essay Length: Evaluating e-rater®’s Performance on TOEFL® Essays TOEFL® Research Reports, Report 73, February 2004
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NOAA RESEARCHERS RETRIEVE WEALTH OF DATA AFTER CHASING HURRICANE ISABEL
Sept. 24, 2003 ó As Hurricane Isabel headed for the North Carolina coast, NOAA researchers continued their pursuit of observations from both land and air. One valuable weather product that benefits from data collected during landfalling hurricanes is a surface wind analysis map known as H*Wind. H*Wind, created by research meteorologists at the NOAA Hurricane Research Division, is in transition to operations at the NOAA National Hurricane Center through the U.S. Weather Research Program. (NOAA image of SMART Radar.)
Data used to create these wind analyses come from many sources, including airborne sensors, offshore monitoring stations and land-based radars and meteorological stations. The data were analyzed every three hours prior to landfall and a brightly colored, easy to read wind analysis was made available to forecasters at the NOAA National Hurricane Center, as well as emergency managers. These wind analyses detail where the most damaging winds in a storm are located, as well as the extent of gale force winds.
During Isabel’s landfall, however, a unique set of data was made available that had a significant impact in the accuracy of the H*Wind analysis. A series of towers and mobile Doppler radars were mobilized into key positions to monitor and report on Isabel’s landfall. Texas Tech University, the University of Oklahoma, and a non-profit company called the Center for Severe Weather Research, collaborated to bring five portable Doppler radars and many more portable wind towers to eastern North Carolina. (Click NOAA image for larger view of Hurricane Isabel’s maximum and minimum surface wind speeds taken on Sept. 18, 2003, at 9:30 p.m. EDT. Click here to see more images. Please credit “NOAA.”)
Two of the radars, SMART-Radars (Shared Mobile Atmospheric Research and Teaching Radars), are operated jointly by researchers from the NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory, University of Oklahoma, Texas Tech University and Texas A&M University. These unique instruments are based at NSSL in Norman, Okla.
“This hurricane provided the first opportunity we’ve had to gather data from the entire hurricane using two radars of this type,” said Lou Wicker, NOAA research meteorologist. “The SMART radars are unique in that they were designed to collect data from the entire hurricane, rather than just a piece of it. The data will be used to study the detailed structure of the near-surface winds in the storm as well as how the storm generates a large area of intense rainfall.”
The two mobile 5-cm Doppler radars placed 40 miles apart gathered data in coordination with each other for the first time. Researchers hope the 13 hours of continuous data gathered can provide new information about the severe winds and turbulence associated with hurricanes.
This information, Wicker added, can be used by engineers to improve the structural integrity of buildings, and by meteorologists and hydrologists to improve predictions of the swath of heavy rain and flash floods that often occur within these storms.
The Center for Severe Weather Research, in collaboration with the National Center for Atmospheric Research, brought two Doppler on Wheels and one Rapid Scanning radar. These radars were co-located with one of the instrumented towers to provide additional data for the analysis.
These data greatly complement the standard data available for H*Wind, although typically such information is not available in real-time and is used largely in post landfall research. However, thanks to innovation and careful planning, four additional weather stations built and operated jointly in partnership with Sea Grant at Clemson University and the University of Florida, were able to transmit their meteorological data in real-time via a wireless Internet connection that performed flawlessly.
For the first time ever, detailed coastal tower wind data were transmitted in real-time from the field to the NOAA Hurricane Center in Miami, Fla., during a landfalling hurricane and incorporated into the real-time H*Wind analyses. The four sets of tower observations also provided valuable ground truth for some of the new sensors deployed on NOAA research aircraft flying above the storm.
The analyses are posted online.
Despite the extreme conditions, the Clemson/University of Florida communication system allowed transmission of tower observations into H*Wind every 15 minutes. These high quality observations also constitute the highest wind speed for which continuous, high frequency, digital observations have been recorded in a U. S. landfalling hurricane, and represent a valuable contribution to hurricane research.
The placement of the towers appeared just about optimal with Isabel’s center passing directly between them, with locations in Wilmington, Atlantic Beach, Cape Hatteras, and Elizabeth City in North Carolina. The reliability of these real-time reports just prior to landfall was a tremendous achievement. CMAN stations, permanent monitoring stations located just offshore, were not transmitting data, leaving the tower data as the only wind reports from the coast that were still reporting to the NOAA Hurricane Center. NOAA Hurricane Research Division scientists were able to relay H*Wind reports to NOAA Hurricane Center forecasters and kept them abreast of the rate of wind increase at the coast as Isabel approached. Not only did it make the H*Wind product invaluable to forecasters but it also gave forecasters a sense of how quickly conditions on the coast were deteriorating.
The efforts of the tower crews were a shining example of how research projects can make a valuable contribution to operational forecasting and community preparations while at the same time gather a research data set that will be studied for years. NOAA scientists hope that in the future such high frequency real-time transmissions at hurricane landfall might also become more commonplace.
NOAA is dedicated to enhancing economic security and national safety through the prediction and research of weather and climate-related events and providing environmental stewardship of the nationís coastal and marine resources. NOAA is part of the U.S. Department of Commerce.
Relevant Web Sites
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Help support New Advent and get the full contents of this website as an instant download. Includes the Catholic Encyclopedia, Church Fathers, Summa, Bible and more all for only $19.99...
Located in the province of Palermo, Sicily, on the skirts of Mount Caputo. The city is built in a commanding situation over the port of Palermo. It was a pleasure resort of the Norman kings, to whom it owes its foundation. In 1167 William II built there the church of Santa Maria Nuova, with its adjoining monastery for the Benedictines of Cava dei Tirreni—the most superb monastic building of the Benedictine Order in Europe, famous for its cloister and its graceful Moresque colonnade. At the present time only the lower portion of the convent is in the possession of the monks. The church (now the cathedral) is the noblest in Sicily, though the portico of its façade has been restored in a Style not in harmony with the remainder of the building. Its bronze doors, the work of Bonanno of Pisa (1186), are notable, as are also the arabesques of the portals. The interior has three naves, and the columns of Egyptian marble have foiled and figured capitals, each different from the others, The apse and the lateral walls are covered with beautiful mosaics, representing scenes from the Old and New Testaments. The high altar is covered with worked sheets of silver (seventeenth century) and in a chapel to its right, are the tombs of William I the Wicked and of William II. The chapel of Saint Benedict contains sculptures by Marabitti (eighteenth century). In 1811 a fire destroyed the roof, which was restored in a way to leave the rafters exposed to view. On the mountain beyond the city is the monastery of San Martino of the Cassinese Benedictines, whose church is rich in works of art; farther on is the castle of San Benedetto, built by the Saracens. In 1174 the abbey of Monreale was declared a "prælatura nullius"; two years later its abbot was vested with the title and jurisdiction of a bishop, and in 1182 he became the metropolitan of Catania and of Syracuse. At first the archbishops were elected by the monks, but were not always Benedictines; since 1275, however, the election has been reserved to itself by the Holy See. In time Girgenti and Caltagirone also became suffragan to Monreale; but Syracuse, in 1844, and Catania, in 1860, became archiepiscopal sees. The former having become the Metropolitan of Caltagirone, Monreale received the new Diocese of Caltanisetta (1860), which see and Girgenti are now its only suffragans. Among the archbishops of this see have been Cardinal Giovanni Proccamazza (1278); Cardinal Aussio Despuig de Podio (1458); Cardinal Pompeo Colonna (1531); Cardinal Ippolito de' Medici (1532); Alessandro Farnese (1536); Ludovico de Torres (1584), founder of the seminary; Cardinal Vitaliano Visconti (1670); Cardinal Traian d'Acquaviva d'Aragona (1739). From 1775 to 1802 Monreale and Palermo were united. The archdiocese has 30 parishes with 228,600 inhabitants; 352 secular and 66 regular priests; 26 convents of men and one of women; three educational institutes for male students and three for girls.
CAPPELLETTI, Chiese d'Italia, XXI (Venice, 1857); LELLO, Historia della chiesa di Monreale (Rome, 1596).
APA citation. (1911). Archdiocese of Monreale. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10508a.htm
MLA citation. "Archdiocese of Monreale." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 10. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10508a.htm>.
Transcription. This article was transcribed for New Advent by Douglas J. Potter. Dedicated to the Immaculate Heart of the Blessed Virgin Mary.
Ecclesiastical approbation. Nihil Obstat. October 1, 1911. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., Censor. Imprimatur. +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York.
Contact information. The editor of New Advent is Kevin Knight. My email address is webmaster at newadvent.org. Regrettably, I can't reply to every letter, but I greatly appreciate your feedback — especially notifications about typographical errors and inappropriate ads.
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by Tayeb Abedin
Although there were small kingdoms in the Arabian Peninsula,
the Arabs did not know of a central government with complex functions
before the Prophet, peace be upon him, formed his state at Medinah.
That state carried functions quite different from any previous
state known to us in history. It was an ideological state whose
primary aim was to propagate Islam and apply God's law on earth.
At its initial state it was formed according to a written constitution
which organised relations between the different communities at
Medinah: Muslims, Jews and Arab pagans. Those communities accepted
the Prophet Muhammad as the supreme judge of Medinah, and accepted
God's word as their law. The communities were not to make peace
with those who fought God's mission and God's believers.
Beside propagating Islam, the Prophet's,peace be upon him, government
carried other functions of a social, economical and educational
nature. In fact there was no aspect of life which escaped the
Prophet's, peace be upon him,attention. People's morals and values
were considered as the essence of the mission and their social
and economical conditions were to be cared for to fulfil that
purpose. Family problems as well as individual ones were not outside
the state's concern. In fact there was nothing which in principle
was outside the state's concern. In this respect the concept of
the functions of an Islamic State is wider than any modern welfare
What is important about the Prophet's, peace be upon him, administration
are not the actual incidents or events which took place, but the
principles which his administration served. That is because those
principles are the same principles which any Islamic State should
fulfil. An Islamic State is not required to copy exactly what
the Prophet, peace be upon him, did, but to try to serve causes
and principles which the Prophet's administration set out for
In other words, there is no particular fixed form for the Islamic
State but there are certain principles, sometimes detailed, which
ought to be observed in any state which claims to be Islamic.
Owing to this important fact, lslamic laws (Shari'ah) are flexible
to suit any community at any time.
The aims of Shari'ah, are the preservation of life, of religion,
of property and of honour. Those aims are to be fulfilled by an
Islamic State according to certain principles, or more preferably
certain constitutional principles such as sovereignty, justice
and equality. One of these principles is also that of consultation
(Shura), and how the Prophet practised it during his administration
needs to be considered in detail.
The idea of consultation or Shura poses four important questions:
1. Is Shura an obligatory action, in the sense that it is a
"must" on a Muslim Imam (ruler) to consult his subjects?
2. If it is a must, who is to be consulted-all the people or
a section of them?
3. In what issues shall people be consulted? -any issue or specific
4. Is the outcome of Shura binding on the Imam? Is he obliged
to follow what most of his consultants agree to, even if it is
different from what he thinks?
I will try to pursue the answers to these questions from what
the Qur'an has said, and from what the Prophet actually did during
his administration at Medinah.
The answer to the first question, "whether Shura is obligatory",
is definitely yes. The Qur'an considers Shura a distinctive feature
of a Believer, in a similar manner as Salat and Sadaqat. Qur'an
"And those who answer the call of their Lord, do their
prayers and whose affairs are by consultations among themselves"
A second verse orders the Prophet, peace be upon him, to consult
"So pardon them and ask forgiveness for them and consult
with them upon the conduct of affairs and when thou art resolved,
then put thy trust in Allah". ('AI lmran'. 159).
The timing of the latter verse is significant. It came after
'Uhud battle when the Prophet consulted his followers and they
gave him what turned out to be a disastrous advice. The verse
came to remind the Prophet that even if consultation sometimes
brings disaster, it should not in general be abandoned. The Qur'an
also condemns every despotic ruler:
"And every froward potentate was brought to naught".
The Prophet, peace be upon him, practised consultation all through
his life in a manner that Abu Hurairah narrated,
"I have never seen any one more consultative with his companions
than the Prophet".
So there is no doubt about the obligatory nature of Shura not
only for the government but within the family too.
The answer to the second question, "who is to be consulted",
is not so clear. The Qur'anic verses quoted above indicate Shura
as a distinctive feature of all believers, just as zakat and prayer.
Once on a certain issue the Prophet, peace be upon him, asked
the opinion of all the men concerned, after the Ta'if battle when
the defeated tribe accepted Islam. The Prophet, peace be upon
him, thought it unbecoming to take booty after they had become
brothers in faith. He asked his soldiers whether they would like
to give back to their brothers what they had taken from them.
They agreed, but the Prophet, peace be upon him, was not satisfied
by the general answer of 'yes' and so he said,
"We do not know who of you has agreed and who has not, go back
till your heads bring us your answer."
One can generalise from this that the ruler should obtain the
approval of individuals when the issue concerns their right to
property. The Prophet, peace be upon him, also used to consult
the tribal chiefs, because they represented their people. Once
when the Muslims failed to capture a caravan of Abu Sufian when
it was returning to Makka, the Prophet, peace be upon him, decided
to make war against the Quraish who came out to protect it.
He asked his followers what they thought of fighting the Quraish.
Two of the Muhajireen -leaders- Abu Bakr al-Siddiq and Al-Miqdad
ibn 'Umar, may Allah be pleased with them, spoke in agreement,
but the Prophet,peace be upon him, repeated his question. One
of the Ansar leaders, Sa'ad ibn Muadh, realised that the Prophet,
peace be upon him, wanted their opinion. He stood up and said
that he would speak for the Ansar, and approved of the idea too.
On another occasion when the Prophet wanted to make a truce
with Gatafan, (a tribe living near Medinah), so as to induce them
not to fight together with the other pagan tribes, he called for
the opinions of Sa'ah ibn Mu'adh and Sa'ad ibn 'Aubadh who were
the heads of al-'Aws and al-Khazraj, the two dominant tribes at
In matters which needed special experience and knowledge the
Prophet,peace be upon him, used to consult those who possessed
it, irrespective of their representative power. In military affairs
he used to consult Khalid ibn al-Walid, Salman al- Farsi and Ali
ibn Abi Talib, may Allah be pleased with them all, who were known
for their military acumen.
In general matters the prophet, peace be upon him, consulted
people known for their wisdom and piety. His favourite counsellors
were Abu Bakr, Omar ibn al-Khattab, and All ibn Abi Talib, may
Allah be pleased with them all
Thirdly, "What issues are to be put to consultation?" Here too,
there is not much specification. Theoretically any problem for
which there is no correspondent revelation could be subject to
consultation. The followers of the Prophet,peace be upon him,
used to ask him before they expressed a differing opinion, whether
his action was revealed or merely what he thought best for them.
One could say that the Prophet consulted his followers on almost
all important issues, whether they were of a political nature
or not. He consulted them about waging war on Quraish, he consulted
them on what to do with the prisoners-of-war after the battle
of Badr. One could generalise that every problem which would affect
the community as a whole, or affect some peoples' property-rights
should be the subject of consultation. I have not found any evidence
to indicate that the Prophet consulted his followers when appointing
leaders of armies, district governors, or judges. Perhaps such,
consultation would develop ill-feelings in the Muslim community,
or possibly it should be a prerogative of the ruler to choose
To come to the last question, "is the outcome of the consultation
binding on the Imam?" In all the Prophet's administration there
is not one single case in which he consulted the people and did
not accept the opinion to which they agreed. On the contrary,
there are at least three occasions when the Prophet submitted
to other people's opinions, which differed from his. On two of
these occasions it was without any indication of his being convinced
by what had been said. The first was when ai-Hubab ibn ai-Munzir
told him to change the army- camp before the battle of Badr. The
Prophet agreed and changed the camp. The second case occurred
when many Muslims expressed their wish to fight Quraish outside
Medinah at the battle of 'Uhud. The Prophet's opinion was to wait
for Quraish inside the town so that they would have cover against
them, and that women and youngsters participating in the battle
could disturb the attackers' approach. But the others gave no
other argument than they would be called cowards if they waited
inside the town. The third situation is when Sa'ad ibn Mu'adh
and Sa'ad ibn Aubadh opposed the Prophet's decision to make a
truce with Gatafan. The truce was written but never signed and
when the Ansar chiefs opposed it because they would not accept
its conditions, the Prophet told them to tear up the treaty.
When the Muslims in 'Uhud were defeated, in order that the prophet
and his followers would not regret consultation because it resulted
in a wrong decision, the verse was revealed (Al-Imran 159, quoted
earlier) ordering the Prophet to follow consultation. In a hadith
told by Ali ibn Abi Talib, may Allah enoble his countenance, the
Prophet ,peace be upon him,was once asked about the meaning of
the word 'resolve', which occurs in this ayah. The Prophet answered
that it meant consulting wise people and following them. So in
my view the outcome of consultation is binding on the imam, whatever
his own opinion.
*Adapted from a Paper presented at a Seerah seminar organised
by the London Islamic Circle, 28 March 1970.
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A person is convinced by evidence or argument made to the intellect. A person is persuaded by appeals made to the will, moral sense, or emotions.
A person is convinced of a doctrine, belief, or duty. A person is convicted of a crime, sin, or personal wrongdoing. The noun form of both words is conviction. The act of convincing another is convincement, but this is rare.
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Green Your Gadgets -- Batteries 101
Last week, congressional watchdog agency GAO published a report on high-tech toxic trash exports and Greenpeace released its ninth annual Guide to Greener Electronics. This week's tips cover ways to keep consumer electronics from harming human health and the environment.
Tip #2: Extend battery life
Later this week, European Union officials will begin enforcing new restrictions on rechargeable batteries--a move that the research firm Cleantech Group reports could nudge the market away from toxic components and non-replaceable, built-in batteries. In the meantime, Americans still buy more than 350 million of the pricey, heavy metal-packed capsules every year. With smart maintenance practices, they can be replaced less frequently. For example, lithium-ion batteries, one of the most common types used in laptops and mobile devices, last longer when kept from running below a 40-percent charge. If you have an iPod, you'll get the most bang for your battery buck (make that bucks--at least 49 of them for a replacement battery) if you take it out of the case before charging. Carrying cases can trap heat and compromise battery capacity--making you plug in more frequently and burn through the battery's limited number of charges sooner. For any device, it's a good idea to keep batteries away from extreme temperatures, allow plenty of circulation, shut off juice-draining non-essential functions, and use a low-power mode whenever possible.
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Kristallnacht anniversary: Controversial Jewish speaker sparks Jewish ire in Germany
Kristallnacht commemorations in Germany tonight will include a speech in Frankfurt by Alfred Grosser, a prominent Franco-German intellectual who escaped the Nazi regime in 1933 and has become a critic of Israel.
Paris — A controversial Jewish critic of Israel speaks tonight in Frankfurt on the anniversary of the 1938 Nazi Kristallnacht, or “night of broken glass,” sparking outrage in the Jewish community, but symbolizing for many Germans that the past is further behind them.
Alfred Grosser, a prominent Franco-German intellectual who escaped the Nazi regime in 1933, is known for his work on postwar reconciliation -- but has in his eighth decade become a serious critic of Israeli policy toward Palestinians.
He has equated Gaza to a concentration camp, calls for full equality of Arabs and Jews in Israel, has said that Germany should be more critical of Israel, and argues that Israeli policies are most responsible for “promoting anti-Semitism globally.”
Frankfurt mayor Petra Roth invited Mr. Grosser to speak at the Nov. 9 event at St. Paul’s Church as guest of honor for the anniversary of the Nazi ransacking of Jewish temples that left smashed glass on the street outside many Jewish places of worship. Kristallnacht is often remembered as the most visible start of violent Jewish pogroms that led to the Holocaust, the systematic eradication of Jews in Europe.
Grosser himself has hinted that Frankfurt city officials wanted a speaker who wouldn’t ritualistically speak on a subject Germany is well-acquainted with. But the German Council of Jews protested angrily that Grosser’s invitation be revoked, arguing his credentials and attitude are inappropriate for the occasion.
Jewish leaders say they will attend Grosser’s talk, but walk out if he raises the subject of Israel.
'Could be an interesting evening'
“Trouble is brewing in Frankfurt,” is how Der Spiegel played it last week. Yet in a sense, analysts say, the matter-of-fact press analysis and lengthy interviews with Grosser is evidence of change and more openness about Germany’s most sensitive subject. “It could be an interesting evening,” as Der Spiegel summed up.
Grosser’s invitation in this view is another example of Germany becoming a “normal nation.” More than 65 years after the war, Germans believe they have faced the Holocaust; they built a vast memorial in the center of Berlin. Unification brought a new era. Last week, the first postwar female rabbi was ordained in Germany. In October, the first public Hitler exhibition opened in Berlin that steadily reminds you “that Hitler was a Bad Thing,” as political author Timothy Garton Ash points out.
As with new liberal Jewish groups in the US, such as J-Street, there is pushback here to the notion that criticism of Israel is synonymous with anti-Semitism. If Germans want to criticize the blockade of Gaza or treatment of Palestinians, they should be able to without guilt, many say,. Grosser is a Jewish intellectual speaking of universal human rights and urging that the memory of the Shoah, or Holocaust, applies to Israel’s own behavior.
For the Jewish community, the choice of Grosser is inappropriate, if not shocking. Kristallnacht refers to a specific piece of 20th-century history, in Germany, that should not be politicized or forgotten; the Holocaust or racism are not intellectual abstractions, but tragedies.
There is also concern that anger with Israel will affect Jews living in Germany. A recent Frederich Ebert Foundation study found that 17 percent of Germans believe “Jews have too much influence.” Grosser himself is seen by Jews as an especially harsh anti-Zionist whose embrace of Jewish identity is suspect, and who is being used in a way that will excuse latent anti-Semitism.
“Because he was born Jewish, he flirts with his identity, and is used as a camouflage to mask criticisms others would like to make,” argues Deidre Berger, director of the American Jewish Committee office in Berlin. “What does criticism of Israel have to do with the memory of the Holocaust? It is an unfortunate linkage that leads to stereotypes. What does this mean in the German context?”
Jewish leaders acknowledge that Grosser is a formidable critic. He was born in Frankfurt, but his father, a doctor, moved to France early in the Nazi rise, where Grosser was raised. His credentials as a historian and intellectual are lengthy; he’s taught in France, Germany, Japan, and the US, and a chair on German studies is named after him at the elite university Sciences Po in Paris. Both France and Germany have accorded him state honors for work on understanding between the two nations.
Members of Grosser’s family were sent to Auschwitz. Much of the attention paid to Grosser in Jewish circles came after his 2009 book “Auschwitz to Jerusalem.” The book takes a pro-Palestinian position because, Grosser says in a recent interview, "the Palestinians are despised, are occupied and I think that the majority of Israel's citizens despise Palestinians….The central theme of my book [is] that any human being should be respected."
“As a Jewish boy in a Frankfurt school, I was despised, and even beaten. I can't understand how Jews can scorn others,” he said to Deutche Welle last week.
Grosser has said his Kristallnacht talk may touch on non-Jews in Germany who helped Jews escape the Nazis, and his belief that it is time for German Jewish groups to stop adopting “a single line” on Israel.
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Your introduction should include an outline of daily activities; but it is equally important to explain the purpose of these activities. Why do students need to practice critical reading in a writing class? How will their writing benefit from learning to analyze the rhetorical context surrounding a text? Without explanations, students wonder if their time would be better spent at home eating cheese puffs.
Methods for introducing class:
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I. Historical Background
One of the best ways to understand Transcultural Nursing is to learn its history from the author herself. Therefore, we decided to post an excerpt of Dr. Leininger’s interview.
The History of Transcultural Nursing according to Madeleine Leininger, Founder of Transcultural Nursing and Leader in Human Care Theory and Research
Important question: What might nursing and health services be like if transcultural nursing not been established as a formal area of study, research and practice in nursing and health care services beginning in the late 1960's?"
"The idea to establish and develop a new field of transcultural nursing was difficult when I began this challenge in the late 1950's. It was at this time that I identified that culture and care were the missing and significant factors in nursing and health care services."
"I had just returned from three years of field research in a non-Western culture in the Eastern Highlands of New Guinea focused on studying culture and carerelationships to well-being. It was the Gadsup people who clearly revealed to me the importance of culture and health care."
"During the three-year period with the Gadsup, I realized that nurses would have a difficult time serving these people unless prepared about the culture and their care needs. I realized that nurses needed to be prepared to understand and help cultures receive care that fit their needs."
"So when I returned to the United States, I was determined to establish a new field I called transcultural nursing to study and help cultures in specific ways."
" I envisioned that if one million nurses were prepared in transcultural nursing, they could make a great difference in the quality of care to cultures that were often avoided, misunderstood and neglected due to cultural negligence and related problems. This meant nurses had to be prepared about cultures and their care needs through formal courses and programs and with theory and research to guide their practices."
"Why had culturally-based care not been central to nursing education and practice? "
"It was clear the faculty and students needed to be educated to teach and practice transcultural nursing. I held to my belief that if you believe in something important to human beings that some time and in some place this goal could become a reality."
"It was the nurses who had been in military service or missionary work, and nurses functioning in community settings with clearly different or "strange beliefs and practices" that helped nurses to grasp the idea of transcultural nursing. It was these interested nurses who came to take transcultural nursing courses at the University of Washington in the early 1970's. As Dean at the University Of Washington School Of Nursing in 1969, I also helped faculty become interested in transcultural nursing and by 1978, transcultural nursing was launched in the school."
"Gradually, transcultural nursing became a reality with many community field studies and mentored clinical practices by nurses. This was most encouraging as many nurses at this time were wed to curing, medical symptoms and learning many medical diagnoses. Nurses were following the cultural norms of medicine's beliefs and practices and only a few nurses envisioned that nursing could be a strong, powerful, and independent discipline with transcultural nursing."
"By the mid 1970's, there was a core of prepared and enthusiastic nurses who were eager to make transcultural nursing a reality and they were most helpful to help other nurses' value and envision transcultural nursing."
"In 1974, it was time to establish the Transcultural Nursing Society."
"In 1974, the first conference focused on transcultural nursing occurred in
Hawaii with a large attendance, including deans, some physicians and other interested people. It was a highly successful conference."
"By 1987 and early in the 1990's many outstanding transcultural nurses were teaching and practicing transcultural nursing. Several faculty and their students were beginning to transform nursing and health care in community agencies and hospitals. Transcultural nursing concepts, principles and practices were becoming incorporated into care of cultures."
II. Purpose and Goal
Madeleine Leininger states that care is the essence of nursing and the dominant, distinctive, and unifying feature of nursing. She says that there can be no cure without caring but there may be care without curing. She emphasizes that human caring although, a universal phenomenon, varies among cultures in its expressions, processes, and patterns.
Leininger (1984) identifies many caring constructs. She believes that health care personnel should work toward an understanding of care and the values, health beliefs, and lifetyles of different cultures, which will form the basis for providing culture-specific care. (Berman, Erb, Kozier, & Snyder, 2004)
The central purpose of the theory is to discover and explain diverse and universal culturally based care factors influencing the health, well-being, illness, or death of individuals or groups.
The goal of the theory on the other hand is to provide culturally congruent care that would contribute to the health or well being of people or to help them face disabilities, dying, or death using the three modes of nursing care actions and decisions.
III. Assumptive Premises
In order to support her theory, she formulated the following statements:
1. Human caring is a universal phenomenon, but the expressions, processes, structural forms, and patterns of caring vary among cultures.
2. Caring acts and processes are essential for human birth, development, growth, survival, and peaceful death
3. Care has a biophysical, cultural, psychological, social and environmental dimension, and the concept of culture provides the broadest means to know and understand care.
4. Nursing is a transcultural phenomenon as nurses interact with clients, staff, and other groups, and requires that nurses identify and use intercultural nurse-client and system data.
5. Care behaviors, goals, and functions vary transculturally because of the social structure, worldview, and cultural values of people from different cultures.
6. Self and other care practices vary in different cultures and in different folk and professional care systems.
7. The identification of universal and non universal folk and professional caring behaviors, beliefs and practices is essential to discover the epistemological and ontological base of nursing care knowledge.
8. Care is largely culturally derived and requires culturally based knowledge and skills for satisfying and efficacious nursing practices.
9. There can be no curing without caring but there can be caring without curing.
IV. The Sunrise Model
Leininger has presented the Sunrise Model to visualise the different dimensions of her Culture Care Theory.
The upper half of the circle represents a part of the whole socio-cultural structure and world view factors. These factors influence the care, patterns and expressions towards health and well-being of an individual, families, groups and institutions through language and environment. The same factors also influence folk and professional nursing, bridged by the nursing subsystem which can be seen in the lower half of the model.
With tha aid of the three types of nursing care, decisions and actions cultural congruent nursing care can be possibly achieved which is meaningful, beneficial and satisfying to people.
V. The 3 Nursing Decisions
1. Culture Care Preservation and Maintenance
2. Culture Care Accomodation, Negotiation, or Both.
3. Culture Care Restructuring and Repatterning
3. Culture Care Restructuring and Repatterning
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It had been Captain Guy's original intention, after satisfying himself about the Auroras, to proceed through the Strait of Magellan, and up along the western coast of Patagonia; but information received at Tristan d'Acunha induced him to steer to the southward, in the hope of falling in with some small islands said to lie about the parallel of 60 degrees S., longitude 41 degrees 20' W. In the event of his not discovering these lands, he designed, should the season prove favourable, to push on toward the pole. Accordingly, on the twelfth of December, we made sail in that direction. On the eighteenth we found ourselves about the station indicated by Glass, and cruised for three days in that neighborhood without finding any traces of the islands he had mentioned. On the twenty-first, the weather being unusually pleasant, we again made sail to the southward, with the resolution of penetrating in that course as far as possible. Before entering upon this portion of my narrative, it may be as well, for the information of those readers who have paid little attention to the progress of discovery in these regions, to give some brief account of the very few attempts at reaching the southern pole which have hitherto been made.
That of Captain Cook was the first of which we have any distinct account. In 1772 he sailed to the south in the Resolution, accompanied by Lieutenant Furneaux in the Adventure. In December he found himself as far as the fifty-eighth parallel of south latitude, and in longitude 26 degrees 57' E. Here he met with narrow fields of ice, about eight or ten inches thick, and running northwest and southeast. This ice was in large cakes, and usually it was packed so closely that the vessel had great difficulty in forcing a passage. At this period Captain Cook supposed, from the vast number of birds to be seen, and from other indications, that he was in the near vicinity of land. He kept on to the southward, the weather being exceedingly cold, until he reached the sixty-fourth parallel, in longitude 38 degrees 14' W.. Here he had mild weather, with gentle breezes, for five days, the thermometer being at thirty-six. In January, 1773, the vessels crossed the Antarctic circle, but did not succeed in penetrating much farther; for upon reaching latitude 67 degrees 15' they found all farther progress impeded by an immense body of ice, extending all along the southern horizon as far as the eye could reach. This ice was of every variety- and some large floes of it, miles in extent, formed a compact mass, rising eighteen or twenty feet above the water. It being late in the season, and no hope entertained of rounding these obstructions, Captain Cook now reluctantly turned to the northward.
In the November following he renewed his search in the Antarctic. In latitude 59 degrees 40' he met with a strong current setting to the southward. In December, when the vessels were in latitude 67 degrees 31', longitude 142 degrees 54' W., the cold was excessive, with heavy gales and fog. Here also birds were abundant; the albatross, the penguin, and the peterel especially. In latitude 70 degrees 23' some large islands of ice were encountered, and shortly afterward the clouds to the southward were observed to be of a snowy whiteness, indicating the vicinity of field ice. In latitude 71 degrees 10', longitude 106 degrees 54' W., the navigators were stopped, as before, by an immense frozen expanse, which filled the whole area of the southern horizon. The northern edge of this expanse was ragged and broken, so firmly wedged together as to be utterly impassible, and extending about a mile to the southward. Behind it the frozen surface was comparatively smooth for some distance, until terminated in the extreme background by gigantic ranges of ice mountains, the one towering above the other. Captain Cook concluded that this vast field reached the southern pole or was joined to a continent. Mr. J. N. Reynolds, whose great exertions and perseverance have at length succeeded in getting set on foot a national expedition, partly for the purpose of exploring these regions, thus speaks of the attempt of the Resolution. "We are not surprised that Captain Cook was unable to go beyond 71 degrees 10', but we are astonished that he did attain that point on the meridian of 106 degrees 54' west longitude. Palmer's Land lies south of the Shetland, latitude sixty-four degrees, and tends to the southward and westward farther than any navigator has yet penetrated. Cook was standing for this land when his progress was arrested by the ice; which, we apprehend, must always be the case in that point, and so early in the season as the sixth of January- and we should not be surprised if a portion of the icy mountains described was attached to the main body of Palmer's Land, or to some other portions of land lying farther to the southward and westward."
In 1803, Captains Kreutzenstern and Lisiausky were dispatched by Alexander of Russia for the purpose of circumnavigating the globe. In endeavouring to get south, they made no farther than 59 degrees 58', in longitude 70 degrees 15' W. They here met with strong currents setting eastwardly. Whales were abundant, but they saw no ice. In regard to this voyage, Mr. Reynolds observes that, if Kreutzenstern had arrived where he did earlier in the season, he must have encountered ice- it was March when he reached the latitude specified. The winds, prevailing, as they do, from the southward and westward, had carried the floes, aided by currents, into that icy region bounded on the north by Georgia, east by Sandwich Land and the South Orkneys, and west by the South Shetland islands.
In 1822, Captain James Weddell, of the British navy, with two very small vessels, penetrated farther to the south than any previous navigator, and this, too, without encountering extraordinary difficulties. He states that although he was frequently hemmed in by ice before reaching the seventy-second parallel, yet, upon attaining it, not a particle was to be discovered, and that, upon arriving at the latitude of 74 degrees 15', no fields, and only three islands of ice were visible. It is somewhat remarkable that, although vast flocks of birds were seen, and other usual indications of land, and although, south of the Shetlands, unknown coasts were observed from the masthead tending southwardly, Weddell discourages the idea of land existing in the polar regions of the south.
On the 11th of January, 1823, Captain Benjamin Morrell, of the American schooner Wasp, sailed from Kerguelen's Land with a view of penetrating as far south as possible. On the first of February he found himself in latitude 64 degrees 52' S., longitude 118 degrees 27' E. The following passage is extracted from his journal of that date. "The wind soon freshened to an eleven-knot breeze, and we embraced this opportunity of making to the west,; being however convinced that the farther we went south beyond latitude sixty-four degrees, the less ice was to be apprehended, we steered a little to the southward, until we crossed the Antarctic circle, and were in latitude 69 degrees 15' E. In this latitude there was no field ice, and very few ice islands in sight.
Under the date of March fourteenth I find also this entry. The sea was now entirely free of field ice, and there were not more than a dozen ice islands in sight. At the same time the temperature of the air and water was at least thirteen degrees higher (more mild) than we had ever found it between the parallels of sixty and sixty-two south. We were now in latitude 70 degrees 14' S., and the temperature of the air was forty-seven, and that of the water forty-four. In this situation I found the variation to be 14 degrees 27' easterly, per azimuth.... I have several times passed within the Antarctic circle, on different meridians, and have uniformly found the temperature, both of the air and the water, to become more and more mild the farther I advanced beyond the sixty-fifth degree of south latitude, and that the variation decreases in the same proportion. While north of this latitude, say between sixty and sixty-five south, we frequently had great difficulty in finding a passage for the vessel between the immense and almost innumerable ice islands, some of which were from one to two miles in circumference, and more than five hundred feet above the surface of the water."
Being nearly destitute of fuel and water, and without proper instruments, it being also late in the season, Captain Morrell was now obliged to put back, without attempting any further progress to the westward, although an entirely open, sea lay before him. He expresses the opinion that, had not these overruling considerations obliged him to retreat, he could have penetrated, if not to the pole itself, at least to the eighty-fifth parallel. I have given his ideas respecting these matters somewhat at length, that the reader may have an opportunity of seeing how far they were borne out by my own subsequent experience.
In 1831, Captain Briscoe, in the employ of the Messieurs Enderby, whale-ship owners of London, sailed in the brig Lively for the South Seas, accompanied by the cutter Tula. On the twenty-eighth of February, being in latitude 66 degrees 30' S., longitude 47 degrees 31' E., he descried land, and "clearly discovered through the snow the black peaks of a range of mountains running E. S. E." He remained in this neighbourhood during the whole of the following month, but was unable to approach the coast nearer than within ten leagues, owing to the boisterous state of the weather. Finding it impossible to make further discovery during this season, he returned northward to winter in Van Diemen's Land.
In the beginning of 1832 he again proceeded southwardly, and on the fourth of February was seen to the southeast in latitude 67 degrees 15' longitude 69 degrees 29' W. This was soon found to be an island near the headland of the country he had first discovered. On the twenty-first of the month he succeeded in landing on the latter, and took possession of it in the name of William IV, calling it Adelaide's Island, in honour of the English queen. These particulars being made known to the Royal Geographical Society of London, the conclusion was drawn by that body "that there is a continuous tract of land extending from 47 degrees 30' E. to 69 degrees 29' W. longitude, running the parallel of from sixty-six to sixty-seven degrees south latitude." In respect to this conclusion Mr. Reynolds observes: "In the correctness of it we by no means concur; nor do the discoveries of Briscoe warrant any such indifference. It was within these limits that Weddel proceeded south on a meridian to the east of Georgia, Sandwich Land, and the South Orkney and Shetland islands." My own experience will be found to testify most directly to the falsity of the conclusion arrived at by the society.
These are the principal attempts which have been made at penetrating to a high southern latitude, and it will now be seen that there remained, previous to the voyage of the Jane, nearly three hundred degrees of longitude in which the Antarctic circle had not been crossed at all. Of course a wide field lay before us for discovery, and it was with feelings of most intense interest that I heard Captain Guy express his resolution of pushing boldly to the southward.
We kept our course southwardly for four days after giving up the search for Glass's islands, without meeting with any ice at all. On the twenty-sixth, at noon, we were in latitude 63 degrees 23' S., longitude 41 degrees 25' W. We now saw several large ice islands, and a floe of field ice, not, however, of any great extent. The winds generally blew from the southeast, or the northeast, but were very light. Whenever we had a westerly wind, which was seldom, it was invariably attended with a rain squall. Every day we had more or less snow. The thermometer, on the twenty-seventh stood at thirty-five.
January 1, 1828.- This day we found ourselves completely hemmed in by the ice, and our prospects looked cheerless indeed. A strong gale blew, during the whole forenoon, from the northeast, and drove large cakes of the drift against the rudder and counter with such violence that we all trembled for the consequences. Toward evening, the gale still blowing with fury, a large field in front separated, and we were enabled, by carrying a press of sail to force a passage through the smaller flakes into some open water beyond. As we approached this space we took in sail by degrees, and having at length got clear, lay-to under a single. reefed foresail.
January 2.- We had now tolerably pleasant weather. At noon we found ourselves in latitude 69 degrees 10' S, longitude 42 degrees 20' W, having crossed the Antarctic circle. Very little ice was to be seen to the southward, although large fields of it lay behind us. This day we rigged some sounding gear, using a large iron pot capable of holding twenty gallons, and a line of two hundred fathoms. We found the current setting to the north, about a quarter of a mile per hour. The temperature of the air was now about thirty-three. Here we found the variation to be 14 degrees 28' easterly, per azimuth.
January 5.- We had still held on to the southward without any very great impediments. On this morning, however, being in latitude 73 degrees 15' E., longitude 42 degrees 10' W, we were again brought to a stand by an immense expanse of firm ice. We saw, nevertheless, much open water to the southward, and felt no doubt of being able to reach it eventually. Standing to the eastward along the edge of the floe, we at length came to a passage of about a mile in width, through which we warped our way by sundown. The sea in which we now were was thickly covered with ice islands, but had no field ice, and we pushed on boldly as before. The cold did not seem to increase, although we had snow very frequently, and now and then hail squalls of great violence. Immense flocks of the albatross flew over the schooner this day, going from southeast to northwest.
January 7.- The sea still remained pretty well open, so that we had no difficulty in holding on our course. To the westward we saw some icebergs of incredible size, and in the afternoon passed very near one whose summit could not have been less than four hundred fathoms from the surface of the ocean. Its girth was probably, at the base, three-quarters of a league, and several streams of water were running from crevices in its sides. We remained in sight of this island two days, and then only lost it in a fog.
January 10.- Early this morning we had the misfortune to lose a man overboard. He was an American named Peter Vredenburgh, a native of New York, and was one of the most valuable hands on board the schooner. In going over the bows his foot slipped, and he fell between two cakes of ice, never rising again. At noon of this day we were in latitude 78 degrees 30', longitude 40 degrees 15' W. The cold was now excessive, and we had hail squalls continually from the northward and eastward. In this direction also we saw several more immense icebergs, and the whole horizon to the eastward appeared to be blocked up with field ice, rising in tiers, one mass above the other. Some driftwood floated by during the evening, and a great quantity of birds flew over, among which were nellies, peterels, albatrosses, and a large bird of a brilliant blue plumage. The variation here, per azimuth, was less than it had been previously to our passing the Antarctic circle.
January 12.-Our passage to the south again looked doubtful, as nothing was to be seen in the direction of the pole but one apparently limitless floe, backed by absolute mountains of ragged ice, one precipice of which arose frowningly above the other. We stood to the westward until the fourteenth, in the hope of finding an entrance.
January 14.-This morning we reached the western extremity of the field which had impeded us, and, weathering it, came to an open sea, without a particle of ice. Upon sounding with two hundred fathoms, we here found a current setting southwardly at the rate of half a mile per hour. The temperature of the air was forty-seven, that of the water thirtyfour. We now sailed to the southward without meeting any interruption of moment until the sixteenth, when, at noon, we were in latitude 81 degrees 21', longitude 42 degrees W. We here again sounded, and found a current setting still southwardly, and at the rate of three quarters of a mile per hour. The variation per azimuth had diminished, and the temperature of the air was mild and pleasant, the thermometer being as high as fifty-one. At this period not a particle of ice was to be discovered. All hands on board now felt certain of attaining the pole.
January 17.- This day was full of incident. Innumerable flights of birds flew over us from the southward, and several were shot from the deck, one of them, a species of pelican, proved to be excellent eating. About midday a small floe of ice was seen from the masthead off the larboard bow, and upon it there appeared to be some large animal. As the weather was good and nearly calm, Captain Guy ordered out two of the boats to see what it was. Dirk Peters and myself accompanied the mate in the larger boat. Upon coming up with the floe, we perceived that it was in the possession of a gigantic creature of the race of the Arctic bear, but far exceeding in size the largest of these animals. Being well armed, we made no scruple of attacking it at once. Several shots were fired in quick succession, the most of which took effect, apparently, in the head and body. Nothing discouraged, however, the monster threw himself from the ice, and swam with open jaws, to the boat in which were Peters and myself. Owing to the confusion which ensued among us at this unexpected turn of the adventure, no person was ready immediately with a second shot, and the bear had actually succeeded in getting half his vast bulk across our gunwale, and seizing one of the men by the small of his back, before any efficient means were taken to repel him. In this extremity nothing but the promptness and agility of Peters saved us from destruction. Leaping upon the back of the huge beast, he plunged the blade of a knife behind the neck, reaching the spinal marrow at a blow. The brute tumbled into the sea lifeless, and without a struggle, rolling over Peters as he fell. The latter soon recovered himself, and a rope being thrown him, returned in triumph to the schooner, towing our trophy behind us. This bear, upon admeasurement, proved to be full fifteen feet in his greatest length. His wool was perfectly white, and very coarse, curling tightly. The eyes were of a blood red, and larger than those of the Arctic bear, the snout also more rounded, rather resembling the snout of the bulldog. The meat was tender, but excessively rank and fishy, although the men devoured it with avidity, and declared it excellent eating.
Scarcely had we got our prize alongside, when the man at the masthead gave the joyful shout of "land on the starboard bow!" All hands were now upon the alert, and, a breeze springing up very opportunely from the northward and eastward, we were soon close in with the coast. It proved to be a low rocky islet, of about a league in circumference, and altogether destitute of vegetation, if we except a species of prickly pear. In approaching it from the northward, a singular ledge of rock is seen projecting into the sea, and bearing a strong resemblance to corded bales of cotton. Around this ledge to the westward is a small bay, at the bottom of which our boats effected a convenient landing.
It did not take us long to explore every portion of the island, but, with one exception, we found nothing worthy of our observation. In the southern extremity, we picked up near the shore, half buried in a pile of loose stones, a piece of wood, which seemed to have formed the prow of a canoe. There had been evidently some attempt at carving upon it, and Captain Guy fancied that he made out the figure of a tortoise, but the resemblance did not strike me very forcibly. Besides this prow, if such it were, we found no other token that any living creature had ever been here before. Around the coast we discovered occasional small floes of ice- but these were very few. The exact situation of the islet (to which Captain Guy gave the name of Bennet's Islet, in honour of his partner in the ownership of the schooner) is 82 degrees 50' S. latitude, 42 degrees 20' W. longitude.
We had now advanced to the southward more than eight degrees farther than any previous navigators, and the sea still lay perfectly open before us. We found, too, that the variation uniformly decreased as we proceeded, and, what was still more surprising, that the temperature of the air, and latterly of the water, became milder. The weather might even be called pleasant, and we had a steady but very gentle breeze always from some northern point of the compass. The sky was usually clear, with now and then a slight appearance of thin vapour in the southern horizon- this, however, was invariably of brief duration. Two difficulties alone presented themselves to our view; we were getting short of fuel, and symptoms of scurvy had occurred among several of the crew. These considerations began to impress upon Captain Guy the necessity of returning, and he spoke of it frequently. For my own part, confident as I was of soon arriving at land of some description upon the course we were pursuing, and having every reason to believe, from present appearances, that we should not find it the sterile soil met with in the higher Arctic latitudes, I warmly pressed upon him the expediency of persevering, at least for a few days longer, in the direction we were now holding. So tempting an opportunity of solving the great problem in regard to an Antarctic continent had never yet been afforded to man, and I confess that I felt myself bursting with indignation at the timid and ill-timed suggestions of our commander. I believe, indeed, that what I could not refrain from saying to him on this head had the effect of inducing him to push on. While, therefore, I cannot but lament the most unfortunate and bloody events which immediately arose from my advice, I must still be allowed to feel some degree of gratification at having been instrumental, however remotely, in opening to the eye of science one of the most intensely exciting secrets which has ever engrossed its attention.
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Debated Heroes from the Deep Sea - Marine Genetic Resources
By Kirsten E. Zewers
This article is adapted from an excerpt by Kirsten E. Zewers from her paper, “Bright future for marine genetic resources, bleak future for settlement of ownership rights: reflections on the United Nations Law of the Sea consultative process on marine genetic resources, June, 2007.”1 Kirsten Zewers is a former WIPO intern, currently studying law at the University of St. Thomas in Minneapolis, Minnesota.
Many miles beneath the water’s surface, a range of unique organisms have adapted to withstand the extreme pressure, temperature and toxicity of their surroundings, giving these organisms extraordinary properties unlike any terrestrial life forms. Recent technological advances have created unprecedented scope for exploration of the deep sea bed, and for research into the genetic material derived from the organisms which inhabit it. New discoveries are revealing their invaluable potential for biotechnological and pharmaceutical applications. This in turn has sparked debate about the extent of ownership rights or sovereignty over these genetic resources and the patentability of inventions derived from them.. These issues were the focus of negotiations at the United Nations Informal Consultative Process on the Oceans and the Law of the Sea (UNICPOLOS) in June 2007.
Most of the organisms from which these new marine genetic resources derive are found near hydrothermal vents – or “black smokers” – on the deep sea bed. These areas are highly volatile, associated with tectonic and volcanic activity that constantly reform the sea floor. Extreme changes in temperature (up to 400° C), pressure and hydrothermal fluid create difficult environments for sustainable life. Yet many organisms have adapted to such demands by converting hydrothermal vent fluid into useful chemical energy; a characteristic that makes marine genetic resources of particular value, especially in combating human diseases.
A number of marine genetic resources already collected, examined, and cultured, show great promise for application in pharmaceuticals, bio-remediation (e.g. the use of organic matter to clean hazardous waste spills) and cosmetics. Proteins coded by DNA and RNA derivatives extracted from marine genetic resources have, for example, been found to have therapeutic uses, including antioxidant, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, anti-fungal, antibiotic properties, as well as specific activity against HIV, some forms of cancer, tuberculosis and malaria. However, the development of new pharmaceuticals is an uncertain, lengthy and expensive process, often spanning many years and costing millions. So far, less than 1 percent of marine genetic resource derivatives have succeeded in reaching the final stage of clinical trials.2 Yet the ratio of potentially useful natural compounds has been found to be significantly higher in marine organisms than in land organisms, and the success rate regarding the development of potential anti-cancer agents is reportedly twice as high as for any land-based samples.3
Patentability of genetic material
To date some 37 patents have been granted in the United States (US) for products derived from marine genetic resources. But many questions continue to surround the basic patentability of these organisms.
The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) administered by the World Trade Organization (WTO) requires patents to be available for inventions “in all fields of technology, provided that they are new, involve an inventive step and are capable of industrial application.” But TRIPS does not stipulate patent protection for the mere discovery of a living organism as it exists in nature, and national laws generally distinguish between simply discovering existing organisms, on the one hand, and inventions that are either useful derivatives from organisms, or genetically modified organisms on the other. So it is clear that marine life forms themselves cannot be patented in the form they are collected. But what about the commercially valuable genetic material derived from these organisms?
Much international debate surrounds the patentability of whole or partial strands of DNA and RNA and different countries have taken very different approaches to this matter. The US for example, has generally allowed for patentability of genetic sequences, provided a specific utility is disclosed (merely identifying the existence of a sequence is not enough, for instance). But recent US case law (e.g. the In re Fisher decision, which held that genetic markers, known as expressed sequence tags, lack substantial and specific utility unless the underlying gene function is identified) and legislative action, such as the bill presented in Congress in February 2007to prohibit the patenting of human genetic material, suggest a trend towards more restrictive patentability standards for whole or partial strands of DNA and RNA.
In Europe, the European Patent Convention (EPC) excludes patents on inventions the commercial exploitation of which is contrary to ordre public or morality. The European Union Directive on the Legal Protection of Biotechnological Inventions, adopted in 1998, clarified that biological material could be considered a patentable invention provided it is isolated from its natural environment or produced by a technical process – in short, when it is the subject of inventive human intervention.
While setting a common minimum standard for patentable subject matter, TRIPS allows latitude for cultural and moral differences. Thus WTO members can exclude inventions from patentability when it is necessary to prevent commercial exploitation of the invention “to protect ordre public or morality, including to protect human, animal or plant life or health or to avoid serious prejudice to the environment.” It also allows them to exclude from patentability plants and animals other than micro-organisms, and “essentially biological processes for the production of plants or animals other than non-biological and microbiological processes.” Thus, under TRIPS, WTO members retain sovereignty over the question of which inventions should be considered contrary to morality.
Another challenge to the patentability of marine genetic resources lies in basic taxonomy. To meet patentability requirements, the inventor must disclose the invention fully, so that others reading the patent document will have enough information to reproduce the invention. This may entail, for instance, giving the full botanical name of plants used in the claimed invention, or references to deposits of microorganisms in recognized international collections. However, because some recently discovered marine genetic resources have unique properties and their taxonomy has not been settled, establishing a sufficiently precise reference in a patent document can be problematic.
Novelty, inventive step, capable of industrial application
Under TRIPS, and in line with already accepted international practice, an invention must be new or novel and be non-obvious or include an inventive step to be patentable. There is a general debate internationally about whether inventions that are derived from naturally occurring genetic material should be considered new and inventive. For instance, as we have seen, the EU Biotech Directive clarified that in Europe biological material can be considered patentable even if it is identical to material found in nature, provided there is sufficient human input to develop an invention that serves a useful purpose. Debate continues over what degree of ‘isolation’ and technical transformation of genetic material is enough to make it truly new and inventive for patent purposes.
Another TRIPS requirement for patent protection is that the invention is useful or capable of industrial application. Despite jurisdictional differences, many countries require inventors to state a specific use; hypothetical uses often do not meet patent requirements. However, as marine genetic resources have vast and several unknown possibilities, specific use requirements may limit the capacity of applicants to obtain patents on broad-brush claims over newly isolated marine genetic materials.
The final requirement for patent protection under the TRIPS agreement is that the invention be disclosed in a publication so as to enable a person skilled in the relevant art to reproduce the invention. However, it is questionable exactly how much background disclosure is required. In addition, a number of countries have introduced specific disclosure requirements relating to inventions based on or derived from genetic resources and traditional knowledge – with a view to tracking compliance with prior informed consent and equitable benefit sharing obligations. There are on-going debates within WIPO’s Intergovernmental Committee on Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore (IGC) and in WIPO’s Standing Committee on Patents (SCP), as well as in the WTO (where an amendment to TRIPS has been tabled), as to whether there should be an international requirement for inventors to disclose the original source or origin of traditional knowledge or genetic resources used in an invention, as well as demonstration of compliance with prior informed consent and equitable benefit sharing arrangements. This debate also addresses issues of equitable remuneration, transfer of technology and benefit sharing. At this point, discussions have not yielded any resolution at the international level. But the inclusion of such requirements already in national laws, may already impact the process of patenting inventions based on marine genetic resources, even in the absence of any international standard.
Who owns marine genetic resources?
Due to the massive potential of marine genetic resources, significant debate surrounds ownership rights and entitlements to benefit from these organisms when they are located in areas beyond national jurisdiction. At the June 2007 meeting, UNICPOLOS delegates sought to negotiate ownership rights of marine genetic resources found in international waters beyond areas of national jurisdictions. The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea does not specifically address or regulate this issue.
The Convention does, however, address various acts beyond areas of national jurisdictions, such as commercial fishing and marine scientific research. For example, the Convention says that all states’ nationals have a right to fish for profit on the high seas, allowing commercial fishing on a “first come, first served” basis (subject to cooperation with the conservation and management of living resources within the high seas). The Convention has also, over time, established guidelines regarding marine scientific research. Although this term is not specifically enumerated in the Convention, marine scientific research is understood to encompass the study of the marine environment and its resources for peaceful purposes, and to be carried out for the benefit of the common heritage of mankind, including equitable benefit sharing.
In trying to develop a draft document to be submitted to the UN General Assembly for adoption, the UNICPOLOS debate broadly diverged between developing and developed countries. By analogy with the regulation of marine scientific research within the Convention, developing countries proposed that the Convention should regulate bio-prospecting of marine genetic resources through equitable benefit sharing regimes for the common heritage of mankind.
Developed countries, however, argue that because marine genetic resources are not specifically defined in the Convention, they fall outside the scope of the Convention’s regulation. Developed countries draw an analogy with the rights of commercial fishermen in international waters beyond national jurisdictions, proposing that only the bio-prospectors who take the initiative to collect these organisms should own them.
Ultimately delegates were unable to agree whether or not the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea set out the legal framework within which all activities in the ocean and seas must be carried out. On midnight of June 29, 2007, the negotiations remained at a stalemate. Since then, delegations have been holding informal consultations, the outcome of which is unpredictable.
While marine genetic resource discovery is expanding, little progress has been made regarding their ownership rights in areas beyond national jurisdiction. However, given the pressing need for new pharmaceuticals derived from marine genetic material, despite issues over patentability and ownership, their tremendous economic potential will ensure that marine genetic resources remain a hot topic in the international community for years to come.
Acknowledgements: Tony Taubman, WIPO Life Sciences Program
1. The full paper was published in the Spring 2008 publication of the Loyola University Chicago International Law Review.
2. Munt, Simon. (2007, 26 June). "From Marine Expeditions to New Drugs in Oncology," quoting statistic from the US National Cancer Institute Estimates.
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HASSE, TEXAS. Hasse is on U.S. highways 67 and 377 and the Fort Worth and Rio Grande Railroad in central Comanche County. It was founded in 1892 and was first called Cordwood Junction, then later was named after O. H. Hasse, a railway agent at Comanche. In 1900, when its post office was established, the community's population was over 100. By 1915 Hasse had a population of 250 and more than fifteen businesses, including a bank and a telephone exchange. Its population was about 248 in 1940, but only five businesses remained. By 1950 the community's population had dropped to forty, and in 1955 the Hasse school was annexed to the Comanche Independent School District. From 1980 through 2000 the population of Hasse was reported as forty-three.
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The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Handbook of Texas Online, Tracey L. Compton, "Hasse, TX," accessed June 26, 2016, http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/hnh13.
Uploaded on June 15, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.
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Eric Sokolowsky, Horace Mitchell, Steve Maher, NASA
This MPEG-1 film overlays the spread of Yellowstone's famous 1988 fires on satellite imagery of the park. Independent fires are color-coded, making it possible to see how this originally separate fires converged to consume a good part of the park. The map is based on daily observations by fire lookouts and nightly infrared imaging flights over the park.
This description of a site outside SERC has not been vetted by SERC staff and may be incomplete or incorrect. If you
have information we can use to flesh out or correct this record let us know.
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While there have been only isolated cases of SARS since the 2003/2004 epidemic, it is likely that we will see future outbreaks. As a result, a number of laboratories are working on strategies for a SARS vaccine. One promising approach is being reported by Jan ter Meulen and colleagues.
The researchers developed a strategy called passive immunization, in which combinations of antibodies against the SARS virus are given to individuals at risk at the time of a possible new outbreak. Passive immunization strategies have been shown to curb outbreaks of hepatitis A virus and to prevent infection with varicella-zoster virus, and such antibody prophylaxis may be an effective means of controlling a future SARS outbreak.
To be effective, it is important that an antibody-based vaccine offers sufficient breadth of protection against all relevant strains of the SARS virus and prevents the selection of escape variants in the patient. In their study, the researchers present the characteristics of a combination of two human monoclonal antibodies that seem to have the desired characteristics in cell-culture experiments in the laboratory.
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The word “terrorism” is thrown around in so many different contexts that it has become one of the most misused and misunderstood terms of all times. We tend to throw it around as a pejorative label on any violent event and those who commit those unpopular acts are classified as terrorists instead of looking at the actual meaning of the word. The real dictionary definition of terrorism is a systematic use of violence and intimidation to achieve some advantage, usually to achieve a political goal. It is not ever a term synonymous with violence, so they should not be used interchangeably. It is also does not mean murder. The purpose of terrorism is not to kill people, but to terrorize them. It is important to know the difference between terrorism and other forms of violence. The popular outcry “Don’t let the terrorists win!” is meaningless because they already have. It is not about killing everybody, but to make everybody very afraid.
The events of September 11, 2001 were legitimately called terrorism, meaning that the perpetrators were actual terrorists with a goal to change our way of life through fear and intimidation. In an all out war on terrorism, we finished the job for them by terrorizing people that fly on airplanes or travel in major metropolitan areas. The events in Boston on April 15, 2013 shut down a major US metropolitan area before the terrorists were apprehended. In a somewhat ironic act of “protection” government officials restricted the liberty of hundreds of thousands of people because of two terrorists. The end of this story won’t be felt until the reactions to future events like the Boston Marathon are impacted, but it all began with a very strange and perhaps stupid question, “Is this an act of terrorism?” Apparently, even the President of the United States was overly cautious about using the word.
If you want a mind boggling array of ideas about terrorism, try to follow the Wikipedia ramblings on the subject. A collection of ideas such as this is not “the” answer to anything but a source that can stimulate thinking by following the thoughts and ideas to their origins. After chasing concepts such as animal terrorism, eco-terrorism, and religious terrorism to their roots, it may finally sink in that this is not one topic but many confusing and conflicting thoughts. This is especially true when the term gets twisted through political rhetoric in an attempt to prove an otherwise shallow concept. The domestic terrorist that killed innocent teachers and children in Newtown, CT fanned the flame of banning assault weapons even though no weapons of this type were used to kill anyone in that attack. Punctuating any discussion with the word terrorism is about as effective as profanity in really proving anything.
Here is a suggestion about how we can redefine the term to mean something useful and get back to the basic definition.
- The purpose of terrorism is to terrorize, not kill. Intimidation and threats of violence are as useful as taking a life to serve the purposes of the terrorist.
- Terrorism unconditionally changes our lives and the subsequent reactionary responses are irreversible. We will never again be able to board an airliner without being screened.
- The definition of living a normal life post-terrorism means accepting that we live in a dangerous world. We are passing on to our children a civilization that must be desensitized to violence in order to be able to call it civilization.
- Sensationalism in media representation and governmental overreaction doesn’t help. A small seed of terrorism grows a thousand times when money or power is constantly fertilizing it and making the fear almost overwhelming.
I have suggested that parents guard the information that their children hear about current events, but in light of the root definition of terrorism I wonder if any of us should really chase after news events. FDR advised Americans that “The only thing we have to fear is fear itself.” That is just as true today as it was when he spoke those words 80 years ago. One of the most serious questions we must ask ourselves is how much we give in to fear. Terrorism only wins when we allow it to destroy our souls.
Image credit: hikrcn / 123RF Stock Photo
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The eagerly anticipated final season of "Breaking Bad" has led to a lot of viewers catching up on past episodes marathon-style. For my latest Wall Street Journal column, I use this moment of mass-media consumption to dive into the history of "binge-watching."
It all starts with binge, which first shows up in English dialect dictionaries in the mid-19th century. A word for soaking casks or other wooden vessels to keep them from leaking became a metaphor for "getting soaked" or excessive drinking. Here is the relevant entry in Anne Elizabeth Baker's Glossary of Northamptonshire Words and Phrases (1854):
BINGE. This word primarily signifies the act of soaking, and is applied substantively to persons, and adjectively and verbally to things. A man goes to the alehouse to get a good binge, or to binge himself. A heavy rain is a good bingeing shower: but the most general and frequent application of the term is to the soaking of tubs or wooden vessels to prevent leaking, when the chimes have become separated from dryness and disuse. "Put the tubs to binge, ready for the wash." According to D. Jennings, in Somersetshire, to Binge is to remain long in drinking; to drink to excess.
By the time Albert Barrère and Charles Godfrey Leland published their Dictionary of Slang, Jargon & Cant in 1897, it was no longer just a provincial expression, having already spread to Oxford (where one imagines student drinkers were putting the term to good use):
Binge (Oxford), a big drinking bout. To binge is a provincialism for to soak a vessel in water to prevent its leaking. It is also a nautical term meaning to rinse a cask. This word seems to be connected with bung, the orifice in the bilge of a cask, through which it is filled.
In the twentieth century, the noun and verb binge spread quickly on both sides of the Atlantic, and it eventually was pressed into service for clinical use to describe alcoholic overindulgence. The Oxford English Dictionary records binge-drinker from 1946, and binge-drinking can be found a decade later. Meanwhile, binge got extended to other kinds of excessive consumption, particularly food. The OED traces eating binge to 1937, and the clinician's diagnosis of binge-drinking was mirrored by binge-eating by 1959.
With binge-eating achieving greater prominence in the 1980s thanks to increased awareness of bulimia and related eating disorders, it's not surprising that by the late '90s it could serve as a model for TV consumption, swapping out eating for viewing or watching. The earliest examples that I dug up for binge-watching come from Usenet discussions among fans of "The X-Files." On a New England newsgroup, one fan put out a call for videotapes of the show in 1996:
I've just become hooked on the X-Files, so I'm a little behind... Does anyone by ANY chance have tapes of this show back to season 1 they'd be willing to lend me so I can effectively catch up? I'd be more than happy to travel out to wherever to get them and then bring them back (actually there are three of us who all got hooked at the same time, so I'd predict that there'd be some MASSIVE binge watching right away! :-)
—Bob Donahue, ne.general, Feb. 9, 1996
Two years later, binge-watching had already spawned the back-formation binge-watch in the "X-Files" community, as in this post presenting a mock diagnosis of addiction to the show:
Do you ever binge watch (marathon)?
—GregSerl, alt.tv.x-files.analysis, Dec. 20, 1998
It would take another five years before binge-watching got picked up by mainstream media commentators, and by that time viewers could watch their favorite TV shows on DVD compilations, allowing for more intensive binges. This 2003 article reviews a DVD set of the animated show "Family Guy":
While binge-watching an entire season's worth of a series in a couple of sittings can lead to such revelations as network meddling (cough, cough, Sports Night), Family Guy has the opposite effect.
—Brill Bundy, Tribune Media Services, Apr. 18, 2003
Fast-forward another decade, and we're living in a golden age of binge-watching, as streaming video services like Netflix and Hulu Plus replace DVDs as the binger's medium of choice. If you get caught up in "Breaking Bad" (or any number of other bingeable shows), good luck extracting yourself. Just don't end up like the "Battlestar Galactica" binge-watchers from "Portlandia."
Ben Zimmer is language columnist for The Wall Street Journal and former language columnist for The Boston Globe and The New York Times Magazine. He has worked as editor for American dictionaries at Oxford University Press and as a consultant to the Oxford English Dictionary. In addition to his regular "Word Routes" column here, he contributes to the group weblog Language Log. He is also the chair of the New Words Committee of the American Dialect Society.Click here to read other articles by Ben Zimmer
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In a study to appear in a March issue of the Journal of Virology and currently available online, UT Southwestern researchers describe how an essential gene, called RIG-I, turns on a cascade of host immune defenses when the hepatitis C virus (HCV) replicates in cultured human cells.
Those immune defenses should fight off the virus, but in a separate study, scheduled to appear online this week and in an upcoming issue of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, the researchers show how HCV sidesteps the immune response, allowing the virus to replicate unchecked.
Dr. Michael Gale, associate professor of microbiology at UT Southwestern and senior author of the two studies, said the tactics employed by HCV to infect a host are likely to be similar to those employed by other RNA viruses such as West Nile, influenza and the common cold.
"This work has broad implications that go beyond just the hepatitis C virus, and that's what we're most excited about," said Dr. Gale. "It's a battle between viruses and humans. Viruses have co-evolved with their hosts, so every time we have evolved a gene with a new function that allows us to fight off a virus, the virus adapts and comes up with a new function of its own to counteract our defenses."
Further defining how RNA viruses target and control host immune defenses will aid in drug development to combat disease, he said.
In the Virology paper, Dr. Gale and his research group found that a specific mutation in the gene RIG-I conferred permissiveness to HCV, allowing it to replicate "like gangbusters" in those cells with the mutation, Dr. Gale said. He and his group determined that the protein m ade by the gene is essential to turning on signals that tell the cell to mount an immune response. Cells with the mutated RIG-I protein were unable to initiate immune signals, abolishing the host cells' defenses to HCV.
When HCV infects a cell, the RIG-I protein physically binds the virus genetic material. RIG-I then changes its shape, which sends a cascade of signals to other proteins to activate a transcription factor called interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF-3). This protein turns on the genes responsible for producing interferon, which neutralizes viruses by suppressing their replication.
The researchers also investigated why cells with functioning RIG-I protein still had persistent HCV infection. In a study to appear in PNAS, Dr. Gale and his group found an explanation for HCV's tenaciousness. Once HCV infects the cell, it launches a counterattack against RIG-I, producing a protein called a protease to disrupt the cell's immune response that is otherwise turned on through RIG-I by the virus infection. The viral protease, NS3/4A, chops up essential signaling proteins involved in carrying RIG-I's message to IRF-3. Without those signals, IRF-3 can't turn on the genes to make interferon, and the virus continues to replicate unimpeded.
"Having identified RIG-I, now we can spend our time completely defining the signaling pathway that goes from RIG-I all the way down to IRF-3," Dr. Gale said. "Once we've done that, we hope to identify parts of the pathway to target with drugs to try to limit infection."
Drugs called protease inhibitors currently are used to treat patients infected with HIV and have also shown promise in treating hepatitis C patients in experimental trials.
"We now know that treating patients with a protease inhibitor will prevent the viral protease from cutting up the signaling proteins," Dr. Gale said. "We're currently working to identify exactly what proteins the viral protease is attacking, which could help toward further developing the protease inhibitors and more effective therapies for hepatitis C and possibly other viral infections."
A third paper, also appearing in PNAS, describes collaborative research with a group at UT Medical Branch in Galveston. The findings shed light on how HCV disrupts a separate immune pathway in infected liver cells, again by unleashing the NS3/4A protease to cleave another protein essential to triggering immune defenses. Again they found that protease inhibitors could reverse the effects of NS3/4A, allowing this immune pathway to be restored to shut down HCV replication.
Hepatitis C is a chronic disease that affects 4 million people in the United States, making it the nation's most common blood-borne infection. It is transmitted primarily through intravenous drug use, blood transfusions or blood products, as well as through sexual contact and is the leading cause of cirrhosis and liver cancer.
UT Southwestern Medical Scientist Training Program (MSTP) student Eileen Foy was an author on all three papers. MSTP student Rhea Sumpter and postdoctoral researcher Dr. Yueh-Ming Loo were authors on two of the papers. Postdoctoral researcher Dr. Chunfu Wang, MSTP student Cynthia Johnson and research associate Penny Mar-Fish also contributed, as did researchers in Japan.
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Dulce et decorum est: War and Anti-War Poetry
Soldiers have been writing poetry glorifying or abhorring war for as long as there have been soldiers and wars. Others have written poems lamenting war's inhumanity and its wastes every bit as long. I guess the best we can do is work toward the day when neither will be necessary.
Below you will find poetry occasioned by war from the Harris County Public Library Catalog.
An Imagist at War: the Complete War Poems of Richard Aldington [electronic resource] / selected by Michael Copp.
Celebrations: Rituals of Peace and Prayer / Maya Angelou
Calligrammes : Poems of Peace and War (1913-1916) / Guillaume Apollinaire
A Chorus for Peace: A Global Anthology of Poetry by Women / edited by Marilyn Arnold, et al.
John Brown's Body / Stephen Vincent Benet
"Words for the Hour:" A New Anthology of American Civil War Poetry / edited by Faith Barrett and Cristanne Miller
Selected Poetry and Prose of Paul Celan /
Breathturn / Paul Celan
Glottal Stops: 101 Poems / Paul Celan
War Poets [VHS] / Films for the Humanities and Sciences
Tales from a Child of the Enemy / Ursula Duba
Carrying the Darkness: The Poetry of the Vietnam War / edited by W. D. Ehrhart
Unaccustomed Mercy: Soldier Poets of the Vietnam War / edited by W. D. Ehrhart
Blue-tail Fly / Vievee Francis
American War Poetry: An Anthology / edited by Lorrie Goldensohn
Poems about War / Robert Graves
Poets against the War / edited by Sam Hamill, et al.
The First World War in Irish Poetry [electronic resource] / Jim Haughey
The Voices in Wartime Anthology / edited by Andrew Himes, et al.
War Poems / Selected by John Hollander
America at War: Poems / selected by Lee Bennett Hopkins
Brother Enemy: Poems of the Korean War / edited by Suh Ji-moon
Dien Cai Dau / Yusef Komunyakaa
Today Is Not a Good Day for War / David Krieger
Men, Women and Ghosts [computer file] / Amy Lowell
From Both Sides Now: The Poetry of the Vietnam War and Its Aftermath / edited by Phillip Mahoney
Battle-Pieces and Aspects of the War: Civil War Poems / Herman Melville
Poems from Captured Documents / selected & translated from the Vietnamese by Thanh T. Nguyen & Bruce Weigl
Disabled and Other Poems / Wilfred Owen
Poets against the War [web site] / Project Alchemy
Poets of World War II / edited by Harvey Shapiro
The Oxford Book of War Poetry / edited by Jon Stallworthy
Articles of War: A Collection of American Poetry about World War II / edited by Leon Stokesbury
The Soldier Poets [VHS] / Terra Entertainment
Ballads of the North and South in the Civil War / [compiled by] Walbrook D. Swank
Native Guard / Natasha Trethewey
The Civil War Poems / Walt Whitman
Poetry from 1660 to 1780: Civil War, Restoration, Revolution / edited by Duncan Wu.
Dulce et decorum est is the title of a poem written during World War I by Wilfred Owen. He uses the full phrase to close the poem: Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori which is usually translated to English as "How sweet and fitting it is to die for one's country." The line originates in a poem by the Roman Horace.
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It was however, the Futurist
of March 1912, held at the Sackville Gallery, which proved decisive for his
development. At the exhibition he met the Futurist painter
Gino Severini and returned with him to study in Paris. Here Nevinson was introduced to other Futurist
including Umberto Boccioni and Ardengo Soffici. He was inspired by the Futuristsí interest in modern technology and their
depiction of motion.
During this time he began to pursue similar themes in his own work. Nevinson announced his affiliation with the movement by exhibiting a painting called Rising City in the Friday Club exhibition of January 1913. This was followed by a series of fragmented, Futurist inspired urban works giving him the reputation of being Englandís only Futurist painter.
1917 Nevinson was commissioned as an Official War Artist. His work drew the
public's attention to the increasingly mechanised nature of modern warfare,
something that was far removed from the romantic artistry that had accompanied
the early stages of the war. One critic wrote of his most famous work,
hard lines of the machinery dictate those of the robotised soldiers who become
as one with the killing machine."
His 1918 work, Paths of Glory depicted the bodies of two dead British soldiers and was considered so harrowing it was censored by the War Office. Nevinsonís war paintings confirm that he saw the war as a tragic event. Bleak, outspoken and angry, they are among the masterpieces of his career.
After the war Nevinson abandoned Futurism, preferring to paint more conventional landscapes and cityscapes. His work remained dynamic and powerful. A series of paintings of New York were particularly striking, revealing the artistís feelings about the dehumanising effect of urban life. In later years Nevinsonís work became less radical. He concentrated more on pastoral scenes and flower pieces where a gentler mood prevailed.
Listen to students' responses to Nevinson's paintings - see Audio links below.
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Right Now | Sound Synapses
Fitness: Body and Mind
Numerous studies show that caloric-intake restriction (which is known to slow aging in mammals) and exercise have dramatic, beneficial effects on mental acuity and motor ability, says professor of molecular and cellular biology Joshua Sanes, director of the Center for Brain Science. But just how these changes improved functioning was unclear. Now Sanes and a colleague, Knowles professor of molecular and cellular biology Jeff Lichtman, have made a discovery that pinpoints mitigation of age-related structural degradation in neural synapses as the reason for this improvement. According to their research, published this August in the journal PNAS (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences), exercise and caloric restriction in lab mice visibly protect and rejuvenate synapses, the neural connections that are critical to cognitive and motor function.
Synapses are junctions between two nerve cells; electrical signals travel along nerves and are converted to chemical signals that jump a narrow cleft between the sending and receiving parts of the synapse. Unlike most cells, says Sanes, neurons aren’t replaced; they tend to be stable throughout life. But with age, a synapse undergoes regressive structural changes--“little pieces of it fragment, or disappear, or the nerve may retract from it; in some cases, the synapse gets so bad that it actually disassembles.” Such degradation, Sanes explains, “interferes with transmission of information from nerve to muscle and leads to the muscle wasting that accompanies old age.”
Key to the experiment was a technique developed by Sanes and Lichtman that allows individual synapses to be tagged with a fluorescent protein. (The researchers studied neuromuscular junctions in skeletal muscle, rather than synapses in the brain, because the former are large enough to be seen using a light microscope.) The technique allows investigators to surgically open, and capture an image of, a single tiny synapse, and then find the same synapse later, during a second surgical procedure to observe and document the effects of different protocols.
Sanes and Lichtman found that reducing caloric intake in mice by 40 percent for 24 months protected both muscle fiber and motor neurons (which diminish in number with age), as well as synapses. Their exercise experiment gave the lab mice, which typically live two to three years, an exercise wheel at 22 months of age (“Unlike humans, mice actually run voluntarily,” notes Sanes). Just one month later, they observed in the synapses that they had surveyed earlier “a partial reversal of structural alterations that had already occurred.”
Because the exercise and caloric-restriction experiments were of different duration, Sanes and Lichtman will now reverse the conditions, testing lifelong exercise against short-term caloric reduction. Meanwhile, one of their postdoctoral fellows is conducting similar experiments, this time using synapses in the brain. “The research gives us a hint,” says Sanes, “that the way these extremely powerful lifestyle factors act is by attenuating or reversing the decline in our synapses.”
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1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rashtrakuta
RASHTRAKUTA, an Indian dynasty which ruled in the Deccan (q.v.) from about A.D. 750 to 973. The Rashtrakuta or Ratta clan are supposed to have held power during the historical blank before the 6th century; but they came to the front in A.D. 750, when Dantidurga overthrew the Chalukya dynasty and made himself ruler of the Deccan. He was succeeded by his uncle Krishna I. (c. 760), who completed his conquests, and whose reign is memorable for the execution of the Kailasa, the rock-cut temple at Ellora. His grandson Govinda III. (780-815) extended the power of the family from the Vindhya Mountains and Malwa on the north to Kanchi on the south. The next king, Amogavarsha, reigned for sixty-two years. The reign of Krishna III. was remarkable for a war with the Cholas, in which the Chola king was killed on the field of battle in 949. The last of the Rashtrakuta kings was Karka II., who was overthrown by the Chalukyas in 973.
See R. G. Bhandarkar, Early History of the Deccan (Bombay, 1884).
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Recently in England, Scotland and Northern Ireland, through a Freedom of Information request, the 1939 National Register has become available to researchers. You can only get it for people who are deceased and you need a name and address to request the information.
The information gathered was to provide everyone with their National Identity Card and with the evacuations and mobilization it needed to be done quickly. The date was 29 September 1939.
The questions asked were name, address, gender, birth date, marital status, occupation and whether you had any membership in any kind of military forces which included Civil Defense Services and a like.
In England the fee to get this information is 43 GBP. In Scotland you would pay 13 GBP.
Since the register entries became available in England and Scotland, Northern Ireland has also started to release their information. It is not as easy to get the information yet, mainly because of the large amount of files and the fact that the Public Record Office of Northern Ireland is getting ready for a big move and will be closed from September 2010 to May 2011. You can read a description of how to order the registration from Northern Ireland at the Scottish Genealogy News and Events blog. I would recommend reading this blog regularly if you have Scottish ancestors.
Remember one thing – this is only for Northern Ireland. The war was after Home Rule and the South of Ireland was not officially involved in the Second World War.
What I find very interesting is that this information is only coming to light now in the United Kingdom. In Canada we had a similar national registration but ours is called the 1940 National Registration. The public have been able to order copies of this registration for a long time. You need to prove the person is deceased twenty years and a newspaper death notice is accepted. You also need to provide as much identifying information as possible. The fee is $47.25, which includes the GST, and will not be refunded if the search is negative. You can find details for ordering a copy at the Canadian Genealogy Centre.
I have ordered this information several times and it provides much more information than the 1939 National Registration. The information includes: name, address, age, date of birth, marital status, number of dependents, place and country of birth of individual and his or her parents, nationality, year of entry into Canada (if an immigrant), racial origin, languages, education, general health, occupation, employment status, farming or mechanical skills and previous military service.
There are two forms one for men and one for women. Copies of these can be found on the website. Every man and women 16 years of age and over had to complete these forms except for members of the armed forces, religious orders or those confined to an institution. If they died between 1940 and 1946 then it is possible that the form was destroyed. Try anyway because I know of some instances when this was not the case. It can also take upwards of three months to get the registration.
The information I received when I got the 1940 National Registration form was an abstract of basic information like name, place, age, etc, then a copy of the form that had been transcribed and a copy of the original form. I was very glad they sent the original because where the transcriber was not able to decipher the writing I could decipher it. The copy of the original is not very good but careful study can provide more accurate information.
If you are researching someone who was alive during this time period in Canada I would recommend getting a copy of their 1940 National Registration. It could prove to be very enlightening.
©2010 – Blair Archival ResearchShare This:
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When the earliest inhabitants of Fiji arrived 3500 years ago, they brought with them the language of the homeland they had set sail from – an island in Vanuatu, or possibly the Solomons (but certainly not Africa!)
That language has changed and splintered over the years into a multitude of different ‘communalects’ now numbering more than 300. This is because language divides naturally as people spread out, and there may have been some additional input from more recent immigrants from other islands lying to the west.
The Fijian ‘communalects’ belong to the enormous Austronesian language family, which means they are related to thousands of other languages spanning the globe from Malagasy in the west to Rapanui (Easter Island) in the east, from Aotearoa (New Zealand) in the south to Hawaii and Taiwan in the north. The family includes such important national languages as Tagalog (Philippines) and Malay. After Fiji had been settled, the flow of population continued north and east. The languages of Polynesia (such as Maori, Tahitian, Tongan, Samoan and Hawaiian), the language of the tiny island of Rotuma to the north of Fiji, and of course their speakers, all originated in Fiji more than 3000 years ago. These relationships can be clearly seen in the following table of selected words.
The early missionaries had a keen appreciation of the importance of using local language in their work, and by 1840 had already devised an excellent spelling system for Fijian as well as published a number of books in different ‘communalects’. When the need for a standard language became apparent, they selected the language of Bau, the tiny island off the south-east coast of Viti Levu which was, and in some ways still is, the seat of the major power in Fijian politics. Nowadays the spoken Fijian of the towns and the Fijian used in books and newspapers are both known as ‘Bauan’, even though neither is quite the same as the language of the island of Bau.
While many of its Pacific relatives, such as Hawaiian and Maori, have been struggling for survival, Fijian has never been in serious danger of extinction, even though it was ignored for a long time in schools. The vast majority of Fijians have always used it as their everyday language, and most Indians understand at least some. In rural communities like Levuka, Taveuni and Savusavu, the Indians all speak Fijian fluently. In general, however, English is the lingua franca in Fiji.
Since independence in 1970, Fijian has also been increasingly used on the radio, in books and newspapers, and in the schools. To ensure that future evolution of the language has a sound base, the government has set up a department to research and develop the Fijian language. The department’s first major task is to compile a dictionary of Fijian for Fijians, with all definitions and other information in Fijian, which when completed will be the first of its kind in the Pacific.
Fijian spelling will come as a surprise to visitors because it uses some familiar letters in an unfamiliar way. Upon arriving in Fiji, you will soonrealise that ‘Nadi’ is pronounced ‘Nandi’ (rhyming with candy). As linguist Albert Schutz in his very fine primer Say It In Fijian explains, the reason for this alphabet system was ‘due neither to any perversity on the part of the first linguists, nor to chance’. Instead, David Cargill, themissionary who devised the alphabet especially for Fijian students learning to read, found that they considered it simple and satisfying.
The result of Cargill’s work is a spelling system that is economical and, more importantly, regular. This second quality is extremely significant to the learner of Fijian because it means there is a good chance the student will pronounce the words correctly when he or she reads them. Contrast this system with the English language, which is riddled with exceptions.
Consonants Most of the consonants other than b, d, q, g and c hold no surprises, but there are some differences from the way the Englishcounterparts are usually pronounced. Like the combination ‘dr’, the letters b, d and q are pronounced with a nasal sound in front of them – like ‘ndr’. ‘R’ is rolled or trilled, as in Spanish. ‘Y’ has not nearly as much glide quality to it as does the English ‘y’, as in ‘yes’.
The consonant letters that seem unusual to English speakers are:
Vowels The following is a guide to the pronunciation of vowels:
Some Useful Words
Some Useful Concepts
Some Useful Phrases
Those interested in further studies of Fijian will find Albert Schutz’s Say It In Fijian (Pacific Publications, Sydney, 1979) an excellent introduction to the language. The book is available in Fiji. Likewise, Schutz’s Spoken Fijian (University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu, 1979) is a good primer for more advanced studies. My experience in Fiji has been that even the most minimal attempt at learning a few words or phrases will be amply rewarded with kindness and a greater respect for the visitor.
The language of the Fijian Indians is generally called Hindi or Hindustani, but it is quite different from the Hindi spoken in India. Fijian Indians call their language Fiji Bat (literally, ‘Fiji Talk’) or simply Fiji Hindi. This lingua franca of Fijian Indians is a hybrid of many Indian languages, dialects and borrowed words from Fijian and English. As Jeff Siegel, author of Say It In Fiji Hindi aptly puts it, ‘Fiji Hindi reflects the diverse origins of the Fiji Indians as well as their unique new culture which has developed in Fiji’. Linguists and scholars may argue about the legitimacy of this dialect, but there is no doubt that it is a living language with its own special grammar and vocabulary suited for Fiji.
The history of the language mirrors the history of the Indian experience in Fiji. The Indians who settled here were a diverse group – Hindus, Sikhs, Muslims and Christians from numerous castes and subcastes. Some people came from the northern districts of India speaking Urdu or Hindustani and dialects such as Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Bagheli and Maithili. From the southern regions some spoke unrelated languages from the Dravidian family such as Tamil, Telugu and Malayalam.
However, passage on the vessels to Fiji and later plantation life necessitated living at close quarters. This quickly resulted in the breakdown of caste taboos regarding food and work. The coming together of all the different Indian cultures also demanded a common language so that everyone could communicate. Thus Fiji Hindi was conceived. Siegel theorises that Fiji Hindi possibly evolved out of a ‘Bazaar Hindustani’ that already existed in India with many words and features of the various Indian languages. The influences of English and Fijian were later incorporated.
The vast majority of Fijian Indians speak Fiji Hindi, but some still speak a different language at home such as Gujarati, Tamil, Telugu or Punjabi. Some of these languages are taught in school, but mostly Indian Standard Hindi or Urdu are taught for use in connection with religion, literature or formal occasions. English is taught in all Fijian schools and is the lingua franca of the nation. The average Fijian Indian may thus speak Tamil at home, Fiji Hindi with the neighbours, the local Fijian dialect with the villagers, English at work and Standard Hindi at a religious gathering.
Scholar Richard Barz informs me that students of Fiji Hindi will be interested in knowing that the first play ever to be published in that language, Adhura Sapna (A Shattered Dream) by Raymond Pillai, is featured (along with an English translation) on pages 221-255 in Language Transplanted: The Development of Overseas Hindi (Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1988), edited by Richard Barz & Jeff Siegel.
Hindi – Hindustani – Urdu
It’s all very confusing. Hindustani is the language used in parliamentary debate yet Hindi is designated as the official language of Fiji Indians. The Fiji broadcasting system uses Hindustani but newspapers are in Hindi. According to a government survey, nearly 90% of Fijian Indian households speak Hindustani, but Hindus learn Hindi in school, while Muslims learn Urdu. How do we make sense out of this?
First of all, we must distinguish between spoken and written languages. Hindustani usually refers to the spoken language of northern India. It evolved from the classical Indian language of Sanskrit (which is studied much like Latin in the West) but utilises a lot of borrowed Persian words. A formal style of Hindustani is used on the radio. Fiji Hindi is a colloquial form of Indian Hindustani.
Formal Hindi is a literary form of Hindustani utilising Devanagari script (the same writing as Sanskrit), but replaces the borrowed Persian words with Sanskrit. Urdu is also a written or literary form of Hindustani using Arabic script and Persian as well as Arabic words rather than Sanskrit ones. There are also important religious distinctions between Hindi and Urdu. Urdu, used exclusively by Muslims, developed from the Persian court language spoken by India’s Moghul conquerors who were Muslims. Hindi, of course, is used by Hindus.
The bottom line is that Hindi and Urdu are very different in their formal and written forms but are almost the same spoken language.
Greetings & Civilities
Only rarely will the visitor encounter a Fijian Indian who does not speak English. Just the same, Indians will appreciate the visitor who extends him or herself by learning a few commonly used expressions.
Many greetings are used but the most heard is ‘Namaste’, meaning both hello and goodbye. Another common greeting, corresponding to the English ‘How are you?’ is ‘Kaise?’ The answers might be:
Some Useful Phrases
Out and About
Visitors interested in Fiji Hindi would be well advised to pick up a copy of Say It in Fiji Hindi (Pacific Publications) which is available in local bookshops.
This page has been translated into Polish and Romanian. Visit the pages below:
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Early History of the Jews in Poland
By Mike Rosenzweig
Artur Szyk: "Kalisz Statute" privelege granted to the Jews by king Boleslaus the Pious
The earliest verifiable records of Jewish settlement in Poland date from the late 11th century. However, it is generally believed that Jews arrived in Poland much earlier. Many scholars discard the theory that a large number of followers of the Judaic faith came to Poland from the east in about 965 after the fall of the Khazar state. While it is true that the rulers of Khazar converted to Judaism, there is substantial disagreement amongst researchers as to whether or not their subjects converted in significant numbers.
The first Jews to arrive on Polish territory were merchants who were referred to as Radhanites. The Radhanites were merchants whose trade extended over vast distances between east ans west. They were fluent in Arabic, Persian, Greek, Spanish, "Franklish" and "Slav" languages. Their entrance occurred simultaneously with the formation of the Polish state. One of them was Ibrahim ibn Jacob, the author of the first extensive account about Poland. In the summer of 965 or 966 Jacob made a trade and diplomatic journey from his native Toledo in Moslem Spain to the Holy Roman Empire and Slavonic countries.
Feudal disintegration, the birth of towns and the development of commodity money relations favored the settlement by Jews in Poland. Nevertheless, the influx of Jews was brought about mostly by their persecution in Western Europe, which gained in force during the crusades. Among the first Jews to arrive in Poland (in 1097 or 1098) were those banished from Prague. Jews from Bohemia and Germany settled primarily in Silesia. They usually engaged in trade and agriculture and some owned landed estates. By the middle of the14th century they had occupied thirty-five Silesian towns. Jewish settlement in other parts of Poland proceeded at a much slower pace and the first mention of Jewish settlers in Plock dates from 1237, in Kalisz from 1287 and a Zydowska (Jewish) street in Krakow in 1304.
Earlier, Mieszko III, the prince of Great Poland between 1138 and 1202 and the ruler of all Poland in 1173-77 and 1198-1202, employed Jews in his mint as engravers of dies and technical supervisors of all workers. Until 1206, Jews worked on commission for other contemporary Polish princes, including Casimir the Just, Boleslaus the Tall and Ladislaus Spindleshanks. From pure silver they struck coins called bracteates, which they emblazoned with inscriptions in Hebrew.
In 1264, a successor to Mieszko III in Great Poland, Boleslaus the Pious, granted Jews a privilege known as the Kalisz statute. According to this statute, (which was modeled on similar decrees issued in Austria, Bohemia and Hungary) Jews were exempted from municipal and castellan jurisdiction and were subject only to princely courts. The same statute granted Jews free trade and the right to conduct moneylending operations which were, however, limited only to loans made on security of " immovable property".
The Kalisz statute, which described the Jews as "slaves of the treasury", ensured protection of persons, protection of property and freedom in conducting religious rites. They were also given the opportunity to organize their internal life on the principle of self-government of their individual communities. Similar privileges were granted to the Silesian Jews by the local princes, Prince Henry Probus of Wroclaw in 1273-90, Henry of Glogow in 1274 and 1299, Henry of Legnica in 1290 - 95 and Bolko of Legnica and Wroclaw in 1295.
These privileges resulted in hostile reactions against the Jews by the Catholic clergy. In 1267, the Council of Wroclaw created segregated Jewish quarters in citiesand towns and ordered Jews to wear a special emblem. Jews were banned from holding offices where Christians would be subordinated to them and were forbidden to build more than one prayer house in each town. These resolutions, however, though they were reiterated during the subsequent councils in Buda in 1279 and Leczyca in 1285, were generally not enforced due to the profits which the Jews' economic activity yielded to the princes.
The turn of the 13th and 14th centuries saw the end of feudal disintegration in Poland. In the reunited kingdom the role of towns and the burghers grew. The rulers, interested in the development of a commodity money economy, encouraged Jewish immigration. The most outstanding of those rulers was Casimir the Great who in 1334, a year after ascending the throne, acknowledged the privilege granted the Jews in Great Poland by Boleslaus the Pious in 1264. As a result Jews were exempted from German law and came under the jurisdiction of the voivodes.
In the 14th and 15th centuries the main occupation of Jews in Poland was local and long distance trade. Jews performed the role of middlemen in trade between Poland and Hungary, Turkey and the Italian colonies on the Black Sea. They also took part in the Baltic trade and commercial operations in Silesia. Owing to their links with Jewish communities in other countries as well as experience in trade and moneylending operations, Jewish merchants gained the advantage over local merchants, both in European and overseas trade.
Following protests by the rich Polish burghers and the clergy, the scope of credit operations conducted by the Jews was seriously curtailed in the early 15th century. In 1423 the statute of Warka forbade Jews the granting of loans against letters of credit or mortgage and limited their operations exclusively to loans made on security of moveable property.
The amassed capital was invested by the Jews in leaseholds. In the 14th and 15th centuries rich Jewish merchants and moneylenders leased the royal mint, salt mines and the collecting of customs and tolls. The most famous of them were Jordan and his son Lewko of Krakow in the 14th century and Jakub Slomkowicz of Luck, Wolczko of Drohobycz, Natko of Lvov, Samson of Zydaczow, Josko of Hrubieszow and Szania of Belz in the 15th century.
For example, Wolczko of Drohobycz, King Ladislaus Jagiello's broker, was the owner of several villages in the Ruthenian voivodship and the soitys (administrator) of the village of Werbiz. Also Jews from Grodno were in this period owners of villages, manors, meadows, fish ponds and mills. However until the end of the 15th century agriculture as a source of income played only a minor role among Jewish families. More important were crafts for the needs of both their fellow Jews and the Christian population (fur making, tanning, tailoring).
The expansion of the scope of economic activity carried out by the Jews sharpened competition between them and their Christian counterparts. In the 14th century anti-Jewish riots broke out in Silesia which was ruled by the Bohemian-German dynasty of Luxembourg. These reached their climax during the epidemics of the Black Death when, as earlier in Western Europe, Jews were accused of systematically poisoning the wells. In 1349 pogroms took place in many towns in Silesia and some of the refugees from those towns, as well as Jews banished from West European countries, sought shelter from persecution in Poland.
Streams of Jewish immigrants headed east to Poland during the reign of Casimir the Great who encouraged Jewish settlement by extending royal protection to them. First mentions about Jewish settlements in Lvov (1356), Sandomierz (1367), Kazimierz near Krakow (1386) and several other cities date from the second half of the 14th century. In the 15th century Jews appeared in many cities in Great Poland, Little Poland, Kuyavia, Pomerania and Red Ruthenia. In the 1450s Polish towns gave shelter to Jewish refugees from Silesia which was then ruled by the Habsburgs.
In 1454 anti-Jewish riots flared up in Wroclaw and other Silesian cities. They were inspired by the papal envoy, the Franciscan friar John of Capistrano. Though his main aim was to instigate a popular rebellion against the Hussites, he also carried out a ruthless campaign against the Jews whom he accused of profaning the Christian religion. As a result of Capistrano's endeavors, Jews were banished from Lower Silesia. Shortly after, John of Capistrano, invited to Poland by Zbigniew Olesnicki, conducted a similar campaign in Krakow and several other cities where, however, anti-Jewish unrest took on a much less acute form.
Forty years later, in 1495, Jews were ordered out of the center of Krakow and allowed to settle in the "Jewish town" of Kazimierz. In the same year, Alexander Jagiellon, following the example of Spanish rulers, banished the Jews from Lithuania. For several years they took shelter in Poland until they were allowed back to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1503.
Towards the end of the Middle Ages Jews lived in 85 towns in Poland and their total number amounted to 18,000 in Poland and 6,000 in Lithuania, which represented merely 0.6 per cent of the total population of the two states. The 16th and the first half of the 17th century saw increased settlement and a relatively fast rate of natural population growth among both Polish and Lithuanian Jews. The number of immigrants also grew, especially in the 16th century.
Among the new arrivals there were not only the Ashkenazim, banished from the countries belonging to the Habsburg monarchy, that is Germany, Bohemia, Hungary and Lower Silesia (in the 1580's the whole of Silesia had only two Jewish communities, in Glogow and Biala), but also the Sephardim who were driven away from Spain and Portugal. Moreover many Sephardic Jews from Italy and Turkey came to Poland of their own free will.
Towards the end of the 16th century the flood of immigration abated and new communities were founded generally as a result of the movement of the population from the crowded districts to new quarters. In around 1648 Jews lived in over half of all cities in the Commonwealth, but the center of Jewish life moved from the western and central parts of Poland to eastern voivodships where two out of three townships had Jewish communities. Beginning in the middle of the16th century Jews started to settle in the countryside in larger numbers. In the middle of the 17th century there were 500,000 Jews living in Poland, which meant some five per cent of the total population of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
The legal position of the Jews was still regulated by royal and princely privileges and Sejm statutes, with the difference that in 1539 Polish Jews from private towns and villages became subordinated to the judiciary and administration of the owners. From that time on, an important role was played by privileges granted by individual lords. On top of that, the legal status of Jews was still influenced by synodal resolutions and the common law.
All this amounted to a considerable differentiation in the legal position of the Jewish population. In some cities Jews were granted municipal citizenship, without, however, the right to apply for municipal positions. In many towns, especially the gentry towns, Jews were given complete freedom in carrying out trade and crafts, while in others these freedoms as well as the right to settle were restricted. Finally there were also towns where Jews were not allowed to settle.
In the 16th century more than twenty towns obtained the privilegia de non tolerandis Judaeis. These included Miedzyrzec in 1520, Warsaw in 1525, Sambor in 1542, Grodek in 1550, Vilna in 1551, Bydgoszcz in 1556, Stryj in 1567, Biez, Krosno and Tarnogrod 1569, Pilzno in 1577, Drohobycz in 1578, Mikolajow in 1596, Checiny in 1597. In practice, however, this ban was inconsistently observed. In other locations, separate suburbs, "Jewish towns", were formed (for example in Lublin, Piotrkow, Bydgoszcz, Drohobycz and Sambor) or the Jews fought for and won the revocation of those discriminatory regulations, for example in Stryj and Tarnogrod. The restrictions imposed on the territorial expansion of Jewish quarters forced the Jews to seek the privlegia de non tolerandis christianis, or bans on Christian settlement in Jewish quarters. Such privileges were won by the Jewish town of Kazimierz in 1568, the Poznan community in 1633 and all Lithuanian communities in 1645.
Between 1501 and 1648 Jews further intensified their economic activity. This was accompanied by a basic change in the occupational structure of the Jewish population in comparison with the previous period. The primary sources of income for Jewish families were crafts and local trade. The magnates for whom Jewish traders and craftsmen were an important element in their rivalry with the royal towns, generally favored the development of Jewish crafts.
On the other hand, in larger royal towns as well as in the ecclesiastical towns Jewish craftsmen and also Christian craftsmen who were not members of a guild (known as partacze or patchers) were exposed to permanent harassment from the municipal authorities and the Christian guilds. They could carry out their occupations only clandestinely. In a small number of towns, for example in Grodno, Lvov, Luck and Przemysl, some Jewish craftsmen managed to wrest for themselves the right to perform their trade from the local guilds, but that only after having to pay heavy charges.
Despite these difficulties Jewish crafts, which were encouraged by royal starosts and owners of gentry jurisdictions, not only maintained their state of ownership but expanded it considerably. In the middle of the 17th century Polish and Lithuanian Jews practiced over 50 trades (43 in Red Ruthenia) and were represented in all branches of craftsmanship. The most numerous of them were those who made food, leather and textile products, clothing, objects of gold and pewter and glass manufacturers. In the first half of the 17th century Jewish craftsmen founded their own guilds in Krakow, Lvov and Przemysl. In Biala Cerkiew several Jewish craftsmen (tailors and slaughterers) belonged to Christian guilds in 164I.
In the 16th and the first half of the 17th century Jews played an outstanding role in Poland's foreign trade. They contributed to the expansion of contacts with both the east and the west and were instrumental in importing foreign commercial experience to Poland. Particularly animated trade contacts were maintained by Jewish merchants with England and the Netherlands through Gdansk, and Hungary and Turkey through Lvov and Krakow. Jews exported not only Polish agricultural produce and cattle but also ready-made products, particularly furs and clothing. In return they brought in goods from east and west which were much sought after in Poland. Jewish wholesalers appeared at large fairs in Venice, Florence, Leipzig, Hamburg, Frankfurt on Main, Wroclaw and Gdansk. In order to expand their trade contacts they entered into partnerships. For example in the mid-16th century Jewish merchants from Brest Litovsk, Tykocin, Grodno and Sledzew founded a company for trade with Gdansk, while in 1616 a similar company was established by merchants from Lvov, Lublin, Krakow and Poznan. At the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries, in many towns Jewish and Christian merchants set up joint ad hoc companies in order to conclude profitable financial operations. In European and overseas trade only a relatively small number of Jews were engaged. The most numerous group among Jewish merchants were owners of shops as well as stall keepers and vendors whose whole property was what they put on show on the stall in front of their houses or on a cart, or what they carried in a sack on their backs.
The expansion of Jewish trade troubled the burghers for whom Jewish competition was all the more painful since they now had yet another rival in the developing gentry trade. The struggle of part of the burghers against Jewish merchants manifested itself among other things in attempts at curtailing Jewish trade. The monarchs, though generally favorably disposed towards the Jews, under the pressure from the burghers and the clergy passed a number of decrees which restricted Jewish wholesale trade to some commodities or else to certain quotas of purchases they were allowed to make. More severe restrictions were contained in agreements concluded between municipal authorities and Jewish communities, though these were seldom observed in practice. In private towns, Jewish trade, which yielded considerable profit to the owners, could develop without any obstacles.
The Jews' trading activity also encompassed credit operations. The richest Jewish merchants were often at the same time financiers. The most famous Jewish bankers were the Fiszels in Krakow and the Nachmanowiczs in Lvov as well as Mendel Izakowicz and Izak Brodawka in Lithuania. Those and a number of other Jews pioneered centralized credit operations in Poland. Though banking institutions created by them mainly financed large Jewish tenancies and wholesale trade, as a sideline they also lent money to the gentry on pledge of incoming crops and to Jewish entrepreneurs. A positive role was also played by much smaller loans granted by Jews to many small craft and trade shops. In many cases these loans were instrumental in opening a business. However, the other side of the matter must not be overlooked. The lending of money at high interest led to the impoverishment of both Jewish and Christian debtors. Some of them were put in prison as a result and their families were left with no means of subsistence. This money lending activity aggravated prejudice against Jews among the burghers, something which had always been there anyway due to their religious and traditional separateness.
An important field of the Jews' economic activity were tenancies. In the period under discussion, next to rich merchants and bankers who held in lease large economic enterprises and the collecting of incomes from customs and taxes, there appeared a numerous group of small lease holders of mills, breweries and inns. There also increased the number of Jewish subtenants, scribes and tax collectors employed by rich holders. Some of the latter sometimes attained important positions. For example, in 1525, during the ceremonies connected with the Prussian Homage, without relinquishing his Jewish faith the main collector of Jewish taxes in Lithuania, Michal Ezofowicz was knighted and given the crest of Leliwa. His brother Abraham Ezofowicz, who had been baptized, was also knighted and granted the starosty of Minsk and the office of Lithuanian deputy treasurer.
In the first quarter of the 16th century, Jewish lease holders performed their functions as full-fledged heads of enterprises subordinated to them, for example salt mines and customs offices. "In this period," wrote in 1521 Justus Ludwik Decius, the chronicler of Sigismund the Old, "Jews are gaining in importance; there is hardly any toll or tax for which they would not be responsible or at least to which they would not aspire. Christians are generally subordinate to the Jews. Among the rich and noble families of the Commonwealth you will not find one who would not favor the Jews on their estates and give them power over Christians."
The gentry, who in the 16th century conducted an unrelentless struggle against the magnates, came out against the leasing of salt mines, customs and tolls to the Jews by the lords and the king. Under the influence of the gentry, the diet of Piotrkow in 1538 forbade Jews to take in lease public incomes. This ban was reiterated several times by subsequent diets but it proved only partly effective. In 1581 the autonomous representation of the Jews (the Diet of the Four Lands), which gathered in Lublin, took a decision which, under penalty of anathema, forbade fellow Jews taking the lease of salt mines, mints, taxes on the sale of liquor and customs and tolls in Great Poland, Little Poland and Mazovia. This ban was justified in the following way: "People fired by the greed of great income and wealth owing to those large tenancies, may bring unto the whole [Jewish population]- God forbid-a great danger."
From that time on, Jewish lease holders were active only in Red Ruthenia, Podolya, Volhynia, west bank Ukraine and Lithuania. In the tenancies supervised by the Jews as well as in the estates run by the gentry, feudal exploitation of the peasant serfs often led to local revolts which in the Ukraine turned into a Cossack and peasant uprising. The cooperation of the Jewish lease holders with the magnates in the latter's colonial policy caused these revolts often to be held under the slogan of struggle against the Poles and Jews.
Next to crafts, trade, banking and leasing operations, agriculture had become an increasingly important source of income for the Jewish population in the eastern regions of the Commonwealth. Maciej Miedhowita, author of the Polish Chronicle (1519), when mentioning Jews, says that in Ruthenia they were engaged not only in moneylending and trade but also soil cultivation. In towns Jews owned fields and gardens. In Chelm in 1636 Jewish landless peasants were forced to do serf labor. In villages Jews also toiled the land adjoining the inns, mills and breweries they held in lease.
Some Jews earned their living as paid kahal officials, musicians, horse drivers, factors on gentry estates and in the houses of rich merchants, as middlemen known as barishniki, servants, salesmen, etc. There was also a large group of beggars and cripples without any means of subsistence. Only some of them obtained from time to time assistance from charity organizations and were given a place to sleep in an almshouse. In view of the growing financial differentiation among the Jews social conflicts intensified. The middle of the 16th century saw the beginning of opposition by Jewish craftsmen against individuals who placed their capital in leather, textile and clothing manufacture. The struggle of the populace against rich merchants and bankers was reflected in the activity of Salomon Efraim of Keczyca, an outstanding plebeian preacher. In his book Ir Gibborim (The Town of Heroa), published in 1580 in Basle, he sharply criticized the exploitation of the poor by the rich. He also attacked the rabbis who tried to gain the favor of the wealthy Jews. He presented his views not only in his books and lectures in the synagogue, but also during fairs which were attended by numerous Jews.
There are records of joint revolts by Jewish craftsmen and Christian "patcher" against the guild elders. There were also joint revolts of the Jews and the burghers against the gentry. This found expression in an agreement which in 1589 Jews in Kamionka Strumilowa concluded with the municipal authorities "with the consent of all the populace". The councilors "accepted the Jews into their own laws and freedoms while they [the Jews] undertook to carry the same burdens as the burghers". Jews pledged themselves to help in keeping order and cleanliness in the town, hold guard and take part in anti-flood operations together with Christians. The latter promised that they would "defend those Jews as our real neighbors from intrusions and violence of both the gentry and soldiers. They would defend them and prevent all harm done to them... since they are our neighbors."
The rapid development of Jewish settlement and economic activity was accompanied by expansion of their self-government organization. In the 16th century its structure had no equal in all of Europe. As in the Middle Ages, every autonomous Jewish community was governed by its kahal or a collegiate body composed of elders elected as a rule from among the local wealthiest The kahal organized funerals and administered cemeteries, schools, baths, slaughterhouses and the sale of kosher meat. In the closed "Jewish cities" it also took care of cleanliness and order in the Jewish quarter and the security of its inhabitants. To this should be added the administering of charities such as the organization of hospitals and other welfare institutions and the dowering of poor brides. Another important function was to establish the amount of taxes each individual household in the given community was to pay.
The further hierarchic development of the Jewish autonomous institutions was connected with the difficulties which in the early 16th century the authorities encountered in exacting taxes. Between 1518 and 1522 Sigismund Augustus decreed the foundation of four Jewish regions called lands. Each of these lands was to elect at a special diet its elders, tax assessors and tax collectors. In 1530 the king established a permanent arbitration tribunal based in Lublin which was to examine disputes between Jews from various lands. In 1579 Stephen Bathory called into being a central representation of Jews from Poland and Lithuania with responsibility for exacting poll taxes which had been introduced for the Jewish population in 1549. This institution, known as the Diet of the Four Lands (Va 'ad Arba Arazot), was constituted at a congress in Lublin in 1581. The Diet of the Four Lands, which usually was summoned once a year, elected from among its number a council, known as the Jewish Generality. The latter was headed by a Marshal General and included a Rabbi General, Scribe General and Treasurers General. The diets were attended by representatives of both Poland and Lithuania until 1623 when, following the establishment of a separate taxation tribunal for Lithuanian Jews, a separate diet of Lithuanian Jews was also set up. These institutions continued in existence until 1764. The diet of Polish Jews usually convened in Lublin, sometimes in Jaroslaw or Tyszowce, while the Lithuanian diets debated most often in Brest Litovsk.
The diet or Va 'ad represented all the Jews. It carried out negotiations with central and local authorities through its liaison officers (shtadlans) who, by their contacts with deputies, tried to influence the decisions concerning Jews taken by the Sejm and local diets of the gentry. During the sessions of the ra 'ads not only fiscal matters were discussed but also those related to the well-being and cultural life of the Jewish population in the Commonwealth. They took decisions on the lease of state products, the amount of interests in credit transactions among Jews, the protection of creditors against dishonest bankrupts, the upbringing of young people, the protection of the family, etc.
The Va 'ad also took decisions on the taxation of the Jewish population, for example for defensive needs of the country. The main tax was the poll tax. In addition the Jews, like the rest of the burghers, paid taxes for the city's defenses. Besides taxes, all townsfolk, irrespective of religion, were obliged to perform certain tasks and contribute money in order to build and expand defensive systems and maintain permanent crews of guards. The Jews, like the Christian population, had personally to contribute to the town's defense preparedness. In the Jewish quarter the most important structure was the fortified synagogue. In the 16th and 17th centuries several dozen such buildings were erected in Poland's eastern borderlands, including such places as Brody, Buczacz, Czortkow, Husiatyri, Jaroslaw, Leszniow, Lublin, Luck, Podkamien, Pomorzany, Sokal, Stryj, Szarogrod, Szczebrzeszyn, Szydlow, Tarnopol, Zamosc and Zolkiew.
One of the main duties of all townsfolk, including the Jews, was to defend the city as a fortified point of resistance in case enemy troops succeeded in forcing their way through into the country. In the early 16th century in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to this was added the duty of providing a contingent of soldiers. After 1571 this duty was changed to appropriate money dues. For the first time Jews were ordered to provide an army contingent in 1514 but this obligation began to be exacted more consistently only after 1648. As was the case with the remaining population Jews acquired their military training during obligatory exercises and their fighting preparedness and ability to wield arms were tested during special parade.
The first mention of a Jew's direct participation in battle against enemies of the Commonwealth dates from the middle of the16th century. During the reign of Stephen Bathory there served in the Polish army one Mendel Izakowicz from Kazimierz near Krakow. He was a bridge builder and military engineer and during the war against Muscovy rendered considerable services to the Polish army. During the war with Muscovy in 1610-12 in one regiment only, probably one of those belonging to Lisowski's light cavalry, more than ten Jews served at one time. A certain number of Jews also fought on the Polish side in the Smolensk war of 1632-34 and some of them were taken prisoner by the enemy.
The year 1648, when the Cossack uprising under Bohdan Chmielnicki broke up, was a breakthrough in the history of both the Commonwealth and Polish Jewry. The country was plunged into economic crisis made worse by war devastation. The wars against the Ukraine, Russia, Sweden, Turkey and the Tartars, which Poland fought almost uninterruptedly between 1648 and 1717, brought in their wake a permanent downfall of towns and agriculture and decimated the population. During Bohdan Chmielnicki's revolt and wars against the Ukraine and Russia Jewish communities in the areas occupied by enemy troops were completely wiped out. Some Jews were murdered, some emigrated to central Poland and the rest left for Western Europe. The drop in the number of the Jewish population during the Ukrainian uprisings (1648-54) is estimated as amounting to some 20 to 25 per cent, that is between 100,000 and 125,000. A rapid growth in the number of the Jewish population was recorded only in the 18th century, after 1717. It is estimated that in 1766, when the census of Jews obliged to pay poll taxes was concluded, there were in the Commonwealth as a whole some 750,000 Jews, which constituted seven per cent of the total population of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. According to Rafal Mahler, at this time some 29 per cent of all Jews lived in ethnically Polish areas, 44 per cent in Lithuania and Byelorussia and 27 per cent in regions with a predominantly Ukrainian population. Two thirds of all Jews lived in towns and the remainder in the countryside.
Following the first partition of Poland some 150,000 Jews found themselves under Austrian occupation, about 25,000 in the Russian zone and only 5,000 in Prussia. The population census conducted in Poland in 1790-9I demonstrated a further increase in the number of Jewish inhabitants. Tadeusz Czacki estimated them at over 900,000, that is some 10 per cent of the total population of the then Commonwealth. In the same period (1780) in the Austrian zone there were over 150,000 Jews and several tens of thousands in the remaining partition zones.
The reconstruction of towns after each war took a long time. The quickest to emerge from ruin were the estates of magnates who willingly employed the Jewish population. In the eastern part of the Commonwealth and partly in central Poland Jews played an important role in reactivating crafts, and not only such traditionally Jewish branches as goldsmithery, pewter, haberdashery and glass manufacture, furriery and tailoring, but also tin and copper working, arms production, carpentry, printing, dying and soap manufacture. There appeared in this period a large number of Jewish craftsmen who traveled from village to village, from manor to manor, in search of temporary employment. The material situation of Jewish craftsmen was generally difficult. The pauperization of towns and villages made it hard to sell their products both for Jewish craftsmen and their Christian counterparts. In the large cities, rivalry between the guilds on the one hand and the Jewish and Christian "patchers" on the other bred conflicts. These often ended in compromise and Jews more often than ever before were admitted to Christian guilds. At the same time, next to the old ones, new, purely Jewish guilds were formed, for example in Poznari, Krakow, Lvov, Przemysl, Kepno, Leszno, Luck, Berdyczow, Minsk, Tykocin and Bialystok.
During the wars of the middle of the 17th century Jewish wholesale trade, both long distance and foreign, came nearly to a standstill. Only in some cities, for example Brody and Leszno, Jewish merchants, thanks to considerable support on the part of the magnates, succeeded in renewing contacts with Gdansk, Wroclaw, Krolewiec, Frankfurt on Oder and to a lesser degree with England. Thanks to the magnates' assistance local, Jewish trade also began to expand. Most shops in the reconstructed town halls were leased to Jews (for example in Staszow, Siemiatycze, Kock, Siedlce and Bialystok). Peddling was also spreading as a result of which trade exchange between town and country, interrupted during the wars, was revived.
After the middle of the 17th century wars radical changes took place in the organization of credits. Large banking houses disappeared and the kahals, instead of being creditors, turned into debtors. Representatives of the gentry and the clergy increasingly often placed their money in Jewish communities at the same time forcing the latter to take genuine responsibility for the debts of individual Jews. In case a kahal was unable to repay its debts, the gentry had the right to seal and dose down its prayer house, imprison the elders and confiscate goods belonging to merchants. In order to safeguard themselves against the lightheartedness of individual debtors the communities applied the credit hazakah, which consisted in the community issuing permissions to its members who wanted to avail themselves of credit. Whether someone was given a loan or not was often decided by a clique consisting of the kahal elders. Part of the capital leased from the gentry and the clergy and augmented by means of interest disappeared into the pockets of the kahal oligarchy, while part of it was turned over to nonproductive purposes, for example to financing defense in ritual murder trials, paying for the lords' protection, etc.
In the first half of the 18th century the gentry and the clergy became anxious of the fate of money located in the Jewish communities and the interests from unpaid debts which were growing in a landslide. When the above mentioned methods failed to produce adequate results, the krupki were applied, that is a consumption taxation, the income from which was destined totally for paying off the debts. Finally in 1764 a decision was taken on abolishing kahal banks altogether and servicing debts by taxing each Jew.
As a result of the general impoverishment of the Jewish population in the second half of the 17th and in the 18th century, differences between the people and the kahal oligarchy deepened, the latter trying to pass the burden of the growing state and kahal taxes onto the shoulders of the poorer classes. In several cities, for example in Krakow, Leszno and Drohobycz, the Jewish poor revolted against the kahal oligarchies. A fierce struggle against the kahals was carried out by Jewish guilds which tried to free themselves from their economic dependence. At the same time, especially in larger royal towns, conflicts fired by economic rivalry broke out between Jews and Christians. The tense atmosphere of this struggle, conducted usually under religious slogans, was conducive to the outbreak of anti-Jewish riots and pogroms, for example in Krakow, Poznan, Lvov, Vilna, Brest Litovsk and several other cities. Particularly menacing were ritual trials organized in the period of religious prejudices. However much more dangerous was the situation in the Ukraine where the Jews returned only in the late 17th century. The role played in the 18th century by Jewish lease holders in the Polish magnates' colonial policy turned the anger of the local populace, as was the case during Bohdan Chmielnicki's uprising, against both the Polish gentry and Jews generally. In 1768, during a peasant rebellion called kolisczzyz na, which was organized under the slogans of "winning independence" and defense of the Russian Orthodox religion, in Humari and several other Ukrainian cities several thousand gentry and several tens of thousand Jews were murdered.
The events in the Ukraine in 1768 turned the minds of the more enlightened section of Polish society to the problem of carrying out fundamental political reforms and solving both the peasant and the Jewish question. The latter was not only discussed in the last decades of the Commonwealth but practical ways of solving it were sought. Many pamphlets and Sejm speeches dealt with this matter. Some were for the further limitation of the Jews' economic activity while others spoke of turning the Jews into subjects of the gentry, as was the case with the peasants. Finally there were also those who demanded the expulsion of Jews from Poland. These views were opposed by an enlightened group of the gentry, led by Tadeusz Czacki and Maciej Topor Butrymowicz. This group demanded the limitation of the authority of the kahals and a change in the occupational structure of Jews through their employment in manufacturing and agricultural farms. It was also for the assimilation of the Jews and their inclusion in the burgher estate.
In the 1760s the Jewish question was the subject of Sejm debates. In 1764 the Sejm passed a resolution on the liquidation of the central and land organization of the Jews. In 1768 it decided that Jews might perform only such occupations which were allowed to them by individual agreements with towns. From the point of view of Jews, this meant full dependence on their all-time rival in the economic field, that is on the burghers. The Sejm of 1775 undertook the problem of agrarianization of the Jewish community and passed a resolution granting tax exemptions to those Jews who settled on uncultivated land. The same law forbade rabbis to wed those who had no permanent earnings.
Jewish reforms were also discussed during the Great Sejm which elected a special commission for Jewish affairs. However this commission did not manage to submit its findings before 14 April 1791, that is the date when the law on towns was passed, on the basis of which Jews were not included in the burgher estate. Later the Jewish question was dealt with several times; however the Four Year Sejm failed to approve any fundamental reforms in this field. The only important concession for the Jews during the debates of the Four Year Sejm was contained in the law of the police commission of 24 May 1792 which said that Jews, like all other citizens of the Commonwealth, could avail themselves of the right not to be put in prison without a court verdict.
Though no important law concerning the solving of the Jewish question was approved by the Four Year Sejm, the very fact that the matter was discussed was welcomed by part of the Jewish community with appreciation. On the first anniversary of the passing of the Third of May Constitution services of thanksgiving were held in all synagogues and a special hymn was published.
Neither was the difficult Jewish question solved in the Prussian and Austrian partition zones. In the Prussian zone, according to the decree issued by Frederick II, the Jewish population was to be subordinated to the Prussian Jewish ordinance (General Judenreglement) of 17 April 1797. The right to permanent residence in towns was granted only to rich Jews and those engaged in trade. Jews were forbidden to pursue those occupations which were already represented in the guilds. The poor Jews, the Bettel Juden, were ordered by Frederick II to be expelled from the country. The activity of Jewish self-government organizations was limited almost exclusively to religious affairs.
In the Austrian partition zone the attitude towards the Jewish question went through two stages, In the initial period, that is during the reign of Maria Theresa and the first years of rule of Joseph II, the separateness of the Jewish population from the rest of Galician society was retained and, with only slight modifications, Jewish self-government was preserved. The poorest Jews were expelled from the country. The remainder were limited in their right to get married, removed from many sources of income and forced to pay high taxes. In the second half of the reign of Joseph II the Jews were recruited into the army (1788) and then, on the strength of the grand Jewish ordinance of 1789 certain restrictions in relation to the Jewish population were lifted and attempts were made to make them equal with the burghers. Expulsions of the Jewish population from Galicia were discontinued, the separate Jewish judiciary was abolished, Jewish self-government was restricted. Jews were ordered to wear dress similar to the Christian population and obliged to attend either German or reformed Jewish schools. However the separate Jewish tax was retained and their economic activity in the countryside was restricted. Some of these decrees met with a decided opposition on the part of the Jews and were eventually revoked. In 1792 Leopold II, Joseph II's successor, changed the military duty of the Jews into a money contribution, while the decree ordering the Jews to wear Christian dress was never introduced in practice.
In the second half of the 17th century Jews took an increasingly numerous part in the wars fought by the Commonwealth. During wars against the Cossacks and the Tartars, the Jewish population provided infantry and mounted troops. Some young Jews fought in the open field, for example in the battle of Beresteczko. Jews also fought in defense of besieged cities, for example Tulczyn, Polonne, Lvov and others. During Poland's wars with Sweden (1655-60), Russia (1654-67) and Turkey (1667-99) Jews provided recruits and participated in the city's defense (for example Przemysl, Vitebsk, Stary Bychow, Mohylew, Lvov and Trembowla), together with the burghers and gentry organized sorties to the enemy's camp (for example at Suraz in 1655, in the vicinity of Podhajce in 1667 and in Przemysl in 1672). The military engineer Jezue Moszkowicz of Kazimierz near Krakow, who in 1664 served in the Polish army, saved heavy mortars and other weapons from being sunk during the war against Russia.
During the Kosciuszko Insurrection and wars against Tsarist Russia in 1794 Jews supported the uprising either in auxiliary services or in arms. For example they took part in the April revolution in Warsaw where many of them perished. After the Russian army was repulsed from Warsaw the idea was born to create a separate military unit composed of Jewish volunteers. This idea was backed by the commander in chief of the Insurrection, Tadeusz Kosciuszko. "Nothing can convince more the far away nations about the holiness of our cause and the justness of the present revolution," he wrote in a Statement on the Formation of a Regiment of Jews, "than that, though separated from us by their religion and customs, they sacrifice their own lives of their own free will in order to support the uprising." The Jewish regiment under Colonel Berek Josielewicz took part in the fighting during the storming of the Praga district of Warsaw by Tsarist troops on 4 November 1794. With the blood shed in this war they documented the loyalty of the Jewish population to the cause of the revolution and the slogans it upheld-equality and fraternity.
Source: History of the Jews in Poland - Early History - created by Mike
Rosenzweig, Ph. D.
Last updated March 19th, 2006
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Enzymology and Biotechnology of Protein Prenylation
Protein prenylation is an irreversible covalent post-translational modification found in all eukaryotic cells, comprising of farnesylation and geranylgeranylation. Three prenyltransferase enzymes catalyze this modification. This three-step process increases protein hydrophobicity, and often leads to plasma membrane association. Prenylation serves as the first critical step for membrane targeting and binding, as well as mediating protein-protein interactions of a large number of Ras proteins; heterotrimeric G-proteins also require prenylation for activity.Significant interest in studying protein prenylation originally stemmed from the finding that this modification was necessary to maintain malignant activity of oncogenic Ras proteins although now it is known that prenylation is important in a wide ranges of diseases. These researchers are using computer-based methods for three subprojects within this area. They include:
- Design of caging groups used to mask the activity of substrates and inhibitors of protein prenylation
- Bioinformatic analysis of proteomic data obtained using probes that allow selective detection of prenylated proteins
- Modeling of prenyltransferase structures to design mutations that alter substrate specificity
Return to this PI’s main page.
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Alpha brain waves are one type of brain wave that correspond to a certain state of consciousness. In terms of oscillations, they are measured by an EEG as 8-13 cycles per second.
You are probably wondering what they are good for and how being in the alpha state benefits you…
But first, let’s briefly touch on your states of consciousness when you’re in various brain wave states.
Most of the time, you spend your waking hours in the beta state. Beta brain waves are faster (13-40 cycles per second) and somewhat more chaotic than the alpha waves. When you’re in dreaming sleep or deep meditation, you are in the theta state – or, your brain waves are oscillating at 4-7 cycles per second. And when you’re in very deep dreamless sleep, you are in delta, which is 0-4 cycles per second.
Each brain wave state corresponds to a different state of consciousness – there is no one “perfect” brain wave state. A fun metaphor for this is comparing your brain to a car with four gears. First gear (delta) is slooooooow. You’re moving but barely plugging along. As you become more conscious, you shift into second gear and enter the deep meditation/dreaming sleep state of theta. Alpha is third, where you are still moving slowly – relaxed, enjoying the scenery – but you are moving at a reasonable speed and the miles are ticking away. Beta is fast (highway speed) at fourth gear. Great fun, and it gets you from here to there quickly, but it’s also potentially dangerous.
The trouble starts when we’re running our car in the wrong gear. For example: if you’ve ever been in deep, deep sleep and the alarm starts screaming that it’s time to wake up, you don’t jump out of bed all alert and ready to rock-n-roll. You are groggy, disoriented, and you have to force yourself into alertness. Usually, this is accompanied by stress of having to get to work on time… and you start thinking about the day ahead, and all the unwanted stuff that you’ll have to deal with… shifting your brain from first to fourth too quickly. You know what this feels like: you’re sluggish and tired, yet you’re forcing your brain into hyperdrive because you have STUFF TO DO.
So, being in any given brain wave state is great and useful – except when you need to be in a different state of consciousness. If you:
- can’t sleep, your brain is not in theta or delta, but spiking up into beta (which is why you can have stressful thoughts at night)
- can’t focus, your brain is not in beta
- have writer’s block or other creative blocks, you are not in alpha
- can’t control your emotions or think your way out of a complex situation, you are not in alpha
If you can learn to direct your brain to enter a specific state of consciousness when you need it, your life will improve!
Think about complex problem-solving, for example. Most of the time, your waking hours are predominantly spent in the beta state. Beta is characteristic of alertness, concentration, focus and a logical and rational way of thinking. That’s the good news. The bad news is, beta is also associated with stress. Can you “think straight” when you’re stressed out? No. Can you think out-of-the-box creatively when you’re stressed… or when your mind is in logical/rational mode that automatically dismisses seemingly illogical solutions? No.
Alpha brain waves are associated with relaxed alertness, enhanced learning, creativity, peak performance, imagination/visualization and intuition.
That’s why, if you spend more time in alpha during the day, your problem-solving skills will improve. That’s not to say you should be in alpha all the time while awake – you don’t focus as well and you’re not as quick with your thinking while in alpha. So, for optimal “daytime performance” you want to be shifting between third and fourth, or alpha and beta, whenever you need it.
The trick is just to learn how to create that shift when you need it!
You dip into the various brain wave states when you’re predominantly in one state – for example, you can dip into alpha while you’re in beta. Usually this happens very quickly and briefly. If you’ve ever had a flash of insight or a burst of intuition, it’s because you dipped into alpha for a nanosecond! You can spend more time in alpha, and get these benefits when you need them, not just randomly (WHY does that great idea always pop up exactly when you do not have something to write on??). that you miss out on if you’re in beta most of the time:
- You will be more creative.
- Your brain will stop producing stress hormones and start producing healing hormones, leading to stress release.
- You will be aware of intuitive guidance that typically gets rejected by the logical brain
- You will generate innovative solutions to problems instead of trying to solve problems with pure logic and reasoning.
- You’ll be able to give a peak performance if you allow yourself to relax into alpha just prior to the event. Athletes and anyone who needs to give their best will benefit from relaxing into alpha and visualizing success, just before the event.
- You will make great progress in self-improvement and self-reprogramming because you are more receptive to suggestion in alpha (which is why alpha is also great for learning).
- Beta is more ‘logic’ and alpha is more ‘feeling’ and when you can combine the two, you use your brain at a much greater and higher capacity.
How do you produce more alpha waves? By meditating! Use your Omharmonics meditation to spend time in alpha everyday; use the time to relax, visualize, let your imagination run wild with creative ideas, and just take the edge off.
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The Jewish Shelter Home in Portland, Oregon, was listed in the National Register of Historic Places on June 14, 1984. The home, constructed around 1902, is important for its importance as an early Jewish humanitarian institution in Portland and for its association with important Jewish American citizens and institutions responsible for the legal, political and social development of Oregon. First built as a family residence for United States Marshall Elmer Colwell and his family, it was purchased in 1919 for use as the Jewish Shelter Home.
The home itself is a stylistic anagram of the Queen Anne and Colonial Revival architecture styles, rectangular in plan, with basement, first floor, second floor, and an attic accessible by stairs. An L-shaped veranda wraps around the east and south sides of the house with columns, cornice, and frieze resembling the Tuscan order. The Shelter Home itself consisted of a large kitchen, living room, dining room and playroom on the main floor. The upper level consisted of five bedrooms and two baths. To the rear of the house was an isolation hospital with housing capacity for four children. It was considered effective in the containment of communicable disease, often a threat to young children. Activities in the Isolation Hospital were discussed frequently in the Shelter’s Home minute book after 1921. It was here that the four volunteer doctors would attend the children. The Isolation Hospital now connected to the west end of the house was built as a separate structure around 1920.
The Jewish Shelter Home could obtain legal custody of children and place them for adoption. Though it was never considered an orphanage, the Home was operated with a mixture of paternalism and very professional welfare techniques. When an application for admission to the Home was received, careful biographical records were taken, a staff physician administered a complete physical examination, and the child was given a mental health test. After 1924, cases were screened for admittance by a professional social worker provided by the Jewish Welfare Federation, and periodic medical services were provided on a volunteer basis by a group of four Jewish doctors.
After purchasing the Shelter Home, its founders elected a board of directors and drafted articles of incorporation to guide its operation. The Shelter Home provided the Jewish immigrant district a certain continuity and support –the Shelter Home allowed Jewish children of disrupted family backgrounds a Jewish upbringing which they quite possibly would have missed had they been placed in a state-operated orphanage. In the course of a year, 18 to 20 children would pass through the house; each staying whatever time was necessary. This process was extremely important to the maintenance of Jewish culture and society in South Portland.
The children at the Jewish Shelter Home were afforded contact with the large population of Portland’s influential Jews as well as the large number of children living in the South Portland neighborhood. The Home’s board of directors wished to raise the children entrusted to them in a Jewish atmosphere and so sent the children to Chanukah parties and Passover services in neighborhood homes whenever possible. While the children did not attend public school, most were enrolled at the Hebrew School at Neighborhood House, which was in close proximity and also listed in the National Register for its similar public service roll in the South Portland neighborhood.
The home, often operating on a limited budget, depended on the volunteer services of men like Israel Dautoff, Hip Shank, and Max Turtledove, all of whom had successful businesses in South Portland. Mrs. Jeanette Meier, wife of Aaron Meier, the founder of Oregon’s largest department store, took a great interest in the Jewish Shelter Home and assisted its operation by raising funds, donating money for special projects and hosting parties there.
Oregon Governor Julius Meier, son of Aaron and Jeanette Meier, and Chief Executive Officer of Meier and Frank Department Store, was the President of the Jewish Shelter Home Board from its beginning until 1933. He maintained a strong interest in the home even during his term as Oregon’s Governor (1930-1934), while he continued to serve as its Board President. Board meetings were held at his office in the Meier and Frank Store where either himself or Aaron Frank would preside.
The Jewish Shelter home was one of eight Jewish immigrant benevolent agencies held under the umbrella of the Federated Jewish Societies of Portland during the 1930s (the other agencies included the First Hebrew Benevolent Society, the Jewish relief Society, the Jewish Service Association, the South Portland Benevolent Society, the B’nai B’rith Center, the Portland Hebrew School and the Neighborhood House). Oregon Governor Julius Meier also served as President of the Federated Societies of Portland. By way of the Federated Jewish Societies, the Shelter Home was partially funded with Portland Community Chest money, indicating its importance to the larger community as well as to the local Jewish community. The Home provided security for the Jewish immigrant society and fulfilled a sense of civic duty for many people. The House is a reminder that the struggle of Jewish people in Portland to earn decent wages and rise in economic status was not always easy.
The Shelter Home operated out of this house through may 1937 and then moved to a new location at the corner of 12th and Jefferson in downtown Portland, which no longer stands. The Jewish Shelter Home is the only visual reminder of the institutions role as the forerunner to the Portland Jewish Family and Child Service. After the Shelter Home was sold back to private hands it transformed into three apartment units and later a commercial space.
Sources: National Park Service
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Do you eat birds?
If you've eaten a turkey or a chicken nugget, then you've eaten a bird! Providing a food source is just one way that birds are important to humans. In the United States, more than 230 million turkeys are consumed each year, with almost 50 million of those turkeys being eaten at Thanksgiving.
Importance of Birds
You are probably familiar with birds as food. People have always hunted birds for food. People eventually discovered that certain wild fowl (ducks, chickens, turkeys) could be tamed. This discovery led to the development of poultry, which is domesticated fowl that farmers raise for meat and eggs. Chickens are probably the oldest kinds of poultry. Chickens were domesticated in Asia at least 3,000 years ago. Since then, farmers have developed other poultry, including ducks, geese, guineafowl, pheasants, and turkeys. Around the world, people consume all these birds, and even more exotic birds, like ostriches. Today, chickens rank as the most widely raised poultry by far. Farmers throughout the world produce hundreds of millions of chickens annually for meat and eggs. Ducks and turkeys rank second and third in production worldwide. Ducks are raised for both meat and eggs. Turkeys are raised mainly for meat.
Can you think of other ways that birds are important?
Birds and Humans
- In agriculture, humans harvest bird droppings for use as fertilizer. These droppings have a high content of nitrogen, phosphate, and potassium, three nutrients essential for plant growth.
- Chickens are also used as an early warning system of human diseases, such as West Nile virus. Mosquitoes carry the West Nile virus, bite young chickens and other birds, and infect them with the virus. When chickens or other birds become infected, humans may also become infected in the near future.
- Birds have important cultural relationships with humans. Birds are common pets in the Western world. Common bird pets include canaries, parrots, finches, and parakeets. Sometimes, people act cooperatively with birds. For example, the Borana people in Africa use birds to guide them to honey that they use in food.
- Birds also play prominent and diverse roles in folklore, religion, and popular culture. They have been featured in art since prehistoric times, when they appeared in early cave paintings. Many young child know of Big Bird, a very large canary of Sesame Street fame.
- Feathers are also used all over the world to stuff pillows, mattresses, sleeping bags, coats, and quilting. Goose feathers are preferred because they are soft. Manufacturers often mix goose feathers with down feathers to provide extra softness.
Birds and the Ecosystem
Birds are obviously important members of many ecosystems. They are integral parts of food chains and food webs. In a woodland ecosystem for example, some birds get their food mainly from plants. Others chiefly eat small animals, such as insects or earthworms. Birds and bird eggs, in turn, serve as food for such animals as foxes, raccoons, and snakes. The feeding relationships among all the animals in an ecosystem help prevent any one species from becoming too numerous. Birds play a vital role in keeping this balance of nature. In addition to being important parts of food webs, birds play other roles within ecosystems.
- Birds eat insects. They are a natural way to control pests in gardens, on farms, and other places. A group of birds gliding through the air can easily eat hundreds of insects each day. Insect eating birds include warblers, bluebirds and woodpeckers.
- Nectar-feeding birds are important pollinators, meaning they move the pollen from flower to flower to help fertilize the sex cells and create new plants. Hummingbirds, sunbirds, and the honey-eaters are common pollinators.
- Many fruit-eating birds help disperse seeds. After eating fruit, they carry the seeds in their intestines and deposit them in new places. Fruit-eating birds include mockingbirds, orioles, finches and robins.
- Birds are often important to island ecology. In New Zealand, the kereru and kokako are important browsers, or animals that eat or nibble on leaves, tender young shoots, or other vegetation (Figure below). Seabirds add nutrients to soil and to water with their production of guano, their dung.
The kereru (left) and the kokako (right) are important browser species in New Zealand
pollinator: Animal that transfers pollen from one flower to another.
guano: Feces and urine of seabirds, cave-dwelling bats, and seals.
- Birds are important to humans in many ways; they are a source of food and fertilizer.
- Birds are important to the ecosystem in many ways; they pollinate flowers and disperse seeds.
Use the resources below to answer the questions that follow.
- Why are seeds enclosed in a tasty pulp?
- Give two examples of how animals disperse seeds.
- How do plants disperse their seeds differently from animals? What advantage would these plants have if their were no animals? When do these plants appear in the fossil record?
- How many seabirds were there at the 19th century peak of guano collection? How many are there now? What direction is the population going?
- How has the Peruvian government changed the way guano is collected?
- For what are people using guano?
- How does climate affect the quality of bird guano? Why is this quality important to the use of guano as fertilizer?
- What are two ways birds are important to humans?
- What are two ways birds are important to the ecosystem?
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Paper, 358 pp., $32.00
In ten essays written by anthropologists, foresters, historians and literary scholars, the theme in this scholarly text is how different societies throughout history have related to nature. Using this multi-disciplined approach, the authors discuss the fact that societies have caused environmental change from earliest times. Such alterations are the result of interactions between ecology, culture, and human demands. Editor Paolo Squatriti has collected these writings to illustrate the fact that environmental change is not new; people have been altering their surroundings, often unwittingly, throughout history.
— Marilyn K. Alaimo, garden writer and volunteer, Chicago Botanic Garden
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Author: Stephen Bates
I’m sure many of you reading this blog are aware there is a transition occurring in terms of the type of Error Correction Codes (ECCs) being used inside SSD controller chips. Traditionally Bose-Chaudhuri-Hocquenghem (BCH) were used, and they were more than adequate for large geometry NAND flash. However, the demand for cheaper and denser NAND flash means that BCH is no longer adequate and, in the search for alternatives, most of us are settling on Low Density Parity Check (LDPC) codes.
In this post, I want to talk a little about what this transition means and some implications it has for something we at PMC term Software Defined Flash. For more background on what an LDPC code is, check out Kent Smith’s great post.
There are several reasons why we’re transitioning from BCH to LDPC, but they can all be boiled down to this: LDPC codes allow you to correct more errors for the same ratio of user data to ECC parity. The second part of this last sentence is really important. We don’t want to increase the number of ECC parity bits in SSDs, because this leads to all sorts of nasty things like Write Amplification (WA) and format inefficiencies.
Well you might say, “Why didn’t we just use LDPC codes right from the start if they’re so good?” That’s a reasonable question, and there are several answers:
- Although LDPC codes were first proposed by Robert Gallagher in the 1960s, their true power was not realized until the 1990s, after NAND flash was already being deployed with BCH codes.
- The circuits that decode LDPC codes tend to be larger and consume more power than their equivalents for BCH codes.
- LDPC codes only really shine when you can extract something called soft information from the NAND flash and this has only become viable in the latest generations of the technology.
However, today there are no more excuses, so we’re seeing many SSD controllers coming to market with integrated LDPC codes. This is allowing us to think about SSDs in some new ways.
LDPC for Endurance and/or Retention
One very obvious benefit of the transition from BCH codes to LDPC codes is that it allows the controller to extend the life of the SSD. NAND flash wears out over Program-Erase (PE) cycles. For example, moving to LDPC codes might allow us to take the flash from 10,000 to 15,000 PE cycles. In that case, we can implement an SSD with a 50% improvement in endurance with no change in NAND flash! In a similar fashion the transition might allow us to improve the retention rating of an SSD.
LDPC for Capacity
A slightly less obvious benefit of the transition from BCH codes to LDPC codes is that it allows us to increase the number of errors on a flash page. “Why on earth would you want to increase the number of errors on a flash page?” Where it gets interesting is if you can increase the number of pages on the NAND flash in exchange for accepting more errors per NAND flash page. This is exactly what happens when you make the shift from MLC NAND flash to TLC NAND flash.
TLC NAND flash has 50% more pages than MLC NAND flash and 150% more pages than SLC NAND flash and can therefore offer significant savings in terms of $/GB. Of course you pay a price in terms of errors per page, but for certain applications that might be acceptable.
The transition from BCH codes to LDPC codes is enabling the NAND flash TLC market and helping to drive the $/GB for NAND flash even lower.
LDPC for Latency
If there’s one thing enterprise and data center customers care about in their SSDs, it’s latency. In some applications latency, and consistency of latency, is paramount. I’ll talk about this issue in more detail in a later blog post. But for now, I wanted to mention that using LDPC codes, especially rate-adaptive LDPC codes, allows you to control that latency and even put some bounds on the variability of the latency.
LDPC for Software Defined Flash
Interestingly the LDPC IP for all the above scenarios, if designed carefully, can be the same. By tuning the firmware controlling the LDPC IP, we can target the controller for a range of applications. This is useful for Software Defined Flash (SDF).
SDF allows you to alter the properties of an SSD just by altering the behavior of the firmware and software that runs on/on top of the SSD itself. This allows the same physical SSD to operate with very different attributes, which is very interesting from both a static and a dynamic point of view:
- Static Configuration – Let’s assume someone wants to deploy a lot of SSDs in their data centers. Now suppose they want some of these SSDs to have high endurance, but they want others to have lower $/GB. An SSD that supports SDF could service both of these SKUs in a single drive by placing different firmware and software on the SSDs.
- Dynamic Configuration – Let’s assume someone wants to deploy a lot of SSDs in their data centers. Now suppose they have a diurnal workload pattern whereby during the day they need low latency but at night they need low power consumption. Again, an SSD that supports SDF could adapt its behavior throughout the day based on instructions from a software management layer that sits above the SSD.
As you can see, the migration from BCH codes to LDPC codes is going to enable a lot of cool things inside SSDs. Some of them are pretty obvious (better endurance), some are a bit more obtuse (latency control) and others are ambitious (SSDs whose properties change over the course of the day).
It’s going to be interesting to see how all of this plays out as the technology becomes pervasive. Software Defined Flash and its role in how SSDs are deployed in Enterprise and data center environments will be sparking conversations for a long time to come.
What do you think is the most exciting development this migration will bring?
Read Part 2 of the LDPC series: Latency in LDPC-based Next-Generation SSD Controllers
Read Part 3 of the LDPC series: Soft-Decoding in LDPC based Next-Generation SSD Controllers
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Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the environment that causes harmful and toxic effects to living things. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat or light. Pollution is often classified as point source or non point source pollution.
Pollution is when something is added to the environment that is harmful or poisonous to living things. Smoke in the air from factories is a type of pollution as it is bad for the lungs when breathed in. Sewage in drinking water is another type of pollution, as it can make people ill because it contains germs and viruses. People living next to a building site where there is too much noise can become sick as they cannot sleep or relax.
Related Journals of Pollution
Civil & Environmental Engineering, Advances in Recycling & Waste Management, Journal of Industrial Pollution Control, Journal of Avian Biology, Journal of Applied Statistics, Journal of Economic Dynamics & Control, European Journal of Public Health, Journal of Environmental Quality
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The BBC covers the amazing details:
The bird, a captive African grey called N’kisi, has a vocabulary of 950 words, and shows signs of a sense of humour.
He invents his own words and phrases if he is confronted with novel ideas with which his existing repertoire cannot cope – just as a human child would do.
N’kisi’s remarkable abilities, which are said to include telepathy, feature in the latest BBC Wildlife Magazine.
In an experiment, the bird and his owner were put in separate rooms and filmed as the artist opened random envelopes containing picture cards.
Analysis showed the parrot had used appropriate keywords three times more often than would be likely by chance.
This was despite the researchers discounting responses like “What ya doing on the phone?” when N’kisi saw a card of a man with a telephone, and “Can I give you a hug?” with one of a couple embracing.
Entire article worth reading.
Posted in Nature, red in tooth and claw
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You can leave a response
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Now during the initial stages of decay several things begin to happen in the body. Although the body appears fresh from the outside, the bacteria that are normally inside the intestines of a living person begin to feed on the contents of the intestine and the intestine itself. Eventually these bacteria break out into the body cavity and start to digest other organs... displayed 300 characters
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Eventually these bacteria break out into the body cavity and start to digest other organs. Since the intestine is no longer intact, the body's digestive enzymes leak out and spread through the body helping to break down more organs and tissues. At the same time, enzymes inside individual cells leak out and digest the cell and its connections with other cells... displayed next 300 characters
These working conditions are still applicable to the factory workers of today; this shows how revolutionary they were. This was the first time in history the working and middle classes disputed over conditions, and wages...
This put them out of a job, which was ironically another big
step in the Industrial Revolution.
The out of work farmers, needing a job to survive, found work at
factories being built by wealthy land owners...
Now during the initial stages of decay several things begin to happen in the body. Although the body appears fresh from the outside, the bacteria that are normally inside the intestines of a living person begin to feed on the contents of the intestine and the intestine itself...
E. Coli is the abbreviated name of the bacterium in the Family Enterobacteriaceae named Escherichia (Genus) coli (Species). "Approximately 0.1% of the total bacteria within an adult's intestines (on a Western diet) is represented by E...
From here the food is delivered to the large intestine where water and electrolytes are absorbed and feces are formed. This food will travel through the large intestine into the rectum which regulates the elimination of feces...
Our aim is to provide a new option which can help students write their researches taking as guideline excellent examples of any kinds of papers. This option is new and progressive; it is even easier than buying a custom written paper! Due to this service you can find and choose what you need by yourself without paying almost anything.
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|Certificates: South Asian Studies|
SOLKATTU is a sytem of spoken syllables and hand gestures used to teach and communicate rhythmic ideas in all of South India's performing arts. It has been part of Wesleyan's program in karnatak music for more than 40 years. Students of many different musical traditions have found solkattu valuable for building and sharpening rhythmic skills and for understanding the intricacies of karnatak tala (meter). Building on the fundamental skills acquired in MUSC110, students will learn increasingly advanced and challenging material in a variety of talas. An extended composition, developed for the group, will be performed in an end-of-semester recital.
By studying music from a different nationality, ethnic group, or historical period, students will gain knowledge of cross-cultural encounter; hence promoting a comparative reflection.
||Gen Ed Area Dept:
|Course Format: Performance||Grading Mode: Graded|
||Fulfills a Major Requirement for: (MUSC)
||Past Enrollment Probability: Not Available
|Major Readings: (If discrepancies exist between major readings in Wesmaps and the results generated by the Text Book Information link, defer to the readings posted in Broad Street Books.)|
Text Book Information
Solkattu Manual: an introduction to the rhythmic language of South Indian Music, David P. Nelson, Wesleyan University Press
|Examination and Assignments: |
End-of-semester performance will constitute the final.
|Additional Requirements and/or Comments: |
Daily practice and punctual attendance are compulsory.
|Instructor(s): Paige,Aaron Joseph Times: ..T.R.. 02:40PM-04:00PM; Location: MST301; |
|Total Enrollment Limit: 12||SR major: 2||JR major: 3|| || |
|Seats Available: 4||GRAD: X||SR non-major: 2||JR non-major: 3||SO: 2||FR: 0|
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Kathryne Beynon Exhibition Hall
October 9, 2015 through February 14, 2016
From the uncomfortable corsets and ornate bodices of the 1890s to the deconstructed freedom of the 1920s to the full skirts and bullet bras of the 1950s, fashion trends in Pasadena followed the rest of the country.
This exhibition highlighted women’s clothing worn from morning to night, comparing these three memorable decades. Over 40 exquisite garments from Pasadena Museum of History’s extensive Costume and Textile Collection, plus period accessories and household objects, were featured.
The Gay Nineties brought new-found wealth and luxury to many. Women’s roles as wives and mothers began to change as rigid moral standards and stiff formal manners loosened, but clothing remained very structured with prescribed styles for every activity. A period etiquette book describes no less than twenty-four essential outfits required for various activities in a woman’s day!
The Roaring Twenties was a decade of prosperity, decadence, and flamboyance. The 1920s was a time of social upheaval. In August 1920, the Women’s Suffrage Amendment was ratified, giving women the right to vote. Women’s roles in society were changing.
Throughout the 1950s, American cultural emphasis was on domesticity, placing the highest value on home and family. Prosperity and consumerism defined this decade as the country returned to more traditional roles after World War II. Women were expected to be the perfect wives and mothers, important accessories to a husband’s career. Gender roles, and women’s clothing along with, became more rigid.
Fabulous Fashion was curated by Dr. Elizabeth Smalley and Suzanne Ehrmann with assistance from Elissa De Angelo, Roberta Dumas, and Susan Stevens. A special introduction has been composed by Ann Erdman.
The exhibition was made possible in part by the Pasadena Arts & Culture Commission and the City of Pasadena Cultural Affairs Division. Fabulous Fashion is also supported by French Hand Laundry, PMH’s Textile Arts Council, Style on Green, High Low Vintage, New Moon Textiles, Wearable Art Connection of Southern California, Roberta Dumas, Suzanne Ehrmann, Elissa De Angelo, Dr. Elizabeth Smalley, Susan Stevens, and Ann Wallace.
Want to learn more about the fashion on display? Check out the Curator’s Blog.
Check out the concurrent online exhibition, where the public was invited to share their own family photos that showcase fabulous fashion throughout the decades!
Interested in textile arts? Consider joining our Textile Arts Council.
Images: Selections from Fabulous Fashion, photos by Aaron Gil, www.fotonuova.com.
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Vassals in the Middle Ages
Written by Simon Newman
History - Middle Ages
Vassals in the Middle ages were those who held the land, called a fief, and owed service and allegiance to the lord who granted them that land. The vassal was usually a knight or a baron, but could also be a member of the clergy or a trusted member of nobility. Vassals in the Middle Ages were an integral part of feudalism, which was the system of government throughout Europe in the Middle Ages.
The word vassal is believed to have been derived from the Medieval Latin term vassallus, the Roman and Latin term vassus, meaning servant, and the Celtic and Welsh term gwas, which means a young man who is a servant or feudal tenant.
History of Vassals
It is believed that the first vassals in the Middle Ages came from England. It is most likely that the first vassals in England began to appear after the Norman Conquest, which occurred in 1066. When William the conqueror invaded England at this time, he declared that all of the land belonged to him. As such, the Normans, soldiers, and infantry were awarded most of England’s land for assisting in William’s conquest.
Naturally, after they gained control of the land, the Normans began to rule control it as well. Next, England was divided among aristocrats and powerful military leaders. The nobles then became feudal lords and those below them became vassals. There were also some vassals that served directly under the king. There were others still that had control of their own lands and did not live in the home of the lord that they were under control of.
The average size of a feudal land grant to a vassal was between 1200 acres and 1800 acres. The land that vassals were granted commonly contained farm lands, pastures, churches and andmills. Vassals either lived in the castle of their feudal lord or they sometimes had the privilege of owning their own manor.
Responsibilities of a Vassal in the Middle Ages
A vassal’s main duty was to be the assistant, or second in command, to whomever their direct feudal lord was. This meant anyone from a clergy member to the King. However, vassals in the Middle Ages had many responsibilities. One of the most important duties of vassals in the Middle ages was to maintain the manor of their feudal lord and watch over the day to day activities in the manor.
Because they had so many responsibilities, vassals in the Middle Ages were given more authority and lands. Another important duty of a vassal was to attend to his feudal lord during court. He was also responsible for recruiting more men for his lord’s army, protecting and managing his lord’s manor, supervising all of the serfs and peasants who lived on the manor, and acting as a mercenary for his lord.
Sometimes vassals in the Middle Ages were asked to provide counsel for their lords. This meant that they helped their lords make important decisions. This included simple decisions, such as decisions surrounding farming. These types of decisions were usually in lower level manors. However, lords also gave their vassals the opportunity to decide on sentences for criminals.
This even sometimes included the sentencing of executions. Also, feudal courts sometimes discussed possible declarations of wars or conflicts. Feudal court customs varied depending on time, place, and the type of lord. For example, a King’s feudal court was, naturally, much different than a knight’s.
Oath of Fealty
Vassals in the Middle Ages took an oath to their Master that ensured their life-long service. This oath was known as the Oath of Fealty. The word “fealty” is derived from the Latin word “fidelitas.” This is a word meaning fidelity and is symbolic of the fidelity that a vassal owed his lord. “Fealty” also refers to another oath that more strictly outlined a vassal’s dedicated commitments to his lord. This oath was taken after the second part of the commendation ceremony.
The Oath of Fealty:
"I promise on my faith that I will in the future be faithful to the lord, never cause him harm and will observe my homage to him completely against all persons in good faith and without deceit."
Vassals took the Oath of Fealty during a special ceremony. This was called a commendation ceremony. A commendation ceremony was comprised of two parts, one of which was the Oath of Fealty. The second part of the ceremony was a two-part act of homage. In this part of the ceremony, a contract was entered by the lord and vassal in which the lord promised to always protect the vassal, while the vassal promised to fight for the lord’s command.
After the end of the ceremony the vassal and lord were officially in a feudal relationship. They now had to follow the agreed-upon mutual obligations made with one another. The main obligation of the vassal was to provide military service on command for the lord. Generally, military aid and security was the reasoning behind a lord entering a feudal relationship in the first place. Also, the vassal had to keep his other responsibilities, which included tending to the manor, assisting the lord at court, and overseeing the serfs and peasants on the manor.
Many vassals in the Middle Ages led the role of both vassal and lord. This meant that they were vassals to a lord, but also leased some of the land that they were granted. In fact, in the feudal system, a majority of nobility were probably in this situation. Because no one but the King was in ultimate power, most likely the only way for a vassal to make money was by leasing his land to another vassal.
Death of a Vassal
If the vassal died, the vassal’s family supplied an appropriate male family member to take his place within the feudal system. If there were no male family members left in the deceased vassal’s family, then the vassal’s former lord took care of the vassal’s family.
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Name: CANONICUS * SACHEM OF THE NARRAGANSETT TRIBE
Sex: M 1
Birth: 1562 in Cape Cod, MA
Death: 4 JUN 1647 in probably MA
FILE: ~/Pictures/Genealogy Photos/Canonicus and Roger Williams.jpg
Title: Canonicus negotiating with Roger Williams
_SIZE: 425.000000 330.000000
Change Date: 10 JUL 2008
SACHEM (CHIEF) OF THE NARRAGANSETTS
A BIOGRAPHY OF CANONICUS, by Larry Overmire:
A man of extraordinary ability, Canonicus was the chief sachem of the Narragansett Indians and the most formidable enemy of Massasoit's Wampanoag confederation. He was sachem (chief) when the pilgrims set about establishing Plymouth Colony. In January of 1622, he sent them a bundle of arrows wrapped in the skin of a rattlesnake--a challenge of war. Gov. Bradford returned the snakeskin filled with gunpowder. The Pilgrims then set about fortifying their village.
While the Wampanoag allied themselves with the Massachusetts Englishmen, Canonicus and his Narragansetts established strong relations with Roger Williams and the settlers of Rhode Island.
"Canonicus, the sachem of the Narragansetts, whose territory had escaped the ravages of the pestilence, at first desired to treat of peace; in 1622, a bundle of arrows, wrapped in the skin of a rattlesnake, was his message of hostility. But, when Bradford sent back the skin stuffed with powder and shot, his courage quailed, and he sued for amity." -- George Bancroft, History of the United States, Vol.1, p.211, courtesy of Bruce Cox.
"Canonicus, now chief of the Narragansetts, had given his allegiance to the king and was at peace with the colonists. The Rhode Island colony had received its charter from the king, and were taking no part in the war. In spite of all this, the united Colonies formed an army to attack a peaceful tribe of Indians located outside their jurisdiction. This army formed in Boston, marched through Providence and Warwick on their way to the Great Swamp. By morning the tribe of Narragansetts was exterminated, save for a few who had escaped. A thousand Indians had been killed, about one third having been burned to death. The whites lost from two to four hundred. This was like a signal to all the tribes, and a pitiless war was now started, a war that the Indians felt was for their very existence. All the settlements suffered, even Providence, the home of Roger Williams, the best friend the Indians ever had. Roger Williams and his family were unharmed, although they refused to flee to safety.. For a while the Indians were seemingly successful, but as soon as the colonists became organized, and their families were in safe places, the Indians began to lose, and finally the noble heated Cononchet, chief sachem of what was left of the Narragansetts, was captured and killed. Four months afterward, King Philip was slain, and with these two powerful chiefs gone, the Indians became demoralized, and the colonists gained the upper hand. (1676) Those captured were slain or sold into slavery. Never were a people more thoroughly extirpated than were the Narragansetts." --from The House of Carr--A Historical Sketch of the Carr Family from 1450 to 1926 by W.L. Watson. pp. 18, 19, courtesy of Bruce Cox.
"In the book "Bearse-Bears-Barss Family, Genealogy of Augustine Bearse and Princess Mary Hyanno" by Franklin Bearse, it tells of the Vikings coming to the Wampanoag area about 1001-1016. "They were fierce, red haired, pale faced men who came, to what is now Massachusetts, mixed their blood with the Wampanoag Indians and went back to the endless waters and were never seen no more. "Wampanoag" means "White Indian." Mary Hyanno (born 1625) was of light complexion and had flaming red hair. These stories were written for record from the legends passed on from one generation to another in the Wampanoag tribes." His mark was a bow, with arrow pointing up. Canonicus and his Nephew, Miantunnomoh gave the Prudence Island to Roger Williams, later to become Rhode Island. They also gave Aquidneck to Anne Huthinson and her followers at Roger's request." --Bruce Cox
KING PHILIP'S WAR, 1675-76, by Larry Overmire:
King Philip was the chief of the Wampanoag Indians and the son of Massasoit, the chief who had befriended the Pilgrims and celebrated the first Thanksgiving in 1620. King Philip resented the intrusion and domination of the colonists and led an uprising of several tribes, including the Narragansetts, in 1675-76, terrorizing New England in what would become known as the bloodiest Indian War ever to take place there. By the time the war ended 52 out of 90 New England settlements had been attacked, 12 completely destroyed. King Philip himself was trapped and killed in Aug. 1676.
THE GREAT SWAMP FIGHT, 1675
The English attacked and burned a fortified Narragansett Indian village in the Great Swamp Massacre, which completely destroyed the Narragansett nation.
THE NARRAGANSETT INDIANS
The Narragansetts were indeed a strong and noble race and known for their integrity. They were very generous to their white neighbors in Rhode Island.
Roger Williams believed the English king had no right to claim Native American lands. This opinion quickly got him into trouble and the Puritans banished him from Massachusetts. He founded a new colony in Rhode Island and established good relations with the Narragansetts.
EASTERN TRIBES AT THE TIME OF THE MAYFLOWER
"When the pilgrims landed there were three Federations (Confederations) on the east coast from Maine to Florida. The Iroquois, Algonquain, and Muskogee. Under the Iroquois there were 5 nations; Cayouga, Onandoga, Mohawk, and a couple of others. Later the Tuscurorah joined them and they are now the League of 6 nations. Our Constitution was derived in part from their constitution. The founding fathers sent 2 representatives to them to study their constitution, (The Great Law, or The Great Brotherhood), and Benjamin Framklin was the scribe. In thanks, the US sent them a gift of thanks. The Muskogee were the tribes to the south including Creek, Seminole, Caribe, and others. The Wampanoag had 5 nations; Wampanoag, Pequot/Mohegan, Massachusetts, Nauset, and Narragansett. The Narragansett was considered Wampanoag however, I've proven that they did not come from the same common ancestor as some of the other nations did, but were descended from "refugee slaves" to quote William Bradford." --Mary Hilliard, expert on Native American genealogical research
USE OF THE WORD "SACHEM"
"Chief" was used by western tribes. "Sachem" was used by east coast tribes. The pilgrims invented the term "Chief Sachem" to describe the head Sachem over all the lesser Sachems.
WARNING: Some show Canonicus as the son, not the grandson, of Tashtassuck, born as early as 1636 and died bef 1620.
Presidents George H. W. and George W. Bush are descendants.
Notes on this website are authored by Larry Overmire, unless noted otherwise. Permission of the author is required to reproduce elsewhere.
1) Bruce Cox Database
2) Pedigree of Canonicus
3) Narragansett Indians' Teepee
4) Alice Raven Database
5) Chief Sachem Canonicus
6) The House of Carr--A Historical Sketch of the Carr Family from 1450 to 1926 by W.L. Watson.
7) Fate of Eastern Native Americans
8) E-mail from researcher and Native American genealogical expert Mary Hilliard, email@example.com or firstname.lastname@example.org, 7 Dec 2004
9) Mary Hilliard Database, 11 Nov 2004
Father: Wessonsuoum * of the Narragansett Tribe b: BEF 1520 in CT
Mother: Keneschoo * of the Narragansett Tribe b: ABT 1525 in CT
Posh-Pw * of the Narragansett Tribe b: 1565 in Narragansett, Washington, RI
- Change Date:
10 JUL 2008
- Note: 17:25
- Daughter of Canonicus * Princess of the Narragansett Tribe b: 1567 in Cape Cod, Barnstable Co., MA
- Media: Website
Title: The Ancestry of Overmire, Tifft, Richardson, Bradford, Reed
Author: Larry Overmire
Publication: RootsWeb World Connect Project, © 2000-2010
Date: 26 Jan 2010
Date: 26 JAN 2010
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- freely available
The Effect of Radiation on the Immune Response to Cancers
AbstractIn cancer patients undergoing radiation therapy, the beneficial effects of radiation can extend beyond direct cytotoxicity to tumor cells. Delivery of localized radiation to tumors often leads to systemic responses at distant sites, a phenomenon known as the abscopal effect which has been attributed to the induction and enhancement of the endogenous anti-tumor innate and adaptive immune response. The mechanisms surrounding the abscopal effect are diverse and include trafficking of lymphocytes into the tumor microenvironment, enhanced tumor recognition and killing via up-regulation of tumor antigens and antigen presenting machinery and, induction of positive immunomodulatory pathways. Here, we discuss potential mechanisms of radiation-induced enhancement of the anti-tumor response through its effect on the host immune system and explore potential combinational immune-based strategies such as adoptive cellular therapy using ex vivo expanded NK and T cells as a means of delivering a potent effector population in the context of radiation-enhanced anti-tumor immune environment.
Share & Cite This Article
Park, B.; Yee, C.; Lee, K.-M. The Effect of Radiation on the Immune Response to Cancers. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15, 927-943.View more citation formats
Park B, Yee C, Lee K-M. The Effect of Radiation on the Immune Response to Cancers. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2014; 15(1):927-943.Chicago/Turabian Style
Park, Bonggoo; Yee, Cassian; Lee, Kyung-Mi. 2014. "The Effect of Radiation on the Immune Response to Cancers." Int. J. Mol. Sci. 15, no. 1: 927-943.
Notes: Multiple requests from the same IP address are counted as one view.
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The dangers of smog
Air pollution isn't just bad for your lungs, it may be bad for your appendix. A new study suggests that the risk of a burst appendix rises on smoggy days. Data from 12 Canadian cities found that “short-term exposure to ambient ozone (in air) was associated with an increased number of hospital visits for appendicitis,” according to a team led by Dr. Gil Kaplan of the University of Calgary. The risk for an appendix bursting rose by up to 22 percent with every 16 parts-per-billion rise of ozone in the air over a few days before the rupture, the researchers reported in the July 11 online edition of Environmental Health Perspectives.
Source: Health Day News
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The origin of the Moon is one of the most complicated problems of cosmogony. So far there have been basically three hypotheses under discussion.
HYPOTHESIS I: The Moon was once a part of the Earth and broke away from it.
This has now been refuted by the evidence.
HYPOTHESIS II: The Moon was formed independently from the same cloud of dust and gas as the Earth, and immediately became the Earth’s natural satellite.
But then why is there such a big difference between the specific gravity of the Moon (3.33 grams per cubic centimeter) and that of the Earth (5.5 gr.)? Furthermore, according to the latest information (analysis of samples brought back by the U.S. Apollo astronauts) lunar rock is not of the same composition as the Earth’s.
HYPOTHESIS III: The Moon came into being separately, and, moreover, far from the Earth (perhaps even outside the Solar system).
This would mean that the moon would not have to be fashioned from the same "clay" as our own planet. Sailing through the Universe, the Moon came into Earth’s proximity, and by a complex interplay of forces of gravity was brought within a geocentric orbit, very close to circular. But a catch of this kind is virtually impossible.
In fact, scientists studying the origin of the Universe today have no acceptable theory to explain how the Earth-Moon system came into being.
OUR HYPOTHESIS: The Moon is an artificial Earth satellite put into orbit around the Earth by some intelligent beings unknown to ourselves.
Originally posted by winston_jones
Nice post but I have to correct you on this particular point. There is no mystery as to why the same side of the moon always faces the earth. It's because the moon's mass is not evenly distributed. Much of the moon is porous, or even hollow. There are however small areas of much denser mass concentrations (mascons) that are clustered on one side - 'our' side. They lie below the darker areas we call the maria or seas. Because the moon's centre of gravity is skewed towards these areas that side always faces the earth and always will, however much the moon's orbital path lengthens.
Originally posted by Phage
You've massively plagairised a Rense article but other than that:
That's quite a bit of speculation to say that there would be no intelligent life on Earth without the Moon. Life would indeed be different than it is but who knows what it would be like?
The Moon rotates once each revolution because it is tidally locked to Earth. All of the major moons in the Solar System are tidally locked to their planets and exhibit the same behavior.
The distance of the Earth from the Sun varies, depending on the time of year, from 152,097,701 km to 147,098,074km, with an average of 149,597,887.5 km. In the past the Moon was closer to Earth than it is now and in the future it will be farther away but right now the distance of the Moon from Earth varies, depending on the time of the month, from 364,397 km to 406,731 km, with an average of 384,748 km. So the ratio of the two orbits varies from 417 to 361, with an average of 388. So yes, sometimes the ratio is the same as the ratio in sizes but most of the time it is not.
Your claim about the solstices is incorrect. In Los Angeles, on June 21st, the Sun rose at at an azimuth of 61º. On December 21 the Moon will rise at 63º.
The Moon does have a solid core.
Originally posted by sp00n1
The Moon is not a naturally occurring body and was quite possibly engineered to sustain life on Earth.
Originally posted by Lord Jules
since Jupiter has 63 moons, does that mean Jupiter has super-intelligent life forms? or does the multiple moons somehow cancel each other's powers out?
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‘Young Thurgood’ Explores Influences Behind First Black Supreme Court Justice
Source Newsroom: University of Maryland, Baltimore
Newswise — Dozens of books about Thurgood Marshall have already been written, but Larry Gibson, professor at the University of Maryland Francis King Carey School of Law, thought people should know more about the forces that helped create the country’s first African-American Supreme Court justice.
Years of research, including poring over original documents and interviews with those who knew the Baltimore native personally, led to the creation of the book "Young Thurgood: The Making of a Supreme Court Justice."
"The earlier books are principally about what Thurgood Marshall did,” says Gibson. “This book is about what he was like and the forces that shaped him."
As he put the manuscript together, Gibson found himself writing about a character besides Marshall. "The secondary character is the State of Maryland," he says. The state’s geography (between the deep South and the urban North), the economy, the politics and sociology of the segregated Maryland that existed between the dawn of the 20th Century and through the Great Depression all influenced the young man from West Baltimore.
Gibson got a head start on his research when he put together the displays about Marshall that stand in the UM Carey School’s Thurgood Marshall Law Library. He got to know the late Justice's widow and son, and gained access to photos, documents and personal insights that allowed Gibson to cast a new light on this historical man.
It also helps that Gibson – a professor, practicing attorney, historian of black Maryland lawyers and a political activist – knows generations of movers and influencers in the region. He had not just access to sources for the book, but also an appreciation for the events, people, and times that shaped Marshall.
Gibson met Marshall more than once, and writes in the book that the man he spoke with was not the curmudgeon described in popular accounts. Gibson also says Marshall himself contributed to some of the inaccurate portrayals. It was important, Gibson says, that the book set the record straight.
"He was a raconteur. It ran for generations in his family," Gibson says. "I didn’t rely on his statements alone. Anything he said, as with all other accounts, I found documents to back it up."
Among the popular inaccuracies about Marshall is that he was rejected from the University of Maryland law school because of his race. Gibson writes that Marshall, knowing full well the entrenched segregation of the school, did not submit an application. A small point perhaps but an important one, and one that often overshadows the work Marshall did to integrate the school several years later.
The book debuts today, Dec. 4, It is available at bookstores and online.
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<p>Aviation History, by Anne Millbrooke is a beautifully done, large format, hard cover, full color book that gives new and experienced pilots a unique perspective on international aviation history.</p>
<p>Each of ten chapters is packed with information containing historic photographs and color graphics. Aviation History explores the question "What is Aviation" by following the world of flying from its birth in Annonay, France to today's accomplishments in space.
<p>Through personal profiles, you meet the people who made significant contributions to aviation. You explore the historical evidence and see how historians use the artifacts of aviation to confirm what happened. A bibliography and timeline are included.</p>
<p>Updated with 170 pages of revised content, the 2006 edition places you in the time period and gives you first hand accounts by the people who were there. Each event is viewed in the historical context of the economic, political, social, and cultural impact. Personal profiles let readers get to know the pioneers who shaped aviation. Historical notes and events, graphs, timelines, and more than 800 photos and illustrations aid in understanding. Study questions along with bibliographies at the end of each chapter make review easier.</p>
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Story: Dairying and dairy products
Most pioneer families kept a few cows to supplement their limited diet with dairy products. Soon, cream was trundled in cans to factories by horse and cart to be processed for city folk. Better transport, refrigerated shipping, and mechanical milking saw the dairy industry expand into the export earner it is today.
Full story by Hugh Stringleman and Frank Scrimgeour
Main image: Cows in a yard before milking
The Short Story
A quick, easy summaryRead the Full Story
The first cows brought to New Zealand were Shorthorns, in 1814. They provided milk as well as meat, and were also used for hauling loads. They were milked in a paddock, usually by women and children. Butter was made in a hand churn. Most milk, butter and cheese was eaten by the family, or taken to the local store and swapped for supplies or tools.
Milk was separated into skim milk and cream, and was made into butter, cheese and other products.
The first milk-processing factories opened in the 1880s, but not all farmers were quick to use them. Once roads and railways improved, and ships could carry refrigerated milk, the dairy industry began to grow – in 1920 there were 600 factories.
Factories became centralised and the smaller ones had to close. By 2001 the largest dairy company was Fonterra, a co-operative company owned by 11,000 farmers, which supplied 95% of New Zealand’s milk.
The first milking machines were used in 1893. They used cups attached to the cow’s udder, and the milk was collected into buckets. Later, machines were electric and the milk flowed along pipes to a cream separator. Milking by machine was clean and efficient – more cows could be milked, so herds got bigger.
Early dairy sheds often had dirty, rough floors made of earth or stone. Once the Department of Agriculture began to make inspections, hygiene improved. Concrete floors had channels to drain wastes. Better shed design, including pits for milkers to work in and platforms for cows to stand on, made milking easier and faster.
Most of New Zealand’s dairy cows are Holstein-Friesians, Jersey cows, or Ayrshires. Holstein-Friesians and Jerseys were crossbred to create cows that are popular because they are medium-sized, fertile and sturdy, and produce good milk that is high in fat and protein.
Herd testing is used to test the fat content of milk. The cows with the fattiest milk are then selected for breeding.
New Zealand now produces more than 100 types of dairy products, including:
- whole milk
- milk powder
In the early 2000s dairy products were New Zealand’s leading export earner, and were sold to 140 countries.
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NASA’s revolutionary Dawn Asteroid Orbiter has begun the final approach phase to the giant asteroid Vesta and snapped its first science image. The image was taken on May 3, when Dawn was approximately 1.21 million kilometers (752,000 miles) distant from Vesta using the science imager known as the Framing Camera.
Besides the pure delight of seeing Vesta up close for the first time, the images play a crucial role in navigating Dawn precisely through space and successfully achieve orbit around the protoplanet that nearly formed into a full fledged planet.
Vesta is the second most massive object in the Asteroid Belt and is 530 kilometers (330 miles) in diameter.
Dawn should be captured into orbit about Vesta around July 16 as the engineering team works to maneuver the spacecraft to match the asteroids path around the sun using the exotic ion thrusters. Using the background stars in the framing camera images, they will be able to determine Dawn’s location in space relative to the stars in order to precisely navigate the spacecrafts trajectory towards Vesta.
“After plying the seas of space for more than a billion miles, the Dawn team finally spotted its target,” said Carol Raymond, Dawn’s deputy principal investigator at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, Calif. “This first image hints of detailed portraits to come from Dawn’s upcoming visit.”
The best images of Vesta to date were taken by the Hubble Space Telescope. Jim Adams, Deputy Director of Planetary Science, told me that the images from Dawn’s Framing Camera will exceed those from Hubble in a few weeks.
Dawn will initially enter a highly elliptical polar orbit around Vesta and start collecting science data in August from an altitude of approximately 1,700 miles (2,700 kilometers). The orbit will be lowered in stages to collect high resolution data as Dawn spends about a year collecting data from its three science instruments.
Thereafter Dawn will be targeted to Ceres, the largest object in the Asteroid Belt which it will reach in 2015.
Dawn is an international mission.
The framing cameras have been developed and built under the leadership of the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research, Katlenburg-Lindau, Germany, with significant contributions by the German Aerospace Center (DLR) Institute of Planetary Research, Berlin, and in coordination with the Institute of Computer and Communication Network Engineering, Braunschweig. The framing camera project is funded by the Max Planck Society, DLR, and NASA.
The Visible and Infrared mapping camera was provided by the Italian Space Agency. The Gamma Ray Detector was supplied by Los Alamos National Labotatory.
Read more about Dawn in my prior story:
Revolutionary Dawn Closing in on Asteroid Vesta with Opened Eyes
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Aquamarine is a variety of beryl, which is the same gemstone family as emerald and morganite. Though aquamarine and emerald belong to the same family, they are surprisingly different. They are both composed of beryllium aluminum silicate. However, emerald is colored by trace amounts of chromium and/or vanadium, whereas aquamarine is colored by iron. Also, emerald and beryl have essentially the same specific gravity and refractive index, but emerald tends to be quite hazy and included, while aquamarine typically has excellent transparency and clarity.
Though the beryls are quite hard gems, rating 7.5 to 8 on the Mohs scale, emerald has always been regarded as a somewhat delicate due to its many inclusions. Emerald gemstones are usually oiled to fill fractures and improve their color. Aquamarine, on the other hand, requires no special treatment and is suitable for all kinds of jewelry, including rings. Most aquamarine gems have been heat treated at low temperatures to reduce the level of green or yellow.
The intensity of color and the clarity of the stone are the most important criteria when evaluating aquamarine. Deep blue aquamarine gems are rare and command the highest prices in the world's gemstone markets, though what is considered 'deep blue' for aquamarine is still only pastel blue. Unlike other gems, aquamarine is not diminished by a lesser intensity of color - many people actually prefer the more crystal clear lighter gemstones to the richer, deeper colors. You will find aquamarine in both faceted and cabochon cuts.
Aquamarine gets its name from the Latin term for seawater, and has a long tradition as the sailor's lucky stone. The Greeks and the Romans believed aquamarine to be the sailor's gem, since it was thought to help to ensure a safe passage across stormy seas. Legend has it that aquamarines were the prized possessions of mermaids and thus would protect sailors from danger, including sea sickness.
An alternate birthstone for March is bloodstone, a dark-green opaque quartz flecked with red spots. The name bloodstone is derived from the legendary belief that the red coloration resulted from the blood of Christ spilling onto green jasper during the crucifixion. For this reason the stone has been called "the martyr's stone". Bloodstone is mined in India, Brazil, Uruguay, Australia and the United States. Bloodstone is ideal for carving into cameos and beads, and symbolizes courage.
- First Published: January-27-2009
- Last Updated: September-02-2014
- © 2005-2016 GemSelect.com all rights reserved.
Reproduction (text or graphics) without the express written consent of GemSelect.com (SETT Company Ltd.) is strictly prohibited.
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As(we like it)
…so says Carol's email, as I ask her about as. "As" does a lot of work without being noticed—
As is an adverb, "antecedent" or "relative," a conjunction, a preposition— a word that can precede, connect, be swallowed, used twice in the same phrase. As bright as gold (adverb). It can be stuffed into other words with great frequency and make itself solidly known in a multitude of material existences.
"A worn-down form of all-so" says the O.E.D., a phrase giving as (possessive noun) an etymology with a rather tragic cast (though perhaps all etymologies have a tragic cast) as (conjunction) it arrives from Old English. It sees itself as (preposition) a process poem.
"That not-as-clean-as-it-used-to-be oven was starting to skip certain temperatures."
I like the way as is so versatile, like a poem or a person. Unlike many beloved nouns— "celadon," for example, into which people peer, from which they peer away, trying to match the word to its locale or object— as is almost wispy. A vaporous maze that was always meant to connect.
But not so sweet
As we have seen
(Jack Spicer, Imaginary Elegies)
Also (a middle version of as), after reading an etymo-novella of the birth of as in the dictionary, I am amazed that "as bright as gold" began as a version of "so bright so gold." This as feels like a "tragic cast." We were always trying to get back to an original gold—or so thought the middle tribes, hammering away at bronze.
Etymology of as— as Yeats refers to the beard of God winding among the stars (curlicue @stars.com) in A Vision. David Lukas describes cirrus clouds and orthographic clouds ≈ξ ∞ξ as mountain writing, pointing over a ridge in the Sierra.
'The boulders running by as cars/ As cars running by as Art Blakey'' (Gabriel Gomez)
Worn down, a progressive rubbing away as (conj.) a word shifts, and then accretes to itself a new strength, a different strength, a pleasant or an unpleasant strength—
A simile is characterized by "like" or "as," said Mrs. Lewis in seventh grade. But really, it turned out, more "like."
As my father's family ate squirrels in Mississippi during the Depression. "Head and all," he says.
Later we visit the same county, noticing the short dialect sentences almost as topiary next to the Sea Breeze RV Park.
"Ideas. As they find themselves." (Barbara Guest, Rocks on a Platter) (That seems pure conjunctive use of it— except it's a fragment. The use of "as" as adverb seems to be able to have "such" in front of it— the conjunctive use does not?)
Loving the way tiny areas of time sleep within letters of the word or words… one day in the library stacks, before the library became so sadly neglected, my eye fell on As I Lay Dying on the back of a spine. In the crown, the loft below the high roof of the A… At the turn into the twenty-first century, I tried to write about this as enchantment with library dust.
Each word an utterance, a sound recalled in units of meaning. Who wouldn't want to be such a word as as when one grows up? As— so intense and helpful even if barely noticed!
For Carol Snow and Kristin Hanson
* * *
Brenda Hillman teaches at Saint Mary's College of California, where she is Olivia Filippi Professor of Poetry. She is the author of eight collections of poetry, all published by Wesleyan University Press. The most recent of these is Practical Water.
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1990 African Famines and Food Security: Anthropological Perspectives. Annual Review of Anthropology 19:353-394.
In the article, Shipton outlines the diverse causes and effects of Famines in Africa. He focuses on the changes socially and economically. First off, Shipton explains the several reasons why famine is such a large problem in Africa. The famine's Causes range from environmental, social, economical and to governmental (I reworded to keep the word "range" but this could be reworded better). One example of this is the governments of African nations push their farmers to grow cash crops instead of some foods, in which can lead to a food shortage. Shipton hi-lights sp that due to the economic structure and cultural reasons, women, the elderly and rural farmers often get the worst of the famine. He creates list of things that African's can do to help themselves through a famine including diversifying crops as well as saving and sharing their crops. He even suggests alternate and unconventional sources of food for when the Africans become in dire need.
Shipton elaborates on the social effects of famine in Africa. He notes how the "-spheres of exchange"- use quotation marks only for direct quotes. This phrase does not need quotation marks become ravaged as many are forced to work harder or sell their morality ?do you mean prostitution? if so say so. The kinship of Families crumbles, as fathers cannot support all of its members. As more members of a population are affected by the famine, they are forced into doing more or different work in which blurs the normal divisions of labor. Shipton describes that because of the wide spread struggle, many social plagues, such as ethnic bias, are eliminated. He also points out how food quickly becomes a political tool during the famine.
Shipton's main goal of the article was to construct the causes and effects of the famines in Africa. He rounds up his points and concludes that the normal workings of society fall apart during a famine but, society is not destroyed, it is reworked in that all people are equal in the mutual struggle. Lastly, he puts the majority of the blame on the nations' governments. The countries failed economic and domestic choices are a major contributor to the harsh effects of the famine.
The article was very detailed and backed up with resources. Shipton's final conclusion is very agreeable not sure what you mean by "agreeable". I question aspects of the article that focus on how Africans can deal with the famine individually as I doubt many of them will read this article. Shipton demands asks for a better understanding on how aid fosters create dependency among refugees. A detailed study on this topic would be an excellent follow up to this article.
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A recent study out of UC-Davis documents behavior which might be described as “mourning” by a species of local birds. When Western Scrub Jays come upon a dead member of their own species, they call out to each other in a distinctive, cacophonous way and quite often fly to their fallen comrade and gather around the body. The mourners’ calls were returned by other Scrub Jays who then joined the group on the ground. Typically very gregarious and active birds, the mourners also stopped their normal foraging behaviors, sometimes for more than a day.
Scientists tried to get the same response by setting the stage with painted wooden surrogates. That failed.
This behavior may, perhaps, serve simply as a utilitarian function, a behavior which like so many others evolved to aid in the survival of the species. Without seeing how one of their own died, there is of course value to the flock in alerting others to a possible deadly risk in the area. However valid that is as reason for the behavior, there is nothing to say that we not also witnessing evidence of the awareness of death and a sense of loss.
As someone who has spent (happily) most of my life with and around animals, I grow more and more convinced that we have more in common with our fellow inhabitants of the Earth than we may imagine. Accusations of anthropomorphism be damned.
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Alaska Fisheries In Midst Of An Economic Collapse — And not one politician is talking about it Concerns of radiation from [Fukushima] affecting Alaskan seafood has been ruled out by the US Food & Drug Administration.
“Seed companies say they warned Brazilian farmers to plant part of their corn fields with conventional seeds to prevent bugs from mutating and developing resistance to GMO seeds.”
Biotech giant Monsanto promises farmers that, if they buy genetically modified (GM) seeds, their crops will exhibit herbicide-, insect- and drought-tolerant characteristics. All over the world, plants and insects are becoming immune to potent herbicides and pesticides."
Continuing fallout from droughts in the Western U.S. and Brazil - both are incredibly important areas to the global food supply, corporate hoarding of fresh water is on the rise. Nestle’s former CEO stated that water supplies should be privatized; the right to fresh, clean water is not an essential human right.
Sao Paulo risks having its biggest reservoir run out of drinking water within 100 days unless it starts rationing, Brazilian federal prosecutors warned. Water utility Sabesp and Sao Paulo Governor Geraldo Alckmin have 10 days to come up with measures to deal with the crisis.
Oregon's largest coal-burning power plant is expected to shut down in a few years, but that doesn't mean coal is dead.
The rapid depletion of Earth’s biodiversity indicates that the planet is in the early stages of its sixth mass extinction of life since becoming habitable 3.5 billion years ago, according to a new study published in Science.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) denied emergency application to use hazardous pesticide on 3 million acres of Texas cotton fields, environmental, public health,organic farm interests urged agency to reject request based on environmental effects, weed resistance to currently used chemicals.
El Salvador farmers have successfully used indigenous seed, and have never needed to rely on biotech for a viable seed source. Indigenous seeds make sense not only economically, but environmentally, as well. working to keep seeds indigenous in El Salvador.
FDA and EPA are about to approve the use of 2,4-D chemicals on American fields, even though it has been linked to developmental and neurological health problems, among other environmental damage. Glyphosate-drenched fields everywhere are giving birth to superweeds bigger than farmers have ever seen
When a research team set sail on a nine-month, worldwide expedition in 2010 to study the impact of global warming on Earth’s oceans, one of their projects was to locate the accumulations of plastic.
Researchers determined organic crops have significantly lower pesticide residues than conventional crops. Even in crops designated as organic, conventional pesticides can be found in low amounts due to environmental contamination. More than 1,000 samples tested contained some pesticide residue.
US Geological Survey recorded seven quakes ranging from magnitude 2.6 to 2.9 in areas northeast of Oklahoma City. In addition, a 4.3-magnitude temblor hit Langston just after noon on Saturday, and three other quakes ranging from magnitude 2.9 to 3.2 occurred Saturday morning.
Tourists at Yellowstone National Park are being barred from areas of the park because the massive underground supervolcano beneath it is melting the asphalt roads.“It basically turned the asphalt into soup. It turned the gravel road into oatmeal,”; Yellowstone spokesman Dan Hottle.
Charles Benbrook serves on the USDA’s AC 21 Agricultural Biotechnology Advisory Committee: 2,4-D chemicals causes neurological disorders, kidney, liver damage, reproductive failure, disruption of endocrine system, cancers, pollute drinking water, cause damage that can't be undone.
State Veterinarian Susan Keller is urging North Dakota ranchers to make sure their livestock are vaccinated against anthrax, after the first confirmed case of the year in a Barnes County beef cow. Anthrax bacteria spores lie dormant in the soil and become active under extreme weather conditions.
Latest drilling techniques for obtaining gas, which drill horizontally as opposed to the more traditional vertical drilling, shows a higher rate of leaking methane. Results suggest that hazardous leaks of methane could pose potential obstacles for drilling across the nation,
The Grocery Manufacturers Association (GMA) tried to undo latest legally voted GMO labeling laws, but Thurston County Superior Court Judge Christine Schaller ruled the states’ case against the (GMA) will move forward, rejecting the GMA’s motion to dismiss the case on constitutional grounds.
Texas cotton growers are petitioning the Environmental Protection Agency to let them use propazine, an alternative herbicide to Monsanto’s glysophate, which is currently used, to combat a “super weed” that has developed resistance to it. Herbicide-resistant weeds were first reported in the 1950s.
Arizona State Senator Kelli Ward held a forum to discuss public concerns regarding white vapor trails in the skies. Arizona Department of Environmental Quality (ADEQ) representatives Sherri Zendri and Beth Hager were on hand to answer questions from residents who claim planes are spraying chemicals.
Studies link breast cancer to aluminum poisoning. Women use antiperspirants filled with aluminum. Women suffering from cancer were found to have genotoxic cancer profiles, breasts were full of aluminum. Known to interfere with estrogen balance, cause DNA changes.
meat in the US labeled with country of origin, it now includes details, where the animal was born, raised, and slaughtered. The move is hailed by meat consumers meat industry opposed the measure. Country of Origin Labeling rule went into effect in May of 2013.
Neonicotinoid insecticides, which have been widely blamed for colony collapse disorder among bees, are also killing butterflies, worms, fish and birds. National Centre for Scientific Research France: Threat to the productivity of our natural and farmed environment.
White House has created a bee task force. As the bee population dwindles neonicotinoids, a pesticide, is a culprit in the bee problem. Recommend bee-friendly gardens. These specific plants actually contain neonicotinoids contributing in a major way to the death of even more bees.
For the second year in a row, deaths of non-Hispanic whites outnumbered births from July 1, 2012, to July 1, 2013, according to population estimates released Thursday by the U.S. Census Bureau. “These are the only two years in U.S. history when more non-Hispanic whites died than were born.”
Widespread water shortages across the world threaten social unrest and even war over control. In India, some families spend a quarter of their income on water Bolivia defaulted on its World Bank debt, water supplies went into receivership, controlled by globalists, prices skyrocketed 400%.
Industrial facilities across the U.S. dumped more than 206 million pounds of toxic chemicals into waterways in 2012, Tyson Foods Inc. alone dumped more than 18.5 million pounds—about 9 percent of the nationwide total. Waters have become a dumping ground for polluters.
Organic farmer, Steve Marsh will receive no compensation for losing his organic certification resulting from a neighbor’s GE crops contaminating his own. The court ruled that no physical harm had been shown and the burden rested on the plaintiff to clean up the GE-mess to reinstate his certification.
Insecticides have contaminated the environment across the planet so pervasively global food production is at risk, As a result, creatures essential to global food production – from bees to earthworms likely to be suffering grave harm, the chemicals must be phased out.
American Great Lakes, which hold 20% of the world’s fresh water. Obama allowing Nestle Company to export fresh water out of Lake Michigan, sale supplies by to China, water will be under the control of globalists and their private profiteers. “Water isn’t a human right,” according to water profiteer.
A plan to feed Australian dairy cows genetically modified rye grass designed to boost milk production has sparked concerns from both organic and non-organic farmers. Opponents of the scheme fear that GM grasses could contaminate neighbouring properties.
The pit is filled by what seems to be a hellish fire, but is in fact an enormous blaze of natural gas coming from under the ground. No one is really sure, when the fire in the 60-meter wide, 20-meter deep crater may go out, but it is known for certain that it was started after a drilling accident in 1971.
Hawaii’s big island currently has a law restricting the use of genetically modified crops. Mayor Billy Kenoi signed Bill 113 into effect late last year. Now, several Big Ag groups and farmers have filed a lawsuit in U.S. District Court seeking to overturn the GMO ban.
Showed a power point presentation, passed out a deck of playing cards to students with Monsanto logo emblazoned on it. Told children how one farmer tried to get rid of Monsanto seed, stuff they spray on their crops, caused him great trouble. Warned against saving heirloom, organic seed.
The sun has had three major "X-Class" solar flares on its surface in the past two days that have affected communications on Earth. The “solar events” caused brief blackouts in high frequency communications when they struck, twice on Tuesday morning and once this morning.
a nation bordering China and South of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, decided to become one of the first countries in the world to ban all GMO crops as well as the sale and importation of genetically modified organisms.
As one of the preconditions to authorizing close to $300 million in aid, the United States is pressuring El Salvador to purchase genetically modified seeds from Monsanto instead of non-GM seeds from local farmers.
The key last-ditch safety device that failed to prevent the 2010 BP oil spill remains problem for some offshore drilling. U.S. Chemical Safety Board details multiple failures, improper testing of blowout preventer, blames bad management. Found faulty wiring, dead battery, bent pipe in the device.
Russian lawmakers advocate creation of an international UN agency not only to strictly control the turnover of GMO products worldwide, but with a top priority mission to scrutinize how consuming GMO foods would affect human health in the long run.
Over 90% of the crop varieties grown a century ago are no longer used in this country; many aren’t even maintained in seed storage facilities. 6 companies in the world have patented most of the seeds grown in the entire global agricultural market. Our food diversity is crumbling
Turkish government recently cut off the flow of the Euphrates River, threatening primarily Syria but also Iraq with a major water crisis. Al-Akhbar found out that the water level in Lake Assad has dropped by about six meters, leaving millions of Syrians without drinking water.
House Republicans voted down measure that discouraged government from giving contracts to companies that committed wage theft. The Democratic-sponsored amendment to a funding bill would deny taxpayer money to firms with documented wage violations under government contract.
Every single variety of vegetable to be registered on an EU list, otherwise illegal to sell it. To be registered on the list, seed varieties have to pass series of tests demonstrating what is called DUS ‘Distinctiveness, Uniformity and Stability. £3000 to test, register one single variety of seed for sale.
56 percent of Texas, 64 percent of Oklahoma and 80 percent of Kansas experiencing “severe drought. Over the past two months, very high winds and bone dry conditions,dust storms. new Dust Bowl is engulfing the region.
Over-dependence on antibiotics has helped bacterial evolve capable of resisting conventional drugs designed to kill them. Susan M. Meschwitz PhD: The unique property of honey lies in its ability to fight infection on multiple levels, making it more difficult for bacteria to develop resistance.”
80,000 toxic chemicals that are unregulated and untested by independent scientific bodies, approval by agencies like the EPA. Companies are free to put these untested, carcinogenic, toxic chemicals in any product they wish without government oversight.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration is trying to ban organic farming, by making it impossible for farmers to use their own organic compost. FDA restrictions would also make burdensome rules for growers.
In seven states drought conditions were so severe that each had more than half of its land area in severe drought. Severe drought is characterized by crop loss, frequent water shortages, and mandatory water use restrictions. Based on data from the U.S. Drought Monitor, 24/7 Wall St. reviewed the states with the highest levels of severe drought.
The bill passed by North Carolina Senate on Thursday criminalizing the disclosure of fracking chemicals contradicts public interest, EarthJustice spokesperson says.
A global event challenging the agricultural behemoth Monsanto’s efforts to dominate the world food supply is taking place across the globe as millions of anti-GMO activists join forces against the biotech giant.
A magnitude 6.4 earthquake struck 18km off Greece’s southern coast in the Aegean Sea, near Kamariotissa, at a depth of 10km. Some injuries and damages were reported as far as Jordan. Hundreds have fled their homes in neighboring Turkey.
Over 400 cities worldwide will see millions marching against the US chemical and agricultural company Monsanto in an effort to boycott the use of Genetically Modified Organizms in food production.
Climate change has caused Nepal's Himalayan glaciers to shrink by nearly a quarter in just over 30 years, raising the risk of natural disasters in the ecologically fragile region, a scientist said Friday.A new study by the Kathmandu-based International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) shows that the area covered by glaciers has decreased by 24 per cent between 1977 and 2010.
Scientific testing in the area are outweighed by risks of pathogenic strains spreading round world, say researchers. Public health experts have warned that controversial experiments on mutant viruses could put human lives in danger by unleashing an accidental pandemic.
With the China-Russia deal conducted outside the dollar system we see the beginning of the de-dollarization and de-Americanization of the world, former assistant Secretary of the Treasury Paul Craig Roberts told RT.
Tokyo Electric Power Co. to begin dumping massive amounts of radioactive water currently being stored at the destroyed Fukushima nuclear facility directly into the Pacific. The radioactive material that is being released will enter our food chain and will potentially stay with us for decades to come.
Banks and investing houses Goldman Sachs, JP Morgan Chase, Citigroup, UBS, Deutsche Bank, Credit Suisse, Barclays Bank, HSBC Bank, among others, consolidating control over water. Buying thousands of acres of land with aquifers, lakes, water rights, water utilities, all over the world.
Canadian proposal for a nuclear waste storage facility less than a mile from the Great Lakes coming under heavy fire from Michigan lawmakers and environmental groups attempting to stop the project. Storage sites more than 2,200 feet underground to store 53 million gallons of nuclear waste
United States Bureau of Reclamation delivers water to around 1.2 million acres of irrigated land west of the Mississippi, certain customers in the states Washington, Colorado told to find a new source. Districts that use government project water restricted supplying to marijuana growers.
Ethiopia College of Medicine at the University of Gondar: A combination of ginger powder extract and honey are so effective that they inhibit the growth of superbugs like MRSA, E Coli, and even the bacteria that causes Pneumonia.
Almost everyone acknowledges there is some role for the government in ensuring the safety of the food we eat.
Experts warn if rain started today it would have to continue at heavy rate for weeks to replenish supplies, unlikely as we head towards summer. Fracking blamed by some, uses massive amount of water. California in similar situation, drought emergency declared last month.
Millions of fish are suddenly dying all over the planet. dozens of mass fish death events reported in the past month. Why are fish dying in unprecedented numbers all over the world? More than six tons of fish died in Marina Del Ray over the weekend.
Bosnian foreign minister: Over a quarter of Bosnia's 4 million people have been affected by the worst floods in the region in more than a century. Natural disaster has left more than 100,000 houses and buildings unusable and around one million people without clean water supplies.
North Carolina legislators considering bill would make it a crime to publicly disclose toxic chemicals energy companies use in hydraulic fracturing, offenders on the hook for fines or jail time. Unauthorized disclosure of fracking trade secrets including chemicals used a Class I Felony,
In order to alleviate energy dependence on Moscow, the coup-imposed government in Kiev has resurrected a contract with a US company to supply fuel to Ukraine’s nuclear power plants. Using US fuel rods was banned in 2012 due to dangerous incompatibility.
American Chemical Society; new evidence the herb cilantro, an ingredient in salsa and Asian dishes, can help to leech toxins from water. Simply eating cilantro is known to help purify the body of numerous toxins, but now, adding the herb to tap water can help to get rid of toxic chemicals lurking within it.
Judith McGeary, executive director of the Farm and Ranch Freedom Alliance: organic farms that sell produce would be impacted by U.S. Food and Drug Administration new rules, would place restrictions on everything from compost to livestock to water. Many organic farmers will be forced out of business.
Nearly one quarter of US honeybee population died over the winter, according to annual survey. Beekeepers reportlosses higher than they consider sustainable, could affect country’s food supply. “More than three-fourths of world's flowering plants rely on pollinators, such as bees, to reproduce.
Hernando County, Florida were debating spending $800,000 in tax-payer money to fluoridate water few months ago. This is what it would cost to put leftovers from phosphate fertilizer, semiconductor industries into everyone’s water. They decided against fluoridating the water supplies.
Chicken washed in chlorine, meat treated with artificial beef hormones, a host of genetically modified crops. All of these could be making their way into European supermarkets under a free trade agreement being negotiated between the US and EU.
March Against Monsanto is standing out in a protest against the Creve Coeur initiative, according to which pedestrians on the streets will not be allowed to use any kind of medians except from the crossroads.
Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation is beating the drum against marine ecosystem contamination after the most recent examination of soil and water at Seward Ship's Drydock has shown the presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), heavy metals and petroleum byproducts.
Common chemical additives found in sunscreens, food packaging, toothpaste and toys can harm sperm and may affect the fertility of some couples, scientists say. Tests on 96 ubiquitous and supposedly non-toxic substances found that nearly one third disrupted the way sperm functioned,
McDonald’s purchases over 3.4 billion pounds of USA-grown, pesticide-laden potatoes every year. Pesticide drift causing residents that live near potato fields to develop serious chronic health issues, many farmers have lost their livestock to pesticide-induced illness.
Participants who ate an 80% organic diet had 89% less pesticide residue in their urine compared to eating conventionally grown produce after only a week long change in diet. Consumption of an organic diet for one week significantly reduced pesticide exposure.
USDA’s National Organic Standards Board (NOSB), small farmers and large organic producers fought over what organic label should mean. There are exceptions what is and isn’t allowed in USDA certified organic produce. small farmers and “Big Organic” in dispute on how to handle these exceptions.
In real world it means that small farmers will be put into debt to Monsanto, so they can grow (until they go bankrupt) GMO food crops. Eventually these small farms will become part of even bigger corporation.
Researchers at Harvard University found rising levels of CO2 are affecting human nutrition by reducing levels of very important nutrients in food crops, predicted 2050-levels of CO2 in wheat, rice, corn, and soybeans significantly reduce the amount of iron, zinc, and protein in the crops.
The Pentagon, despite the reduction of the US Armed Forces and their funding, intends to strengthen its military presence around the world and enhance defense cooperation with allies, U.S. Defense Secretary Chuck Hagel said speaking at the Chicago Council on Foreign Relations.
Why Monsanto and other GMOs companies would like to learn a new product. Marijuana may be next major GMO crop. Company plans to manipulate “medical marijuana.”Pharmaceutical mafia can create transgenic strains with ability to produce more active compounds which are patented.
Lazio Regional Administrative Court in Italy has refuted an Italian farmer’s request to freely sow biotech corn seeds, citing precautionary principle which allows governments to take protective measures to protect human health and the environment without having to wait for possible risks to be realized.
Activists wanted to be heard at National Organic Standards Board Meeting (NOSB). discussing integrity of organic foods arrested after protest against watering down organic standards by USDA and Obama political appointee’s, reduce determinations which allow synthetic ingredients in food.
After months of regular visits by citizens to city council meetings, Dallas City Council decided last week to stop water fluoridation. Perhaps it was economic incentive. Citizens continuously probed council members about why they would fluoridate city water when it has been proven dangerous to health.
When planning transport systems in developing countries, one of the main challenges is to evaluate the proportion of income spent by poorer households on transport as well as in understanding transport patterns in relation to residential location, travel distance and travel mode.
EcoWatch, USC Canada, a non-governmental agency, is working to create a stronger domestic seed industry through the Bauta Family Initiative on Canadian Seed Security. Their hopes are that the initiative will help protect against the negative effects of climate change on food security.
Number of GMO-free countries growing – especially in Europe. Bavarian Environment Minister, Dr. Marcel Huber, signed GMO Free agreement in Brussels, with President of European GMO Free network, and Environment Minister for the Marche region of Italy.
they are not just passively ignoring alternative energy sources; they are actively opposing them.
President of the Ukrainian Grain Association (UGA) Volodymyr Klymenko: we propose the legalization of the use of GM seeds, which had been tested in the United Stated for a long time, for our producers. Monsanto winner of US State Department 27th Annual World Food Prize in 2013.
Arctic University of Norway has detected “extreme levels” of the biotech giant’s RoundUp herbicide in our food, researchers found high levels of RoundUp on 70 percent of genetically engineered soy plants. Studies have proven there are ‘anti-nutrients’ in GM food.
"Making fracking safe is simply not possible, not with the current technology, or with the inadequate regulations being proposed," Louis Allstadt, former executive vice president of Mobil Oil, said during a news conference in Albany called by the anti-fracking group Elected Officials to Protect New York.
A 4.4-magnitude earthquake has struck Slovenia southwest of the country’s capital, Ljubljana, at a depth of 12.4 kilometers, says USGS. The earthquake took place about 200 kilometers from a nuclear power plant at Krško, a town in eastern Slovenia.
First Russia, Tasmania, and Mexico say no to Monsanto and now, the Netherlands have passed a similar ban, determined to keep Glyphosate-laced herbicides away from the general public. Citizens of the Netherlands have been expressing their concern over glyphosate chemicals.
The Russian government will postpone the introduction of certifying genetically-modified seeds for another three years, Russian Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev said Tuesday during his annual report before the country's lower house of parliament.
Those who can't smell the carbon dioxide ravaging the earth for hedonistic profit - enabled by federal and many state and local governments - will find out that just because you can't smell global warming does not mean that it is not brewing a cauldron of devastation just over the horizon.
China refused five total shipments of GM crops in just a month – all of it coming from the U S. Chinese Minister of Agriculture unable to issue safety certificate unless these strict scientific proofs utilized. Three shipments of US GMO corn without safety certificates, approval documents destroyed.
United States farmers have interest in Ukraine situation, regional instability could have consequences on wheat and corn supplies around world, possible disruptions in country’s supply chain. Western sanctions on Russian wheat output could have repercussions on American farms and elsewhere.
Oklahoma residents who produce energy through solar panels or small wind turbines on their property will now be charged an additional fee, those with systems already installed won’t be affected, new customers will now be charged a monthly fee.
Genetically modified (GM) Bt cotton produced by Maharashtra Hybrid Seeds Company (Mahyco), banned from Indian state of Karnataka, a major cotton-producing region of India, after the transgenic crop failed to deliver on pest resistance and yields.
Chancellor Angela Merkel: “all of Germany’s energy policies must be reconsidered.”Most important energy supplier is Russia: provides 38 percent of Germany’s natural gas, 35 percent oil imports, 25 percent of coal, no alternatives that could cover shortfalls of this magnitude. Supplies already short.
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Clarence Chamberlain: The Race to Cross the Atlantic
Iowa’s Pioneers of the Air
Early airplanes were crude and often unreliable. Flying was dangerous, but many saw the air as a new American frontier. These pioneers of the air were willing to take the chance. Out of their adventures and inventions the science of aviation was born.
One man who earned the title "pioneer
of the air" is Clarence Chamberlain, an Iowan who became a hero.
There were three contestants waiting in New York City that spring of 1927. The goal: to be first to fly non-stop across the Atlantic Ocean. The prize: fame and $25,000. Two flyers had tried and been killed in attempts to fly the Atlantic. Now, three pilots waited for the bad weather over the Atlantic to clear.
Clarence Chamberlain was an experienced flyer from Iowa. He had made his living selling and flying planes since his World War I flight training. He and the Columbia were the popular favorites in the race. The America had a four-man crew led by Richard E. Byrd, who had made the first flight over the North Pole a year before. Finally, there was the Spirit of St. Louis with a former airmail pilot from Illinois, Charles A. Lindbergh.
The pilots waited around the field for days, checking weather reports and making mechanical adjustments on their planes. Then the weather cleared briefly, and Lindbergh took off. Flying alone, he crossed the Atlantic (a distance of 3,610 miles) in thirty-three hours and thirty-four minutes (about a day and a half). The minute he landed in France, Lindbergh became an international hero.
Only two weeks later, Clarence Chamberlain headed out over the Atlantic on a flight which broke Lindbergh's record. With him was the airplane's owner, Charles A. Levine. Levine had kept everything about this flight a big secret, including the destination. No one even knew that Mr. Levine planned to go as a passenger! By the time Chamberlain ran out of gas near Berlin, Germany, he had flown 3,911 miles, in forty-two hours and forty-five minutes. Byrd's effort twenty-four days later failed when fog forced him to land in the ocean near the French coast.
President Calvin Coolidge sent a message of congratulations to Chamberlain. The Brooklyn, New York, Chamber of Commerce gave Wilda, his wife, a check for $15,000. Wilda then took a ship to Europe (which took ten days) to join her husband, who had received $25,000 from Levine for making the trip.
The Chamberlains vacationed in Europe before returning to Iowa. Clarence had been born and raised in Denison, and spent two years at Iowa State College. Now he was coming home a world-famous flyer. The whole town turned out to celebrate!
In the years that followed, Clarence Chamberlain remained one of America's finest aviators. He designed New York City's new municipal airport, Floyd Bennett Field. He manufactured aircraft parts. And, when World War II began, Clarence Chamberlain trained young men and women to fly, just as he had been trained thirty years before.
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1 Answer | Add Yours
The original question had to be edited down. I think that the most dominant Romantic concept that is present in Colerdige's poem is the strong connection he displays with the natural world. Coleridge's entire poem is about a bird in its natural setting. There is much in way of the speaker's, presumably Colerdige's, own desire to mirror the freedom and sense of being that the bird holds. It is here where I think that one can see how the Romantic concept of love of nature is present. At the same time, the invocation of emotional ideas such as melancholy, hope, and the affect of parting are Romantic concepts illuminated in the poem. The Romantic praising of emotion, willing to see emotional frames of references as part of the being of the life experience is part of Coleridge's approach in the poem. Finally, the introspective analysis of the self that is such a part of the poetic expression is another Romantic concept that Coleridge introduces. For Coleridge, a strong Romantic is willing to take what is present in the world and use it to explore the world of the subjective. In externalizing the subjective experience, one hopes to find a universal reality. This aspiration becomes part of the poem and is another example of the Romantic concepts that Coleridge represents in "The Nightingale."
We’ve answered 327,683 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question
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City walls, roads and houses
The Aracoeli Insula
The walls surrounding the so-called Servian city probably ran round the top of the hill in its north-western sector near Campus Martius, going up from the Forum Boarium near the Tiber and running towards the Quirinal along the saddle which Trajan subsequently cut into in order to construct his own Forum.
Remains of the first cappellaccio city wall from the VI century BC and of blocks of Grotta Oscura tufa-stone from the IV century BC phase have been discovered in a number of places.
The names of three gateways in this section of the city wall have been handed down to us, although their exact position is by no means clear: Porta Carmentalis (near the Tiber), Porta Flumentana (maybe near Campus Martius) and Porta Ratumena (near the Quirinal).
The Clivus Capitolinus climbed up the Capitoline from the Roman Forum; this was the thoroughfare used for triumphal parades by victorious generals on their way to the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline.
The lower part started its route near the Temple of Saturn - part of the central section is still used by traffic and joins the Roman Forum to the Capitoline.
The remains of the road that climbed away from the Campus Martius in the deep valley between the two heights of the Capitoline Hill have been found. It was lined with buildings in brick and tufa-stone with travertine marble corbels supporting the balconies, the remains of some of which are still preserved under the piazza itself.
Other places on the hill could only be reached by flights of steps: Centum gradus, Gradus Monetae and Scalae Gemoniae.
A number of residential buildings sprung up around the Capitoline hill during the Imperial Age, especially on the north-western side and on the slopes, as can be seen by the 5-storey block (insula) dating from the II century AD which can still be seen near the Aracoeli steps.
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Issue: July 28
- Gardening in New Mexico can continue into the fall and winter
- There are options to prevent fruit formation and bird problems when growing New Mexico Forestiera
There are options to prevent fruit formation and bird problems when growing New Mexico Forestiera
Q. Is there any way to prevent my beautiful, prolific Forestiera from producing berries? I would love to let the birds eat them, but every summer it costs me hours and hours of pressure washing my stucco walls and parapets. I covered the tree with netting yesterday but would love a permanent solution.
via NMSU University-wide Extension
A. Forestiera is indeed a beautiful native New Mexico plant, often called New Mexico olive. There is a chemical that can cause early fruit drop or prevent fruit set in many ornamental plants. This chemical is ethephon, a chemical that releases ethylene gas, a plant hormone that causes fruit abscission. This product is sold as "fruit eliminator". It may work, but it also may not be successful. Your local NMSU County Extension agent can help you find a source if this product. Be sure to follow application directions to prevent damage to your Foresteria. It is too late to use it this year; it must be used before the fruit "set" soon after flowering. The only best long-term solution is to replace the plant with one that does not produce fruit. The Foresteria is a dioecious plant with separate male and female plants. The female plant produces only female flowers and, if pollinated, the fruit. The male plant produces only pollen and no fruit. When you purchase plants at the nursery ask for male plants. Some nurseries may have some. These will be larger plants in containers that have been seen to flower, producing only male flowers. An examination of these plants should show no fruit. However, a female plant may fail to produce fruit if the flowers are not pollinated or if the birds have already harvested the fruit. Purchasing the plants in the spring while they are flowering, choosing only male plants is the best way to be sure you have chosen male plants. Female flowers are distinguishable from male flowers in that they have the small, future fruit, behind the flower and only a single stigma in the center of the flower.
Gardening in New Mexico can continue into the fall and winter
Q. Is it possible to have a fall garden in New Mexico? When is the last chance for planting?
A. In Albuquerque and certainly in southern parts of New Mexico you can still plant a fall garden. Some crops may still be planted in northern New Mexico. Choose plants that will mature before the first frost in your region. Seed packets usually have "days to harvest" as part of the information on the packet. Count the days to your first frost, add one or two weeks for harvest time, and if there is enough time, plant the seeds. If there is not enough time to start from seeds, perhaps you can find a nursery selling transplants. Some vegetable varieties are frost tolerant. These can be planted now and often harvested well past the date of the first frost. They may not survive a hard freeze, but frost often improves their flavor. Covering the plants with row cover material will often help you prolong your harvest even beyond the first hard freeze. If you have a cold frame, you can extend your gardening season well into the winter. Plants that tolerate some cold weather will prosper in a cold frame. Carrots, lettuce, kale, onions, and many herbs may be grown in a cold frame. Some of these will grow outside the cold frame through the winter. I grow shallots through the winter in my garden. Your local conditions will determine whether the cold frame is essential for a late fall to winter garden.
For more gardening information, visit the NMSU Extension publications World Wide Web site at http://www.cahe.nmsu.edu/pubs/_h.
Send your gardening questions to:
Yard and Garden, ATTN: Dr. Curtis Smith
NMSU Cooperative Extension Service
9301 Indian School Road, NE, Suite 112
Albuquerque, NM 87112
Curtis W. Smith, Ph.D., is an Extension Horticulture Specialist with New Mexico State University's Cooperative Extension Service. New Mexico State University is an equal opportunity/affirmative action employer and educator.
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