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Audio Analyzers Information
Audio analyzers measure the noise and audio spectrum of output from an amplifier or a stereo. There are three basic product types: analog, digital, and converter-based. Analog audio analyzers use analog hardware to generate signals and analog filters to measure them. By contrast, digital audio analyzers use digital signal processing (DSP) algorithms to both generate and analyze signals in the digital domain. Today, most professional-grade audio analyzers are converter-based devices that generate and analyze signals in the digital domain, and use analog-to-digital converters (ADC) and digital-to-analog converters (DAC) for analog input and output. Basic format parameters include the number of channels, communications interface, operating system (OS), and dimensions or form factor. Audio analyzers generate sine waves, square waves, random noise, and combinations of these signals. For optimum performance, some products use multiple oscillators or waveforms in the analog domain. Typically, converter-based audio analyzers are used when analog methods are unable to generate specific waveforms. By using DACs, these devices can produce not only multi-tone waveforms and shaped burst, but also sine waves with inter-channel phase shifts - a technique that is especially useful in testing surround-sound decoders. Balancing sharpness of filtering against distortion reduction is difficult, however, and sharper filters may introduce more response ripples. Therefore, most high-performance audio analyzers have a dedicated analog oscillator for total harmonic distortion plus noise (THD+N) testing. Audio analyzers carry product specifications for both generator and analyzer performance. Generator performance specifications consist of sine frequency range, frequency accuracy, intermodulation distortion (IMD) test-signal type, maximum amplitude, amplitude accuracy, flatness, and digital-output sampling rate. The analog output configuration for audio analyzers is either balanced or unbalanced. Analyzer specifications include maximum rated input voltage, maximum bandwidth, amplitude accuracy, amplitude flatness, residual input noise, fast Fourier transform (FFT) resolution, IMD measurement capability, and DC voltage measurement. Mounting style and form factor are also important to consider. Audio engineers and audio technicians use audio analyzers in a variety of settings, including design laboratories, broadcast facilities and production lines. Suppliers of audio analyzers may be accredited by the American Associations for Laboratory Accreditation (AALA) under ISO/IEC 17025:2005, a standard from the International Standards Organization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).
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When I first took the dive into online video, I quickly found that there was a steep learning curve - especially with regard to new terms like codecs, video file formats, compression and the like.
At ReelSEO, Ive had several readers ask me to clarify the differences between mp4, AAC, flv, mov, H.264, VP6, Spark, AAC, .ogg, Theora, XviD, MKV, etc... Just last week, we posted a basic overview of web video formats and I thought it would be worthwhile to follow up and provide some basic information around what we mean when we talk about video formats, or encapsulation containers, as opposed to online video compression and encoding.
Video File Formats and Containers
Wikipedia defines a video file format as "A container or wrapper format is a meta-file format whose specification describes how data and meta-data is stored (not coded)." What does this mean?
Well, when you look at a multimedia file, you will notice that the file names end with, for example - .mov, .ogg, .wmv, .flv, .mp4, .mpeg, etc... These extensions indicate the video file format. Essentially, videos are packaged up into encapsulation containers, or wrapper formats, that contain all the information needed to present video. Videos have a lot of different information that can be "wrapped" up into these containers - including the video stream, audio stream, metadata, subtitles, chapter-information, synchronization information, etc... For multimedia data streams to be useful in stored or transmitted form, they must be encapsulated together in a container format. You can think of file formats as being the containers that hold all this information -very similar to a .zip, .sit or .rar file.
So, as an analogy - Let's say that you have a board meeting where you need to present your ideas for 2011. You may have various pieces of information that you need to present during a board meeting. These may include a presentation, financial charts, legal documents, etc... Each of these separate items is compressed on their own into PowerPoint files, Excel files, Word documents, etc... To package these items up together, you might put these all into a .zip file. Separately, each one of these pieces carries important information that when packaged together - represent your whole story.
Examples Common Video File Formats:
- .mov, .wmv, .ogg, .avi, .flv, .ogg, .mp4, .mpeg
Video Compression & Codecs
Although container formats do employ "compression" to compress all the various information sources into a compact file (like a zip file) - prior to bundling that information, each data stream is encoded/compressed. So, for example, you may encode a video stream using h.264 and an audio stream using the AAC compression scheme. These may then be wrapped up within a .mov or .mov file container.
As a general rule, the more bits/second (the amount of data per second that's required to render audio and video content) in a video file, the better the resulting quality. The other part of the equation has to do with how the data is compressed and de-compressed as some compression schemes are better than others. Compressing data essentially relies on algorithms to pull data out with the goal of making big data chunks smaller. Doing this makes for better quality video while taking up less space which is particularly important for delivering video over the web.
Basically, a codec - which is a combination of the words "compressor/decompressor" (or coder/decoder) is a set of instructions that identifies the method used to compress data into fewer bytes, as well as doing just the opposite when a video file is played back, decompressing it. So, a video codec, is a compression scheme to compress a video stream while an audio codec would be a compression scheme for audio..
Examples of Compression Schemes:
- Video = H.264, H.263, VP6, Sorenson Spark, MPEG-4, MPEG-2, etc...
- Audio = AAC, MP3, Vorbis, etc...
- Metadata = XML, RDF, XMP, etc...
Keep in mind that there are 2 types of codecs - lossy and losseless. These are just what they sound like. Lossy compression (commonly used to compress multimedia for delivery) compresses data in such a way that it looses some of the original data but achieves much smaller file sizes. Lossless compression is just the opposite.
There are some details about compression, codecs, file formats, etc... that I left out of this post in order to keep things simple. If you really want to learn all about these, head over here for some in-depth information.
So - does this help at all?
What questions do you have with regard to encoding video for the web? Please include any questions that you might have in the comments section below and we will be sure to answer.
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Electricity grids down, uncontrolled fires from exploding gas transport systems, no communication to call for help, no water to battle fires: It’s all part of a catastrophic scenario some scientists predict could happen under an electromagnetic pulse attack – and the Department of Homeland Security’s 83-page emergency plan includes no mention of EMP or how it might respond to such an attack.
When WND contacted the Department of Homeland Security, a representative explained why a course of action was not included in the National Emergency Communications Plan – a strategy that relies heavily on the ability of authorities at all levels of government to communicate using radios, computers and other electronic devices that could be disabled by an EMP attack.
“When we look at the strategic threat picture, when we look at patterns of criminal activity that all levels of government show, when we look at what is ultimately going to involve limited resources, we have to get to a point where we prioritize,” DHS spokesman Russ Knocke said. “We prioritize based upon threat vulnerability and consequence. As we speak today, there’s nothing in the threat picture that would suggest an imminent EMP attack.”
However, Congress has expressed concern regarding the threat of EMP. A top scientist warned the House Armed Services Committee in July that America remains vulnerable to a “catastrophe” from a nuclear electromagnetic pulse attack that could be launched with plausible deniability by hostile rogue nations or terrorists.
William R. Graham, chairman of the Commission to Assess the Threat to the United States from Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) Attack and the former national science adviser to President Reagan, testified before the committee and issued an alarming report on “one of a small number of threats that can hold our society at risk of catastrophic consequences.”
He identified vulnerabilities in the nation’s critical infrastructures, “which are essential to both our civilian and military capabilities.”
Not taking the steps necessary to reduce the threat in the next three to five years “can both invite and reward attack,” Graham told the committee.
Knocke said EMPs are considered in a broad federal playbook released in January for how the federal government will manage incidents of all types called the National Response Framework, or NRF.
The 90-page document includes the following:
- It provides an overview of the roles, responsibilities and jurisdictions of key partners at the local, state and federal levels who implement the framework.
- It emphasizes planning structures for effective response.
- It offers tips for individuals and households, such as reducing hazards in and around their homes, preparing emergency supply kits, creating household emergency plans and reducing demands on land-line and cellular communications.
The NRF provides general guidelines for dealing with emergency events. However, the plan includes no mention of how the nation would respond to an EMP attack or widespread electrical and electronics failures that could effectively cut communication lines between each level of emergency responders by disabling computers, satellites, radios, radar receivers and even traffic lights and electronic ignition systems in cars.
EMP is a pulse of energy that can be produced from non-nuclear sources, such as electromagnetic bombs, or E-bombs. Some experts claim an electromagnetic pulse shock wave can be produced by a device small enough to fit in a briefcase. But the most threatening and terrifying type of EMP attack could come following a blast from a nuclear weapon 25 to 250 miles above the Earth’s surface. Like a swift stroke of lightening, EMP could immediately disrupt and damage all electronic systems and America’s electrical infrastructure. A detonation over the middle of the continental U.S. “has the capability to produce significant damage to critical infrastructures that support the fabric of U.S. society and the ability of the United States and Western nations to project influence and military power,” said Graham.
“Several potential adversaries have the capability to attack the United States with a high-altitude nuclear weapon-generated electromagnetic pulse, and others appear to be pursuing efforts to obtain that capability,” said Graham. “A determined adversary can achieve an EMP attack capability without having a high level of sophistication. For example, an adversary would not have to have long-range ballistic missiles to conduct an EMP attack against the United States. Such an attack could be launched from a freighter off the U.S. coast using a short- or medium-range missile to loft a nuclear warhead to high altitude. Terrorists sponsored by a rogue state could attempt to execute such an attack without revealing the identity of the perpetrators. Iran, the world’s leading sponsor of international terrorism, has practiced launching a mobile ballistic missile from a vessel in the Caspian Sea. Iran has also tested high-altitude explosions of the Shahab-III, a test mode consistent with EMP attack, and described the tests as successful. Iranian military writings explicitly discuss a nuclear EMP attack that would gravely harm the United States. While the commission does not know the intention of Iran in conducting these activities, we are disturbed by the capability that emerges when we connect the dots.”
An EMP assault could prove devastating because of the unprecedented cascading failures of major infrastructures that could result. Because of America’s heavy reliance on electricity and electronics, the impact would be far worse than on a country less advanced technologically. Graham and the commission see the potential for failure in the financial system, the system of distribution for food and water, medical care and trade and production.
“The recovery of any one of the key national infrastructures is dependent upon the recovery of others,” he said. “The longer the outage, the more problematic and uncertain the recovery will be. It is possible for the functional outages to become mutually reinforcing until at some point the degradation of infrastructure could have irreversible effects on the country’s ability to support its population.”
In an earlier report, the commission even went so far as to suggest, in its opening sentence, that an EMP attack “might result in the defeat of our military forces.”
Knocke said DHS is highly concerned about the threat of nuclear attack and other disasters.
“At present, our highest priorities are things like preventing nuke attacks, as well as working with state and locals to build up their capability to prevent and respond to things like IED events or catastrophic natural disasters,” he said. “As it relates to what our greatest preoccupation is, we’re doing everything we can to try to prevent a nuclear or radiological attack on our soil that would have the most severe impact in terms of loss of life or economic consequence.”
When WND asked Knocke if DHS has a specific strategy to deal with an EMP attack, he said, “Not as we speak today. No.”
Asked if the department has considered creating a plan to address EMP threat following Congress’ concern about such an attack, he replied:
“The risk picture is ever changing. There’s nothing in the strategic threat picture today that tells us there’s an imminent EMP threat. That could change down the road as whatever circumstances in the world evolve. So, I am not telling you that it might never be among the highest priorities. We’ve actually looked at this issue, and we’ve looked at the entire spectrum of issues that we have to contend with when it comes to homeland security. But we have to prioritize. We’re not in the business of being all things to all people at all times.”
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Board of Directors
The governing body of a corporation elected by the stockholders. The board is usually composed of officers of the company and outside (non-company) directors. A corporation's board of directors is ultimately responsible for its management. This power is codified in statutes such as Section 141 of the Delaware General Corporation Law and by similar statutes in other states. Although the power to manage the corporation is often broadly stated and not clearly defined, responsibility for making decisions on behalf of the corporation is clearly vested with the directors and not the stockholders. The board discharges this responsibility by:
Appointing officers who run the day-to-day operations of the corporation, propose strategies and objectives and implement corporate plans.
Supervising those officers.
Making major decisions for the corporation (for example, entering into a significant joint venture or putting the business up for sale).
Often selected for their expertise in a particular area or industry connections, directors typically hold an advisory or supervisory role. State statutory law and a corporation's charter normally permit the board to delegate any of its powers to a committee of directors. However, many state statutes restrict the scope of the activities that can be conducted by a committee of less than an entire board.
The board of directors of a corporation owes fiduciary duties to the corporation and its stockholders (see Practice Note, Fiduciary Duties of the Board of Directors ( www.practicallaw.com/6-382-1267) ). These duties are regulated by:
Statutory law of the state in which the corporation is incorporated.
Common law rules (for example, case law relating to directors' fiduciary duties).
The corporation's articles or certificate of incorporation and by-laws.
The stockholder activist climate. Reform of corporate governance regulations and directors' duties is often influenced by, if not a direct result of, stockholder activism and litigation.
In the case of a public company, the board of directors must also comply with the governance standards of the Securities and Exchange Commission and the exchange on which it lists its stock (see Practice Note, Corporate Governance Standards: Board of Directors ( www.practicallaw.com/0-381-5330) ).
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Monday, October 29, 2012
Today we celebrate Helen Kafka, better known as Blessed Maria Restituta.
Helen Kafka was born in 1894 to a shoemaker and grew up in Vienna, Austria. She initially worked as a salesgirl and then as an assistant caregiver at the Lainz public hospital, which brought her into contact with the Franciscan Sisters of Christian Charity. At the age of 20, she decided to join the Order and took the name Restituta, after a 4th century Christian martyr.
In 1919, she began working as a surgical nurse at the Moulding hospital in Austria. When the Germans took over the country, she became a local opponent of the Nazi regime. Her conflict with them escalated after they ordered her to remove all the crucifixes she had hung up in each room of a new hospital wing.
Sister Maria Restitua refused and she was arrested by the Gestapo in 1942. She was sentenced to death for "aiding and abetting the enemy in the betrayal of the fatherland and for plotting high treason.”
Martin Bormann decided that her execution would provide "effective intimidation" for other opponents of the Nazis. She spent her remaining time in prison caring for other prisoners; even the Communist prisoners spoke well of her. She was offered her freedom if she would abandon her religious community; but she refused.
Blessed Maria was beheaded March 30, 1943 in Vienna. Pope John Paul II beatified her on June 21, 1998.
"I have lived for Christ; I want to die for Christ."
~ Blessed Maria's last recorded words
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The central achievement of the genomics revolution in biology arguably lies in the mapping and sequencing of the human genome and the generation of the fine haplotype maps that are being used to study human diversity. While this is an amazing accomplishment that will likely pay dividends for years, the genome’s sequence itself has taught us little that has immediate applicability in human health. This was clearly anticipated by some, who reflected that knowing the sequence of a 10 kB virus did little to immediately curb the AIDS epidemic, nor did identification of the gene for Huntington’s disease lead immediately to a cure for that disease. In both cases, however, great strides have been made, and these great strides have followed from the integration of genomics data with data from other areas, including studies of gene expression (mRNA and protein) and general biochemistry and cell biology studies.
Just as genomics is the -omics face of DNA sequence analysis, metabolomics is the -omics face of biochemistry and an important piece in an -omics approach to understanding cell and system level biology. One definition, which I believe originated with Oliver Fiehn, is that metabolomics is the measurement of changes in populations of low molecular weight metabolites under a given set of conditions. The field and its subfields have been known by many names, including metabolomics, metabonomics, metabolic fingerprinting, metabolite profiling, metanomics, metabolic profiling, metabolite target analysis, and metabolic footprinting. Today the most common usage, except perhaps within the NMR community, is metabolomics. NIH has placed metabolomics on the Roadmap (NIH’s plan for solving critical biomedical needs), and the FDA is also becoming active (Center for Metabolomics, Division of Systems Toxicology, NCTR, see also http://www.fda.gov/oc/initiatives/criticalpath/). There is a journal devoted to the field (Metabolomics, Springer) and an international society (The Metabolomics Society, www.metabolomicssociety.org). Standards for the field are actively being addressed (see society website if you wish to become involved).
Conceptually, the genome gives rise to the transcriptome, the transcriptome to the proteome, and the proteome acts on the endogenous and exogenous small molecule subset of the organism, the metabolome. Feedback interactions exist at all levels, and it is clear that all levels, including the metabolome, are both sensitive to environmental influences, including nutrition, toxicants, etc and reflect the physiological status of the organism.
Briefly, the workflow in a metabolomics study involves sample collection, high data density analytical instrumentation such as NMR, mass spectroscopy, or HPLC, data curation and a series of bioinformatics approaches. From the biochemical standpoint we measure metabolites (small molecules), pathways (eg, purine catabolites), interactive pathways (eg, amino acid metabolism), compound classes (eg, lipids), and conceptually linked systems (eg, antioxidants and damage products). From the conceptual standpoint, we measure biochemical constituents, excretion products, precursor-product relationship, balances (eg, redox systems), collection depots (eg, sera, urine), flux, snapshot views of biochemistry, integrated signal from genome and environment, short and long term status, temporal images, sub-threshold changes (eg, in toxicology and nutrition).
Metabolomics is being used to address questions across multiple broad areas of biology. It will eventually take its place with proteomics and transcriptomics as a central player in systems biology, especially as work within the computational biology field has already made inroads in this area. Other questions that will be addressed using metabolomics center about environmental influence, functional genomics, biomarkers and classification, mechanisms of disease, drug development and personalized medicine and nutrition.
Metabolomics offers advantages and disadvantages that complement those of the other omics level investigations. The advantages of metabolomics include its great sensitivity, the knowledge base that comes from years of biochemical research, the relatively small size of the number of endogenous molecules relative to the number of genes, mRNA species, or proteins. Another major advantage lies in metabolomics being the end product of the intersection of nature and nurture, at least theoretically offering an ability to gain that aforementioned snapshot and hope to encompass a broad picture. In addition, metabolomics is the fastest system to react to stimuli or to change, enabling the most current view possible of the organism. Of course, these advantages can also be disadvantages—the great sensitivity and responsiveness of the metabolome means that it is also the most subject to noise, complicating experimental design and interpretation. There are also practical issues, such as the comparatively high set-up costs and requirement for complex informatics and, in some cases, multiple analytical platforms.
Different analytical instrumentation platforms each have different strengths and weaknesses. For example, NMR offers high throughput, non-destructive analysis and the ability to look at intact tissue, but is relatively insensitive. Gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy offers high throughput and automated analysis of known compounds, but detection is limited to volatile compounds and the technique has medium sensitivity. An interesting system that we work with is HPLC separations coupled with coulometric electrode array detection (ESA, Inc, a company which, by way of disclosure, I collaborate and share intellectual property). The system offers high sensitivity and precision, but low throughput and less knowledge about biochemical identity. The system is particularly intriguing because it only sees redox active compounds, a strength in studying systems such as neurotransmitters and redox system, a limitation for systems such as the Krebs’ cycle in which the metabolites are relatively redox insensitive.
Metabolomics as a field has gone from one meeting a little as two years ago to at least eight this year. Several biotech companies have arisen to fill this niche, some, such as Metabolon (again, in interest of disclosure, a company I have financial interest in), focused on drug development and broad capture of the human and animal metabolome, to company specializing in specific areas, such as plants, lipids (Lipomics) or flux (SIDMAP), or in specific diseases, such as liver abnormalities.
In summary, metabolomics is a rapidly growing field with the potential to play major roles in helping to understand the complex issues in health and disease that are the focus in the post-genomics age.
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A few miles to the south-west of Port Askaig on the island of Islay lies Loch Finlaggan, a place of great importance in Scottish history, In the loch are three islands, two of which lie close to the north shore. These are Eilean Mor (large island) and Eilean na Comhairle (council isle) which contain fragmentary remains of buildings. Here the installation of the Lords of the Isles took place. The Macdonald Lords of the Isles were descended from Somerled, a 12th century prince, and these lords, the chiefs of Clan Donald, chose Finlaggan as their home and the centre of their lordship, so that Islay is often referred to as the Cradle of Clan Donald.
The Lords of the Isles ruled the islands and part of the west coast of Scotland, from Kintyre to Lewis, virtually independent of royal control. The heir to a strong Gaelic and Norse tradition, the Lord of the Isles -ill Innse Gall -was one of the most powerful figures in the country with the small islands in Loch Finlaggan a centre of symbolic and administrative importance.
Once confirmed in his island Lordship, the Lord of the Isles, in company with his privy councillors, would retire to the neighbouring Eilean na Comhairle to discuss the great questions concerning the government of the Lordship. Here he issued land charters, of which two survive to the present day, and delivered his judgement on legal matters.
Finlaggan is well signposted from the main road. When travelling north on the A846 towards Port Askaig, take a left turn about one mile after the village of Ballygrant. Follow the single-track road and after half a mile take another left turn onto the Finlaggan Farm road. Drive carefully as this is a working farm and there may be animals on the road. The Finlaggan Information Centre is at the end of the road. Access to the island is by a path through a farm field and a bridge across the water. Visitors are welcome to the island all year.
For all things Islay visit www.islayinfo.com
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The following diagram shows two virtual networks (vnet0 and vnet1) connected to separate virtual switch instances (vsw0 and vsw1) in the service domain, which in turn use two different physical interfaces. The physical interfaces are nxge0 and nxge1 in Oracle Solaris 10 and net0 and net1 in Oracle Solaris 11. The diagram shows the Oracle Solaris 10 physical interface names.
If a physical link failure occurs in the service domain, the virtual switch device that is bound to that physical device detects the link failure. Then, the virtual switch device propagates the failure to the corresponding virtual network device that is bound to this virtual switch. The virtual network device sends notification of this link event to the IP layer in the guest LDom_A, which results in failover to the other virtual network device in the IPMP group.
Figure 8-7 Two Virtual Networks Connected to Separate Virtual Switch Instances
You can achieve further reliability in the logical domain by connecting each virtual network device (vnet0 and vnet1) to virtual switch instances in different service domains, as shown in the following diagram. In this case, in addition to physical network failure, LDom_A can detect virtual network failure and trigger a failover following a service domain crash or shutdown.
Figure 8-8 Virtual Network Devices Each Connected to Different Service Domains
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Monday, April 13, 2009
Ten Tips - Exam techniques
Tests and exams are a regular part of the school environment. It is important that exams be kept in proportion - they are important, but not the end of the world. Some things can be done to make exams a more valuable, worthwhile and less threatening experience for students.
1. Have all necessary material with you
You can't borrow items such as pens, pencils, rulers or special equipment while in an
2. Have a relaxing night before your exams
Have an early night, and try to have a healthy breakfast.
3. Read the entire paper.
Where you have choices, decide which ones you plan to answer.
4. Plan your time.
Spend some time drafting a plan for the questions you choose to answer.
5. Jot down ideas as they come to you.
While you are answering one question, information about another may suddenly occur to
you. Jot it down somewhere because when you come to that question perhaps an hour later,
you may have forgotten it.
6. Don't leave any questions unanswered.
If you are short of time, use note form. Remember, you can only be marked on the answers
7. Never leave the room early.
If you have time at the end, go over your work, add information (eg in the margin). You can't
return if you suddenly remember a fact after you have left.
8. Do not spend too long on multiple choice questions.
With multiple choice questions it is best to cover the answers and work out your own before
looking at the choices on paper. If you can't answer the question come back to it later - have a
9. Never omit an entire question.
No matter how well you answer other questions, you must leave time for all questions - a
perfect answer can still only earn a certain number of marks. If you write nothing, you can't
receive any marks and you have lost all your marks for a particular question. Write
something - it may at least give you a few points.
10. Maintain a stable energy level.
Eating foods such as chocolate bars before an exam might give you an energy boost to begin
with but your blood sugar levels will drop within an hour and your energy will plunge
dramatically, making it hard for you to concentrate.
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Conservation Efforts at Happy Hollow Park & Zoo
Around the Globe
Helping to Save the Mountain Gorilla
In 2006 Happy Hollow Park & Zoo established a commitment to work with a group of Park Rangers in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The Park Rangers are the frontline of protection for the last remaining populations of Mountain Gorillas in Virunga National Park. Park Rangers are pitted against well-armed professional poachers hunting for ivory and bushmeat, and bands of rebel insurgents. Over the last several years, over 140 Rangers have died in the line of duty. When we first began working with the Rangers in 2006 they were poorly supplied and paid (sadly, they hadn't been paid a salary in over nine years) - yet they continued to do their best to defend the Virunga National Park, home to the highly endangered Mountain Gorillas.
There are approximately 800 Mountain Gorillas remaining in the world, located in two separate locations: The Virunga range on the borders of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Rwanda and Uganda, and the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in Uganda.
Happy Hollow Staff, with our nonprofit partner Happy Hollow Foundation, is committed to providing support for these Rangers.
Over the last several years, through various fundraisers, we have:
- Provided salaries for Rangers who had not been paid in almost 10 years, yet continued to perform their incredibly dangerous job
- Purchased Ranger uniforms and boots for protection out on patrol
- Improved the water sanitation system at Bukima patrol post in the gorilla sector, which houses 17 guards and uses a 20-year-old well in which the water was filthy.
- Provided tents and rations for patrols
- Restocked the pharmacy at the park headquarters, which serves the Rangers and their families.
- We've sent funds to help toward the purchase of a surveillance plane. Surveillance is becoming increasingly important as the pressures on the park and on the Rangers increase. It's impossible to manage a park as big and as complicated as Virunga without adequate aerial support for surveillance, medical evacuations and for logistics. Of course, the primary purpose is to get law enforcement teams in place rapidly when poachers are located.
- In 2012, we were asked by the Rangers to support the widows of the men who have lost their lives while serving. Although one might think a ranger’s biggest fear is death, what most rangers fear most is that their widows and orphaned children will be abandoned and left destitute in a society that cannot care for them.
- Last years funds purchased much needed Land Rovers to help jump start tourism to the Park.
Cheetah Conservation Fund
The Cheetah Conservation Fund is internationally recognized center of excellence in the conservation of cheetahs and their ecosystems. CCF will work with all stakeholders to develop best practices in research, education, and land use to benefit all species, including people. Learn More.
Belize Audubon Society
We support the efforts of the Belize Audubon Society in protecting the habitats of jaguars in the wild through preservation of habitat and education of the local populations and surrounding communities. Funds collected from the donation box located outside the Jaguar Exhibit are sent to Belize Audubon Society to help protect the habitats of jaguars in the wild.
Help Save Orangutans by Donating Your Old Cell Phones
Happy Hollow has been collecting old cellular phones for over 8 years and has kept over 15,000 cellular phones out of landfills! Donate your old cell phone and pages, and help critically endangered Orangutans in Indonesia. Learn More
Drop-Off Locations for CFL's
In Your Own Backyard
Zoos are responding to species decline and are leading the way in preserving animal populations. Captive breeding of threatened and endangered animals is conducted through the Species Survival Plan (SSP). The goal of each SSP is to maintain and enhance genetics in order to maintain healthy captive populations. SSPs are coordinated through the Association of Zoos & Aquariums (AZA).
Happy Hollow Park & Zoo participates in the following SSP’s:
- Black & White Ruffed Lemur
- Red Ruffed Lemur
- Ring-tailed Lemur
Learn more about Species Survival Plans at the
Association of Zoos & Aquariums'
Love seafood? So do we! And we like to know that it's caught or farmed in ways that support a healthy environment. Sadly, some of our favorite fish are disappearing, but other seafoods are doing fine. Your choice can make a difference to our oceans! The Monterey Bay Aquarium's Seafood Watch Guide can help you choose seafood that's ocean friendly.
What is Seafood Watch? Seafood Watch is a Monterey Bay Aquarium program designed to raise consumer awareness about the importance of buying seafood from sustainable sources. Based on research, they recommend which seafood to buy or avoid, helping consumers to become advocates for environmentally friendly seafood. Happy Hollow Park & Zoo is proud to partner with the Monterey Bay Aquarium in helping to protect and conserve our oceans and its resources. You can also call 408-794-6404 and request to have more cards mailed to you, for all your friends! Together we can make a difference for our oceans!
Center for Ecosystem Survival
Donations made via our Conservation Parking Meter, located in the lower Zoo by the parrots, go directly to in-situ conservation programs throughout the world. Visit www.savenature.org to get involved.
Without bees, there would be no strawberries, chocolate or almonds! Cotton would be hard to come by, as well as that morning cup of coffee. And medicines developed from flowering plants would be even harder to find. Bees are having a hard time - from pesticides to ravaging diseases, bees need our help! Want to help the bees? Plant a garden. By planting your very own bee friendly garden – you can keep our friends buzzing happily along and pollinating the world’s crops. For more great facts on bees go to, www.helpthehoneybees.com
The Backyard habitat Garden in the lower Zoo has been planted to attract wildlife, in particular local bees and honey bees. Thanks to Steve Demkowski, fondly known as the “Bee Guy”, Happy Hollow now has an observation honeybee hive in the Backyard Habitat in the lower Zoo and a couple of active hives that will be producing honey soon.
Want to plant to attract wildlife to your yard - click here for the plant list that Happy Hollow used in the Backyard Habitat.
|View More Photos!|
Planting For Wildlife
California native and drought tolerant species were chosen to compliment the local conditions and will provide habitats, shelter and food for the local wildlife, which ranges from raptors, songbirds, amphibians, bats, to beneficial insects.
Visit the Backyard Habitat in the lower zoo for ideas on how to attract wildlife to your yard and visit our website for a list of plants that support local wildlife.
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Burgess Shale Fossils Provide Evidence of the Origins of the Mollusca
The next time you come across a slug or a snail in your garden, or perhaps if you sit down to a plate of mussels in a white wine sauce with cream nod you head in approval towards one of the most successful animal phylum known on planet Earth – Mollusca. Now thanks to the use of a non-destructive research technique being applied by a Canadian researcher on fossil specimens from the famous Burgess Shale deposits, it seems that palaeontologists have finally begun to unravel the mystery as to how these animals first evolved.
The phylum known as Mollusca is one of the most diverse of all the animal phyla and thanks to most of its members having hard body parts and living in a marine environment, the Mollusca are perhaps the most abundant large invertebrates recorded as fossils. There are shelled and unshelled forms of mollusc. Although the six taxonomic classes that make up this phylum may seem very different, they all share the same basic body plan. There are the gastropods (slugs and snails), bivalves such as oysters, cockles and mussels and of course, the cephalopods, perhaps the most advanced of all the members of the Mollusca. The cephalopods consist of a number of extant forms, such as squid, cuttlefish and octopi, plus some very important forms that are extinct but have proved so invaluable to palaeontologists as they develop biostratigraphical profiles of rock strata – long-dead groups such as the Ammonites and the Belemnites.
Ammonites and Belemnites- Extinct Members of the Phylum Mollusca
Picture Credit: Everything Dinosaur
However, debate has gone on between palaeontologists studying the beautifully preserved Burgess Shale specimens (British Columbia, Canada), as to which of the many animal fossils dating from over 500 million years ago, represent the ancestors of the molluscs. Now thanks to the work of a University of Toronto PhD student, scientists are beginning to get a better understanding of how the molluscs evolved and which of the bizarre animal fossils from the Burgess Shale represent early forms of this important phylum.
Most molluscs possess a radula, rows of tiny, interlocking teeth that can rasp away drawing food into a primitive mouth which is then passed through a one-way digestive system. Only the filter feeding bivalves don’t have this “rasping tongue”. Using advanced electron microscopy to produce images that could then be modelled in three-dimensions, University of Toronto student Martin Smith was able to demonstrate that two bizarre types of Burgess Shale creature from the Middle Cambrian, Odontogriphus omalus and the heavily armoured Wiwaxia corrugata were forerunners of the Mollusca.
Odontogriphus omalus specimens are extremely rare in the Burgess Shale. This organism seems to have been a flat-bodied animal with mid-line symmetry (bilateral symmetry), a single muscular foot for locomotion and a toothed feeding structure with a simple stomach and intestine. Some fossils from the Burgess Shale strata indicate animals that grew to lengths in excess of ten centimetres. Wiwaxia, on the other hand is a much more common member of the Burgess Shale assemblage. This might suggest that Wiwaxia spp. were more abundant in the warm, shallow tropical sea represented by this British Columbian strata, or it might simply reflect that greater preservation potential of Wiwaxia over Odontogriphus. Wiwaxia was certainly a striking animal. It had a body plan that was symmetrical around its mid-line, roughly elliptical in shape, toothed mouth-parts that were broadly conical and a primitive mouth and digestive tract. This thimble-sized organism probably pulled itself along using a muscular foot, the sides and the upper surface of this organism was covered by rows of overlapping protective plates called sclerites. Shooting upwards from the dorsal area were two rows of parallel spikes. These spikes probably acted as a deterrent against attack from nektonic predators.
A Reconstruction of Wiwaxia corrugata
Spiky, basal member of the Mollusca.
Picture Credit: Everything Dinosaur
Previous studies had suggested that both Odontogriphus and Wiwaxia were basal forms of either the Mollusca or the Annelid worms, or perhaps they represented evolutionary dead-ends, types of creature that died out leaving no descendants. This new research shows that the teeth of these animals sat on a grooved, primitive tongue and the shape, number and articulation of the individual teeth components and the way these structures grew puts these particular Burgess Shale members firmly into the mollusc camp. The ancestral molluscan radula is shorter and more squat than in similarly sized extant molluscs today. The mouthparts were made up of two or three rows of similarly, shaped teeth (shaped like miniature shoe horns); with a symmetrical central tooth and smaller denticles along the edges. The teeth would have moved round the end of a muscular tongue-like structure in a conveyor-belt-like fashion, scooping food and seabed detritus into the mouths of these primitive creatures. They were not the sophisticated lettuce-munching radula of the common garden snail, but this new study by the Canadian PhD student does indicate that organisms like Odontogriphus and Wiwaxia are basal to the Mollusca.
Martin Smith, a student at the University of Torontos’s Dept. of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and the author of the scientific paper published in the academic journal “Proceedings of the Royal Society B – Biology” utilised highly sophisticated electron microscopy to reveal new details of the mouthparts and structures in the fossil specimens. He examined over three hundred different Burgess Shale fossils and from the images produced by his study he was able to re-create three-dimensional models of feeding systems of these 5oo million year old invertebrates. Not only could the structure of these mouthparts be made out, the young scientist could also assess how these structures grew.
Commenting on his work, the student stated:
“I put the fossils in the microscope, and the mouth parts just leaped out. You could see details you’d never guess were there if you just had a normal microscope.”
Martin went onto add:
“The fossils are squashed completely flat, which makes them really hard to reconstruct in 3D. “I surrounded myself with micrographs of the mouth parts and lumps of plasticine, and spent weeks trying to come up with a model that made sense of the fossils. When I set out, I just hoped to be a bit closer to knowing what these mysterious fossils were. Now, with this picture of the earliest radula, we are one step closer to understanding where the molluscs came from and how they became so successful today.”
An Illustration of the Short and Squat Radula-like Structure of Basal Molluscs
The start of something big – the Mollusca
Picture Credit: Marianne Collins
The teeth are arranged in rows and resemble miniature shoe horns. The Canadian research suggests that organisms like Wiwaxia and Odontogriphus used this structures to comb detritus or algae into their mouths. Over millions of years the radula of the molluscs has evolved and become a highly efficient feeding organ. Whether it is the rasp-like radula of a land snail that can tear up plants or the powerful mouthparts of a nektonic, active predator such as a giant squid the radula has had over 500 million years of evolution to refine it. Under a high powered electron microscope the formidable structure of the radula can be clearly made out.
The Fearsome Radula (High Magnifcation) of a Modern Mollusc
As can be seen in the above photograph, one of the reasons for the evolutionary success of the Molluscs might be their very specialised and highly refined, effective feeding structure – the radula. Some of the teeth in the image appear to be the same shape as those of a Great White shark (Carcharodon carcharias).
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Thanks to the subcontinental size of the country many states and regions have registered floods even as the Indian Meteorological department insisted, in its most recent forecast for the second half of the southwest monsoon, that rainfall for the country as a whole will be significantly below normal. Areas most affected by the floods include Odisha where the rainfall so far has been 18% higher than normal, and East Rajasthan where the rains were 16% higher than the normal. To make matters worse the IMD predicts that rainfall will continue in these places in the coming days.
Extensive floods in Odisha have wreaked havoc in low lying regions. Dozens have died thousands stranded in flood hit areas. Half a dozen districts are badly hit. Local authorities have started relief measures but the full extent of damage is yet to be ascertained.
Flood damage is not the same in Rajasthan but authorities have had to step in and evacuate large numbers of people. One positive development from excess rains in Rajasthan is that many of the large reservoirs have filled up rapidly and are close to full capacity. This will be beneficial to the agriculture sector especially for the next rabi crop. However, excess waters have forced district administrations to call out the army.
Apart from Odisha and Rajasthan other places like Bihar and Chhattisgarh have also been affected by floods this year. Though rainfall in Bihar continues to be far below normal, heavy rains in Nepal and flooding in the Kosi river forced evacuation of thousands of people in the state. However, many have gone back to their homes now that flood fears have subsided.
The other state hit by floods rainfall is Chhattisgarh, where the 727.1 mm of rainfall it has so far received is marginally higher than the normal during the current season. This has caused flooding in the Mahanadi River forcing a large number of people out of their homes and into evacuation camps set up by the government. Though the full extent of damage is yet to be ascertained it is believed that at least 11,000 hectares of farmland has been badly affected by the floods.
An overall assessment shows that floods so far are unlikely to have a significant impact on agriculture output. A bigger worry is still the deficiency of rainfall in major crop growing areas like Bihar, Gangetic West Bengal, East and Western Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Haryana, Punjab and coastal Andhra Pradesh. Shortfall in these areas will push down agriculture output not only in the Kharif season but will also have a negative impact on the next season Rabi crops.
The simultaneous occurrence of flood and drought like conditions in different regions of the country is caused by its large size and high number of agro-climatic zones. Government estimates show that there are 36 meteorological subdivisions and at least 127 agro-climatic zones in the country with substantial variation in rainfall patterns, soil conditions and irrigation facilities. This diversity helps cushion or even cancel out the deviations of weather at the national level in any particular year and ensure that weather conditions for the country as a whole remains close to the average. The bout of recent floods in a rainfall deficient year has to be seen in this context.
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Johnstown Flood National Memorial ~ http://www.nps.gov/jofl
There was no larger news story in the latter nineteenth century after the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. The story of the Johnstown Flood has everything to interest the modern mind: a wealthy resort, an intense storm, an unfortunate failure of a dam, the destruction of a working class city, and an inspiring relief effort.
The rain continued as men worked tirelessly to prevent the old South Fork Dam from breaking. Elias Unger, the president of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club, was hoping that the people in Johnstown were heeding the telegraph warnings sent earlier, which said that the dam might go. When it finally happened, at 3:10 P.M., May 31, 1889, an era of the Conemaugh Valley's history ended, and another era started. Over 2,209 people died on that tragic Friday, and thousands more were injured in one of the worst disasters in our Nation's history.
Johnstown Flood National Memorial is located in southwestern Pennsylvania, about 10 miles northeast of Johnstown. The park contains nearly 165 acres and preserves the remains of the South Fork Dam and portions of the former Lake Conemaugh bed.
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To wipe a hard drive means to completely erase the drive of all information. Deleting everything does not wipe a hard drive and formatting does not [always] wipe a hard drive. You’ll need to take an extra step to wipe the hard drive completely.
When you format a hard drive or delete a partition, you’re usually only deleting the file system, making the data invisible but not gone. A file recovery program or special hardware can easily recover the information.
If you want to make sure that your private information is gone forever, you’ll need to wipe the hard drive using special tools.
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A virtual private network or VPN is essentially a system of two or more private networks connected over a public telecommunications infrastructure such as the Internet. A VPN uses an encrypted tunnel and authentication protocol to securely transmit data between networks.
Even though the data is being sent over a publicly accessible network (Internet), all data is hidden from the public. One can make a secure and encrypted remote connection and work as if he/she were directly connected to the internal network.
A more detailed description from Wikipedia. Here’s also a step-by-step guide on how to set up a VPN from SearchExchange.
There are three ways to get VPN: 1) Do it yourself; 2) Use a VPN service provider; 3) Purchase a VPN appliance.
1) Both Linux and Windows provide tools to setup your own VPN server/client.
2) There are a number of VPN service providers available to make this a no brainer.
4) From basic SOHO models to robust enterprise models to SSL VPN. The VPN appliance field is really mature.
Depending on which VPN solution you pick from above and the size of your VPN deployment, the cost of setting one up varies.
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- Last Updated on Wednesday, 24 July 2013 13:05
- Published on Wednesday, 24 July 2013 11:16
- Hits: 2413
Shale deposits cover vast portions of the United States and they have the potential of producing large amounts of oil and natural gas. The Marcellus Shale deposit runs from New York to Tennessee and includes parts of Virginia. The Bakken Shale formation includes large portion of Montana and North Dakota. The Barnett and Eagle Ford formations take up over half of Texas. There are several more formations in the United States that are just as large. Some are producing oil and gas, with thousands of wells, and some are in the early stages of exploration.
- Next >>
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Will Rose/AFP/Getty Images
Two tugboats two an iceberg away from an oil platform near Greenland. A deep water oil spill in the arctic could potentially be much more catastrophic than the recent BP spill in the Gulf of Mexico.
Jessica Bachman, National Post · Nov. 8, 2010 | Last Updated: Nov. 8, 2010 1:40 PM ET
YUZHNO-SAKHALINSK, Russia — When writer Anton Chekhov arrived on the Russian island of Sakhalin in 1890, he was overwhelmed by the harsh conditions at the Tsarist penal colony. It wasn't just the floggings, forced prostitution and ill-treatment of children in the colony. It was the environment itself. "There is no climate on Sakhalin, just nasty weather," Chekhov wrote. "And this Island is the foulest place in all of Russia."
More than a century on, Sakhalin's prisoners have been replaced by oil and gas workers, most of whom seem to agree that Chekhov's description still fits.
The sparsely populated island -- which is the length of Britain -- has some of the most extreme weather on earth. Marine cyclones and violent snowstorms rip through its forested hills, and the ocean waters off its northern coast freeze solid for a good part of the year. In winter, temperatures drop to minus 40 Celsius and snow can pile three meters high.
Workers at Exxon's Odoptu oil field, eight km (five miles) off the northeast coast of Sakhalin, had to shovel their way out of their dormitory last winter to clear pipe valves and free oil pipelines of snow. "The blizzards were so bad that at one point we had to evacuate half of the staff," says Pavel Garkin, head of the field's operations.
Now Moscow hopes to attract global oil players to another extreme location: its icy Arctic waters. Shared by Canada, Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Russia and the United States, the Arctic may hold around one-fifth of the world's untapped oil and gas reserves according to a U.S. Geological survey. The past few years have seen a rush of activity in the region, with UK oil explorer Cairn Energy drilling for oil off the west coast of Greenland and Norway's Statoil, one of the world's largest offshore oil producers, pushing further and further up the Nordic country's serpentine coastline, drilling wells inside the Arctic Circle beneath both the Norwegian and Barents Seas.
In September, Russia and Norway put an end to a 40-year dispute over maritime boundaries in the Barents Sea, freeing Russia to push for increased exploration under its portion of the waters just three years after the country spelled out its Arctic claim by planting a rust-proof flag on the sea bed more than four km (14,000 ft) under the North Pole.
The rewards could be huge. Russia, the world's top oil producer with output of more than 10 million barrels of oil per day (bpd), estimates that its Arctic zone holds around 51 billion tonnes of oil, or enough to fully meet global oil demand for more than four years, as well as 87 trillion cubic meters of natural gas. Unlike Norway, Russia is not currently producing in its Arctic offshore, but the country's Natural Resource Ministry says it wants to invest at least $312.8 billion by 2039 to explore the shelf. Most of this money will go to the Arctic.
But even as Russia opens its northern waters to exploration, there's reason to pause. In the wake of BP's catastrophic leak in the Gulf of Mexico this spring, Russian officials and experts warn an oil spill under the ice could turn out far worse than one in warmer deepwater climates. Arctic conditions -- remoteness, fragile ecosystems, darkness, sub-zero temperatures, ice, high winds -- make dealing with an oil spill a massive task.
At an annual conference for global oil and gas heavyweights held on Sakhalin at the end of September, Russian government officials and offshore industry professionals paid close attention to the dangers of drilling on the Arctic continental shelf. "I have attended 13 of the 14 Sakhalin oil conferences, and this is the first where government regulators were visibly and vocally concerned about offshore oil spill risks," says Michael Bradshaw, an expert on Russia's Far East energy industry and professor at the University of Leicester.
It's not that a spill is more likely in the Arctic than in a warmer, deep-water locale, says Nils Masvie, a director at Norwegian offshore risk-assessment firm Det Norske Veritas. "But you cannot extrapolate and say the risk is the same in a cold climate. No, the risk is higher."
That's because it's so much harder to manage a spill and offshore emergency in the ice and dark. "Sometimes search and rescue operations stop in the evening because it is too dark, resuming again at eight o'clock when the light returns. But if something happens on the Arctic Barents Sea in November it would be, 'OK, we'll come back for you in March,'" says Masvie, whose company verifies and certifies equipment used in offshore oil and gas production, such as the Nord Stream gas pipeline being built under the Baltic Sea for Russian gas giant Gazprom.
LESSONS FROM KOMI
Russia's track record with oil spills does not inspire confidence.
During the 1970s oil boom, primitive production, drilling and pipeline technology caused pollution levels in rivers, oceans, lakes and ground water to soar. In 1975, for example, several large West Siberian rivers that run north through Russia's biggest oil production region and empty into the Arctic Ocean had oil concentrations 21 times the maximum permissible level, according to a government report, "Status of Environmental Pollution in the USSR 1975-1976". Scientists attributed the large-scale contamination to the widespread use of such unsophisticated oil production practices as intense water flooding, where workers inject water into wells at high pressures to drive out the oil. Most pipes also lacked leak-detection technology.
One of the worst spills occurred in August, 1994, when the aging pipeline network in the northern Komi Republic sprang a leak.
The oil spill was officially put at 79,000 tonnes, or 585,000 barrels, though independent estimates put it at up to 2 million barrels. At the high end that would have been half as big as BP's 4 million barrel Gulf disaster. Two months after the spill started, heavy rains broke a dam that contained the oil, releasing a massive slick into rivers and across forested tundra near the city of Usinsk.
Komi borders the Arctic Circle where the cold makes it hard for oil to evaporate. The oil that didn't immediately spill into the Arctic Ocean-bound Kolva, Usa and Pechora rivers spread over 186 sq km (72 square miles) of marshland and tundra. There it froze during winter months, according to an environmental case study by the American University in Washington.
The following spring, the oil from the frozen tundra washed back into the streams, seeping into the surrounding vegetation or traveling further down the Pechora to empty into the Barents Sea. A Greenpeace witness reported that April, "as we feared, the spring has brought a deadly tide of oil over the area. There are acres and acres of blackened marshland, and every river and stream has oil in it."
Geopolis, an environmental consultancy commissioned by the Russian government to conduct a detailed examination of the spill, warned that the local environment near Usinsk would be "significantly impacted" by the spring ice thaw. Ecosystems with only a thin "active" layer of soil above permafrost typically have slow growth rates and are particularly sluggish at filtering out pollutants.
"Following disturbance, recovery is slow because of the short growing season and low annual production of nutrients," the World Conservation Union explains in its Environmental Guidelines for Oil and Gas Production in the Arctic.
Water bodies in cold climates are just as vulnerable. "The chemistry of large Arctic lakes is unusual because of the near-absence of annual cycles of nutrients and micro-organisms and the low quantities of dissolved solids," the guidelines state.
Smaller oil spills have occurred in the same region almost annually since the 1994 accident, some documented by Russian oil giant LUKOIL, which bought the Komi oil company in 1999, and by Russia's environmental agencies. Others have been spotted only by green groups and citizens' organizations.
"Each spring when the Kolva (River) thaws, the bottom of the ice comes up black," says Nikolai Feyodorov, who lives in the village of Ust-Usa. "It happens every year, around May. I haven't caught a clean ide (fish) even from streams in 20 years."
LUKOIL, which counts Komi as one of its biggest oil-producing regions, says it spent 4.6 billion roubles ($150 million) between 2000 and 2005 to clean up, re-cultivate and reforest over 10 sq km (3.9 square miles) of polluted land. The company recycled more than 230,000 tonnes of oil waste, it says, and replaced 878 km (546 miles) of old pipeline. Following the clean-up the area was taken off Russia's list of environmental disaster zones. By comparison, BP's latest estimate of the total likely cost of its Gulf of Mexico spill was $40 billion.
LUKOIL concedes Komi's climate is a problem for monitoring pipeline leaks, and says it would be impossible to replace the entire pipeline system, which was built in the 1970s and is thousands of km long.
"It's a very harsh climate," a LUKOIL press secretary told Reuters. "Most of the year it is freezing, and when there is a lot of snow and everything is covered in ice you don't see the leaks and this makes monitoring difficult. The snow melts in June, and the oil can be seen mostly in streams. This is not a secret."
WORSE IN THE ARCTIC
Environmental groups agree and say the Komi disaster is further proof of how hard it would be to deal with an oil spill in Arctic seas. "If companies can't handle 50 meters of frozen mass, how could you expect them to handle a spill on open ocean in Sakhalin or the Arctic?" says Vladimir Chuprov, Greenpeace's top energy specialist in Russia.
"Cleaning up oil under ocean ice is impossible. You would have to break and remove thousands of tonnes of ice as the oil keeps moving with the currents further out into the ocean."
Stanislav Meshryakov, head of the department for environmental matters in heavy industry at Russia's Gubkin University of Oil and Gas, concurs. "The conditions on an open, uncovered surface of water are well understood. But under ice, a slick gets trapped, the current takes it away but you can't see how far, where to, how deep," Meshryakov told Reuters in a phone interview.
The standard procedure for an under-ice spill is to cut a wide band of ice around the affected area to expose the water. As in oil spills in warmer waters, the contained oil can then be mechanically removed using booms and skimmers, burned, or dispersed using chemicals sprayed from a helicopter.
"You must have special machinery, and it is a long process. By the time the hole is cut, the heavy oil fractions would have sunk down and been carried away by currents, and the light ones stick to the underside of the ice," says Meshryakov.
In Russia, the State Marine Emergency and Rescue Administration, responsible for leading all oil spill response operations at sea, keeps a stock of oil recovery equipment at Russia's nine major ports, harbors and terminals. The port of Murmansk on the Barents Sea has specialized Arctic vessels and ice-breaker escorts.
In the United States, the Coast Guard, oil companies and their contracted emergency responders are required to stockpile clean-up equipment and technology engineered to withstand Arctic conditions. But even with all that preparation, conditions severely limit how effectively equipment can be transported and deployed, creating what the industry calls a "response gap."
An added problem, according to a report on Arctic spill response challenges by the World Wildlife Fund, is that sea ice can move or damage oil containment booms. Skimmers can freeze or get clogged by ice chunks, while slush ice can prevent burning fluid from igniting the oil in burn operations.
To create a stronger, more realistic Arctic oil-spill response plan, the WWF recommends being more realistic about the limitations of equipment. "This assessment requires analysis and study of the response equipment and procedures beyond stating that they are present on-scene and citing manufacturer ratings; the effectiveness of the system in actual conditions that may exist in the likely operating environment must be demonstrated."
Norway, which has some of the world's toughest oil safety regulations, learned to do this the hard way. In 1977 a blowout on the offshore Ekofisk platform gushed crude for eight days, releasing 202,381 barrels of oil in the North Sea's largest ever spill. The poor performance of the equipment was one of the reasons the spill was so damaging.
Immediately following the disaster, in 1978, the country created the Norwegian Clean Seas Association for Operating Companies, which has focused on improving oil spill response technology and so far prevented any repeat of the Ekofisk disaster. As Norwegian firms prepare for more drilling in the Arctic, the association has developed new operating systems and equipment that will help run clean up operations even when it's dark.
A POST-BP PAUSE
Following the blowout at BP's Macondo well, many Arctic oil- producing countries including Russia have revisited their safety and drilling regulations.
The Obama administration decided to put a hold on offshore drilling in Alaska until at least 2011 as it reviews its safety and environmental regulations. In September, White House oil spill commission co-chair Bill Reilly said the BP spill had shown that even in a warm-water climate, advances in spill response and clean-up technology have not kept pace with offshore development.
Before the Gulf spill, Obama had proposed ending the drilling moratorium in territorial waters and opening up the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas in the Arctic Ocean to exploration and development. But the U.S. Interior Department has now stopped issuing new drilling permits in the Arctic, and adopted a more cautious approach to development in the region because of its unique environmental conditions. A court ruling has also blocked any Chukchi Sea drilling in the near future.
Canada said in August that while its offshore safety regulations are adequate and no drilling moratorium is necessary, it will investigate if more safeguards, such as relief wells, are needed and will consider raising the liability cap for operators. Ottawa has also asked Greenland to provide it with more information on the offshore licenses it has issued for drilling in the Davis Strait, part of the North Atlantic Ocean that separates Greenland, a self-governing territory of Denmark, from Canada.
Canada, along with Denmark, is a designated oil-spill responder for Greenland, which according to the WWF has none of its own emergency oil-spill equipment stockpiles.
Norway, the world's No. 5 oil exporter, whose powerful oil industry is looking to expand drilling in the Arctic archipelagos of Lofoten and Vesteraalen, has said it will not issue new deepwater licenses until the government fully investigates what the BP well blowout means for its own regulations.
In Russia, Putin's administration drafted a new bill on oil spill removal that, if passed by the state Duma, would overhaul Russia's safety and environmental regulations. Oil companies say Russia already has some of the tightest regulations in the world, but point out that they are inconsistently applied and often open to corruption.
Exxon's Odoptu operation started producing only two months ago. But the road to it from the northern town of Okha -- whose municipal emblem is a seagull flying over an oil rig -- is flanked by the telltale signs of oil-related degradation from earlier work by other operators: evidence, locals say, of the lax regulatory regime.
Even before a pair of abandoned oil rigs appears on the horizon, the flaxen sand dunes take on a darker color and the scrub and dwarf pines that dominate the coastal landscape lose their natural evergreen hue. Further on, several rigs pump away, their jacks rhythmically rapping the sand for oil like woodpeckers on a tree for bugs. An oily sheen gives the scrubland a charred look.
NEW REGULATIONS PROPOSED
But even if operators aren't ready for an Arctic oil spill, don't expect the post-BP pause to last forever. Norway and Russia's recent detente over maritime boundaries has both countries pushing for more exploration in the region.
Norway plans to auction off 51 new blocks in its part of the Barents Sea for oil and gas exploration [ID:nLDE65M0VK], while Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin and Russian energy officials hope to see more offshore oil exploration in its part of the Sea. Under current legislation only Gazprom and Rosneft have the right to develop Russia's continental shelf, but as of January 1, Moscow will open it up to foreign producers. [ID:nLDE68S0RB]
Rosneft is already talking to Western oil and gas majors with experience in offshore drilling, including BP and France's Total with a view to forming joint ventures in the Arctic.
In a recent interview, Rosneft's vice president Peter O'Brien said the capital investment in Arctic offshore development was so high foreign investors were not interested in signing up unless Russia switched to a profit-based tax regime, which would tax a producer's excess profits on oil production and move away from differentiated taxes adopted by the government for different oil fields.
"For folks to take even exploration risk, some of the partners are requesting clarity on taxation. If changes happen in the legislation then we will consider new structures that optimize the situation under the new legislation," he said.
And it's not just tax that foreign firms worry about. In December 2006, Shell and its Japanese partners ceded control of their $22-billion oil and gas project on Sakhalin to their junior partners Gazprom, after facing months of intense regulatory pressure. Before Gazprom took the reigns and Shell reduced its stake to 27.5 percent, Russia's environmental watchdog, Rosprirodnadzor, threatened to hit the foreign operators with billions of dollars in fines for ecological violations. Many analysts have described the ecological campaign as a drive by the Russian state to take back control of a lucrative energy concession.
Could new regulations be used to do the same thing, or is the government honest in its attempt to improve conditions around Russian oil wells? Under the proposed regulations, Moscow wants all oil companies and related organizations dealing with oil transport, marketing and storage to create an oil-spill response plan (OSR) for each deposit and installation they operate.
"This certainly is a first step, and I want to believe that it will work," says Nina Lesikhina, a Russian oil and gas specialist at the Norwegian environmental non-governmental group Bellona. "The new rules provide for much more control over a company's emergency response. As they are now, there is little oversight."
But Lesikhina and others remain critical of the Russian bill for lowballing the flow rate that the companies will use to figure out what equipment they need on-hand in the event of a spill. According to the bill, the maximum volume of oil companies drilling offshore would need to account for in their emergency response plan is 5,000 tonnes (36,650 barrels). "This is completely inadequate. In the Gulf of Mexico 50,000 barrels were being spilled each day," says Lesikhina.
The bill, drafted by the Natural Resource Ministry, also states that a company's emergency oil spill response would be considered finished when the spill is controlled and all the oil collected and disposed of properly. "There is no mention of remaining environmental damage after the oil is cleaned up. The companies don't have to account for this financially or logistically in their oil response plan," Lesikhina says. The Natural Resource Ministry said it could not immediately respond to questions.
The State Duma's Natural Resource Committee is also in the process of drafting a new law entitled "The Protection of the Russian Federation's Seas from Oil Pollution," which the head of Russia's WWF climate and energy division, Alexei Kokorin, says is a much better alternative to the one proposed by the Natural Resource Ministry.
"This bill works on the principle of precaution and prevention, is much more technical, stringent, and will bring the law into accordance with international norms," says Kokorin.
But it's unlikely that any new rules will severely restrict operators: the Russian government gets more than 50 percent of its revenues from oil and gas and Prime Minister Putin's stated aim is to keep producing more than 10 billion barrels a day through 2020. "In Russia, the oil and gas industry is king," says Kokorin.
Take Exxon's Russian subsidiary, ENL (Exxon Neftegaz Ltd). If all goes well, it will soon be producing 30,000 bpd at the Odoptu field. But during the Sakhalin oil and gas conference, ENL's environmental protection manager, Alexander Ponomarev, could not say whether the company had a specific plan for under-ice spills.
"We are studying the issue and looking for solutions," Ponomarev told Reuters. "We can't have the magic answer."
Get the latest news in your inbox as it happens.
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What Is Water Aerobics?
Water aerobics (waterobics, aquatic fitness, aquafitness, aquafit) is the performance of aerobic exercise in fairly shallow water such as in a swimming pool. Done mostly vertically and without swimming typically in waist deep or deeper water, it is a type of resistance training.
Toning Water Exercises
Simply treading water vigorously can zap 11 calories a minute, same as a six-mile-per-hour run. “Plus, water’s continuous resistance forces you to engage more muscle fibers through a larger range of motion,” says Moe, so you’ll firm from every angle.
Hugging beach ball to chest, float on back, legs extended, feet together. Roll toward left and over top of ball (like an otter spinning in the water), using entire body — shoulders, back, core, legs — to make a full revolution, returning to start. Take a breath.
Extend legs behind you at water level with both feet and knees together, then kick like a dolphin: Initiate the motion with abs and hips and transfer it through thighs to knees and finally to feet. Kick as hard and as fast as you can for 30 seconds, trying to make the biggest waves possible.
Water Aerobics Benefit
In addition to the standard benefits of any exercise, the use of water in water aerobics supports the body and reduces the risk of muscle or joint injury. The mitigation of gravity by flotation places less stress on the joints when stretching, and can allow a greater range of motion. The mitigation of gravity makes water aerobics safe for individuals able to keep their heads out of water, including the elderly.
Exercise in water can also prevent overheating through continuous cooling of the body. Most classes last for 45-55 minutes. Another benefit is that people do not even have to be strong swimmers to participate in water aerobics.
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I claim the copyright to this tutorial. You are free to do whatever you please with what you make, but please do not take my tutorial. Do not send the tutorial through email. Only share my link.
This tutorial was created for some friends of mine who wanted to begin learning more about PSP. It is intended for high beginners to intermediates to learn how to make a preset shape by vectors. There is some vector work, but not much! If you have any questions, please feel free to email me.
Making a heart shape is rather simple to do, and to be honest you can probably download a heart preset shape, since they are very common. However, the purpose of this tutorial is to show you how to save vector shapes that you make. So you can reuse them later.
Remember to save as a psp file often!
Before we begin, you might want to study the PSP tool bars. I have labeled the tools on another page. Click on the link and it will open a new page. You may want to keep this page open while you work on the tutorial, to refer to the names now and then. PSP Tools
Now that you have studied the tools, let's begin!
1. Click New File in the
top menu bar. Enter these settings: width=400, Height=400,
Resolution=72.000 pixels/inch, Background color=transparent, image type=16.7
Million Colors (24 Bits).
2. Set your foreground color to null, and your background color
to any color other than white.
3.From the left tool menu, choose preset shapes tool. In the tool
box, set the shape to the ellipse, check anti alias, and check create as
a vector. The line width does not matter.
4. Use the shape tool to draw a circle on your new
image. Draw it large!
5. In the left tool menu, choose the node edit tool (the last
one in the tool bar; It's white in the picture below.)
6. In the tool options box, click on Node Edit/
7. Your circle will now have nodes. See picture below.
8. Click on the bottom node, and vector arrow and tail will appear.
Grab the arrow head and pull it out and rotate it towards the center.
Grab the arrow tail and pull it out and rotate it towards the center.
See the picture below. You should make a corner in the circle bottom.
9. Click on the top node, and the arrow head and tail should appear.
Left-click on the node and drag it down about half the distance to the
side nodes. Make sure this node stays centered in the "heart" horizontally
(side to side it is midway).
10. Grab the arrow head and rotate it up and out a little bit.
Grab the arrow tail and ratate it up and out a little bit. You should
now have a heart shape, like in the picture below.
11. If you are happy with your heart, skip to step # 14.
12. I wanted the heart to have more point on the bottom, so I dragged the bottom node down a little bit.
13. You can also make the tail narrower, after lowering the heart.
Just pull up on the arrow head and the arrow tail (see below).
14. Now we want to save the heart as a preset shape, so that we
can use it over and over again! Right-click on the vector
name in the Layer Palette. Right now it says ellipse. Right-click
on Ellipse and choose Rename. Rename the shape. I named mine
15.In the top menu, click on File > Export > Shape.
16. In the Shape Library box, type in your name again.
Now you have saved your heart as a preset vector shape that you may use over and over again!
Please do not remove this tutorial from my site. Share my url.
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Herbs & Botanicals
Radish (lai fu zi)
What is radish? What is it used for?
The radish is a type of vegetable, which is believed to have originated in western Asia, but is now cultivated worldwide. Many cultures use radish as a food, either alone or added to salads. In traditional Chinese medicine, radish seeds are an important component of many herbal remedies.
The seeds of the radish are gathered at the start of the summer and dried in the sun. They can be used either raw or after being parched, and can be consumed whole, sliced, grounded into powder or crushed into a type of juice.
Radish seeds have pungent, sweet and neutral properties, according to the principles of traditional Chinese medicine, and are affiliated with the Spleen, Stomach and Lung meridians. The two main functions of radish seed are to eliminate food retention, and to move down qi and resolve phlegm. Radish is often used as a digestive aid to treat conditions ranging from abdominal pain to acid reflux, abdominal distention and diarrhea. Radish seeds are also used to treat coughs accompanied by large amounts of phlegm, and asthma. The German Commission E has approved radish to treat peptic disorders and catarrhs of the upper respiratory tract.
How much radish should I take?
The typical dosage of radish is between six and 10 grams, decocted in water for oral administration. Radish seeds can also be crushed to create a type of juice.
What forms of radish are available?
Whole radishes can be found at supermarkets worldwide. Radish seeds are available at many Asian markets or herbal shops, and are sold whole, dried, as powders, or as part of larger herbal formulas.
What can happen if I take too much radish? Are there any interactions I should be aware of? What precautions should I take?
Radish seeds should be used with caution by patients suffering from qi deficiency. Radish roots should not be consumed by patients with an inflamed stomach or intestinal inflammation. Radish also should not be consumed in conjunction with ginseng.
- Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, et al. (eds.) The Complete German Commission E. Monographs. Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications, 1998, pp. 193-194.
- Chen GT, Yang SW. Practical Diagnostics and Therapeutics of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine. Medicinal & Scientific Herbology Press of China, 1994.
- Chen JK. Ulcerative colitis. Medical Acupuncture 2002;13(3).
- Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C (eds.) PDR for Herbal Medicines. Montvale, NJ: Medical Economics Company, 2000, pp. 628-629.
- Yang SS, et al. Comprehensive Clinical Manual of TCM. Beijing Scientific Press, 1993.
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The Great Conservationist
Jane Goodall is the world's foremost authority on chimpanzees, having closely observed their behavior for the past quarter century in the jungles of the Gombe Game Reserve in Africa, living in the chimps' environment and gaining their confidence.
Her observations and discoveries are intemationally heralded. Her research and writing have made, and are making, revolutionary inroads into scientific thinking regarding the evolutions of humans.
Dr. Goodall received her Ph.D. from Cambridge University in 1965. She has been the Scientific Director of the Gombe Stream Research Center since 1967. In 1984, Jane Goodall received the J. Paul Getty Wildlife Conservation Prize for "helping millions of people understand the importance of wildlife conservation to life on this planet." Her other awards and international recognitions fill pages.
Her scientific articles have appeared in many issues of National Geographic. She has written scores of papers for internationally known scientific journals. Dr. Goodall has also written two books, Wild Chimpanzees and In The Shadow of Man. She pleads to thousands of people throughout the world on behalf of her career-long sponsor, the L.S.B. Leakey Foundation.
Jane Goodall attributes her dedication and insight to her work and her mission in life to her mother, internationally known author, Vanne Goodall.
In 1985, Jane Goodall's twenty-five years of anthropological and conservation research was published, helping us all to better understand the relationship between all creatures. She has now devoted over thirty years to her mission.
Dr. Goodall has expanded her global outreach
with the founding of the Jane Goodall
Institute based in Ridgefield, CT. She now teaches and encourages
young people to appreciate the conversation of chimpanzees and all creatures
great and small. She lectures, writes, teaches and continues her mission
in many inventive ways, including the Chimpanzee Guardian Project.
[ WIC Main Page |
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What Pottermore Points Us Towards
J.K. Rowling's announcement of Pottermore points us towards a new context for literacy, a context where the book and therefore our habits of reading are evolving through the affordance of digital tools and digital texts. Watching this video introduction by Rowling herself speaks to these changes:
- There is a uniqueness to online reading
- Creation of new reading experiences
- The innovative possibilities of online books is growing and powerful
- The importance of "you" to the reading of books—the immersion and social aspects possible in the digital world with social media
- The Digital Generation expects a different experience
- Digital reading creates a new level of relevance for readers
- Sharing, participating, and rediscovering are keys to a reading experience beyond just that between the author and the reader or a face to face environment
- Shaping and personalizing the experience
- The power of story-telling (Sony calls this "the future of story-telling" ) with multimedia, gaming, and social media
The trademark for Pottermore shows the leveraging of the social and the connected: “providing multiple-user access to a global computer information network, [...] on-line chat rooms and electronic bulletin boards for transmission of messages among users in the field of general interest [and] on-line facilities for real-time interaction with other computer users concerning topics of general interest.” When you couple this with the eBook release, this shifts the notion of the reading experience to one aligned with How People Learn and what Kevin Kelly calls Booking:
Booking produces relationships. Booking is a process that connects readers, authors, characters, ideas, and stories into complex webs. There will be a million ways to weave these relationships—including the ancient path of a linear story that runs interrupted on deadtree paper. But that is but one way to weave the web. (Kelly)
What does this mean for our habits as readers? How is this shifting the vary notion of reading and reading experiences? How does the customized and social possibilities afforded by digital reading require a rethinking of pedagogy? What does this do the value of reading digitally and social media tool utilization with reading? What does this mean for our beliefs about literacy and teaching literacy? What does this mean for the classroom and the evolution of how we approach literature and other texts?
Rowling herself speaks to the movement to eBooks:
It is my view that you can’t hold back progress. E-books are here and here to stay. Later than a lot of people, I for the first time downloaded e-books and it’s miraculous for travel and for children in particular. I feel great about taking Harry into this new medium. (Rowling)
But, more important than just digitizing the Potter series, Rowling is taking the digital experience further and exploring the edge of possibilities with digital reading: "We knew there was a big demand for ebooks, but ... I wanted it to be something more than that. I wanted to pull it back to the reading, to the literary and story experience..."
This is exactly what Booking points to and what the Horizon Report has been predicting because of the potential of digital texts:
Audiovisual, interactive, and social elements enhance the informational content of books and magazines. Social tools extend the reader’s experience into the larger world, connecting readers with one another and enabling deeper, collaborative explorations of the text. (Horizon Report)
And, this is key. The experience of reading digitally and the realization of just how powerful it can be especially when connected to new and powerful reading habits, literacy, and engaging, immerse experiences. And, how powerful it is when it leverages networks, connections, and social learning.
For teachers, this is a challenge (it surely was for me until I viewed it as a reader and not a teacher). Do we hold on to our beliefs about the smell and feel of a book, the ways we want reading to be because it is what we know? Or, do we embrace what is possible for literacy, for engagement, for life? As Rowlings herself points out in the video, "The experience of reading requires the imagination of the author and the reader work together." This has always been the case. She just plans to take it to a whole new level. What about schools? What are they doing to understand and leverage this shift?
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Get Cracking on Collecting Eggs
The egg has always been a universal symbol of renewal and rebirth—a perfect symbol for the celebration of Easter. And it is a very popular collectible. But did you know that elaborately painted eggs have been found in Italian burial sites dating as far back as the 7th century B.C.? It’s clear that today’s collectors join a very ancient tradition.
There are hundreds of different varieties of collectible eggs—they come in all sizes and materials, they can be ornate or plain, and they span a full range of budgets and tastes. Here’s a fun look the genre.
Hand Decorated—These eggs (from domesticated chickens, geese or ducks) are the most familiar and most often associated with Easter. The tradition of coloring eggs for the holiday can be traced back hundreds of years as evidenced by the household budget of King Edward I in the year 1290, which included 18 pence for the purchase of 450 eggs to be dyed red or covered in gold leaf. Other regions in Europe used many different decorating techniques such as pressing a natural leaf pattern onto an egg or using wax and acid etching to create designs. The custom came to the United States with the first immigrants.
Hand-etched Polish ostrich egg with four panels
Those of us in the Southwest love the Mexican tradition of hollowed-out Easter eggs filled with confetti and glitter. Called cascarones (pronounced kahs-kah-ROH-nays), the eggs are meant to be playfully broken over the heads of friends. A confetti shower and a hair full of sparkles are signs of good luck. Some historians believe this custom originated in Asia and was brought to Italy by Marco Polo. Those eggs were filled with perfumed powder and tossed at attractive women by potential suitors. The practice traveled to Spain and was brought to Mexico in the 1860s by the wife of the Emperor Maximilian.
Candy Containers—During the early 1900s, large eggs were made from pressed cardboard and covered on the outside with vibrant lithographed paper. The scenes on the covers often depicted images of spring—children, flowers, chicks and bunnies. The eggs opened in half, and the insides were lined with beautiful printed paper in a softer pattern. The openings were edged in delicately cut paper lace. These eggs were made to be candy containers, and some also had a loop of string at the top so that they could be hung. The containers mostly originated in Germany, although some were made in England. They are reproduced today, but holiday collectors really covet the originals.
Lithographed cardboard candy container
Sculpted Eggs—Sculpted eggs have been crafted for centuries. During the 1800s, many countries produced lacquered nesting eggs with the most famous coming from Russia and Japan. In the late Victorian era, milk-glass eggs were embossed, hand painted and gilded. And in the early decades of the 1900s, J. Chein and other toy companies first produced tin lithographed eggs. Today, dozens of different porcelain, art glass, figurine, toy and ornament companies produce collectible eggs and egg boxes, often issuing new releases each year. These include Avon, Noritake, Fisher-Price, Goebel, Hallmark, Lenox, Radko, Franklin Mint, Limoges and scores of others. The variety is almost endless, and eggs can be found made of wood, stone, rock crystal, mother-of-pearl, papier-mâché, wax, ivory, gold, silver, jade, pewter, spun sugar, straw, chocolate, plastic, alabaster and virtually any other material. The collecting fun is in the enormous assortment available.
1995 Franklin Mint gazebo egg
Antique hand-painted milk-glass egg
Original Fabergé—These are the most lavish examples of egg art in the world, created between 1884 and 1917 for Czars Alexander III and Nicholas II by Russian jeweler Peter Carl Fabergé. They are famed for their gold, silver and jewel-encrusted composition accompanied by brilliantly colored enamel. And each egg opens to reveal an equally elaborate, tiny masterpiece inside. More than 100 of these opulent eggs were believed to have been made (with more than 50 going to the imperial family), but only 69 survived. After the Russian Revolution, most of the imperial eggs were sold. Today, the majority of these (valued at millions of dollars each) are housed in public museums around the world, although a few are still in private collections. Many view these eggs as the indulgence of a doomed monarchy, but they are a stunning triumph of craftsmanship.
This pink enameled Fabergé egg sold in 2007 for $18 million
Whew! The collecting world is full of an amazing variety of eggs. And there are many collectible areas of this genre that we haven’t even mentioned: books about eggs, dolls holding eggs, paintings of eggs, darning eggs, dinosaur eggs, ostrich-egg purses and egg recipes, to name just a few. Other people collect egg-shaped objects and containers such as perfume bottles, cigarette lighters, candles, paperweights, dishes, charms and jewelry.
For those who just can’t get enough, there are even museums devoted to eggs—in Egg Harbor, Wis.; Cobleskill, N. Y.; the tiny village of Soyans, France; and Kolomyya, West Ukraine. A museum in Siófok, Hungary, has more than 5,000 decorated eggs from 19 different countries. And don’t forget the Royal Alberta Museum in Canada that has one of the most extensive collections of wild and extinct bird eggs in the world.
Collectible, incredible (not edible) eggs—they’re everywhere!
WorthPoint—Discover Your Hidden Wealth
Join WorthPoint on Twitter and Facebook.
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Addressing environmental challenges
A secured energy supply (with the highest share of renewable resources), energy efficiency, climate change, sustainable use of water resources, mitigation of pollution factors and other environmental concerns are some of the gravest challenges facing Europe and the Mediterranean region.
The European Union promotes various environmental initiatives and projects that help protect our common environment. This includes the protection of the Mediterranean Sea through investments in waste and sewage treatment, and developing a sustainable rural policy that ensures that local needs are met without causing unnecessary harm to the environment.
Support to the most vulnerable communities
The conflict in neighbouring Syria has had implications for Lebanon in terms of economy, social affairs, political and security issues. The most visible impact has been the influx of refugees from Syria. The European Union has responded by providing substantial humanitarian assistance to the refugees in Lebanon e.g. health, shelter, water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) and cash. At the same time, the EU has allocated a comparable amount in assistance to Lebanon, its institutions and its communities in dealing with the consequences of the crisis focusing on medium to long term needs and linking relief with recovery and development.
Investment promotion and quality infrastructure
Economic growth is one of the most effective tools to fight poverty. High and sustained growth is also necessary to generate needed public resources for social welfare and physical infrastructure, and to encourage investment in law and order. The role of the private sector and small businesses in particular is instrumental for job creation and income growth. The European Union, together with the Government of Lebanon, the private sector and intermediary organisations, support projects that aim at boosting economic growth and development, and improve the living conditions of the Lebanese people.
Investing in your future
Education and training are key factors for social change, reduction of inequalities and economic development and democratisation.
The European Union offers Lebanon support at different levels from primary education to higher education or vocational and technical education and training. Diverse opportunities are available for Lebanese institutions, teachers, education staff, and students.
Consultation: "Towards a new European Neighbourhood Policy"
Article 8 of the Treaty on the European Union states that 'the Union shall develop a special relationship with neighbouring countries, aiming to establish an area of prosperity and good neighbourliness, founded on the values of the Union and characterised by close and peaceful relations based on cooperation'.
The European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) was designed in 2003 to develop closer relations between the EU and its neighbouring countries. It covers to the South: Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Palestine, Syria and Tunisia; to the East: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, the Republic of Moldova and Ukraine. The ENP was last reviewed in 2011, following the events in the Arab world. Given the significant developments in the neighbourhood since then, it is now essential to undertake a fundamental review of the principles on which the policy is based as well as its scope and how instruments should be used.
The target groups of this consultation are public authorities, civil society, think tanks, social partners, business and academic communities, other relevant stakeholders and interested members of the public.
The info session with Q&A will be held by Mr. Maciej Golubiewski, Head of the Political section at the Delegation of the European Union to Lebanon.
For more information about the consultation, please consult
A challenge for the judicial system
The principles of liberty, respect for human rights, democratic values and fundamental freedoms are inherent to the European Union and constitute crucial elements in its relations with its partners. The EU places the promotion of human rights at the centre of its external policy and is working to ensure that these rights are universally respected.
Towards a safer Lebanon
The European Union acts as a force for stability, cooperation and understanding in the Mediterranean region and beyond by way of conflict prevention, peace-keeping, support for the security sector reform, as well as growth and development activities.
To meet this challenge, the EU is active in political and policy dialogue, and in cooperation with the Lebanese authorities, civil society organisations, as well as international partners and organisations.
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In 1891 North Carolina declared "war" on the oyster fishermen who had drifted down from the north. By the 1880s overfishing had dangerously depleted the seemingly inexhaustible oyster beds of Maryland and Virginia. Armed oyster pirates were destroying what remained with dredges that gathered seed oysters and mature oysters indiscriminately. In 1888 the governor of Maryland armed the state's patrol vessels with cannon and ordered them to return fire, ram dredges, and oust the pirates from Chesapeake Bay at all costs. Consequently, the pirates moved their dredging operations to North Carolina. Also in 1888, seven armed pirate vessels from Virginia were reported plying the waters of Hyde County, gathering and transporting 7,000 bushels of oysters weekly through the Albemarle and Chesapeake Canal and the Dismal Swamp Canal to Virginia. During the 1890 season Carteret, Hyde, and Pamlico Counties dispatched patrol boats to drive off the pirates, but individual confrontations locally proved ineffectual.
In the first week of 1891, 150 Maryland dredge boats were reported in Pamlico Sound while Virginia pirates, said to be armed with Winchester rifles and 36-pounders, were said to have taken possession of all of the beds off of Dare and Hyde Counties. Governor Daniel G. Fowle immediately pushed through the General Assembly legislation strong enough to put the dredgers out of business and to prevent the shipping of North Carolina oysters to out-of-state markets. Fowle then hired a vessel, called out Company E, 1st Regiment, of the National Guard to man it, and armed the men as an oyster patrol. On 21 January he sent a copy of the newly enacted oyster law to Col. J. E. Wood with orders to cruise the oyster beds in Pamlico Sound, serving notice on all boats and ships and arresting any that persisted in dredging or other illegal operations. Within a week, the foreign vessels had departed and all was quiet in North Carolina waters. To keep it so, Fowle hired another boat, the Nellie B. Dey, outfitted it with a howitzer, and deputized Capt. Adam Warren as sheriff to patrol Pamlico Sound and arrest any dredgers. From 31 Jan. to 20 Apr. 1891 the Dey seized only one vessel, the schooner Sailor's Return. Its dredges were impounded and its captain and crew charged and tried in the Pamlico County Superior Court, thus ending the oyster war.
"An act for the better protection of the oyster interests of North Carolina and for other purposes." Laws and resolutions of the State of North Carolina, passed by the General Assembly at its session of 1891. Raleigh, N.C.: Edwards and Broughton.1891. p.43. http://digital.ncdcr.gov/u?/p249901coll22,434319
"An act to promote and protect the oyster interests of the state." Laws and resolutions of the State of North Carolina, passed by the General Assembly at its session of 1891. Raleigh, N.C.: Edwards and Broughton. 1891. p.369. http://digital.ncdcr.gov/u?/p249901coll22,434645
Carter, Kathleen S. "The Oyster War of 1891." The More Things Change...: Oysters, Public Policy, and Species Decline in the Pamlico Sound, 1880-1900. IIFET 2000 Proceedings. http://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1957/30785/270.pdf?sequence=1
Fitzgerald, D. B. "The Oyster War between Maryland and Virginia." Lippincott's Monthly Magazine. November 1891.p. 699.
"Report On The Waters Of North Carolina, With Reference To The Cultivation Of Oysters, Together With The Results Of The Survey Of The Oyster Beds." : P. M. Hale. 1887. http://digital.ncdcr.gov/u?/p249901coll22,625520
1 January 2006 | Stevenson, George
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Women have been and remain assured that radiation exposure from pre-menopausal mammography is trivial, and similar to that from a routine chest x-ray, about 1/1000th of a rad (radiation absorbed dose). However, the practice of taking two mammograms for each breast results in 500 times greater radiation exposure of half a rad, focused on each breast, rather than on the entire chest. Thus, pre-menopausal women undergoing annual routine mammography over a ten-year period are exposed to a total of about 5 rads for each breast. This approximates to the very high radiation whole body exposure of women one mile away from where the atom bombs were dropped in Japan.
This information is not new. Furthermore, as recognized by the prestigious National Academy of Science in 1972, the pre-menopausal breast is highly sensitive to radiation, each rad exposure increasing the risk of breast cancer by one percent. This results in a cumulative 10 percent increased risk of breast cancer over ten years of pre-menopausal mammography. This warning was subsequently emphasized in my 1978 The Politics of Cancer, "Whatever you may be told, refuse routine mammograms, especially if you are pre-menopausal. The x-ray may increase your chances of getting cancer."
This warning against premenopausal mammography was further detailed in a 2001 scientific article, "The Dangers and Unreliability of Mammography: Breast Self Examination As A Safe Effective and Practical Alternative," published in the prestigious International Journal of Services. This was co-authored by Dr. Rosalie Bertell, a leading international expert on the dangers of radiation, the late Barbara Seaman, founder and leader of the women's breast cancer movement, and myself.
Furthermore, the hidden risks of radiation are up to four-times higher for the two percent of woman who are silent carriers of a gene known as the A-T, and highly sensitive to radiation. This accounts for up to ten percent of all breast cancers diagnosed annually.
For these reasons, annual pre-menopausal mammography should be phased-out in favor of monthly breast-self examination (BSE), and annual examination by a gynecologist or trained nurse. This recommendation against premenopausal mammography has been very recently endorsed by the prestigious Task Force of the Department of Health and Human Services. The Task Force also recommends that mammography be delayed until the age of 50, when the breast is much less sensitive to radiation. The recommendation is also supported by the National Breast Cancer Coalition.
This information is critical, especially in view of the current high incidence of breast cancer. Disturbingly, this has increased by about twenty percent since 1975 in spite of routine premenopausal mammography, and its multi-billion dollar insurance costs. Such funds should instead be directed to establishing BSE clinics nationwide.
Samuel S. Epstein, M.D. is professor emeritus of Environmental and Occupational Medicine at the University of Illinois at Chicago School of Public Health; Chairman of the Cancer Prevention Coalition; and a former President of the Rachel Carson Trust. His awards include the 1989 Right Livelihood Award and the 2005 Albert Schweitzer Golden Grand Medal for International Contributions to Cancer Prevention. Dr. Epstein has authored 270 scientific articles and 15 books on cancer prevention, including the groundbreaking The Politics of Cancer (1979), and most recently Toxic Beauty (2009, BenBella Books: www.benbellabooks.com) about carcinogens in cosmetics and personal care products.
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Posted on Dec 01, 2012 | Comments 0
Cod liver oil has been used for its nutritional values for centuries. A rich source of essential omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin A and vitamin D, it has been used to treat everything from liver disease to depression. But how could a regular intake of cod liver oil help keep your heart healthy?
1. Prevents blood clots
A clot in your artery can block the blood supply to your heart, starving it from oxygen. This is the most common cause of heart attacks and the risks increase with age. However, the omega-3 fatty acids in cod liver oil could stop platelets in the blood from sticking together and reduce inflammation in the vessels. This could lower the risk of blood clots and help prevent heart attacks.
2. Regulates heartbeat
Your heart has an electrical impulse which keeps it beating. This is caused by cells known as myocytes and research suggests cod liver oil could help keep these cells healthy and functioning properly.
A study on rats revealed an intake of cod liver oil improved the health of isolated myocytes cells, indicating a regular dose of the supplement could help maintain a stable heartbeat and reduce the risks of dangerous irregular rhythms or abnormalities occurring.
3. Helps lower triglycerides
Cod liver oil has been shown to help regulate the triglycerides in your blood. Triglycerides are a form of fat in your blood which the body converts into energy. However, large amounts can have a detrimental effect on your health and could increase your risk of heart disease. A study at the Bernhard Nocht Institute in Hamburg showed unsaturated fatty acids in cod liver oil helped reduce levels of triglycerides.
4. Reduces cholesterol
Cholesterol is another fatty substance which your cells depend on to work properly, but high levels of cholesterol in your blood, which can be caused by eating too many saturated fats, could lead to cardiovascular disease and heart attacks. Research into cod liver oil has shown the omega-3 it contains could help regulate the amount of cholesterol in your blood, stopping levels from becoming dangerously high.
5. Lowers risk of heart failure
Heart failure is different from a heart attack. While a heart attack happens when blood supply to the heart is blocked, heart failure occurs when the heart cannot effectively pump enough blood around your body. In Sweden, a study on middle aged men showed the omega 3 found in oily fish, similar to that found in cod liver oil, could help reduce the risk of heart failure.
It’s not just your heart that could benefit from cod liver oil. The supplement’s levels of vitamin D could strengthen bones and teeth, while vitamin A is important for vision. However, too much vitamin A can be harmful, particularly for pregnant women, so speak to your doctor about including cod liver oil in your diet.
Posted in: General Health
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Laboratory experiments performed on live tissue and animals, and use by thousands of humans have shown the leaf components to be
extremely safe and non-toxic. In addition, recorded medical use since the early 1800's makes no mention of adverse side-effects.
While being one of the safest herbs to take, the effects of concentrated extracts on disease microbes, blood pressure and blood sugar, make it wise to follow a few guidelines when taking it, especially for the first time. Read about them here
There are no known risks specific to children, and it has reportedly been used for thousands of years with no record of any dangers
or adverse effects.
One should take note of the recommended dosage for children, as their systems are typically clean and they need less to achieve the desired effect than an older person whose system may be overloaded with pathogens.
As in adults, it should not be given to children while they are taking pharmaceutical drugs unless this is agreed to by their physician.
Certain guidelines should be followed when taking it especially for the first time. More about this here
1. Broadly speaking, people taking pharmaceutical drugs unless they involve their physician.
There may be many instances where there would be no clash, but people taking blood thinners, blood pressure or diabetic medication should check first.
This is not due to any inherent danger of the extract but rather the additive or subtractive effect it may have on the pharmaceutial drug/s they are taking.
In fact taking it can lead to a beneficial reduction of insulin needed to control blood sugar and heart medication to reduce blood pressure and these effects need to be overseen by the physician involved.2. Pregnant or breastfeeding mothers/mothers-to-be, unless specifically prescribed by a qualified health care professional.
a) No trials have been done to establish safety during pregnancy.
While not known as an abortifacient herb, each person's circumstances are different and in concentrated form it could have undesirable effects.
b) Should a detox reaction be experienced (see Herxheimers reaction) this could have an effect on an unborn or breast-fed baby or cause diarrhoea in the mother which could then pose a danger to the pregnancy.
See item 4 above.
In the absence of trials, it is better not to mix pharmaceutical drugs and herbal extracts.
There are no published tests to my knowledge to check whether they will work better or worse together. As a rule though one should pick one or the other philosophy rather than a mixture of both.
This is a "die-off" reaction which sometimes occurs when starting with olive leaf extract.
It is the body's immune response to the release of toxins caused by the destruction of large numbers of germs.
Usually resembling mild 'flu-like symptoms and lasting a few days, it is a sign that the treatment is working.
Drinking plenty of water helps flush the toxins out of the system and soon a feeling of better-than-ever health follows the reaction.
Read more about how to manage Herxheimers reaction.
It can make you feel mildly ill, normally for 3-4 days if you are carrying a heavy microbial load. It results from the "die off" of a large number of germs which then have to be processed by your body.
This is actually a good sign that the herb is working and better health is on the way.
Click Herxheimers reaction to learn more and find out the ways to handle this.
It can, because it lowers high blood pressure.
If you are on medication to bring down your blood pressure it can happen that together they can bring it too low causing dizziness.
If you naturally have low blood pressure it is thoeretically possible that the extract will lower it more.
Always consult your physician first if on blood pressure medication. He may adjust your medication down in order to take it for a virus for example.
If low blood pressure is your normal condition, start taking the extract in very small doses to allow your body to adjust. If it still causes dizziness, rather use a different herbal antiviral.
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Christology is the theology of Jesus Christ: his what and who—natures, person, obscurity, ministry, consciousness, etc. WHENEVER we ask and reflect about the who and what of Jesus Christ, we are doing Christology.
We have a hierarchy of truths. Among these truths, it is more important to know who Jesus is than it is to know how many sacraments there are or whether Christ is really present in the Eucharist—and these truths, one must grant, are exceedingly important matters in themselves.
There are two basic types of Christology—
Christology “from below” or Ascending Christology.
Christology “from above” or Descending Christology.
- ž Starts with Jesus of Nazareth, that is, the Jesus of history, and tends to emphasize his humanity.
- We begin with Jesus, a human being like us in all things but sin, living out his early life in obscurity and who, by his unique proclamation of the Kingdom of God, stands out from the rest of humanity.
- He is led to Calvary and the Cross by his lifelong giving of himself in service to others
- God raised him up and exalted him.Notice how Christ’s life proceeds according to this Christology? It ascends.
This Christology is the emphasis of the theology we find in the Synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark and Luke). Christology “from below” is the dominant approach to in Catholic Christology today. It is useful—but what do you think happens if you take this Christology too far? Too much focus on Christology “from below” tends to suggest that Jesus is only human and not really divine. He fulfills a unique role in the history of human beings, calling us to the demands of the Kingdom of God.
Christology “from above”
- ž This Christology begins with the preexistent Word (Logos) with God in heaven and tends to emphasize his divinity.
- The Word “comes down” to assume human flesh on earth and to accomplish our redemption by dying on the cross, rising and returning as Lord to heaven.
- ž Notice how Christ’s life proceeds according to this Christology.
The Christology “from above” is the emphasis of the theology we find in the Fourth Gospel and that of Paul. Christology “from above” was the dominant approach to Catholic Christology from the medieval period up until Vatican II. It is useful—but what do you think happens if you take this Christology too far? An exclusive or exaggerated Christology “from above” tends to imply that Jesus is not really human, but only appears to have taken on our human condition.
Question: Of taking these positions to their extremes, to which have Christians historically more often been inclined?
Answer: CHRISTOLOGY “from above.” Why? Our humanity is VERY uncomfortable. We really don’t like associating it with God. It’s much easier for us to see Jesus as Superman than man. In the pre-Vatican II Church, one might often hear statements like, “when Christ walked the earth disguised as a man.”
Catholics strive to be “both-and” Christians, not either-or. Jesus is both God and man. He is both from above and from below. We need the full apostolic witness to see this. Theology is an outcome or fruit of faith. Christology is where anthrop
ology and theology meet. The first theological questions are:
Who am I? Who are you? Who are we?
Who is Jesus Christ? In all the literature about Jesus ever written you will never find a neutral account. Study his life and teachings and it w
ill be IMPOSSIBLE for you to maintain a credibly indifferent posture. Either you will accept him in faith in more or less conformity with the faith of the Church OR you will deflate his importance or discredit his person in one way or another.
What about modern skeptics? Modern skeptics and their claims are UNORIGINAL. It was not modern theologians and book writers that invented the idea of the extramarital conception of Jesus—it was insinuated by some of his contemporaries (Jn 8:41). Reimarus did not invent the notion of Jesus’ body being stolen from the tomb; it was a well-known rumor by the time of Matthew’s composition (Mt 28:11). D.F. Strauss was not the first to reject the mystery of the Incarnation as unworthy of educated human b
eings; Celsus and Porphyry, pagan philosophers of the 2nd and 3rd centuries derided it well before.
But that does not mean that the Early Church was a group of fundamentalists! It would be wrong to insinuate that the Church of the 2nd and 3rd centuries—which determined the biblical canon—shared 21st century Christian fundamentalist anxiety for historical accuracy. The biblical canon attests the Church’s conviction that the four Gospels together, in their relative differences and essential complementarity provide the full, authen
tic portrait of Jesus and the full, authentic depository of his teachings. By preserving four DIFFERENT VERSIONS of the same story the Church expressed that the truth of the “Quadriform Gospel” does NOT depend on the historical accuracy of the contradictory details among the four documents called “Matthew,” “Mark,” “Luke,” and “John.”
To speak of the Godman Jesus Christ is to speak of ultimate mysteries, the complementary mysteries of “God” and “Human being.”
And this is eternal life, that they know you the only true God, and Jesus Christ whom you sent.
What follows is not just a mental exercise. This is encountering a MYSTERY, a dive into the LIGHT.
[The Samaritan villagers] said to th
e woman, “It is no longer because of your words that we believe, for we have heard for ourselves, and we know that this is indeed the Savior of the world
This mystery, the mystery of Christ, the human mind can never exhaust. The “knowledge” here is like the knowledge between Adam and Eve, between Christ and Church.
Thomas answered him, “My Lord and my God!” Jesus said to him, “Have you believed because you have seen me? Blessed are those who have not seen and yet believe.”
God calls us in Christ to a mystical intimacy and divine eros. This is more than a head thing. This is a PRAYER thing. Pray.
All things praise you in your Son
By your Spirit conform all things to
Grow our faith to illuminate our reason
And grant us reason to critically appropriate
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Cicada Ear: Any Loud Noise Is Dangerous
Have you been going buggy over the mating call of this years crop of cicadas? These love sick insects appear every 17 years one of natures wonders. However, the fact is this years bug fest can actually do damage to your hearing!
It sounds like some kind of joke but its true. This year there was a particularly large cicada swarm in the Chicago area and, in chorus, these creatures can generate sound in excess of 90 decibels about the loudness of a lawn mowerhour after hour after hour.
According to the Chicago Tribune, sound at this volume can cause physical and psychological strain in humans. No kidding. Its like having a bulldozer running outside your window eight hours a day. No wonder people are going buggy.
The Tribune, and many other media outlets, reported that cicada-generated noise can cause hearing loss, anxiety, aggravation and high blood pressure according to Billy Martin, a hearing specialist at Oregon Health and Science University.
Martin was quoted, saying Loud noise is very stressful, especially if the sound is annoying and loud. Its the double whammy and cicadasare both.
Cicadas appear mid-summer every 17 years and, based on weather conditions, can cause serious problems. If we experience a wet, cool period for a time, the first warm, sunny day will bring cicadas out to sing their song of love, and drive us all nuts.
Fortunately, these love bugs are most amorous mid-day when the temperature is high. At night, when we sleep, cicadas take a break from the action, too. This is why people who live and work in noisy environments may not even know the cicadas are back.
Its a Loud, Loud, Loud, Loud World
Maybe weve become immune to it. Maybe its just sonic wallpaper, there all the time but never noticed.
Walk down any street in a major city and youll hear noise lots of it. From cabs and cars, jackhammers, street vendors, buses and subways, people shouting to be heard. We live in a loud world. And over time, that background noise will lead to hearing impairment for many people.
The baby boomers were the first generation to experience loud sound on a regular basis. Thats why many people in their 40s and 50s are lining up for a hearing screenings and are getting fitted with hearing aids.
Blocking Out the Noise with More Noise?
So, were bombarded by noise on the streets, on the job, at home, in school loud sound is a way of life. An unhealthy way of life, but what alternatives do we have? Its the world in which we live.
But heres the kicker. For some people, the solution to the annoying, hectic sounds of the factory assembly line or traffic in Times Square is an MP3 player a device that drowns out annoying, ambient noise with louder, less annoying noise - our favorite tunes.
Does anyone see the problem with this solution to a loud world?
Sure, you control the sound but you have to play the music loud enough through standard earphones (versus to block out the noise around you which means youre actually picking up more decibels or dBs (the measurement of sound volume) listening to your iPod on the subway to work. It may block out the world around you but its damaging the delicate nerve fibers that turn sound waves into electrical impulses for shipment to the brain for processing.
Real Solutions to Cicada Ear and Other Loud Noises from the Outside World
Cicada ear isnt so much a problem (as problems go) as it is an example of the noise that surrounds many of us every day. You can go from the stillness of the back country to the noise on a huge interstate in 10 minutes. So, even country dwellers are dealing with more noise, at louder volumes, for longer periods of time.
So whats a person to do? First, be aware of noise levels in your surroundings. If your next door neighbor is running his lawnmower 10 feet from your ear drum, youre picking up a bunch of dBs just sitting there. When your environment is noisy, mitigate the problem as much as possible as quickly as possible.
Close the window when the neighbor mows the lawn. Problem solved.
You can purchase noise-cancellation headphones that do a great job of blocking loud noise but there are two things to consider. First, current sound canceling headsets are pricey (but prices should be coming down as they become more popular). Second, they make you lookumm, well, kind of geeky (although now there are some sleeker models available).Of course, that shouldnt stop you from using them if you can afford them.
Certainly wear ear protection in noisy workplace environments. If the employer doesnt provide hearing protection in loud environments, buy your own and call OSHA. An employer is supposed to provide a safe workplace and if ambient noise will cause hearing loss today, or 10 years from now, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration would like to hear about it.
Have your hearing tested regularly - annually. A hearing evaluation will indicate the amount of hearing loss an individual experiences each year simply because of the noise all around us. The first test establishes a baseline for comparison in subsequent years so make an appointment. Many insurers cover an annual hearing exam so check your policy.
Enjoy the Sound of Silence
Finally, if youre interested in protecting your hearing but you arent rolling in dough, there are a few lifestyle changes you can make to control sound levels in your environment.
Buy an inexpensive set of ear plugs at the pharmacy and use them.
Listen to music and TV at an enjoyable, safe volume.
Limit your listening hours. Get unplugged for at least part of the day.
Remove yourself from noisy environments. Its not always possible, or even desirable, but when you can, move away from the source of loud noise.
Be prepared. If youre going to a fireworks display or a rock concert, you can expect intermittent and prolonged assaults on your hearing. You know this going beforehand. So wear ear plugs, enjoy the show and enjoy hearing health.
- Turn it off. The TV, the radio, the MP3 player, surround sound, stereo turn them all off. Weve become addicted to noise stimuli; silence can actually be uncomfortable for many people. But give it a try. Youll quickly see how stillness around you creates stillness within you.
Let the cicadas have their day. They wont be back for another 17 years and most of us have bigger concerns. However, increase your awareness of the noisy world in which you live, and take steps to protect your hearing today for tomorrows sake.
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Home - Bethany Facts - Contact - Membership - Talks - Calendar
Facts About Bethany
Bethany Center Schoolhouse, 1834-1934
Formerly located on Amity Road at the site of the present Center Firehouse
Now located on the grounds of the Bethany Community School
(Information from the sesquicentennial booklet, Bethany in 1982, Alice Bunton's book, Bethany's Old Houses and Community Buildings, Bethanys annual town reports and Municipal Historian Robert H. Brinton.)
Before 1638 Two Indian tribes inhabit the Bethany area. West of the north-south line running along Pole Hill Road are the Naugatucks of the Paugusset Tribe. East of that line are the Mattabessitts of the Wangunk Tribe.
1638 April 24: English Congregational (i.e. Puritan) settlers from the Massachusetts Bay Colony arrive in New Haven area then called Quinnipiac by the Indians.
November 24: Land around New Haven harbor purchased from Sachem Momauguin of the Quinnipiac Indians.
December 11: Land north of New Haven including eastern Bethany purchased from Montawese and Sawseunck, of the Wangunk Tribe living in the North Haven area; for the next 146 years, eastern Bethany is part of the Town of New Haven.
1639 Settlers from New Haven arrive in Milford area, then called Wepawaug. An area extending 20 miles north is considered within Milford town boundaries; this includes western Bethany.
1643 New Haven Colony is organized as a state including the towns of New Haven, Milford, Guilford, Branford, Stamford and Southold, Long Island. It is an independent colony without a royal charter, organized by the Congregational Church.
1649 Execution of King Charles I by a Puritan Court appointed by Parliament.
1650 Richard Sperry, Ralph Lines, and other settlers from New Haven take up residence in what is now southeast Woodbridge.
1660 The monarchy is restored in England; Charles II becomes King; the Puritan regicides are prosecuted.
1661 Two of the regicides, Edward Whalley and William Goffe are hidden in New Haven and the surrounding area for the next three years. One of their hiding places is Judges Cave on West Rock; another is Hatchet Harbor in Woodbridge. According to Ezra Stiles they used Holmes Fort in Bethany as a lookout point.
1662 Connecticut Colony is established in Hartford by royal charter of Charles II, taking its name from the Indian name of the Connecticut River: Quonektacat, meaning long river.
1664 Alexander Bryan of Milford buys Lebanon Swamp (Bethany Bog) in Bethany from Nehantond, a Naugatuck Indian, for 30 shillings; he sells it to New Haven ten years later. Nehantond seems to be the earliest landowner of record in Bethany area.
1665 Union of New Haven Colony and Connecticut Colony is completed with capitals in both Hartford and New Haven.
1666 New Haven County is organized.
1672 New Haven and Milford agree on a common boundary that runs through the Bethany area. Holmes Fort and Beacon Cap are mentioned in the description.
1673 New Haven and Milford dispute the ownership of the Three Brothers, a clump of three chestnut trees on the Milford-New Haven boundary and now located in northern Bethany at the Naugatuck-Prospect-Bethany boundary point. The area in dispute was supposed to be haunted by evil spirits. The quarrel was carried to the Governor of the Colony of Connecticut for adjustment, but a satisfactory decision was not rendered. The townsfolk thereupon agreed to settle their differences by physical combat. Elimination contests were held to determine the town championships in 1673, and the two champions battled beneath the Three Brothers from ten oclock until sundown. The contest was even. Both towns agreed to include the chestnuts in their land descriptions.
1674 Settlers from Farmington purchase land at Mattatuck from the Tunxis Indians; this area later becomes Waterbury and Naugatuck.
1675 Center of New Haven is fortified against Indian attack during King Phillips War (1675-76); a log palisade is built but the town is not attacked. This war resulted in the extermination of Indian tribal life in Southern New England.
1686 A County Road is laid out between Waterbury and New Haven through Bethany area.
1687 King James II sends armed men to Hartford to seize the 1662 Charter of Connecticut, which is hidden in the Charter Oak; government under the old charter is restored two years later.
1700 Proprietors in Milford purchase from the Paugusset Indians a tract of land in western Bethany between Bladens Brook and Lebanon Brook (now called Hockanum Brook). This tract is known as the Two-Bit Purchase two bits being the price of a share in the purchase. Two bits was a quarter (2/8th) of a Piece of Eight, also called a Spanish dollar. The Indians signing the agreement are Conquepotana, Ahanataway, Rasquenoot, Waurarrunton, Wonountacun, Pequit, Suckatash, Durquin, and Windham, all early Bethany landowners and perhaps residents.
1702 Proprietors in Milford purchase from the Paugusset Indians a tract of land in northwestern Bethany between Lebanon Brook and the Waterbury line. This tract is known as the One-Bit Purchase. The Indian sellers were the same eight who signed the Two-Bit Purchase.
1709 Ebenezer Johnson of Milford buys a tract of land in Nyumphs (later to become part of Bethany) from an Indian named Chetrenasut; in exchange Johnson gives Chetrenasut a squaw named Sarah and ₤3,10s.
1711 Land is eastern Bethany area is surveyed and divided by lot among the proprietors in New Haven.
1717 Samuel Downs settles in the valley south of Mad Mares Hill.
1721 Stephen Perkins and others petition unsuccessfully for a separate parish in the Woodbridge-Bethany area.
1722 William Thompson surveys the County Highway to Waterbury through Bethany; the route generally follows present-day Amity Road.
1728 Waterbury, at its own request, is transferred from Hartford County to New Haven County.
1734 Settlers in area northwest of New Haven, now Woodbridge but then called Chestnut Hill, receive winter preaching privileges because of the difficulty of traveling to New Haven.
1738 Amity Parish is incorporated by the General Assembly of the Connecticut Colony. The Parish territory includes most of the present townships of Bethany and Woodbridge. Amity Parish includes the Two-Bit Purchase but not the One-Bit Purchase.
1742 Amity Parish Congregational Meetinghouse is built on what is now the Woodbridge Town Green; Rev. Benjamin Woodbridge is the first minister.
1750 First schoolhouse in the northern half of Amity Parish is built at Rocky Corner near the intersection of Old Amity and Meyers roads.
1754 French and Indian War begins. It ends in 1763. The graves of Bethany veterans of this war are in the Old Bethany Burying Ground on Meyers Road.
1755 Timothy Peck and others ask the General Assembly to draw an east-west line dividing Amity Parish into two parts, and also ask that the north part receive privileges of winter preaching; first meetings are held in the schoolhouse at Rocky Corner.
1762 The Amity Parish is subdivided and the northern part is incorporated by the General Assembly as the Bethany Parish; it is named for the Biblical village on the Mount of Olives where Jesus Christ raised Lazarus from the dead (John 11:1-44).
1763 The Bethany Congregational Church is organized and Rev. Stephen Hawley begins his 41-year pastorate.
1769 Bethany Parish annexes 'One-Bit Purchase' from Milford.
1769 Construction begun on First Meeting House of Congregational Church erected on old Bethany Green (corner of Dayton and Amity Roads). Completed in 1773.
1776 Representatives of Connecticut Colony sign the Declaration of Independence and Connecticut becomes one of the thirteen states of the United States.
1779 On July 5th, New Haven is attacked and plundered by a large force of British soldiers from New York; they leave on July 6th when militiamen from outlying towns, including Bethany, begin to gather.
1780 The Ebenezer Dayton House in Bethany is robbed just after midnight on March 14th by a small party of Tories from Gunntown, led by a British officer from Long Island.
1781 Second schoolhouse is built, for the North District, on Litchfield Turnpike north of Cheshire Road. Replaced by Gate School on opposite side of road in 1880.
1783 Revolutionary War ends.
1784 By act of the General Assembly, Amity Parish and Bethany Parish are incorporated as the Town of Woodbridge, named for Benjamin Woodbridge, first Congregational minister in Amity Parish; land for the new town is taken both from New Haven and Milford. Bethany Parish is part of Woodbridge for the next 48 years.
1785 Reverend Bela Hubbard, Rector of Trinity Episcopal Church in New Haven, begins missionary work in Bethany. A predecessor to the present Episcopal Church was built on Church Corner at the intersection of Carrington and Tuttle roads. The interior is never finished and the structure is torn down in 1803.
1789 Beecher Schoolhouse is built on Sperry Road. This was the first of three schools on this site.
1795 Connecticut Western Reserve Lands are sold for $1,200,000. Bethany schools receive a share of proceeds.
1797 The Straits Turnpike Company is incorporated to build and maintain a road from Litchfield to New Haven passing through Bethany Parish. This road is later renamed Litchfield Turnpike.
1798 Oxford is set off from Derby as a town; Oxford includes Nyumphs.
1798 Bethany Union Library is founded.
1799 First legal society of the Episcopal Church is organized.
1800 First buggy appears on the Bethany Grand List, owned by Isaac Sperry of Litchfield Turnpike.
1800 Downs Schoolhouse is built on Downs Road. Demolished in 1900, and a new schoolhouse built on other side of the road.
1807 The Wheeler-Beecher House, also known as the Hoadley House, is built on Amity Road; designed by David Hoadley of Waterbury.
1809 Present Christ Episcopal Church is erected on Amity Road; designed by David Hoadley. Completed in 1810.
1818 New Connecticut Constitution is passed; Congregational Church is disestablished, and no longer receives direct town support.
1831 The First Church of Christ Congregational in Bethany Center is completed; original Congregational Meetinghouse on old Bethany Green (built 1769-1773) is torn down; and the Green is sold. This move brings the church to the geographical center of Bethany Parish.
1832 By act of the General Assembly, Bethany Parish is separated from Woodbridge and incorporated as the Town of Bethany. Reuben Judd becomes first selectman of the new town.
1833 A family of Bethany Indians resettled in Derby by the selectmen is wiped out by smallpox; there are in all six men, three squaws, and three children; only the children survive the epidemic. The family, named Mack, support themselves by making baskets and by hunting. They are among the last survivors of the Paugusset Indians living in the area
1834 Center Schoolhouse is built on Amity Road.
1839 Bethany annexes the Nyumphs area of Oxford; this later becomes the eastern part of Beacon Falls.
1840 The Methodist Episcopal Church is built on Litchfield Turnpike.
1840 The towns population (which includes Straitsville and Beacon Falls) is at its peak and is not surpassed until the 1940s. It is the beginning of a long decline to the low point of 411 people in 1920.
1840 Bethany Census: 1,170.
1844 The area and population of Bethany is reduced when the Straitsville area becomes part of the new Town of Naugatuck by act of the General Assembly.
1848 The Canal Railroad begins service from New Haven through Mt. Carmel and Cheshire to Plainville. This brings the railroad within two miles of Bethanys east boundary.
1849 Naugatuck Valley Railroad begins service. The station for Beacon Falls on the west side of the Naugatuck River is as close as Bethany ever comes to a railroad. Train service to Beacon Falls, Naugatuck, and Waterbury ends the prosperity of the Litchfield Turnpike.
1850 Bethany Census: 914.
1854 Bethany Probate Court is established.
1854 Straits Turnpike Company is dissolved.
1858 First Woodbridge-Bethany Agricultural Society Fair held in Woodbridge. Some held on Fair Grounds in Bethany on present Fairwood Road. Continued until about 1890.
1858 Episcopal Church carriage shed is built.
1860 Bethany Census: 974.
1865 A part of Bethany is annexed by Woodbridge when Bladens Brook becomes southwest boundary between the two towns.
1866 Bethany Town Meeting on October 11th passes an ordinance forbidding Edward Malley of New Haven to hunt or fish within its boundaries.
1870 Bethany Census: 1,135.
1871 Bethany's area and population again reduced when Beacon Falls is incorporated as a town by act of the General Assembly.
1874 Bethany begins publishing Annual Town Reports.
1875 Hartford is made sole capital city of Connecticut.
1875 Interior of Episcopal Church is remodeled.
1877 Smith School is built on Carrington Road. This is the third school to serve the Northeast District.
1880 Bethany Census: 637.
1888 Lake Watrous is built on the West River by the New Haven Water Company; part of the lake is in Bethany, although the greater part is in Woodbridge.
1890 Bethany Census: 550.
1892 Lake Chamberlain is built on the Sargent River by the New Haven Water Company; it is first called the Sargent River Dam.
1894 Bethany Lake is built on the West River by the New Haven Water Company; when the dam is filled, an earlier dam called the Nailworks Dam is inundated.
1898 Tyler Davidson founds the Davidson Telephone Exchange System in Bethany. Cedars from Lebanon Swamp are used as telephone poles.
1900 Bethany Census: 517.
1905 First book on Bethany, Bethany and its Hills, by Eliza J. Lines is published in New Haven. Parts of the book had appeared earlier in the New Haven Register.
1907 Davidson Telephone Exchange taken over by Southern New England Telephone Company.
1907 Stagecoach service on the Litchfield Turnpike discontinued.
1910 Chestnut blight begins to destroy the large stands of chestnut trees that had been a major source of timber and trim for Bethany houses and barns.
1910 Bethany Census: 495.
1914 First Bethany Town Hall built on Amity Road at Bethany Center.
1915 First road paved in Bethany Amity Road.
1915 New Naugatuck Reservoir is built on Hill Brook by the Naugatuck Water Company; it is at first called the Long Hill Dam.
1915 Bethany Grange #188 organized.
1917 Bethany Grange Town Development Assoc. Inc. held Bethany Fairs until 1923 at Town Hall.
1918 First road in Bethany is paved.
1918 Five airplanes are spotted flying over the town on July 4th. These are the first seen in the skies over Bethany.
1920 First tractor appears on the Bethany Grand List an International 8-16, owned by Clifford Whitlock and used at his farm on Litchfield Turnpike.
1920 First airplane lands at or near the site of the future Bethany Airport, one mile north of Bethany Center.
1920 The population reaches its low point and begins to grow again.
1920 Bethany Census: 411.
1923 Bethany Field, later known as Bethany Airport, is opened; it is among the earliest in New England.
1924 Bethany Agricultural Association, Inc. holds Fair.
1930 Bethany Library Association is incorporated.
1930 Bethany Census: 480.
1931 Amity Road is widened, straightened and repaved.
1931 The Center Schoolhouse is moved a short distance east, away from Amity Road.
1931 Congregational Church is moved to the west, away from Amity Road.
1931 Catherine Edmondson receives Certificate from Connecticut State Board of Education for Perfect Attendance for eight years.
1932 Bethany Centennial celebration is held.
1932 Troop I, Boy Scouts of America, is chartered in town.
1934 Bethany Volunteer Firemens Association is founded.
1934 The Bethany Community School on Peck Road is completed. This four-classroom building houses grades one through eight and replaces the four remaining one-room schools in town.
1934 Bethany Baseball Club is organized.
1936 Clark Memorial Library dedicated by the Bethany Library Association; it is a bequest of Noyes Clark.
1939 State Police Barracks Troop I on Amity Road opened.
1940 Bethany Census: 706.
1941 Bethany Athletic Association incorporated. Originated as the Bethany Baseball Club. The association leased Peck Pond and furnished funds for its development.
1943 The Amity Rangers, Connecticut State Guard, under Capt. Willis Thompson was organized.
1943 Wooden Honor Roll erected in front of Town Hall to acknowledge Bethanys World War II servicemen.
1944 Wallace S. Saxton elected first selectman, defeating incumbent First Selectman William L. Wooding. Wooding, who was first elected in 1924, resigns from his new position of third selectman.
1947 Charter for Bethany Public Health Nursing Agency is drawn.
1948 Board of Finance established.
1949 First addition to original Community school completed. Two classrooms and an office added to the northern end of the building.
1950 'Amity Star' published by George Vaill for Bethany and Woodbridge (later Orange and Prospect also) began, ended in 1953.
1950 Peck Pond purchased by the Town and Athletic Association.
1950 Bethany Census: 1,318.
1951 Center Schoolhouse moved to the athletic field on Munson Road.
1952 Lions Club organized.
1952 Zoning adopted.
1952 Bethany Volunteer Fire Department's new station completed on Amity Road.
1952 Vault, bathrooms and office constructed for Town Hall addition. This is the first time the Town Hall has running water and a place to store its land records. These records were previously stored in the attic of the barn at the John Hinman house.
1952 Bronze plaque replaces earlier wooden honor roll in front of Town Hall.
1953 Regional High School District #5 established to serve towns of Bethany, Orange and Woodbridge.
1953 First woman elected to Board of Selectmen - Elizabeth Fox.
1953 Stanley H. Downs elected first selectman to replace retiring First Selectman Wallace S. Saxton.
1953 Second addition to original Community School completed. Gym, lobby and kitchen added to the southern end of building and basement of the existing structure divided into two classrooms.
1953 Bethany, Orange and Woodbridge join to form the Amity Regional High School District No. 5. The district governs grades seven through twelve.
1954 The senior high school is built on Newton Road in Woodbridge. Earlier Bethany students had been sent to public high schools in neighboring towns as tuition students for grades nine through twelve.
1955 Traffic light installed in front of Town Hall at Bethany Center. This was the towns first traffic light.
1955 Methodist Episcopal Church on Litchfield Turnpike is torn down after being inactive for many years.
1956 First four-room annex (#1) for the Community School completed.
1957 Yale Observatory built on Hilldale Road.
1957 Bethany adopts subdivision regulations.
1959 Bethany Memorial Scholarship Fund established.
1960 Second four-room annex (#2) for the Community School completed.
1960 Park and Recreation Commission created by Town.
1960 Bethany Town Court is discontinued.
1960 Bethany Census: 2,384.
1961 Bethany Volunteer Ambulance Corp., an affiliate of the Bethany Volunteer Fire Department, is organized.
1962 Bethany adopts its first Town Plan of development.
1962 Conservation Commission established.
1963 Amity Regional Junior High School on Luke Hill Road in Bethany opened.
1963 First Church of Christ, Congregational celebrates its 200th birthday.
1963 Gordon V. Carrington becomes first selectman following the death of First Selectman Stanley H. Downs.
1964 Road Department started; Edward Hinman appointed first full-time Road Foreman.
1964 First Annual Memorial Day Parade organized by 4-H 'Cook and Sew' Club under leadership of Marion Sandell.
1965 New Connecticut Constitution is passed; Bethany loses its town representative in the General Assembly.
1965 Six-room annex (#3) for the Community School completed. First kindergarten classes held.
1965 Industrial Development Commission formed.
1965 Bethany Airport closes.
1966 First golf course in Bethany opened at Woodhaven Country Club.
1966 Thirty-two acre former Nettleton property purchased by town as a site for the Community School North Campus.
1966 Building Code established in town. Frederick Fritz Johnson is the first Building Official.
1967 One hundred-twelve acre former Bethany Airport property purchased by Town for industrial park.
1967 'Cook and Sew' 4-H Club organizes young people groups for first Rid Litter Day.
1968 Bethany Conservation Trust is organized and incorporated. The 27-acre Ida Carrington Lowell property off Cedar Road is donated by Mrs. Marion Jenkins to be used as a nature sanctuary.
1969 Joined with Orange and Woodbridge in construction of a regional dog pound.
1969 Athletic field on Munson Road completed.
1970 North Campus of Bethany Community School completed.
1970 Bethany Census: 3,857.
1971 Elizabeth Mendell donates 125 acres to Bethany Conservation Trust.
1971 Town switches from 3-person elected Board of Assessors to one appointed professional assessor. Lawrence Larson is chosen for the position.
1972 Hinman Fire Station built on the corner of Bear Hill and Hinman roads.
1972 Alice Bice Buntons book, Bethany's Old Houses and Community Buildings, published by the Bethany Library Association.
1972 Municipal Agent for the Elderly position established.
1972 First Resident State Trooper assigned to the Town of Bethany.
1973 Inland Wetlands Commission established.
1974 Senior citizens provided with a room at the Community School South Campus and a hot lunch program.
1975 Center School moved to permanent home on Community School grounds.
1975 House numbers are introduced to town.
1975 Childrens Room completed at the Clark Memorial Library.
1975 Town Seal, designed by Betsy Seaton, adopted.
1975 Use of the South Campus at the Bethany Community School discontinued for educational purposes.
1976 Bethany observes U.S. Bicentennial. Restoration of Center Schoolhouse began.
1976 Barone fieldhouse built at the Munson Road athletic field.
1976 The Wheeler-Beecher or Hoadley House on Amity Road becomes the first structure in Bethany to be placed on the National Register of Historic Places.
1976 Second traffic light installed in Bethany at the intersection of Carrington and Cheshire Roads.
1977 First woman elected as Town Clerk - Alice Bice Bunton.
1977 New Town Hall on Peck Road opened.
1977 Original Town Hall renamed the Stanley Downs Memorial Building at the annual town meeting.
1978 South addition to Center Firehouse built.
1978 Hazel Lounsbury Hoppes book, Bethany Yesterday: The One Room School, published by the Bethany Historical Preservation Trust.
1980 First woman Town Treasurer - Alice Bice Bunton.
1980 Town sells the Stanley Downs Memorial Building to Christ Episcopal Church.
1980 Bethany Census: 4,330.
1982 Bethany celebrates its 150th birthday.
1982 Center Schoolhouse Committee is formed to oversee the old Center Schoolhouse.
1984 911 system instituted.
1985 First Selectman Gordon Carrington wins re-election for a record-setting 12th term. Carrington becomes longest serving first selectman in town history. Other long-time first selectmen were Samuel R. Woodward (22 years) and William L. Wooding (20 years).
1986 John E. Ford, III becomes first selectman after death of Gordon Carrington.
1986 Second Resident State Trooper added fro the Town of Bethany.
1989 Old transfer station in Beacon Falls is closed; Town begins curbside pickup of trash.
1989 Bethany begins recycling program.
1989 Addition to Hinman Fire Station completed.
1990 Position of Municipal Historian is created. Robert H. Brinton is selected as town historian.
1990 Granite war memorial, carved by Peter Horbick, dedicated.
1990 Bethany Census: 4,730.
1991 District Animal Control, encompassing the towns of Bethany, Orange, Prospect and Woodbridge, established.
1992 Bethany is assigned its own zip code 06524.
1993 Bethany Historical Society is incorporated.
1994 The Christ Episcopal Church deeds the Stanley Downs Memorial Building and surrounding property to the Bethany Historical Society.
1994 East addition to Center Firehouse completed.
1995 Work begins on renovating the Stanley Downs Memorial Building. This is completed in 1996.
1995 110-acre Spykman Preserve conservation easement donated by the Harter and Winer families to the Bethany Land Trust.
1995 New Amity Regional High School in Woodbridge and major renovations to the Amity Junior High Schools in Bethany and Orange completed.
1996 New Town Garage is completed.
1996 East Wing addition to the Clark Memorial Library is dedicated.
1997 The Town purchases the 55-acre former Bethany West property, now known as Veterans Memorial Park.
1997 Hazel Lounsbury Hoppes book, Bethany Pebbles and Flowers, is published by the Bethany Historical Society.
1998 C wing addition to Community School is dedicated.
1998 Senior Citizen van put into operation.
1998 Episcopal Church carriage shed, the last of its kind in Connecticut, is restored.
1999 The Town purchases the 94-acre former Monument Stables property, now part of Veterans Memorial Park.
1999 Hockanum Lake at Veterans Memorial Park is opened for swimming.
1999 Craig A. Stahl elected first selectman to replace retiring First Selectman John Ford. Stahl is the first non-incumbent candidate to win the top post since Stanley Downs first election in 1953.
1999 Town purchases the 15-acre former Brinsmade property to add to the Old Airport tract.
1999 Pole Hill Park improved with a parking area and fire access road to the skating pond.
1999 First annual Family Day event held at the Town Hall Field.
2000 Town acquires an agricultural easement over a portion of Clover Nook Farm on Fairwood Road.
2000 Bethany adopts its revised Town Plan of Conservation and Development.
2000 First annual Summer Sparkler event held at Veterans Memorial Park.
2000 Local Tax Relief for the Elderly adopted.
2000 Bethany Census: 5,040.
2001 A gazebo is built on the Town Hall Field, donated by the Lions Club.
2001 Footbridge built by the Bethany Veterans of Foreign Wars at Veterans Memorial Park.
2001 Historic Bethany Center signs erected on Amity Road.
2002 Third traffic light installed in Bethany at the intersection of Amity and Cheshire roads.
Note: If you have additional items that you think should be included in this list or find any errors, please call us at 203-393-1832, or email William@BrintonWood.com and let us know.
Home - Bethany Facts - Contact - Membership - Talks - Calendar
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Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR): Biography
If you had met Franklin Delano Roosevelt when he was a boy, you would probably never have guessed that he would grow up to be the "peoples' president." FDR was born in the lap of luxury at Springwood, the Roosevelt family estate in Hyde Park, New York.
FDR's family was very, very wealthy. They divided their time between Hyde Park, a townhouse in New York City (traveling back and forth in their own private railroad car), and their summer home in Maine. In many ways, Franklin had a normal upper-class upbringing for his place and time: private tutors at home, riding lessons from an early age, jaunts with daddy in the woods to hunt, kill, and collect rare birds. Little Franklin, however, was also something of a mama's boy. While most wealthy mothers of the time gave their children to nurses and governesses to raise, Franklin's mother Sara took personal control of his life, clothing him in dresses and kilts until he was eight years old and even bathing him herself. According to one letter, Franklin didn't take his first bath alone until he was nine!1
Sara also made sure that, even though her son lived a luxurious life (and was sometimes dressed like a girl), he was not spoiled. She kept him on a strict schedule: breakfast at eight, lessons from nine until twelve, lunch at noon, more lessons until four, two hours of play, then dinner and in bed by eight.2 Under Sara's watchful eye, young Franklin learned French and German from an early age, and could write in German by the time was six.
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Behind the buzz and beyond the hype:
Our Nanowerk-exclusive feature articles
Posted: Aug 31, 2006
DNA as template for assembling nanostructures
(Nanowerk Spotlight) Recent developments in DNA-based nanotechnology have shown the suitability of this novel assembly method for constructing useful nanostructures. DNA molecules can serve as precisely controllable and programmable scaffolds for organizing functional nanomaterials in the design, fabrication, and characterization of nanometer scale electronic devices and sensors. DNA-templated metallic nanowires are such an example and over the past few years DNA scaffolds have been metallized with silver, gold, palladium, platinum and copper. DNA-based fabrication methods could ultimately lead to naturally bio-compatible nanodevices.
Recent research at Duke University optimized the fabrication of DNA-templated silver nanowires while also performing electrical analysis of the resulting wires.
Dr. Sung Ha Park explained the recent work to Nanowerk: "For the past few decades, direct electrical transport measurement in DNA molecules has been considered an interesting research subject. Even though some conductivity experiments with DNA have shown semiconducting or superconducting behavior at extreme conditions, other studies have concluded that DNA molecules are insulators. Rather than relying on electrical transport through DNA itself, we have made use of DNA nanostructures as templates for the specific deposition of functionalized metallic silver nanowires."
In their paper, the researchers describe the fabrication of silver nanowires templated on both synthetic double-stranded DNA and native bacteriophage λ-DNA molecules. After a chemical silver deposition, the metallized DNA wires have a diameter down to 15 nm and are among the thinnest metallic nanowires available to date.
Park and his colleagues also demonstrate the electrical conductivity of their metallized nanowires. Two-terminal current-voltage measurements of about 70 silver wires have demonstrated various conduction behaviors: about 45% were highly conducting, ∼15% nonohmic-semiconducting, and ∼40% showed insulting characteristics.
SEM images of λ- (left) and synthetic double-stranded DNA (right) after two-step silver metallization process. (Reprinted with permission from the American Institute of Physics)
Park explains that understanding of the mechanism limiting the preinitialized conductance of the wires is necessary before these DNA templated wires can be reliably used as interconnects in bioelectronic nanodevices.
"While non-metallized DNA molecules do not appear to be highly conductive, the DNA templated metallic nanowires promise
to become useful as programmable interconnects in bioelectronic devices" says Park.
The advantages of DNA-templated fabrication of electro-mechanically functionalized devices such as metallic nanowires and magnetic quantum dot arrays – 'site-specific' alignment and molecular lithography – could become a very interesting aspect for future nanoelectronics applications.
Finkelstein notes that the wires may be potentially used as interconnects in future bio-nano-devices, compatible with other biochemical fabrication steps. "Eventually" he says, "one may hope making devices that will be naturally bio-compatible."
Another potential future application Finkelstein and his group are already working on is templating Single-Electron Transistors (SETs) on DNA scaffolds where the metalized DNA wires may be used as leads for the SETs. This represents the first important step in their implementation. "Given the small size and great complexity of the modern electronic chips, the alternative, potentially competitive fabrication strategies should rely on bio-chemical self-assembly techniques."
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At some point in our lives, each of us has either heard stories about or seen images of dancing lights in the far north of our planet. Undoubtedly, this spectacle is beautiful, but what exactly are the “Northern Lights” and where do they come from?
Below, we hope to answer these and a few other common questions about this eerie natural anomaly.
What are the Northern Lights?
The “Northern Lights” or Aurora Borealis are a series of discharged particles (or solar wind) emanating from our sun that penetrate earth’s magnetic shield and create light when combined with atoms and molecules (such as nitrogen and oxygen) when entering our atmosphere.
How far do these particles travel before colliding with Earth?
The discharged particles travel over 150 million kilometers or about 90 million miles through space towards earth before being drawn in to the Polar Regions by our planet’s magnetic force. Amazingly, solar wind only takes about 2 to 3 days to travel this staggering distance!
Are they harmful to us or our planet?
No, solar wind collisions with earth’s magnetic field occurs in the upper atmosphere and the charged particles and do not come close to humans. At best, a high dose of solar wind may disturb radio communications, induce voltage surges in power lines or create a minor overloads in orbiting satellites.
What colors are found as part of the Northern Lights?
The short answer: it depends on what types of gasses the discharged particles collide with. Collisions with oxygen typically produce green and yellow lights while contact with nitrogen results in reds, violets and blues.
What kinds of shapes can the Northern Lights take on?
Light shapes can be both static and dynamic in the night sky. During periods of minimal solar flares, shapes are less prominent and do not vary in definition or color. On the other hand, during periods of strong flares, the Northern Lights swirl, dance and even race in column formations sporadically throughout the night sky!
Where and when to see the Northern Lights?
The best place to view the lights firsthand is to visit a location in latitudes in the Arctic Circle from 68 degrees to 74 degrees. The best time of year to travel to see the lights is in winter months—due to low light pollution and clear atmospheric conditions.
What are my chances of seeing the Northern Lights?
During autumn and winter months north of the Arctic Circle chances are very good, especially when periods of high pressure present. Avoiding urban areas and coordinating your viewing during new moon cycles can improve your chances as well.
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By Dr. Becker
Vaginitis is inflammation of the vagina. There are two types of canine vaginitis: juvenile or puppy vaginitis, and adult-onset vaginitis.
Juvenile vaginitis occurs in female puppies and dogs that have not reached puberty. Most dogs with this form of vaginitis have few if any symptoms. There might be a bit of whitish-yellow discharge from the vulva, and some dogs lick at the area.
Adult-onset vaginitis is much more common in spayed adult dogs than intact dogs. The most common symptom is vulvar discharge that can be mild or severe. Other symptoms include licking the vulva, frequent urination, urinary incontinence, and attraction of male dogs to the female dog. Sometimes a dog will have a secondary or even primary condition like diabetes or liver disease that makes the vaginitis worse.
Causes of Vaginitis
The most common cause of vaginitis is a bacterial urinary tract infection, which may or may not be the result of constriction of the vagina caused by a conformational abnormality.
If your dog has a bladder infection, the urine contains lots of bacteria. When the infected urine passes through the vagina, the bacteria can colonize the vagina, leading to inflammation and infection. So in essence, a urinary tract infection can lead to a secondary vaginal infection.
Another cause of vaginitis in dogs is the presence of urine on the vaginal mucosa, which has a caustic, irritating effect. Since all female dogs urinate by passing urine through the vagina, but not every dog gets vaginitis, it’s assumed there is something abnormal about the urine itself, such as a pH problem, urinary crystals, or a urinary outflow problem.
In dogs with urinary incontinence, there is chronic leaking of small amounts of urine from the bladder out of the body. The urine may be in contact with the vaginal lining much of the time and lead to urine scalding, tissue inflammation, and a secondary localized infection.
Vaginitis can also occur from bacteria, yeast and viruses that get transferred to the vagina when a dog cleans herself after pooping. The rectum and vagina are very close in proximity, and cross-contamination can occur through licking the area. Vaginal yeast infections can also occur in dogs who are on prolonged antibiotic therapy or are immunocompromised.
Other causes of the condition include viral infections (including the herpes virus), foreign bodies in the vagina, trauma to the vagina, vaginal abscesses or tumors, hyperplasia of the vagina, steroid therapy, and zinc poisoning.
Sometimes in vaginitis, there is inflammation without infection. There can be several causes for this, including sensitivity to a shampoo or other cleaning agent that’s irritating to the vulva. Topical irritation of the vulva from shampoos, detergents, cleaning agents, and other solutions can lead to secondary vaginitis. I actually know of some dog owners who insist on wiping their dog’s vulva after she urinates. The wiping action can induce vaginitis from the constant disinfecting of this very delicate area.
Female dogs with recessed vulvas can also have recurrent issues with vaginitis. When you look at a female dog from behind, you should be able to see the tip of her vulva hanging down – it’s shaped like an upside-down teardrop. Some dogs that have excessive perivulvar fat or a vulva that is tucked up high, which is called a hooded vulva, can have a predisposition to vaginitis because the surrounding skin creates a ripe environment for secondary yeast and bacterial infections.
Diagnosing Vaginitis in Dogs
Diagnostic tests for juvenile and adult-onset vaginitis are the same, and can include a cytologic examination of vaginal discharge and cells of the vagina, vaginal and urine bacterial culture and sensitivity tests, a urinalysis to check for pH issues and urinary crystals, and a manual vaginal exam. A vaginoscopy should also be performed, which involves passing a scope into the vagina to check for abnormalities such as a stricture (narrowing) of the vaginal vault or vaginal septa, which are walls of tissue within the vagina. A vaginoscopy can also assess discharge present in the vagina, vesicular lesions or lymphoid follicles, urine pooling, and polyps, cysts, masses or foreign objects in the vagina.
A blood chemistry profile, complete blood count and an electrolyte panel will also be run. If the dog has adult-onset vaginitis, she should be tested for canine brucellosis.
Sometimes x-rays are taken or an ultrasound is performed to look for tumors, foreign bodies, or bladder or tissue changes associated with the cervix or reproductive organs.
Dogs with juvenile or puppy vaginitis usually require no treatment because the condition almost always resolves spontaneously with the first heat. In dogs with vaginitis that will be spayed, it makes sense to wait until after the first estrous cycle to perform the procedure. I don’t recommend spaying puppies with recessed vulvas until they’ve had at least one estrous cycle, which usually completely eliminates the risk of vaginitis.
Treatment of adult-onset vaginitis depends on the cause. Appropriate antibiotic therapy (based on a culture and sensitivity test) will be given to resolve a bacterial infection in the urinary tract and/or the vagina. It is very important to treat the bacterial infection with the correct antibiotic. Indiscriminate use of antibiotics can promote the growth of additional types of bacteria in the vagina, and can actually exacerbate opportunistic yeast infections.
If the cause of the vaginitis is urinary incontinence, this condition must be treated first in order to resolve the vaginitis. Treatment for urine dribbling depends on the cause. In spayed female dogs, it is almost always hormone-related.
If there is systemic disease present such as diabetes or Cushing's, those conditions will require treatment to resolve the vaginitis or prevent a recurrence.
In all cases of vaginitis, I recommend a broad-spectrum non-diary probiotic be administered to help keep opportunistic bacteria levels in check. If a case of puppy vaginitis turns into a chronic case of adult vaginitis, immunoglobulin testing should be performed to check the dog’s innate immune function. Many dogs with IgA deficiency have recurrent opportunistic infections.
For more information: How to handle chronic vaginitis in veterinary patients.
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Could you explain how the headlamp is directed, its scatter and the ability or style of light to pierce the dark? I drive on hill-and-dale county roads and have experienced many times “high-beams” that were not. The intensity of the light was not the problem, its focus was. The worst offenders being SUVs, which all seem to be directed improperly. – Martyn
The ability to shape plastic into elaborate forms relatively cheaply has allowed car companies to take a whole new look at headlights.
And after relying for years on a tungsten filament to provide light, we now have rare gaseous substances, aided by elaborate electronics bringing us a whole new level of lighting.
The sealed-beam headlight used from 1940 until the 1980s used a glass parabolic reflector to gather light created by the bulb and project it forward in a single beam where it was directed and shaped by the glass lenses through an intricate design etched into them. At the same time that rectangular sealed beams came into being on this side of the Atlantic, Europeans were working with the same unit but with replaceable bulbs.
This soon led to the development of brighter bulbs such as the halogen bulb. They used the same tungsten filament in use since 1940, but now in a sealed unit containing halogen gas. This resulted in a brighter, whiter light with little yellow coloration. In 1983, replaceable bulb lights were permitted in Canada and the United States and halogen bulbs started to proliferate.
In the early 1990s, lights underwent a major change as manufacturers discovered the properties of plastic, among them the ability to be moulded into any shape. Now, instead of relying on the lens to shape and direct light generated by the bulb, reflector technology came into use.
Through the use of computer-aided design and technology, plastic parabolic reflectors could not only gather the light, but shape and direct it without the use of a lens. The lens itself could thus become clear, giving designers free rein.
The next advance was the use of gaseous discharge light sources such as those called Xenon, also known as High Intensity Discharge or HID headlights. Instead of a glowing filament as the source of light, these use a gas discharge process and extremely strong voltages to create an arc, similar to the concept used to light streets and stadiums.
They produce immense light from a small source – a bulb the size of a peanut without the shell. But, as much as 20,000 volts is necessary to “kick start” them, or they would flicker like street lights do when first turned on before they get up to operating temperature. This and the 30 volts necessary to maintain the arc that keeps the gas alight are produced and controlled by a “little black box” containing the transformer, capacitors, current regulators and other electronics. This results in a brighter light of a different colour.
Xenon lighting provides approximately 45 per cent more light, while producing 25 per cent less glare. But the story does not end here. The latest development is the use of LED (Light Emitting Diodes), which require far less power and provide an even whiter light. Already popular for parking, turn signal and daytime running lights, they are coming into use as the main source of light. The 2014 Mercedes E-Class cars will use fixed LED lights for low-beams.
In all cases, the parabolic plastic reflector is the key to the light emitted from the front of a vehicle. Virtually all of these used by car manufacturers are produced under strict requirements. The problems lie with scratches or other damage to the lens through which that light is passing, improper use of high beams, poorly aimed headlights, improper positioning of lights (too high) and illegal lights (high-wattage bulbs in non-compliant, aftermarket installations).
Send your automotive maintenance and repair questions to firstname.lastname@example.orgReport Typo/Error
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Module 7—Introduction to Solid-State Devices and Power Supplies
i - ix
, 1-1 to 1-10
1-11 to 1-20
, 1-21 to 1-30
1-31 to 1-40
, 1-41 to 1-47
2-1 to 2-10
, 2-11 to 2-20
2-21 to 2-30
2-31 to 2-40
, 2-41 to 2-50
2-51 to 2-54
, 3-1 to 3-10
3-11 to 3-20
, 3-21 to 3-30
3-31 to 3-40
, 3-41 to 3-50
3-51 to 3-54
4-1 to 4-10
, 4-11 to 4-20
4-21 to 4-30
, 4-31 to 4-40
4-41 to 4-50
, 4-51 to 4-62
In the previous discussions, we assumed that for every portion of the input signal
there was an output from the amplifier. This is not always the case with amplifiers. It may be desirable to have
the transistor conducting for only a portion of the input signal. The portion of the input for which there is an
output determines the class of operation of the amplifier. There are four classes of amplifier operations. They
are class A, class AB, class B, and class C. Class A Amplifier Operation
amplifiers are biased so that variations in input signal polarities occur within the limits of CUTOFF and
SATURATION. In a PNP transistor, for example, if the base becomes positive with respect to the emitter, holes will
be repelled at the PN junction and no current can flow in the collector circuit. This condition is known as
cutoff. Saturation occurs when the base becomes so negative with respect to the emitter that changes in the signal
are not reflected in collector-current flow.
Biasing an amplifier in this manner places the dc operating
point between cutoff and saturation and allows collector current to flow during the complete cycle (360 degrees)
of the input signal, thus providing an output which is a replica of the input. Figure 2-12 is an example of a
class A amplifier. Although the output from this amplifier is 180 degrees out of phase with the input, the output
current still flows for the complete duration of the input.
The class A operated amplifier is used as an
audio- and radio-frequency amplifier in radio, radar, and sound systems, just to mention a few examples.
For a comparison of output signals for the different amplifier classes of operation, refer to figure 2-15 during
the following discussion.
Figure 2-15.—A comparison of output signals for the different amplifier classes of operation.
Class AB Amplifier Operation
Amplifiers designed for class AB operation are
biased so that collector current is zero (cutoff) for a portion of one alternation of the input signal. This is
accomplished by making the forward-bias voltage less than the peak value of the input signal. By doing this, the
base-emitter junction will be reverse biased during one alternation for the amount of time that the input signal
voltage opposes and exceeds the value of forward-bias voltage. Therefore, collector current will flow for more
than 180 degrees but less than 360 degrees of the input signal, as shown in figure 2-15 view B. As compared to the
class A amplifier, the dc operating point for the class AB amplifier is closer to cutoff.
The class AB
operated amplifier is commonly used as a push-pull amplifier to overcome a side effect of class B operation called
Class B Amplifier Operation
Amplifiers biased so that collector current is cut
off during one-half of the input signal are classified class B. The dc operating point for this class of amplifier
is set up so that base current is zero with no input signal. When a signal is applied, one half cycle will forward
bias the base-emitter junction and IC will flow. The other half cycle will reverse bias the base-emitter junction
and IC will be cut off. Thus, for class B operation, collector current will flow for approximately 180 degrees
(half) of the input signal, as shown in figure 2-15 view C.
The class B operated amplifier is used
extensively for audio amplifiers that require high-power outputs. It is also used as the driver- and
power-amplifier stages of transmitters. Class C Amplifier Operation
In class C
operation, collector current flows for less than one half cycle of the input signal, as shown in figure 2-15 view
D. The class C operation is achieved by reverse biasing the emitter-base junction, which sets the dc operating
point below cutoff and allows only the portion of the input signal that overcomes the reverse bias to cause
collector current flow.
The class C operated amplifier is used as a radio-frequency amplifier in transmitters.
From the previous
discussion, you can conclude that two primary items determine the class of operation of an amplifier — (1) the
amount of bias and (2) the amplitude of the input signal. With a given input signal and bias level, you can change
the operation of an amplifier from class A to class B just by removing forward bias. Also, a class A amplifier can
be changed to class AB by increasing the input signal amplitude. However, if an input signal amplitude is
increased to the point that the transistor goes into saturation and cutoff, it is then called an OVERDRIVEN
You should be familiar with two terms used in conjunction with amplifiers — FIDELITY and
EFFICIENCY. Fidelity is the faithful reproduction of a signal. In other words, if the output of an amplifier is
just like the input except in amplitude, the amplifier has a high degree of fidelity. The opposite of fidelity is
a term we mentioned earlier — distortion. Therefore, a circuit that has high fidelity has low distortion. In
conclusion, a class A amplifier has a high degree of fidelity. A class AB amplifier has less fidelity, and class B
and class C amplifiers have low or "poor" fidelity.
The efficiency of an amplifier refers to the ratio of
output-signal power compared to the total input power. An amplifier has two input power sources: one from the
signal, and one from the power supply. Since every device takes power to operate, an amplifier that operates for
360 degrees of the input signal uses more power than if operated for 180 degrees of the input signal. By using
more power, an amplifier has less power available for the output signal; thus the efficiency of the amplifier is
low. This is the case
with the class A amplifier. It operates for 360 degrees of the input signal and requires a relatively
large input from the power supply. Even with no input signal, the class A amplifier still uses power from the
power supply. Therefore, the output from the class A amplifier is relatively small compared to the total input
power. This results in low efficiency, which is acceptable in class A amplifiers because they are used where
efficiency is not as important as fidelity.
Class AB amplifiers are biased so that collector current is
cut off for a portion of one alternation of the input, which results in less total input power than the class A
amplifier. This leads to better efficiency.
Class B amplifiers are biased with little or no collector
current at the dc operating point. With no input signal, there is little wasted power. Therefore, the efficiency
of class B amplifiers is higher still.
The efficiency of class C is the highest of the four classes of
Q22. What amplifier class of operation allows collector current to flow during the complete cycle of
Q23. What is the name of the term used to describe the condition in a transistor when the
emitter-base junction has zero bias or is reverse biased and there is no collector current?
Q24. What two primary items determine the class of operation of an amplifier?
Q25. What amplifier
class of operation is the most inefficient but has the least distortion? TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS
A transistor may be connected in any one of three basic configurations (fig. 2-16): common emitter (CE),
common base (CB), and common collector (CC). The term common is used to denote the element that is common to both
input and output circuits. Because the common element is often grounded, these configurations are frequently
referred to as grounded emitter, grounded base, and grounded collector.
Figure 2-16.—Transistor configurations.
Each configuration, as you will see later, has particular characteristics that make it suitable for
specific applications. An easy way to identify a specific transistor configuration is to follow three simple
1. Identify the element (emitter, base, or collector) to which the input signal is applied.
2. Identify the element (emitter, base, or collector) from which the output signal is taken.
remaining element is the common element, and gives the configuration its name.
Therefore, by applying
these three simple steps to the circuit in figure 2-12, we can conclude that this circuit is more than just a
basic transistor amplifier. It is a common-emitter amplifier.
The common-emitter configuration (CE) shown in figure 2-16 view A is the
arrangement most frequently used in practical amplifier circuits, since it provides good voltage, current, and
power gain. The common emitter also has a somewhat low input resistance (500 ohms-1500 ohms), because the input is
applied to the forward-biased junction, and a moderately high output resistance (30 kilohms-50 kilohms or more),
because the output is taken off the reverse-biased junction. Since the input signal is applied to the base-emitter
circuit and the output is taken from the collector-emitter circuit, the emitter is the element common to both
input and output.
Since you have already covered what you now know to be a common-emitter amplifier (fig. 2-12), let's take a
few minutes and review its operation, using the PNP common-emitter configuration shown in figure 2-16 view A.
When a transistor is connected in a common-emitter configuration, the input signal is injected between
the base and emitter, which is a low resistance, low-current circuit. As the input signal swings positive, it also
causes the base to swing positive with respect to the emitter. This action decreases forward bias which reduces
collector current (IC
) and increases collector voltage (making VC
more negative). During the
negative alternation of the input signal, the base is driven more negative with
respect to the emitter. This
increases forward bias and allows more current carriers to be released from the emitter, which results in an
increase in collector current and a decrease in collector voltage (making VC
less negative or swing in
a positive direction). The collector current that flows through the high resistance reverse-biased junction also
flows through a high resistance load (not shown), resulting in a high level of amplification.
input signal to the common emitter goes positive when the output goes negative, the two signals (input and output)
are 180 degrees out of phase. The common-emitter circuit is the only configuration that provides a phase reversal.
The common-emitter is the most popular of the three transistor configurations because it has the best
combination of current and voltage gain. The term GAIN is used to describe the amplification capabilities of the
amplifier. It is basically a ratio of output versus input. Each transistor configuration gives a different value
of gain even though the same transistor is used. The transistor configuration used is a matter of design
consideration. However, as a technician you will become interested in this output versus input ratio (gain) to
determine whether or not the transistor is working properly in the circuit.
The current gain in the
common-emitter circuit is called BETA (β). Beta is the relationship of collector current (output current) to base
current (input current). To calculate beta, use the following formula:
is the Greek letter delta, it is used to indicate a small change)
For example, if the input current (IB
) in a common emitter changes from 75 uA to 100 uA and
the output current (IC
) changes from 1.5 mA to 2.6 mA, the current gain (β) will be 44.
This simply means that a change in base current produces a change in collector current which is 44 times
You may also see the term hfe
used in place of b. The terms hfe
and β are equivalent and may be used interchangeably. This is because "hfe
.................................... h = hybrid (meaning mixture)
.................................... f = forward current transfer ratio
.................................... e = common emitter configuration
The resistance gain of the
common emitter can be found in a method similar to the one used for
Once the resistance gain is known, the voltage gain is easy to calculate since it is equal to the
current gain (β) multiplied by the resistance gain (E = βR). And, the power gain is equal to the voltage gain
multiplied by the current gain β (P = βE). Common Base
configuration (CB) shown in figure 2-16, view B is mainly used for impedance matching, since it has a low input
resistance (30 ohms-160 ohms) and a high output resistance (250 kilohms-550 kilohms). However, two factors limit
its usefulness in some circuit applications: (1) its low input resistance and (2) its current gain of less than 1.
Since the CB configuration will give voltage amplification, there are some additional applications, which require
both a low-input resistance and voltage amplification, that could use a circuit configuration of this type; for
example, some microphone amplifiers.
In the common-base configuration, the input signal is applied to the emitter, the output is taken from
the collector, and the base is the element common to both input and output. Since the input is applied to the
emitter, it causes the emitter-base junction to react in the same manner as it did in the common-emitter circuit.
For example, an input that aids the bias will increase transistor current, and one that opposes the bias will
decrease transistor current.
Unlike the common-emitter circuit, the input and output signals in the
common-base circuit are in phase. To illustrate this point, assume the input to the PNP version of the common-base
circuit in figure 2-16 view B is positive. The signal adds to the forward bias, since it is applied to the
emitter, causing the collector current to increase. This increase in Ic results in a greater voltage drop across
the load resistor
(not shown), thus lowering the collector voltage VC
. The collector voltage, in becoming less negative,
is swinging in a positive direction, and is therefore in phase with the incoming positive signal.
The current gain in the common-base circuit is calculated in a method similar to that of the common emitter except
that the input current is IE
and the term ALPHA (α
used in place of beta for gain. Alpha is the relationship of collector current (output current) to emitter current
(input current). Alpha is calculated using the formula:
For example, if the input current (IE
) in a common base changes from 1 mA to 3 mA and the
) changes from 1 mA to 2.8 mA, the current gain (α
will be 0.90 or:
This is a current gain of less than 1.
Since part of the emitter current flows into the base
and does not appear as collector current, collector current will always
be less than
the emitter current that causes it. (Remember, IE
) Therefore, ALPHA is
ALWAYS LESS THAN ONE FOR A COMMON-BASE CONFIGURATION.
Another term for "α
. These terms (and hf
) are equivalent and may be used interchangeably. The meaning for the
is derived in the same manner as the term hfe
mentioned earlier, except that the
last letter "e" has been replaced with "b" to stand for common- base configuration.
Many transistor manuals and data sheets only list transistor current gain characteristics in terms of b or hfe. To
find alpha (α
) when given beta (β), use the following formula to convert b to a for
use with the common-base configuration:
To calculate the other gains (voltage and power) in the common-base configuration when the current gain
) is known, follow the procedures described earlier under the common-emitter
section. Common Collector
The common-collector configuration (CC) shown in
figure 2-16 view C is used mostly for impedance matching. It is also used as a current driver, because of its
substantial current gain. It is particularly useful in switching circuitry, since it has the ability to pass
signals in either direction (bilateral operation).
In the common-collector circuit, the input signal is
applied to the base, the output is taken from the emitter, and the collector is the element common to both input
and output. The common collector is equivalent to our old friend the electron-tube cathode follower. Both have
high input and low output resistance. The input resistance for the common collector ranges from 2 kilohms to 500
kilohms, and the output resistance varies from 50 ohms to 1500 ohms. The current gain is higher than that in the
common emitter, but it has a lower power gain than either the common base or common emitter. Like the common base,
the output signal from the common collector is in phase with the input signal. The common collector is also
referred to as an emitter-follower because the output developed on the emitter follows the input signal applied to
Transistor action in the common collector is similar to the operation explained for the common
base, except that the current gain is not based on the emitter-to-collector current ratio, alpha (α
Instead, it is based on the emitter-to-base current ratio called GAMMA (γ
the output is taken off the emitter. Since a small change in base current controls a large change in emitter
current, it is still possible to obtain high current gain in the common collector. However, since the emitter
current gain is offset by the low output resistance, the voltage gain is always less than 1 (unity), exactly as in
the electron-tube cathode follower
The common-collector current gain, gamma (γ
is defined as
and is related to collector-to-base current gain, beta (β), of the common-emitter circuit by the
Since a given transistor may be connected in any of three basic configurations, there is a definite
relationship, as pointed out earlier, between alpha (α
), beta (β), and gamma (γ
These relationships are listed again for your convenience:
Take, for example, a transistor that is listed on a manufacturer's data sheet as having an alpha of
0.90. We wish to use it in a common emitter configuration. This means we must find beta. The calculations are:
Therefore, a change in base current in this transistor will produce a change in collector current that
will be 9 times as large.
If we wish to use this same transistor in a common collector, we can find gamma
To summarize the properties of the three transistor configurations, a comparison chart is provided in
table 2-1 for your convenience.
Table 2-1.—Transistor Configuration Comparison Chart
Now that we have analyzed the basic transistor amplifier in terms of bias, class of operation, and
circuit configuration, let's apply what has been covered to figure 2-12. A reproduction of figure 2-12 is shown
below for your convenience.
This illustration is not just the basic transistor amplifier shown earlier in figure 2-12 but a class A
amplifier configured as a common emitter using fixed bias. From this, you should be able to conclude the
· Because of its fixed bias, the amplifier is thermally unstable.
· Because of its class A
operation, the amplifier has low efficiency but good fidelity.
· Because it is configured as a common
emitter, the amplifier has good voltage, current, and power gain.
In conclusion, the type of bias, class of operation, and circuit configuration are all clues to the function and
possible application of the amplifier.
Q26. What are the three transistor configurations?
Q27. Which transistor configuration provides a phase reversal between the input and output signals?
Q28. What is the input current in the common-emitter circuit?
Q29. What is the current gain in a
common-base circuit called?
Q30. Which transistor configuration has a current gain of less than 1?
Q31. What is the output current in the common-collector circuit?
Q32. Which transistor configuration
has the highest input resistance?
Q33. What is the formula for GAMMA (γ
Transistors are available in a large variety of shapes and sizes, each with its own unique
characteristics. The characteristics for each of these transistors are usually presented on SPECIFICATION SHEETS
or they may be included in transistor manuals. Although many properties of a transistor could be specified on
these sheets, manufacturers list only some of them. The specifications listed vary with different manufacturers,
the type of transistor, and the application of the transistor. The specifications usually cover the following
1. A general description of the transistor that includes the following information:
a. The kind of transistor. This covers the material used, such as germanium or silicon; the type of transistor
(NPN or PNP); and the construction of the transistor(whether alloy-junction, grown, or diffused junction, etc.).
b. Some of the common applications for the transistor, such as audio amplifier, oscillator, rf
c. General sales features, such as size and packaging mechanical data).
2. The "Absolute Maximum Ratings" of the transistor are the direct voltage and current values that if exceeded
in operation may result in transistor failure. Maximum ratings usually include collector-to-base voltage,
emitter-to-base voltage, collector current, emitter current, and collector power dissipation.
typical operating values of the transistor. These values are presented only as a guide. The values vary widely,
are dependent upon operating voltages, and also upon which element is common in the circuit. The values listed
may include collector-emitter voltage, collector current, input resistance, load resistance, current-transfer
ratio (another name for alpha or beta), and collector cutoff current, which is leakage current from collector to
base when no emitter current is applied. Transistor characteristic curves may also be included in this section. A
transistor characteristic curve is a graph plotting the relationship between currents and voltages in a circuit.
More than one curve on a graph is called a "family of curves."
4. Additional information for
So far, many letter symbols, abbreviations, and terms have been introduced,
some frequently used and others only rarely used. For a complete list of all semiconductor letter symbols and
terms, refer to EIMB series 000-0140, Section III.
Transistors can be identified by a Joint Army-Navy (JAN) designation printed directly on the case of the
transistor. The marking scheme explained earlier for diodes is also used for transistor identification. The first
number indicates the number of junctions. The letter "N" following the first number tells us that the component is
a semiconductor. And, the 2- or 3-digit number following the N is the manufacturer's identification number. If the
last number is followed by a letter, it indicates a later, improved version of the device. For example, a
semiconductor designated as type 2N130A signifies a three-element transistor of semiconductor material that is an
improved version of type 130:
Introduction to Matter, Energy, and Direct Current,
to Alternating Current and Transformers, Introduction to Circuit Protection,
Control, and Measurement
, Introduction to Electrical Conductors, Wiring Techniques,
and Schematic Reading
, Introduction to Generators and Motors
Introduction to Electronic Emission, Tubes, and Power Supplies,
Introduction to Solid-State Devices and Power Supplies
Introduction to Amplifiers, Introduction to
Wave-Generation and Wave-Shaping Circuits
, Introduction to Wave Propagation, Transmission
Lines, and Antennas
, Microwave Principles,
, Introduction to Number Systems and Logic Circuits, Introduction
to Microelectronics, Principles of Synchros, Servos, and Gyros
Introduction to Test Equipment
, Radar Principles,
The Technician's Handbook,
Master Glossary, Test Methods and Practices,
Introduction to Digital Computers,
Magnetic Recording, Introduction to Fiber Optics
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Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a brain disorder marked by an ongoing pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with functioning or development.
- Inattention means a person wanders off task, lacks persistence, has difficulty sustaining focus, and is disorganized; and these problems are not due to defiance or lack of comprehension.
- Hyperactivity means a person seems to move about constantly, including situations in which it is not appropriate when it is not appropriate, excessively fidgets, taps, or talks. In adults, it may be extreme restlessness or wearing others out with their activity.
- Impulsivity means a person makes hasty actions that occur in the moment without first thinking about them and that may have high potential for harm; or a desire for immediate rewards or inability to delay gratification. An impulsive person may be socially intrusive and excessively interrupt others or make important decisions without considering the long-term consequences.
Signs and Symptoms
Inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity are the key behaviors of ADHD. Some people with ADHD only have problems with one of the behaviors, while others have both inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity.Most children have the combined type of ADHD.
In preschool, the most common ADHD symptom is hyperactivity.
It is normal to have some inattention, unfocused motor activity and impulsivity, but for people with ADHD, these behaviors:
- are more severe
- occur more often
- interfere with or reduce the quality of how they functions socially, at school, or in a job
People with symptoms of inattention may often:
- Overlook or miss details, make careless mistakes in schoolwork, at work, or during other activities
- Have problems sustaining attention in tasks or play, including conversations, lectures, or lengthy reading
- Not seem to listen when spoken to directly
- Not follow through on instructions and fail to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in the workplace or start tasks but quickly lose focus and get easily sidetracked
- Have problems organizing tasks and activities, such as what to do in sequence, keeping materials and belongings in order, having messy work and poor time management, and failing to meet deadlines
- Avoid or dislike tasks that require sustained mental effort, such as schoolwork or homework, or for teens and older adults, preparing reports, completing forms or reviewing lengthy papers
- Lose things necessary for tasks or activities, such as school supplies, pencils, books, tools, wallets, keys, paperwork, eyeglasses, and cell phones
- Be easily distracted by unrelated thoughts or stimuli
- Be forgetful in daily activities, such as chores, errands, returning calls, and keeping appointments
People with symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity may often:
- Fidget and squirm in their seats
- Leave their seats in situations when staying seated is expected, such as in the classroom or in the office
- Run or dash around or climb in situations where it is inappropriate or, in teens and adults, often feel restless
- Be unable to play or engage in hobbies quietly
- Be constantly in motion or “on the go,” or act as if “driven by a motor”
- Talk nonstop
- Blurt out an answer before a question has been completed, finish other people’s sentences, or speak without waiting for a turn in conversation
- Have trouble waiting his or her turn
- Interrupt or intrude on others, for example in conversations, games, or activities
Diagnosis of ADHD requires a comprehensive evaluation by a licensed clinician, such as a pediatrician, psychologist, or psychiatrist with expertise in ADHD. For a person to receive a diagnosis of ADHD, the symptoms of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity must be chronic or long-lasting, impair the person’s functioning, and cause the person to fall behind normal development for his or her age. The doctor will also ensure that any ADHD symptoms are not due to another medical or psychiatric condition. Most children with ADHD receive a diagnosis during the elementary school years. For an adolescent or adult to receive a diagnosis of ADHD, the symptoms need to have been present prior to age 12.
ADHD symptoms can appear as early as between the ages of 3 and 6 and can continue through adolescence and adulthood. Symptoms of ADHD can be mistaken for emotional or disciplinary problems or missed entirely in quiet, well-behaved children, leading to a delay in diagnosis. Adults with undiagnosed ADHD may have a history of poor academic performance, problems at work, or difficult or failed relationships.
ADHD symptoms can change over time as a person ages. In young children with ADHD, hyperactivity-impulsivity is the most predominant symptom. As a child reaches elementary school, the symptom of inattention may become more prominent and cause the child to struggle academically. In adolescence, hyperactivity seems to lessen and may show more often as feelings of restlessness or fidgeting, but inattention and impulsivity may remain. Many adolescents with ADHD also struggle with relationships and antisocial behaviors. Inattention, restlessness, and impulsivity tend to persist into adulthood.
Scientists are not sure what causes ADHD. Like many other illnesses, a number of factors can contribute to ADHD, such as:
- Cigarette smoking, alcohol use, or drug use during pregnancy
- Exposure to environmental toxins during pregnancy
- Exposure to environmental toxins, such as high levels of lead, at a young age
- Low birth weight
- Brain injuries
ADHD is more common in males than females, and females with ADHD are more likely to have problems primarily with inattention. Other conditions, such as learning disabilities, anxiety disorder, conduct disorder, depression, and substance abuse, are common in people with ADHD.
Treatment and Therapies
While there is no cure for ADHD, currently available treatments can help reduce symptoms and improve functioning. Treatments include medication, psychotherapy, education or training, or a combination of treatments.
For many people, ADHD medications reduce hyperactivity and impulsivity and improve their ability to focus, work, and learn. Medication also may improve physical coordination. Sometimes several different medications or dosages must be tried before finding the right one that works for a particular person. Anyone taking medications must be monitored closely and carefully by their prescribing doctor.Stimulants. The most common type of medication used for treating ADHD is called a “stimulant.” Although it may seem unusual to treat ADHD with a medication that is considered a stimulant, it works because it increases the brain chemicals dopamine and norepinephrine, which play essential roles in thinking and attention.
Under medical supervision, stimulant medications are considered safe. However, there are risks and side effects, especially when misused or taken in excess of the prescribed dose.For example, stimulants can raise blood pressure and heart rate and increase anxiety. Therefore, a person with other health problems, including high blood pressure, seizures, heart disease, glaucoma, liver or kidney disease, or an anxiety disorder should tell their doctor before taking a stimulant.
Talk with a doctor if you see any of these side effects while taking stimulants:
- decreased appetite
- sleep problems
- tics (sudden, repetitive movements or sounds);
- personality changes
- increased anxiety and irritability
Non-stimulants. A few other ADHD medications are non-stimulants. These medications take longer to start working than stimulants, but can also improve focus, attention, and impulsivity in a person with ADHD. Doctors may prescribe a non-stimulant: when a person has bothersome side effects from stimulants; when a stimulant was not effective; or in combination with a stimulant to increase effectiveness.
Although not approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) specifically for the treatment of ADHD, some antidepressants are sometimes used alone or in combination with a stimulant to treat ADHD. Antidepressants may help all of the symptoms of ADHD and can be prescribed if a patient has bothersome side effects from stimulants. Antidepressants can be helpful in combination with stimulants if a patient also has another condition, such as an anxiety disorder, depression, or another mood disorder.
Doctors and patients can work together to find the best medication, dose, or medication combination. Learn the basics about stimulants and other mental health medications on the NIMH Mental Health Medications webpage and check the FDAwebsite (http://www.fda.gov/ ), for the latest information on warnings, patient medication guides, or newly approved medications.
Adding psychotherapy to treat ADHD can help patients and their families to better cope with everyday problems.
Behavioral therapy is a type of psychotherapy that aims to help a person change his or her behavior. It might involve practical assistance, such as help organizing tasks or completing schoolwork, or working through emotionally difficult events. Behavioral therapy also teaches a person how to:
- monitor his or her own behavior
- give oneself praise or rewards for acting in a desired way, such as controlling anger or thinking before acting
Parents, teachers, and family members also can give positive or negative feedback for certain behaviors and help establish clear rules, chore lists, and other structured routines to help a person control his or her behavior. Therapists may also teach children social skills, such as how to wait their turn, share toys, ask for help, or respond to teasing. Learning to read facial expressions and the tone of voice in others, and how to respond appropriately can also be part of social skills training.
Cognitive behavioral therapy can also teach a person mindfulness techniques, or meditation. A person learns how to be aware and accepting of one’s own thoughts and feelings to improve focus and concentration. The therapist also encourages the person with ADHD to adjust to the life changes that come with treatment, such as thinking before acting, or resisting the urge to take unnecessary risks.
Family and marital therapy can help family members and spouses find better ways to handle disruptive behaviors, to encourage behavior changes, and improve interactions with the patient.
For more information on psychotherapy, see the Psychotherapies webpage on the NIMH website.
Education and Training
Children and adults with ADHD need guidance and understanding from their parents, families, and teachers to reach their full potential and to succeed. For school-age children, frustration, blame, and anger may have built up within a family before a child is diagnosed. Parents and children may need special help to overcome negative feelings. Mental health professionals can educate parents about ADHD and how it affects a family. They also will help the child and his or her parents develop new skills, attitudes, and ways of relating to each other.
Parenting skills training (behavioral parent management training) teaches parents the skills they need to encourage and reward positive behaviors in their children. It helps parents learn how to use a system of rewards and consequences to change a child’s behavior. Parents are taught to give immediate and positive feedback for behaviors they want to encourage, and ignore or redirect behaviors that they want to discourage. They may also learn to structure situations in ways that support desired behavior.
Stress management techniques can benefit parents of children with ADHD by increasing their ability to deal with frustration so that they can respond calmly to their child’s behavior.
Support groups can help parents and families connect with others who have similar problems and concerns. Groups often meet regularly to share frustrations and successes, to exchange information about recommended specialists and strategies, and to talk with experts.
Tips to Help Kids and Adults with ADHD Stay Organized
Parents and teachers can help kids with ADHD stay organized and follow directions with tools such as:
- Keeping a routine and a schedule. Keep the same routine every day, from wake-up time to bedtime. Include times for homework, outdoor play, and indoor activities. Keep the schedule on the refrigerator or on a bulletin board in the kitchen. Write changes on the schedule as far in advance as possible.
- Organizing everyday items. Have a place for everything, and keep everything in its place. This includes clothing, backpacks, and toys.
- Using homework and notebook organizers. Use organizers for school material and supplies. Stress to your child the importance of writing down assignments and bringing home the necessary books.
- Being clear and consistent. Children with ADHD need consistent rules they can understand and follow.
- Giving praise or rewards when rules are followed. Children with ADHD often receive and expect criticism. Look for good behavior, and praise it.
A professional counselor or therapist can help an adult with ADHD learn how to organize his or her life with tools such as:
- Keeping routines
- Making lists for different tasks and activities
- Using a calendar for scheduling events
- Using reminder notes
- Assigning a special place for keys, bills, and paperwork
- Breaking down large tasks into more manageable, smaller steps so that completing each part of the task provides a sense of accomplishment.
Join a Study
Clinical trials are research studies that look at new ways to prevent, detect, or treat diseases and conditions, including ADHD. During clinical trials, investigated treatments might be new drugs or new combinations of drugs, new surgical procedures or devices, or new ways to use existing treatments. In many trials, some participants are randomly assigned to the “control” group and receive an inactive “placebo” treatment or a standard intervention currently in use; sometimes the control subjects are later given a chance to try the experimental treatment. The object is to be able to compare the effect of the experimental treatment with standard or no treatment. The goal of clinical trials is to determine if a new test or treatment works and is safe. Although individual participants may benefit from being part of a clinical trial, participants should be aware that the primary purpose of a clinical trial is to gain new scientific knowledge so that others may be better helped in the future.
Clinical Trials at NIMH/NIH
Scientists at the NIMH campus conduct research on numerous areas of study, including cognition, genetics, epidemiology, brain imaging, and treatment development. The studies take place at the NIH Clinical Center in Bethesda, Maryland, and require regular visits. After the initial phone interview, you will come to an appointment at the clinic and meet with a clinician. Visit the NIMH Clinical Trials — Participants or Join a Study for more information.
How Do I Find a Clinical Trial Near Me?
To find a clinical trial near you, visit ClinicalTrials.gov . This is a searchable registry and results database of federally and privately supported clinical trials conducted in the United States and around the world. ClinicalTrials.gov gives you information about a trial's purpose, who may participate, locations, and phone numbers for more details. This information should be used in conjunction with advice from health professionals.
For more information about clinical trials, visit NIH Clinical Trials and You .
Free Booklets and Brochures
- Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A brochure on childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder that explains its causes, symptoms, treatments, and how parents can get help. Also available en Español.
- Watch: ADHD: Signs, Symptoms, Research: NIMH researchers talk about the symptoms of ADHD as well as the latest research.
- For more videos, visit ADHD – Multimedia.
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention - Free Educational Materials
- MedlinePlus offers information in English and en Español .
Research and Clinical Trials
- Journal Articles: This webpage provides information on references and abstracts from MEDLINE/PubMed (National Library of Medicine).
- ADHD Statistics: Adults
- ADHD Statistics: Children 13 to 18 years old
- ADHD Clinical Trials at NIMH - Children
Last Revised: March 2016
Unless otherwise specified, NIMH information and publications are in the public domain and available for use free of charge. Citation of the NIMH is appreciated. Please see our Citing NIMH Information and Publications page for more information.
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NASA recently released evidence buried for decades showing that astronauts on the Apollo 10 lunar mission in 1969 heard strange "space music" that seemingly defies explanation – or did it ... and does it? Many news services have picked up on the story and claim that the "space music" incident is only now being made public, but NASA disagrees. According to the space agency, the audio and transcripts from the mission have been available in the National Archives since 1973 and the explanation of the event is quite down to Earth.
The Science Channel's speculative program NASA's Unexplained Files recently aired a story claiming that when the Apollo mission was on the far side of the Moon and out of radio contact with Earth, the crew heard weird electronic sounds that were described by Lunar Module Pilot Eugene Cernan as "outer-space-type music." The narration of the segment puts a lot of emphasis on the "out of contact" angle – hinting that "something" exciting and exotic might have been behind the strange sound. Aliens, perhaps?
The segment then goes on to claim that the information was only released in 2008, implying that the evidence of the incident was suppressed by the US government for decades, and that the astronauts themselves feared to talk about the incident. These assertions were subsequently picked up and repeated by many major news services.
However, NASA disagrees with the Science Channel's account and in a statement released today says that though the tape recordings and transcripts of astronaut conversations were marked Classified in 1969 as a matter of standard security, the audio and transcripts were made public in 1973 and deposited in the National Archives. The agency also says that, though the incident was well known in radio and space circles, the only new releases regarding the "space music" incident have been digital files that can be streamed over the internet.
In addition, astronaut Cernan said on Monday that the crew didn't regard the incident as at all significant.
"I don't remember that incident exciting me enough to take it seriously. It was probably just radio interference," said Cernan. "Had we thought it was something other than that we would have briefed everyone after the flight. We never gave it another thought."
The transcript from Apollo 10 record the conversation of the astronauts regarding whooing and whooping sounds coming from the radio equipment while the crew carried out various tasks. Below are the relevant segments with time stamps in mission day, hour, minute, and second, and the speakers identified as Commander Thomas Stafford (CDR), Command Module Pilot John Young (CMP), and Lunar Module Pilot Eugene Cernan (LMP).
- 04 06 13 02 LMP That music even sounds outer-spacey, doesn't it? You hear that? That whistling sound?
- 04 06 13 06 CDR Yes.
- 04 06 13 07 LMP Whooooooo. Say your –
- 04 06 13 12 CMP Did you hear that whistling sound, too?
- 04 06 13 14 LMP Yes. Sounds like – you know, outer-space-type music.
- 04 06 13 18 CMP I wonder what it is.
- 04 06 17 58 LMP Boy, that sure is weird music.
- 04 06 18 01 CMP We're going to have to find out about that. Nobody will believe us.
- 04 06 18 07 LMP Yes. It's a whistling, you know, like an outerspace-type thing.
- 04 06 18 10 CMP Yes... VHF-A ...
- 04 06 18 16 LMP Yes. I wouldn't believe there's anyone out there.
VHF-A refers to a radio system aboard the spacecraft and points to the cause of the odd sounds. Writing in Air and Space, Paul D. Spudis of the Lunar and Planetary Institute in Houston, Texas, says that Apollo carried many radio links for voice, telemetry, navigation, biomedical data, and other information.
These complex systems had tendency to interfere with one another and similar noises were reported on other missions, such as by Apollo 11 Command Module Pilot Michael Collins. In this case, the most likely culprit was interference from the Lunar Module and Command Service Module Very High Frequency VHF transmitters.
Spudis went on to point out that the reason these sounds weren't heard often or consistently is because not all radio links were active simultaneously and each Apollo spacecraft differed slightly from one another in design and construction. In addition, Apollo 10 was in a peculiar position because, unlike Apollo 8, it was the first circumlunar mission to carry the Lunar Module.
This also explains the mild surprise shown by the crew, despite being experienced astronauts well-acquainted with their radio equipment. Space is a stressful and very alien environment that it's very difficult to simulate. Accounts by many astronauts relate how they found the real thing very different from training.
So while alien space music wasn't part of the equation, the real achievements of the Apollo 10 are worth recapping. Launched on May 18, 1969, it was the fourth manned Apollo mission and the second manned mission to orbit the Moon. As mentioned, it was also the first lunar mission to carry the Lunar Module, which the crew used in orbital tests as a rehearsal for Apollo 11. So detailed were these tests that the fuel tanks were deliberately kept only partly filled so the LEM crew wouldn't be tempted to actually land on the Moon.
Apollo ten racked up a string of records during its flight. It was the fastest manned vehicle in history with a top speed of 39,897 km/h (11.08 km/s or 24,791 mph) while returning to Earth, the highest altitude of a manned flight at 408,950 km (220,820 nmi). the first of two Apollo missions with an all-experienced crew, and the only Apollo crew whose members flew on subsequent missions.Source: NASA
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control is a container control that is used to host a group of similar child
controls. One of the major uses I found for a Panel control when you have to
show and hide a group of controls. Instead of show and hide individual controls,
you can simply hide and show a single Panel and all child controls.
article, we will demonstrate how to create and use a Panel control in a Windows
Creating a Panel
We can create a Panel control using the Forms
designer at design-time or using the Panel class in code at run-time.
To create a Panel control at design-time, you
simply drag and drop a Panel control from Toolbox to a Form in Visual Studio.
After you drag and drop a Panel on a Form, the Panel looks like Figure 1. Once a
Panel is on the Form, you can move it around and resize it using mouse and set
its properties and events.
Creating a Panel control at run-time
is merely a work of creating an instance of Panel class, set its properties and
adds Panel class to the Form controls.
First step to create a dynamic Panel
is to create an instance of Panel class. The following code snippet creates a
Panel control object.
dynamicPanel As New
In the next step, you may set
properties of a Panel control. The following code snippet sets location, size
and Name properties of a Panel.
dynamicPanel.Name = "Panel1"
dynamicPanel.Size = New System.Drawing.Size(228,
dynamicPanel.BackColor = Color.LightBlue
Once the Panel control is ready with its properties, the
next step is to add the Panel to a Form. To do so, we use Form.Controls.Add
method that adds Panel control to the Form controls and displays on the Form
based on the location and size of the control. The following code snippet adds a
Panel control to the current Form.
Setting Panel Properties
place a Panel control on a Form, the next step is to set its properties.
way to set properties is from the Properties Window. You can open Properties
window by pressing F4 or right click on a control and select Properties menu
item. The Properties window looks like Figure 2.
most of the common control properties. Here I am going to discuss the main
purpose of a Panel.
Adding Controls to a Panel
You can add controls to a Panel by
dragging and dropping control to the Panel. We can add controls to a Panel at
run-time by using its Add method. The following code snippet creates a Panel,
creates a TextBox and a CheckBox and adds these two controls to a Panel.
sender As System.Object,
ByVal e As
Dim dynamicPanel As
dynamicPanel.Name = "Panel1"
dynamicPanel.Size = New
Dim textBox1 As
textBox1.Location = New
textBox1.Text = "I am a TextBox5"
textBox1.Size = New
Dim checkBox1 As
checkBox1.Location = New
checkBox1.Text = "Check Me"
checkBox1.Size = New
The output looks like Figure 3.
and Hide a Panel
I have seen in many applications when
you want to show and hide a group of controls on a Form based on some condition.
That is where a Panel is useful. Instead of show and hide individual controls,
we can group controls that we want to show and hide and place them on two
different Panels and show and hide the Panels. To show and hide a Panel, we use
article, we discussed discuss how to create a Panel control in Windows Forms at
design-time as well as run-time. After that, we saw how to use various
properties and methods.
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Yagyl Statue on Heirisson IslandPhoto Credit: Wikipedia/Nachoman-auYagan was killed on 11 July 1833 by two brothers, William and James Keates. The Keates brothers had tricked Yagan into staying with them to avoid arrest, only to shoot him in order to claim the reward for his capture. A group of settlers then beheaded Yagan as a trophy, and his head ended up in Britain. Yagan’s skull was returned to Perth in 1997 and finally laid to rest in Belhus – where the rest of his body is believed to be buried – on 10 July 2010. The ceremony also coincided with the end of NAIDOC (National Aboriginal and Islander Day Observance Committee) Week and the opening of Yagan Memorial Park in the Swan Valley.Life for Aboriginal people did not improve in the years following Australia’s federation in 1901. The Noongars were forced to live in “native camps” and abide by curfews. Under the 1905 Aborigines Act, interracial marriages involving Noongars were also illegal unless permission from the Chief Protector of Aborigines was granted. The Chief Protector was also the legal guardian of Aboriginal children in Western Australia until they were 16. This meant children could be removed from their families, a situation depicted in the AFI award winning film Rabbit Proof Fence, which was based on a true story. Children who were taken from Aboriginal families around Australia became known as the Stolen Generations. On 13 February 2008, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd issued an official apology from the Federal Government to the Stolen Generations.In the face of oppression, however, the Noongar people have preserved much of their rich heritage, particularly through visual and performing arts and literature. You can sample some this vibrant culture at various places around Perth. Why not take the Fremantle Aboriginal Heritage Walking Tour or visit the Maalinup Aboriginal Gallery?
Find out more about Yanchep National Park, north of Perth, where you can get a taste of Aboriginal history and heritage.
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Alabama Day, December 14th
U.S. Congress passed an enabling act to allow the inhabitants of Alabama Territory to create a constitution for a state government.
Elections for constitutional convention delegates held.
June 5-August 2
Alabama Constitutional Convention, meeting in Huntsville, drafted and adopted constitution.
General elections held for state officers and representatives to the General Assembly.
October 25-December 17
First session of the General Assembly for the State of Alabama met in temporary capital of Huntsville.
Territorial Governor William W. Bibb, newly elected as the states first governor, took the oath of office.
President James Monroe signed a congressional resolution admitting Alabama as the 22nd state in the United States of America (both the House and Senate of the states General Assembly were in session on that Tuesday, meeting jointly in the afternoon to make judicial appointments).
Governor Bibb and the Legislature in Huntsville receive news of statehood and adopt resolution of thanks to President Monroe.
Alabama Day first celebrated statewide by public schools at the urging of the State Department of Education and the Alabama Department of Archives and History.
Principal Source: William H. Brantley, Three Capitals (University of Alabama Press, 1976 reprint).
STATE OF ALABAMA
Following the regulations prescribed by Congress for the admission of new states to the Union, the Alabama Territory called a Constitutional Convention to meet in Huntsville, Alabama, on July 5, 1819. By August 2nd the Constitution was drafted, approved, inscribed on parchment, and signed by the delegates attending the Convention. Copies were sent to Washington where they were submitted to the United States Senate and House of Representatives. On December 14, 1819, Resolutions for the admission of Alabama were passed and Alabama became the 22ND state in the Union.
The original Constitution was kept by the Secretary of State of Alabama until it was turned over to the Alabama Department of Archives and History where it is stored in a sealed metal case. The document is written on 26 sheets of parchment, each attached to the sheet below it by blue grosgrain silk ribbon and sealing wax. The last two pages of the 31 1/2 foot-long document contain the ordinance adopting the Constitution and the signatures of the President of the Convention, the 43 delegates, and the Secretary of the Convention.
DELEGATES TO THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION
HELD AT HUNTSVILLE
President: John Williams Walker (Madison)
Secretary: John Campbell (Madison)
Doorkeeper: Daniel Rather (Madison)
Autauga: James Jackson
Baldwin: Harry Toulmin
Blount: Isaac Brown, John Brown, Gabriel Hanby
Cahawba (now Bibb): Littlepage Sims
Clarke: Reuben Saffold, James Magoffin
Conecuh: Samuel Cook
Cotaco (now Morgan): Melkijah Vaughn, Thomas D. Crabb
Dallas: William Rufus King
Franklin: Richard Ellis, William Metcalf
Lauderdale: Hugh McVay
Lawrence: Arthur Francis Hopkins, Daniel Wright
Limestone: Thomas Bibb, Beverly Hughes, Nicholas Davis
Madison: Clement C. Clay, John Leigh Townes, Henry Chambers, Samuel Mead, Henry Minor, Gabriel Moore, John Williams Walker, John M. Taylor
Marengo: Washington Thompson
Marion: John D. Terrell
Mobile: Samuel H. Garrow
Monroe: John Murphy, John Watkins, James Pickens, Thomas Wiggins
Montgomery: John Dandridge Bibb, James W. Armstrong
St. Clair: David Conner
Shelby: George Phillips, Thomas A. Rodgers
Tuscaloosa: Marmaduke Williams, John L. Tindal
Washington: Israel Pickens, Henry Hitchcock
Back to Alabama Day Suggested Activities--table over-->
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Fictional depictions of the woolly-mammoth-like Snuffleupagus and Manny, the shy mammoth in the movie Ice Age, as well as museum displays of reconstructed woolly mammoth skeletons, may be the closest humans come to seeing the extinct animal in action. Although scientists say that the chances of bringing the woolly mammoth back to life, à la Jurassic Park, are slim, if not impossible, they do point to the wealth of other benefits they can reap from mapping mammoth DNA.
Mammoths are but one of a growing list of extinct organisms for which researchers have sequenced small snippets of DNA over the past decade and a half, including fossilized plants, cave bears and ancient humans. Using DNA to sequence parts of organisms genomes has revealed much about their evolutionary history, including when and where they moved and their population sizes. Researchers hope to more specifically understand what leads some creatures to go extinct and what allows others to evolve and survive, given climatic and other environmental changes.
Geneticist Evgeny Rogaev analyzes DNA extracted from muscle tissue of a woolly mammoth, as well as an African elephant and an Asian elephant, to learn more about to which animal the extinct mammoths were most closely related. Image is courtesy of Vera Nikishina.
Sequencing the genome of an organism that is still living is no easy task, much less one that has been dead tens of thousands of years, says Alan Cooper, director of the Australian Centre for Ancient DNA in Adelaide. Such sequencing is especially difficult because DNA begins degrading the minute an organism dies. Unless an organism is exceptionally preserved, through freezing, for example, researchers are likely to be left with only minute amounts of DNA.
Additionally, everything that comes into contact with the sample (including the humans extracting the DNA) leaves its mark, and over thousands of years, the contamination levels can be immense. Aside from those issues, however, the basic DNA extraction process for extinct animals is similar to what geneticists use to map out the genomes of modern organisms, including people.
All DNA is composed of the same four bases lined up in an exact sequential order that determines the unique characteristics of any given organism. Genomics researchers can sequence either the mitochondrial DNA or the nuclear DNA, referring to the part of the cell in which the DNA is located.
Sequencing each type of DNA has its benefits, says Hendrik Poinar, a paleogeneticist at McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario. Mitochondrial DNA can be used effectively to determine who an organism is related to and where it came from, and what the population structure looked like, he says, whereas nuclear DNA explains the biology of an organism characteristics such as what makes a person have blond hair or a mammoth have tusks, for example. But because cells contain many more copies of mitochondrial DNA than nuclear, it is generally far easier to extract and sequence them.
Recent DNA studies of the woolly mammoth genome illustrate some of these differences. While two teams determined the mitochondrial sequences to better understand the mammoths ancestral relationship to modern African and Asian elephants, another team analyzed the nuclear genome to learn more about mammoths environmental conditions, as well as specific physical traits of the beast.
In one of the mitochondrial studies, published Feb. 3 in PLoS Biology, a team led by Evgeny Rogaev, a geneticist at the University of Massachusetts Medical School in Amherst and Academy of Sciences in Moscow, reconstructed a complete sequence of 16,842 base pairs of mitochondrial DNA of a woolly mammoth, as well as the mitochondrial genome of the African and Asian elephant. They radiocarbon dated the exceptionally well-preserved mammoth (found in permafrost in northeastern Siberia) to about 32,000 years before present. The researchers had an abundance of ancient material to work with and were able to use DNA from the muscle tissue to compare to the modern animals.
In another independent study published in the Dec. 18 Nature online, a team led by Johannes Krause of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany, extracted 16,770 base pairs from a mitochondrial sequence of a younger mammoth, radiocarbon dated to about 12,000 years before present. Also found in Siberian permafrost, this mammoth was less well-preserved, and the team isolated DNA from a bone.
As the mitochondrial sequence (passed down from the mother to offspring) does not undergo nearly the amount of gene mixing that nuclear DNA undergoes, researchers can trace a fairly linear path from an ancestor to a more recent species, and can compare DNA sequences to tell when one species split off from another. Rogaev says their research suggests that sometime around 4 million years ago, a group of mammoth and elephant ancestors wandered out of Africa, while Krauses team puts that ancestral split at about 6 million years ago.
Both studies, however, point to a quick evolution: Those animals that stayed in Africa evolved into the modern African elephant, and those that wandered out evolved into two separate species the woolly mammoth and the Asian elephant within 500,000 years or so, Rogaev says, a blink of an eye in evolutionary time. Clearly, we still cant precisely determine when they split off, Rogaev says, but that will come with further research, as will other evolutionary history information.
But while mitochondrial DNA studies have worked well and will continue to provide insight in determining organisms evolutionary history, the future of ancient DNA research is in nuclear DNA studies, Cooper says. Still, while nuclear studies show promise, they are more complicated.
Indeed, the third recent woolly mammoth genome project, which involves nuclear DNA, is still a work in progress. From the small portion of nuclear DNA already mapped, researchers found a similar ancestral divergence around 5 million to 6 million years ago. But this group hopes to learn even more about the woolly mammoth.
The team, led by Poinar of McMaster, took a sample of 28,000-year-old bone from a Siberian mammoth and sequenced everything that was part of the sample, from microbes and bacteria to humans and the mammoth, in an approach called metagenomics. Even a tiny sample of bone will contain millions of fragments of contaminants as well as those that the researchers are hoping to map, so the idea is to get all of the DNA out of everything in the sample and to map it all, Poinar says.
Its basically a brute-force solution, he says: If you cant separate out what you want, you sequence it all and then separate it later. The group sequenced about 28 million base pairs in the sample, about half of which came from the mammoth.
Researchers have already mapped parts of the genomes of thousands of bacteria, microbes, plants and animals and created a library filled with the genomic data. Powerful computer algorithms can sort through the mass of metagenomic data to match sequences.
The brute force of the metagenomics approach can deal with contamination better than more traditional methods of DNA studies, Cooper says. However, the method can be very wasteful, depending on the quality and purity of the sample, as alongside the genome that scientists are interested in may be a very large percentage of other sequences as high as 99 percent in a metagenomic cave bear study published in Science last year that will go unstudied.
Metagenomics is also currently expensive. Running a single plate of DNA, which can yield 40 million base pairs, through the sequencing machine costs about $6,000, Poinar says. Although this is cheaper per base than standard current technologies, he says, it is nonselective, meaning you have to sequence everything, which can be wasteful. But it will get less expensive and more effective, he says, as mitochondrial DNA sequencing has done.
Of further interest, says Matthew Collins, a specialist in bioarchaeology at the University of York in the United Kingdom, is that in the near future, metagenomics may allow you to do paleontologic research without the fossils. Researchers are finding that proteins and DNA can persist in soil for hundreds of thousands of years, if not millions, he says. Mapping all the sequences of DNA or proteins that are found in a particular location, you can tell when a creature or plant had been there. As fossils are rare, especially in low-preservation environments such as warm, temperate climates, this might be an interesting path forward, he says.
Even under the best preservation systems, however, researchers suggest that readable DNA does not likely exist beyond a couple of million years. And so far, sequences havent been reputably reproduced back further than 500,000 years old, researchers say. So for all the kids out there hoping for a real-life Jurassic Park with dinosaurs returning to life, Cooper chuckles, saying I dont think so.
In theory, however, Poinar says, the possibility might someday exist to create hybrid organisms from younger extinct animals and their closest relatives such as Asian elephants and a woolly mammoth, for example. This Pleistocene Park is in theory possible, he says, but the more important question is should it be done?
Australian Centre for Ancient DNA at the University of Adelaide
McMaster Ancient DNA Center
Joint Genome Institute at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
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A lady-in-waiting (also called waiting maid) is a female personal helper at a noble court. A lady in waiting would be in charge of waking, dressing and accompanying a lady in her daily activities She helps a queen, a princess, or other noblewoman. A lady-in-waiting is often a noblewoman of a lower rank than the one she goes to. She is not thought to be a servant. Their duties are different depending on the court. People with artistic talents were usually chosen. In Russia, girls between "fourteen or twenty [sic]" were chosen, and left the court when she married. People like Anne Boleyn, Jane Seymour, Catherine Howard, and Catherine Parr were all ladies-in-waiting.
Famous ladies-in-waiting[change | change source]
- The princesse de Lamballe (Lady-in-waiting to Marie Antoinette)
- Anne Boleyn, Jane Seymour, Catherine Howard, and Catherine Parr (all eventually wives of Henry VIII of England)
References[change | change source]
- "Руниверс" (in Russian). runivers.ru. http://www.runivers.ru/doc/d2.php?SECTION_ID=7915&PORTAL_ID=7779&CAT=Y&BRIEF=Y. Retrieved 1 June 2010.
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Growing a lush covering of grass in shady areas requires a different approach than growing grass in the sun. In order to grow grass under trees, the area must be exposed to sunlight at a rate of 50 percent throughout the day. This can be achieved by the area receiving partial sun throughout the entire day, or receiving full sun for half the day. You must also choose a grass seed variety that is tolerant of shade. A mixture of fescue and Kentucky bluegrass, at a 2-to-1 ratio, respectively, is recommended.
Prune the lower branches of the tree or trees you wish to plant grass under. Removing low-hanging branches will increase the light exposure of the area underneath the tree.
Fertilize the area. Shaded grass needs half the amount of fertilizer that sun-exposed grasses do to grow. Fertilize at a rate of 1/2 lb. of nitrogen-rich fertilizer per 1,000 square feet of planting area. Mix the fertilizer into the soil well with a pitchfork or rototiller.
Plant the grass seed. Set the broadcast seeder to disperse the grass seed at a rate of 3 to 4 lbs. of grass seed per 1,000 square feet.
Keep the soil most, but not saturated, until the grass seed germinates and sprouts above the soil.
Water established grass deeply once per week during the hot, summer months. Decrease this amount to one thorough watering once every 10 to 14 days during the cooler months of late summer and fall.
Set your lawn mower to a height of 3 inches when mowing the grass underneath the trees. Grass growing in shaded areas need more surface area in order to receive enough sunlight for photosynthesis.
Remove all leaf debris on a regular basis. Leaf cover will smother the grass growing underneath trees. Speedy removal on a continual basis, until all the leaves have fallen, is essential.
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The first information we receive on Hindu history is from a passage in Menu, which gives us to infer that their residence was at one time between the rivers Seraswati (Sersooty) and Drishadwati (Caggar), a tract about 100 miles to the north-west of Delhi, and in extent about sixty-five miles long, and from twenty to forty broad. That land, Menu says, was called Bramhaverta, because it was frequented by gods; and the custom preserved by immemorial tradition in that country is pointed out as a model to the pious594. The country between that tract and the Jamna, and all to the north of the Jamna and Ganges, including North Behar, is mentioned, in the second place, under the name of Bramarshi; and Bramins born within that tract
are pronounced to be suitable teachers of the several usages of men595.
This, therefore, may be set down as the first country acquired after that on the Seraswati.
The Puranas pass over these early stages unnoticed, and commence with Ayodha (Oud), about the centre of the last mentioned tract. It is there that the solar and lunar races have their origin; and from thence the princes of all other countries are sprung.
From fifty to seventy generations of the solar race are only distinguished from each other by purely mythological legends.
After these comes Rama, who seems entitled to take his place in real history.
His story596, when stripped of its fabulous and romantic decorations, merely relates that Rama possessed a powerful kingdom in Hindostan; and that he invaded the Deckan and penetrated to the island of Ceylon, which he conquered.
The first of these facts there is no reason to question; and we may readily believe that Rama led an expedition into the Deckan; but it is highly improbable that, if he was the first, or even among the first invaders, he should have conquered Ceylon. If he did so, he could not have lived, as is generally supposed, before the compilation of the Vedas; for, even in the time of Menu’s Institutes, there were no settlements of Hindu conquerors in
the Deckan. It is probable that the poets who have celebrated Rama, not only reared a great fabric on a narrow basis, but transferred their hero’s exploits to the scene which was thought most interesting in their own day.
The undoubted antiquity of the “Ramayana” is the best testimony to the early date of the event which it celebrates; yet, as no conspicuous invasion of the Deckan could have been undertaken without great resources, Rama must have lived after Hindu civilisation had attained a considerable pitch.
After Rama, sixty princes of his race ruled in succession over his dominions; but, as we hear no more of Ayodha (Oud), it is possible that the kingdom (which at one time was called Coshala) may have merged in another; and that the capital was transferred from Oud to Canouj.
The war celebrated in the “Maha Bharat” is the next historical event that deserves notice.
It is a contest between the lines of Pandu and of Curu (two branches of the reigning family) for the territory of Hastinapura (probably a place on the Ganges, north-east of Delhi, which still bears the ancient name). The family itself is of the lunar race, but the different parties are supported by numerous allies, and some from very remote quarters.
There seem to have been many states in India (six, at least, in the one tract upon the Ganges597);
but a considerable degree of intercourse and connection appears to have been kept up among them. Crishna, who is an ally of the Pandus, though born on the Janina, had founded a principality in Guzerat: among the allies on each side are chiefs from the Indus, and from Calinga in the Deckan; some, even, who, the translators are satisfied, belonged to nations beyond the Indus; and Yavanas, a name which most orientalists consider to apply, in all early works, to the Greeks. The Pandus were victorious, but paid so dear for their success, that the survivors, broken-hearted with the loss of their friends and the destruction of their armies, abandoned the world and perished among the snows of Hemalaya. Crishna, their great ally, fell, as was formerly stated598, in the midst of civil wars in his own country. Some Hindu legends relate that his sons were obliged to retire beyond the Indus599; and, as those Rajputs who have come from that quarter in modern times to Sind and Cach are of his tribe of Yidti, the narrative seems more deserving of credit than at first sight might appear. The more authentic account, however (that of the
“Maha Bharat” itself), describes them as finally returning to the neighbourhood of the Jamna.
The story of the “Maha Bharat” is much more probable than that of the “Ramayana.” It contains more particulars about the state of India, and has a much greater appearance of being founded on facts. Though far below the “Iliad” in appearance of reality, it bears nearly the same relation to the “Ramayana” that the poem on the Trojan war does to the legends on the adventures of Hercules; and, like the “Iliad,” it is the source to which many chiefs and tribes endeavour to trace their ancestors.
The date of the war has already been discussed600. It was probably in the fourteenth century before Christ.
Twenty-nine (some say sixty-four) of the descendants of the Pandus succeeded them on the throne; but the names alone of those princes are preserved. The seat of their government seems to have been transferred to Delhi.
The successors of one of the kings who appear as allies in the same poem were destined to attract greater notice. These are the kings of Magada, of whom so much has been already said601.
The kings of Magada seem always to have possessed extensive authority. The first of them (he who is mentioned in the “Maha Bharat”) is represented as the head of a number of chiefs and tribes; but most of those probably were within the limits of Bengal and Behar, as we have seen that there
were five other independent kingdoms in the tract watered by the Ganges.602
For many centuries they were all of the military tribe; but the last Nanda was born of a Sudra mother; and Chandragupta, who murdered and succeeded him, was also of a low class: from this time, say the Puranas, the Cshetryas lost their ascendancy in Magada, and all the succeeding kings and chiefs were Sudras603.
They do not seem to have lost their consequence from the degradation of their cast; for the Sudra successors of Chandragupta are said, in the hyperbolical language of the Puranas, to have brought the “whole earth under one umbrella604;” and there appears the strongest reason to believe that Asoca, the third of the line, was really in possession of a commanding influence over the states to the north of. the Nerbadda. The extent of his dominions appears from the remote points at which his edict columns are erected; and the same monuments bear testimony to the civilised character of his government; since they contain orders for establishing
hospitals and dispensaries throughout his empire, as well as for planting trees and digging wells along the public highways.
This ascendancy of Asoca is the earliest ground I have been able to discover for an opinion which has been maintained, that the kings of Magada were emperors and lords paramount of India; and Colonel Wilford, who has recorded all that he could ascertain regarding those kings605, states nothing that can countenance a belief in a greater extent or earlier commencement of their supremacy. During the war of the “Maha. Bharat,” it has been shown that they formed one of six little monarchies within the basin of the Ganges; and that they were among the unsuccessful opponents of one of those petty states, that of Hastinapura.
Alexander found no lord paramount in the part of India which he visited; and the nations which he heard of beyond the Hyphasis were under aristocratic governments. Arrian606 and Strabo607 say that the Prasii were the most distinguished of all the Indian nations; but neither hints at their supremacy over the others. Arrian, indeed, in giving this preference to the Prasii, and their king, Sandracottus, adds that Porus was greater than he. Megasthenes608 says that there were 118 nations in India, but mentions none of them as subordinate to the Prasii. It is impossible to suppose that
Megasthenes, who resided at the court of Sandracottus, and seems so well disposed to exalt his greatness, should have failed to mention his being emperor of India, or indeed his having any decided ascendancy over states beyond his own immediate limits.
The Hindu accounts609 represent Chandragupta as all but overwhelmed by foreign invasion, and indebted for his preservation to the arts of his minister more than to the force of his kingdom. It is probable, however, that he laid the foundation of that influence which was so much extended under his grandson. His accepting the cession of the Macedonian garrisons on the Indus, from Seleucus, is a proof how far he himself had carried his views; and Asoca, in his youth, was governor of Ujen or Malwa, which must, therefore, have been a possession of his father.
The claim to universal monarchy in India has been advanced by princes of other dynasties in their inscriptions; and has been conceded, by different European authors, to Porus, to the kings of Cashmir, of Delhi, Canouj, Bengal, Malwa, Guzerat, and other places; but all apparently on very insufficient grounds.
The family of Maurya retained possession of the throne for ten generations, and were succeeded by three other Sudra dynasties, the last and longest of which bore the name of Andra610.
This dynasty ended in AD 436, and is succeeded in the Puranas by a confused assemblage of dynasties seemingly not Hindus; from which, and the interruption at all attempts at historical order, we may infer a foreign invasion, followed by a long period of disorder. At the end of several centuries, a gleam of light breaks in, and discovers Magada subject to the Gupta kings of Canouj. From this period it is no longer distinctly mentioned.
The fame of Magada has been preserved, from its being the birthplace of Budha, and from its language (Magadi or Pali) being now employed in the sacred writings of his most extensively diffused. religion, as well as in those of the Jains.
A king of what we now call Bengal is mentioned among the allies of the king of Magada in the war of the “Maha Bharat.” From him, the “Ayeni Akberi” continues the succession, through five dynasties, till the Mahometan conquest. These lists, being only known to us by the translations of Abulfazl, might be looked on with more suspicion than the Hindu ones already noticed.. But that one of them, at least (the fourth), is founded in truth, is proved by inscriptions; and from them, a series of princes, with names ending in Pala, may be made out, who probably reigned from the ninth to the latter part of the eleventh century611.
The inscriptions relating to this family were found at distant places, and in circumstances that leave no room to question their authenticity: yet they advance statements which are surprising in themselves, and difficult to reconcile to what we know, from other sources, of the history of India. They represent the kings of Bengal as ruling over the whole of India; from Hemalaya to Cape Comorin, and from the Baramputr to the Indus. They even assert that the same kings subdued Tibet on the east, and Camboja (which some suppose to be beyond the Indus) on the west612.
These conquests are rendered impossible to any thing like their full extent, by the simultaneous existence of independent governments in Canouj, Delhi, Ajmir, Mewar, and Guzerat, if not in other places; but they could scarcely have been claimed in contemporary inscriptions, if the princes to whom they are ascribed had not affected some supremacy over the other states, and had not sent expeditions far into the west of India, and even into the heart of the Deckan. On the whole, this dynasty seems to have at least as good a claim as any other in the Hindu times to the dignity of general dominion, and affords a fresh reason for distrusting all such pretensions. The dynasty of Pala was succeeded by one whose names ended in Sena; and this last was subverted by the Mahometans about AD 1203.
Though the kingdom of Malwa does not pretend to equal in antiquity those already mentioned, it is of it that we possess the first authentic date.
The aera still current through all the countries north of the Nerbadda is that of Vicramaditya, who reigned at Ujein at the date of its commencement, which was fifty-six years before Christ.
Vicramaditya is the Harun al Rashid of Hindu tales; and by drawing freely from such sources, Colonel Wilford collected such a mass of transactions as required the supposition of no less than eight Vicramadityas, to reconcile the dates of them; but all that is now admitted is, that Vicramaditya was a powerful monarch, ruled a civilised and prosperous
country, and was a distinguished patron of letters.
The next epoch is that of Raja Bhoja, whose name is one of the most renowned in India, but of whose exploits no record has been preserved.
His long reign terminated about the end of the eleventh century.
The intermediate six centuries are filled up by lists of kings in the “Ayeni Akberi,” and in the Hindu books: among them is one named Chandrapala, who is said to have conquered all Hindostan; but the information is too vague to be made much use of The princes of Malwa certainly extended their authority over a large portion of the centre and west of India; and it is of Vicramaditya that the traditions of universal empire are most common in India.
The grandson of Bhoja was taken prisoner, and his country conquered, by the raja of Guzerat; but Malwa appears soon to have recovered its independence under a new dynasty; and was finally subdued by the Mahometans AD 1231613.
The residence of Crishna, and other events of those times, impress us with the belief of an early principality in Guzerat; and the whole is spoken of as under one dominion, by a Greek writer of the second century614. The Rajput traditions,
quoted by Colonel Tod615, inform us of another principality, founded at Ballabi, in the peninsula of Guzerat, in the middle of the second century of our era, by Kanak Sena, an emigrant of the solar race, which reigned in Oud. They were driven out of their capital in 524, by an army of barbarians, who, Colonel Tod thinks, were Parthians. The princes of that family emigrated again from Guzerat, and at length founded the kingdom of Mewar, which still subsists. Grants of land, inscribed on copper tablets, which have been translated by Mr. Wathen616, fully confirm the fact that a race whose names often ended in Sena reigned at Ballabi from AD 144 to AD 524. The barbarians, whom Colonel Tod thinks Parthians, Mr. Wathen suggests may have been Indo-Bactrians. They are certainly too late to be Parthians; but it is not impossible they may have been Persians of the next race (Sassanians). Noushirwan reigned from AD 531 to AD 579. Various Persian authors quoted by Sir John Malcolm617, assert that this monarch carried his arms into Ferghana on the north, and India on the east; and as they are supported in the first assertion by Chinese records618, there seems no reason to distrust them in the second. Sir Henry Pottinger (though without stating his authority) gives a minute and probable account of Noushirwan’s march along the sea coast
of Mekran to Sind619; and, as Ballabi was close to Sind, we may easily believe him to have destroyed that city. Perhaps the current story of the descent of the Rams of Mewar from Noushirwan may have some connection with their being driven into their present seats by that monarch.
The difference of seven years, by which the taking of Ballabi precedes Noushirwan’s accession, is but a trifling matter in Hindu chronology.
The Ballabi princes were succeeded in the rule of Guzerat by the Chauras, another Rajput tribe, who finally established their capital, in AD 746, at Anhalwara, now Pattan, and became one of the greatest dynasties of India.
The last raja dying in AD 931 without male issue, was succeeded by his son-in-law as prince of the Rajput tribe of Salonka, or Chalukya, whose family were chiefs of Calian in the Deckan, above the Ghats620.
It was a raja of this dynasty that conquered Malwa; and it is to them, I suppose, that Colonel Wilford applies the title of emperors of India621. Though overrun and rendered tributary by the Mahmud of Ghazni, the Salonkas remained on the
throne till AD 1228, when they were deposed by another dynasty, which in 1297622 sunk in its turn before the Mussulman conquerors.
Few of the ancient Hindu states have attracted more notice than Canacubya or Canouj. It is one of the most ancient places in India; it gave rise, and gives a name, to one of the greatest divisions of the Bramin class; its capital was perhaps the wealthiest visited by the first Mahometan invaders; and its wars with the neighbouring state of Delhi contributed to accelerate the ruin of Hindu independence.
This kingdom appears in early times to have been called Panchala. It seems to have been a long, but narrow territory, extending on the east to Nepal (which it included), and on the west along the Chambal623 and Banas, as far as Ajmir. We know little else of its early history, except the Rajput writings and traditions collected by Colonel Tod624, and the inscriptions examined by Professor Wilson625, with those translated and discussed by Principal Mill626. The former relate that it was
taken from another Hindu dynasty, AD 470, by the Rathors, who retained it until its conquest by the Mussulmans in AD 193; when they withdrew to their present seats in Marwar.
In this interval they represent its conquests as including, at one period, Bengal and Orissa, and as extending on the west as far as the river Indus.
The inscriptions lead us to think that the dynasty subverted by the Mussulmans was of more recent origin, being established by a Rajput adventurer in the eleventh century, and throw doubt on the accuracy of Colonel Tod’s information in other respects.
The Rajputs, as well as the Mahometan writers, who describe the conquest of India, dwell in terms of the highest admiration on the extent and magnificence of the capital of this kingdom, the ruins of which are still to be seen on the Ganges.
It would be tedious to go through the names of the various petty Hindu states that existed at various periods in Hindostan: the annexed table gives a notion of the dates of some of them, though it must often be erroneous as well as incomplete.
The mention of Cashmir is confined to the table for a different reason from the rest. Its history is too full and complete to mix with such sketches as the above, and it enters little into the affairs of the other parts of India, except when it describes the invasion, and almost conquest, of that great continent, on more than one occasion, by its own
rajas; the accuracy of which accounts appears to admit of question627.
It is not easy to decide what states to include in the list, even of those which have come to my knowledge. The Panjab seems better entitled than Benares; but although a state, called
In the following table the mark * indicates that a state is mentioned in the “Maha Bharat.” The date in that case refers to the next time it is heard of in history. The authority for the last mention of states is seldom given. The year is generally that mentioned by Ferishta as the one in which they were conquered by the Mahometans.
|Name||When first mentioned.||When last mentioned.||Authority.|
|Magada||*By the Greeks, 300 B.C.||About the 5th century, AD||Vishnu Purana, pp. 473, 474. (note)|
|Gour||*9th century, AD||AD 1203||Monghir inscription|
|Malwa||Eleven generations before 56 B.C.||AD 1231||Ayeni Akberi vol. ii. p. 44.|
|Guzerat||*AD 144||AD 1297||Col. Tod, vol. i. p. 216.; Mr. Wathen, Jour. Royal As. Soc. vol. iv. p. 480.|
|Canouj||*AD 470||AD 1193||Tod, vol. ii. p. 2.|
|Mithili||Rama’s time||AD 1325||Mithili was the capital of the father of Sita, Rama’s wife. Though famous for a school of law, and though giving its name to one of the ten Indian languages, it is little mentioned in history.|
|Benares||*||AD 1192||Benares seems to have been independent at the time of the “Maha Bharat;” it was probably afterwards subject to Magada, as it certainly was, at a later period, to Gour. It was independent when conquered by the Mahometans.|
|Delhi||*About 56 B.C.||AD 1192||Tod, vol. i. p. 51.||The next mention of Delhi in a probable form, after the “Maha Bharat,” is its occupation by a tribe of Rajputs, twenty of whom had reigned in succession, when they were dethroned in 1050 AD by an ancestor of Pritwi Raja, who was conquered by the Mussulmans.|
|Ajmir||Seven generations before AD 695||AD 1192||Tod, Trans. Royal As. Soc. vol. i. p. 40., and Or. Mag. vol. viii. p. 20.||The eighth prince, Manik Rai, reigned in AD 695. His descendant, Visal, was the prince who conquered Delhi in 1050. The two states fell together.|
|Mewar||AD 720||Still existing||Tod, vol. i. p. 231.||It seems to have been before this in the hands of the Wawa kings. It was conquered by a race of Rajputs from Oud, the same who founded the state of Guzerat.|
|Jesselmer||AD 731||Still existing||Tod, vol. ii. p. 233.||Jesselmer was founded by a tribe of the family of Crishna, who came from the north-west of India, and who still possess it.|
|Jeipur||AD 967||Still existing||Tod, vol. ii. p. 346.||Founded by a Rajput prince, of a family of descendants of Rama, who had, some generations before, obtained the petty principality of Narwar.|
|Sind||*Independent in Alexander’s time, 325 B.C.||AD 711||Sindu is mentioned as one principality in the “Maha Bharat” It was divided into four in Alexander’s time; but united in 711, when invaded by the Arabs. It was afterwards recovered by the Rajput tribe of Samera, AD 750, and not finally conquered by the Mahometans until after the house of Ghor.|
|Cashmir||1400 B.C.||AD 1015||Professor Wilson, As. Res. vol. xv.||The historians of Cashmir claim about 1200 years earlier, but give no names of kings and no events. After five dynasties, they were conquered by Mahmud of Ghazni, in AD 1015 according to Ferishta.|
Traigerta, was formed out of it in ancient times, and it was again nearly united, when attacked by the Mahometans, yet it is not noticed in the intermediate Indian history, and when visited by the Greeks, it was broken into very small principalities: Porus, one of the greatest chiefs, had not, with all his friends and dependents, one eighth part of the whole.
Contained a part of the table which is now shown entirely on p. 404.
Contained a part of the table which is now shown entirely on p. 404.
594. Menu, Book II. v. 17, 18. This tract is also the scene of the adventures of the first princes, and the residence of the most famous sages. – Wilson, Preface to Vishnu Purana, p. lxvii.
595. Menu, Book H. v. 19, 20.
596. See p. 173.
597. Hastinapura, Mattra, Panchala (part of Oud and the lower Doab), Benares, Magada, and Bengal. (Oriental Magazine, vol. iii. p. 135.; Tod, vol. i. p. 49.) Ayodha is not mentioned in the “Maha Bharat,” nor Canacubya (Canouj), unless, as asserted in Menu (Chap. II. s. 19.), Panchala is only another name for that kingdom.
598. See p. 175.
599. See Colonel Tod, vol. i. p. 85., and the translation (through the Persian) of the “Maha Bharat,” published by the Oriental Translation Fund, in 1831.
600. Page 267.
601. Page 260.
602. It is remarkable the Yavanas or Greeks are represented as allies of the king of Magada, – a circumstance evidently arising from the connection between the king of the Prasii and the successors of Alexander. (Professor Wilson, Asiatic Researches, vol. xv. p. 101.) Another of their allies, Bhagadatta, who receives the pompous title of “King of the South and West,” appears by the “Ayeen Akbery” (vol. ii. p. 16.) to have been prince of Bengal.
603. Sir W. Jones, Asiatic Researches, vol. ii. p. 139.; Professor Wilson, Hindu Drama, vol. iii. p. 14.
604. Professor Wilson, Hindi Theatre, vol. iii. p. 14.
605. Asiatic Researches, vol. ix.
606. Chap. v.
607. Book xv. p. 483.
608. Quoted by Arrian, chap. vii.
609. See Wilson’s Theatre of the Hindus, vol. iii.
610. See “Chronology,” p. 269.
611. See Mr. Colebrooke, Asiatic Researches, vol. ix. p. 442., and the various inscriptions in the preceding volumes there mentioned.
612. The earliest, a copper tablet containing a grant of land, and found at Mongir, appears to be written in the ninth century, (See Asiatic Researches, vol. ix. p. 446., above quoted.) It says, in explicit terms, that the reigning raja, Deb Pal Deb (or Deva Pala Deva), possessed the whole of India from the source of the Ganges to Adam’s Bridge (reaching to Ceylon), and from the river Megna, or Baramputr, to the western sea. It specifies the inhabitants of Bengal, the Carnatic, and Tibet among his subjects, and alludes to his army marching through Camboja, – a country generally supposed to be beyond the Indus; and, if not so, certainly in the extreme west of India. The next inscription is on a broken column in the district of Saran, north of the Ganges. It was erected by a prince who professes himself tributary to Gour or Bengal, yet claims for his immediate territory the tract from Rewa Jhanak (not exactly known) to the Hemalaya mountains, and from the eastern to the western sea. It states the raja of Bengal (probably the son of the Deb Pal of the last inscription) to have conquered Orissa, a tribe or people called Huns (also mentioned in the former inscription), the southern part of the coast of Coromandel, and Guzerat. The third merely records that a magnificent monument in honour of Budha, near Benares, was erected in 1026 by a raja of Bengal of the same family as the above, who, from the earlier inscriptions, also appear to have been Budhists.
613. Colonel Tod, Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. i. p. 201., and Mr. Colebrooke, p. 230. of the same volume. See also Gladwin’s Ayeen Althery, vol. ii. p. 48.
614. Vincent’s Periplus, p. 111. (note on Mambarus).
615. Vol. i. pp. 83. 215.
616. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta, vol. iv. p. 480, &c.
617. Persia, vol. i. p. 141.
618. De Guignes, vol. ii. p. 469.
619. Travels, &c. p. 386.
620. Colonel Tod, vol. i. pp. 83. 97. 101. 206. From the comparative nearness of Callan in the Concan, Colonel Tod has naturally been led to suppose the Salonka prince to have come from thence; but further information is unfavourable to that opinion. Of the Salonka princes of Calian in the Deckan more will be said hereafter.
621. Asiatic Researches, vol. ix. pp. 169. 179. 181, &c.
622. Briggs’s Ferishta.
623. The identity of Canouj and Panchala is assumed in Menu, II. 19. Its limits, as assigned in the “Maha Bharat,” are made out by connecting the following notes in the “Oriental Magazine,” vol. iii. p. 135., vol. iv. p. 142. It is remarkable that these boundaries, enlarged a little on the south and on the west, are the same as those assigned by Colonel Tod to the same kingdom at the time of the Mussulman invasion. – Rajasthan, vol. p. 9.
624. Vol. ii. p. 2.
625. Asiatic Researches, vol. xv.
626. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. iii. for 1834.
627. This solitary specimen of Hind( history will be found most satisfactorily analysed and explained in Asiatic Researches, vol. xv.
This collection transcribed by Chris Gage
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Discover the cosmos! Each day a different image or photograph of our fascinating universe is featured, along with a brief explanation written by a professional astronomer.
2003 September 2
Explanation: Is that really another world? Thousands of people the world over lined up last week to see Mars through a telescope as the red planet and Earth passed unusually close together in their orbits around the Sun. Reviews of Mars were mixed, with some people disappointed that Mars still appeared somewhat blurry. Veteran sky gazers appeared somewhat surprised by the popularity of the phenomenon, as it seemed to many that Mars was not very much brighter than it frequently appears, and the event held little promise for real discovery. Most observers, though, appeared quietly pleased to take advantage of a unique opportunity and see such an uncommon sight. Many were awed by the simple enormity of being able to see the face of a completely different world with their own eyes. Pictured above, a youngster peered toward Mars last week at an East Antrim Astronomical Society star party at the Big Collin Picnic Area north of Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK.
Authors & editors:
NASA Web Site Statements, Warnings, and Disclaimers
NASA Official: Jay Norris. Specific rights apply.
A service of: LHEA at NASA / GSFC
& Michigan Tech. U.
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The Holy Prophet Elisseus (Elisha)
The Prophet Elisseus, the son of Saphat, was from the town of Abel-me-oul and had been a husbandman. In the year 908 B.C., at God's command, the Prophet Elias anointed him to be Prophet in his stead. This happened while Elisseus was plowing his land, having twelve oxen under yoke. Straightway, Elisseus slew the oxen and cooked them, using the wooden plough and the other instruments of husbandry as firewood; then he gave the oxen as food to the people. Bidding farewell to his parents, he followed Elias and served him until the latter was taken up as it were into Heaven (see July 20). When Elisseus received his teacher's mantle and the grace of his prophetic spirit twofold, he demonstrated whose disciple he was through the miracles he wrought and through all that is related of him in the Fourth Book of Kings. He departed full of days and was buried in Samaria, about the year 839 B.C. But even after his death God glorified him; for after the passage of a year, when some Israelites were carrying a dead man for burial and suddenly saw a band of Moabites, they cast the dead man on the grave of the Prophet. No sooner had the dead man touched the Prophet's bones, than he came to life and stood on his feet (IV Kings 13:20-21). Mentioning this, Jesus the Son of Sirach says, "He did wonders in his life, and at his death his works were marvelous" (Ecclus. 48:14). It is because of such marvels that the faithful have reverence for the relics of the Saints (see also Jan. 16). His name means "God is savior."
Apolytikion of Prophet Elisseus in the Fourth Tone
The incarnate Angel, the Cornerstone of the Prophets, the second Forerunner of the Coming of Christ, the glorious Elias (Elijah), who from above, sent down to Elisha the grace to dispel sickness and cleanse lepers, abounds therefore in healing for those who honor him.
Kontakion of Prophet Elisseus in the Second Tone
A prophet of God didst thou become when worthily thou hadst been vouchsafed a double portion of God's grace as Elias' true companion, O Elisseus, divinely-blest; and with him, thou unceasingly entreatest Christ God in behalf of us all.
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Once only used to define the underlying World Bank guarantee for a syndicated loan (see below), Bank Guarantee has now become a catch-all phrase for any instrument in which a bank stands in for it's creditworthy customer.
In it's true definition, a Bank Guarantee is an The World Bank (The Bank) issues to guarantee loans made by other banks to The Bank's creditworthy customer, and this is how it works:
ABC company has agreed to work with Outer Slobovia to build a dam and irrigation system in the country's hinterlands. Neither ABC nor Outer Slobovia has the money for the project, and the amount required is too much for any one bank to lend.
Therefore, independently or as a joint venture, ABC and Outer Slobovia approach The World Bank asking that they guarantee the loan amount for the project so they can seek financing for several banks, i.e. syndicate the loan.
ABC and Outer Slobovia must complete a loan application as with request for funding. This type of loan application is so complex that most applicants hire a specialized firm to do the job.
The application covers every aspect of the project such as insurances, environmental surveys and impact reports, yearly projected costs, projected return, credit history, and so on and so forth. The Bank then takes several months to review the application.
If and when The Bank feels that the project is loan-worthy and that ABC and Outer Slobovia have or will have the ability to pay back the loan, The Bank arranges with a group of other banks to lend the money, and guarantees to each of these banks that it will pay back the loan in the event of a default by ABC, Outer Slobovia, or both. That is a Bank Guarantee, and it is made out to a specific customer for a specific project.
Other banks, such as Chase Manhattan, Credit Suisse, Bank of America, and Deutsche Bank also guarantee loans in the same manner.
Other than for the above description, "Bank Guarantee" is loosely used to signify any one of several financial instruments used in trade finance. These include LETTERS OF CREDIT in their various roles, DEMAND GUARANTEES, and PERFORMANCE BONDS.
Financial con artists persuade their marks that there is a wonderful, secret opportunity available in trading so-calledPRIME BANK GUARANTEES, or PBG's.
They use the term as if it were a stand-alone financial instrument that can be obtained in quantity like stocks and bonds, and attach all sorts of quick wealth accumulation to the myth.
One finds the use of Bank Guarantee, BG, and PBG in HIGH-YIELD INVESTMENT PROGRAM scams, in which the investor is told many a tale about leveraging anywhere from $10,000 to $10,000,000 to purchase hundreds of millions or even billions of dollars worth of guarantees on day one, then selling them on day two for huge profits.
The truth of the matter is that the buying and selling of trade finance instruments is a highly specialized field, relegated only to experienced FORFAITERS and the forfaiting department of international banks. Forfaiting requires an intimate working knowledge of international politics, law, and economy.
As for selling a Bank Guarantee for profit, as you can see in the Truth above, that wouldn't really be very practical.
Copyright 2000-2013 Fraud Aid, Inc. - All Rights ReservedAbout Fraud Aid Disclaimer Spam Policy
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The height may be derived from the equation for the period
...T = 2(Pi)sqrt(r^3/µ)
where T = the orbital period in seconds, r = the orbital radius and µ = the earth's gravitational constant.
A geosycnchronous orbit is one with a period equal to the earth's rotational period, which, contrary to popular belief, is 23hr-56min-4.09sec., not 24 hours. Thus, the required altltude providing this period is ~22,238 miles, or ~35,788 kilometers. An orbit with this period and altitude can exist at any inclination to the equator but clearly, a satellite in any such orbit with an inclination to the equator, cannot remain over a fixed point on the Earth's surface. On the other hand, a satellite in an orbit in the plane of the earth's equator and with the required altitude and period, does remain fixed over a point on the equator. This equatorial geosynchronous orbit is what is referred to as a geostationary orbit. The orbital velocity of satellites in this orbit is ~10,088 feet per second or ~6,877 MPH. The point on the orbit where the circular velocity of the launching rocket reaches 10,088 fps, and shuts down, is the point where the separated satellite will remain.
µ = 1.407974x10^16ft.^3/sec.^2
T = 86,164 sec./2 = 43,082 sec.
...43,082 = 2(Pi)sqrt(r^3/1.407974x10^16
Squaring both sides yields
..1,856,058,724 = 4(Pi)^2(r^3/1.407974x10^16)
Solving, r = 16,506 miles.
Sutracting the earth's radius of 3963 miles yields an orbital altitude of 12,543 miles.
The orbital velovity is V = sqrt(µ/r
V = 12,710fps = 8,666mph.
Time to complete one orbit
T = 2(Pi)sqrt(87,151,680^3/1.407974x10^16) = 43,082 sec.
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Easter is a time when you can combine a festival with gardening, writes Meg Liptrot.
There are three fruits which ripen at Easter that are appropriately egg-shaped, delicious, and perfect for a refreshing break after gorging on chocolate.
Of the fruits - feijoa, tamarillo and passionfruit - the passionfruit is most symbolic of the Christian meaning behind Easter. In its ornamental flower, the circle of filaments represents Christ's crown of thorns, or espina de Cristo, as seen in the eyes of the Spanish missionaries in South America when they came across the plant.
"Passion" refers to the passion of Jesus. Other flowers, such as those in the cruciferous family, which include rocket and cabbage, are named because of the cross-like arrangement of the petals.
Easter was recognised well before the time of Christ. It was an ancient celebration in the Northern Hemisphere held at the beginning of spring and named after the rising sun in the east.
Eggs, painted red or decorated, and the hare were symbols of fertility in these festivities and later absorbed into Christian symbolism.
Our family, in an effort to curb the ritual overdosing on chocolate, often give bulbs and sometimes decorated pots at Easter.
This links us with the Northern Hemisphere Easter because bulbs we plant now will flower in spring.
In the Southern Hemisphere, we have the tamarillo, our own red or golden egg, which is ready to pick at this time. The tamarillo was also introduced to New Zealand from South America, where it is native to the northern Andes. The fruit was originally known in New Zealand as the tree tomato but was renamed tamarillo, a made-up name which the Tree Tomato Council said sounded like a combination of Spanish and Maori.
Aotearoa also has its own endemic passionfruit, the native climber Kohia (Passiflora tetandra). The berries are orange and the size of a grape. The oil from the kohia fruit is used in Rongoa Maori to heal wounds, and birds love them.
Apparently the fragrant fruit can be smelled from a distance in the bush.
Finally, we have the feijoa, another South American, native to southern Brazil and Uruguay.
They ripen here from April to May, and are a staple in many Kiwi backyards.
Kids can go on an "Easter egg hunt" for feijoas every day at this time of the year Just provide them with a basket and they can happily collect fallen fruit each morning. They really do look like Easter eggs in dewy early morning grass.
Another classic trick at Easter requires a little pre-planning. If you have a passionfruit vine, write children's names and draw patterns on unripe green fruit, using a sharp twig.
When ripe a couple of months later (at Easter), the dark purple fruit will bear miraculous white Easter decorations, as if they grew that way naturally.
Growing tips for Easter fruit
Feijoas, tamarillos and passionfruit each fill different niches in the garden.
* Feijoas can cope with tough conditions with their leathery leaves. They are a relative of the pohutukawa, so can handle drought and clay soil.
* They will fruit better with a bit of pampering, and keep them mulched. They also need to be planted with another feijoa as they are not self-fertile.
* There are many varieties of feijoa, including a new cultivar called 'Bambina', which is a small-growing tree with small fruit, able to be eaten skin and all.
* I've grown feijoas as loose hedging, used a couple of taller growing varieties, including 'Marion', to create an archway over a path, and grown three 'Kokako' feijoas as standards with a straight trunk and branches pruned into an open ball.
* Overgrown feijoas can be cut back quite hard when they are dormant in mid-winter, before the sap flows again in spring.
* Passionfruit vines and tamarillo trees, on the other hand, are sensitive things, requiring shelter from strong wind, plenty of compost, good drainage, and watering if it's been a dry summer (not the case this year!).
* Both can be pruned back when dormant to encourage fruiting after several years.
* Tamarillos have large, soft, heart-shaped leaves suitable to plant in a subtropical food forest along with bananas and pawpaw.
* Tamarillos are rich in iron and potassium, but can be an acquired taste. They are nice stewed or made into relish. 'Tango' is a new variety bred to be a little sweeter. 'Bold Gold' is a golden cultivar.
* All three fruit will appreciate a dressing of chook manure-enriched compost.
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May 21, 2009
Scientists Discover New Population Of Rare Whales
With the help of a device called a hydrophone, a group of researchers has recorded the voices of endangered North Atlantic right whales in a region where they were thought to be extinct.
The team of scientists from Oregon State University and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration explained that the discovery is particularly significant because the whales are in an area that may soon be open to oceanic shipping vessels if the polar ice cap continues to melt.The group presented their findings this week at a meeting of the Acoustical Society of America in Portland, Ore.
Between July and December of 2007, the team of researchers was able to record more than 2,000 right whale vocalizations in an area off the southern coast of Greenland. They say they are still unsure as to the exact number whales actually inhabit the region, which used to be prime whaling waters some hundred years ago.
"The technology has enabled us to identify an important unstudied habitat for endangered right whales and raises the possibility that"”contrary to general belief"”a remnant of a central or eastern Atlantic stock of right whales still exists and might be viable," explained David Mellinger, the project leader and assistant professor at OSU's Hatfield Marine Science Center in Newport.
"We don't know how many right whales there were in the area. They aren't individually distinctive in their vocalizations, but we did hear right whales at three widely spaced sites on the same day, so the absolute minimum is three," said Mellinger.
"Even that number is significant because the entire population is estimated to be only 300-400 whales," he added.
In the previous half century only two right whales had been sighted in these waters and many assumed that heavy hunting in the early 19th century had driven them to extinction.
The group was able to detect the whales using five hydrophones set up in various locations off the southern tip of Greenland. The devices were programmed to continuously record ambient sounds below 1,000 Hz, the range within which right whale vocalizations fall.
Mellinger explained that right whales are capable of producing a surprising variety of sounds, which scientists are able to distinguish from the vocalizations of other species of whales.
The pattern of calls recorded by the team indicates that the whales were migrating from the southeastern corner of the region towards the northeastern corner in late July and returning in September"”a migration route that will put them right in the middle of proposed shipping paths.
"Newly available shipping lanes through the Northwest Passage would greatly shorten the trip between Europe and East Asia, but would likely cross the migratory route of any right whales that occupy the region," explained Phillip Clapham, an expert on the rare whales who also took part in the study.
"It's vital that we know about right whales in this area in order to effectively avoid ship strikes on what could be a quite fragile population."
Mellinger and his colleagues have had a good bit of practice using hydrophones to find right whales in recent years. In January 2004, they published similar findings after locating a number of the endangered mammals in the Gulf of Alaska and again in Nova Scotia in 2007.
The team's first experience utilizing hydrophones to record whale vocalizations came after they received permission to use the U.S. Navy's Sound Surveillance System (SOSUS) which had been used during the Cold War to monitor submarine activity in the northern Pacific.
Matsumoto, an engineer at OSU's Hatfield Marine Science Center, was later able to develop a separate set of hydrophones capable of being deployed independently. The underwater acoustic technology has since become an indispensable asset to marine ecologists and marine geologists alike.
On the Net:
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Thalassemia (thal-uh-SEE-me-uh) is an inherited blood disorder characterized by less hemoglobin and fewer red blood cells in your body than normal. Several types of thalassemia exist, including alpha-thalassemia, beta-thalassemia intermedia, Cooley's anemia and Mediterranean anemia.
Hemoglobin is the substance in your red blood cells that allows them to carry oxygen. The low hemoglobin and fewer red blood cells of thalassemia may cause anemia, leaving you fatigued.
If you have mild thalassemia, you may not need treatment. But, if you have a more severe form of thalassemia, you may need regular blood transfusions. You can also take steps on your own to cope with fatigue, such as choosing a healthy diet and exercising regularly.
Thalassemia symptoms include:
- Pale appearance
- Yellow discoloration of skin (jaundice)
- Facial bone deformities
- Slow growth
- Abdominal swelling
- Dark urine
The signs and symptoms you experience depend on the type and severity of thalassemia you have. Some babies show signs and symptoms of thalassemia at birth, while others may develop signs or symptoms during the first two years of life. Some people who have only one affected hemoglobin gene don't experience any thalassemia symptoms.
When to see a doctor
Make an appointment with your child's doctor for an evaluation if he or she has any signs or symptoms that worry you.
Thalassemia is caused by mutations in the DNA of cells that make hemoglobin — the substance in your red blood cells that carries oxygen throughout your body. The mutations associated with thalassemia are passed from parents to children.
The mutations that cause thalassemia disrupt the normal production of hemoglobin and cause low hemoglobin levels and a high rate of red blood cell destruction, causing anemia. When you're anemic, your blood doesn't have enough red blood cells to carry oxygen to your tissues — leaving you fatigued.
Types of thalassemia
The type of thalassemia you have depends on the number of gene mutations you inherit from your parents and which part of the hemoglobin molecule is affected by the mutations. The more mutated genes, the more severe your thalassemia. Hemoglobin molecules are made of alpha and beta parts that can be affected by mutations.
Four genes are involved in making the alpha hemoglobin chain. You get two from each of your parents. If you inherit:
- One mutated gene, you'll have no signs or symptoms of thalassemia. But, you are a carrier of the disease and can pass it on to your children.
- Two mutated genes, your thalassemia signs and symptoms will be mild. This condition may be called alpha-thalassemia minor, or you may be told you have an alpha-thalassemia trait.
- Three mutated genes, your signs and symptoms will be moderate to severe. This condition is also called hemoglobin H disease.
- Four mutated genes, the condition is called alpha-thalassemia major or hydrops fetalis. It usually causes a fetus to die before delivery or a newborn to die shortly after birth.
Two genes are involved in making the beta hemoglobin chain. You get one from each of your parents. If you inherit:
- One mutated gene, you'll have mild signs and symptoms. This condition is called beta-thalassemia minor or referred to as a beta-thalassemia trait.
- Two mutated genes, your signs and symptoms will be moderate to severe. This condition is called beta-thalassemia major, which is also known as Cooley's anemia. Babies born with two defective beta hemoglobin genes usually are healthy at birth, but develop signs and symptoms within the first two years of life. A milder form, called beta-thalassemia intermedia, also may occur with two mutated genes.
Factors that increase your risk of thalassemia include:
- Family history of thalassemia. Thalassemia is passed from parents to children through mutated hemoglobin genes. If you have a family history of thalassemia, you may have an increased risk of the condition.
- Certain ancestry. Thalassemia occurs most often in people of Italian, Greek, Middle Eastern, Asian and African ancestry.
Possible complications of thalassemia include:
- Iron overload. People with thalassemia can get too much iron in their bodies, either from the disease itself or from frequent blood transfusions. Too much iron can result in damage to your heart, liver and endocrine system, which includes glands that produce hormones that regulate processes throughout your body.
- Infection. People with thalassemia have an increased risk of infection. This is especially true if you've had your spleen removed.
In cases of severe thalassemia, the following complications can occur:
- Bone deformities. Thalassemia can make your bone marrow expand, which causes your bones to widen. This can result in abnormal bone structure, especially in your face and skull. Bone marrow expansion also makes bones thin and brittle, increasing the chance of broken bones.
- Enlarged spleen (splenomegaly). The spleen helps your body fight infection and filter unwanted material, such as old or damaged blood cells. Thalassemia is often accompanied by the destruction of a large number of red blood cells, making your spleen work harder than normal, causing your spleen to enlarge. Splenomegaly can make anemia worse, and it can reduce the life of transfused red blood cells. If your spleen grows too big, it may need to be removed.
- Slowed growth rates. Anemia can cause a child's growth to slow. Puberty also may be delayed in children with thalassemia.
- Heart problems. Heart problems, such as congestive heart failure and abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias), may be associated with severe thalassemia.
People with moderate to severe forms of thalassemia are usually diagnosed within the first two years of life. If you've noticed some of the signs and symptoms of thalassemia in your infant or child, see your family doctor or pediatrician. You may then be referred to a doctor who specializes in blood disorders (hematologist).
Because appointments can be brief, and there's often a lot of ground to cover, it's a good idea to be well prepared. Here's some information to help you get ready, and what to expect from your doctor.
What you can do
- Write down any symptoms you or your child is experiencing, including any that may seem unrelated to the reason for which you scheduled the appointment.
- Write down key personal information, including any major stresses or recent life changes. Ask family members if anyone on either side of the family has ever had thalassemia, and let your doctor know if anyone has.
- Make a list of all medications, vitamins and supplements that you're taking.
- Write down questions to ask your doctor.
Your time with your doctor may be limited, so preparing a list of questions can help you make the most of your time together. List your questions from most important to least important in case time runs out. For thalassemia, some basic questions to ask your doctor include:
- What's the most likely cause of my or my child's symptoms?
- Are there other possible causes?
- What kinds of tests are needed?
- What treatments are available?
- What treatments do you recommend?
- What are the most common side effects from each treatment?
- I (or my child) have these other health conditions. How can they best be managed together?
- Are there any dietary restrictions to follow? Do I (or my child) need to take any nutritional supplements?
- Are there any brochures or other printed material that I can take? What websites do you recommend?
In addition to the questions that you've prepared to ask your doctor, don't hesitate to ask additional questions that come up during your appointment.
What to expect from your doctor
Your doctor is likely to ask you a number of questions. Being ready to answer them may reserve time to go over any points you want to spend more time on. Your doctor may ask:
- Do you know if anyone in your family has thalassemia?
- In what part of the world did your family originate?
- When did you first notice your symptoms?
- Do your symptoms occur all the time or do they come and go?
- How severe are your symptoms?
- Does anything seem to improve your symptoms?
- What, if anything, appears to worsen your symptoms?
Most children with moderate to severe thalassemia show signs and symptoms within their first two years of life. If your doctor suspects your child has thalassemia, he or she may confirm a diagnosis using blood tests.
If your child has thalassemia, blood tests may reveal:
- A low level of red blood cells
- Smaller than expected red blood cells
- Pale red blood cells
- Red blood cells that are varied in size and shape
- Red blood cells with uneven hemoglobin distribution, which gives the cells a bull's-eye appearance under the microscope
Blood tests may also be used to:
- Measure the amount of iron in your child's blood
- Evaluate his or her hemoglobin
- Perform DNA analysis to diagnose thalassemia or to determine if a person is carrying mutated hemoglobin genes
Testing can be done before a baby is born to find out if it has thalassemia and determine how severe it may be. Tests used to diagnose thalassemia in fetuses include:
- Chorionic villus sampling. This test is usually done around the 11th week of pregnancy and involves removing a tiny piece of the placenta for evaluation.
- Amniocentesis. This test is usually done around the 16th week of pregnancy and involves taking a sample of the fluid that surrounds the fetus.
Assisted reproductive technology
A form of assisted reproductive technology that combines pre-implantation genetic diagnosis with in vitro fertilization may help parents who have thalassemia or who are carriers of a defective hemoglobin gene give birth to healthy babies. The procedure involves retrieving mature eggs from a woman and fertilizing them with a man's sperm in a dish in a laboratory. The embryos are tested for the defective genes, and only those without genetic defects are implanted in the woman.
Treatment for thalassemia depends on which type you have and how severe it is.
Treatments for mild thalassemia
Signs and symptoms are usually mild with thalassemia minor and little, if any, treatment is needed. Occasionally, you may need a blood transfusion, particularly after surgery, after having a baby or to help manage thalassemia complications.
Some people with beta-thalassemia intermedia may need treatment for iron overload. Although most people with this condition don't need the blood transfusions that often cause iron overload, people with beta-thalassemia intermedia may have increased digestive absorption of iron, leading to an excess of iron. An oral medication called deferasirox (Exjade) can help remove the excess iron.
Treatments for moderate to severe thalassemia
Treatments for moderate to severe thalassemia may include:
- Frequent blood transfusions. More-severe forms of thalassemia often require frequent blood transfusions, possibly every few weeks. Over time, blood transfusions cause a buildup of iron in your blood, which can damage your heart, liver and other organs. To help your body get rid of the extra iron, you may need to take medications that rid your body of extra iron.
- Stem cell transplant. Also called a bone marrow transplant, a stem cell transplant may be used to treat severe thalassemia in select cases. Prior to a stem cell transplant, you receive very high doses of drugs or radiation to destroy your diseased bone marrow. Then you receive infusions of stem cells from a compatible donor. However, because these procedures have serious risks, including death, they're generally reserved for people with the most severe disease who have a well-matched donor available — usually a sibling.
If you have thalassemia, be sure to:
- Avoid excess iron. Unless your doctor recommends it, don't take vitamins or other supplements that contain iron.
- Eat a healthy diet. Eating a balanced diet that contains plenty of nutritious foods can help you feel better and boost your energy. Your doctor also may recommend you take a folic acid supplement to help your body make new red blood cells. Also, to keep your bones healthy, make sure your diet contains adequate calcium and vitamin D. Ask your doctor what the right amounts are for you and whether you need to take a supplement.
- Avoid infections. Protect yourself from infections with frequent hand-washing and by avoiding sick people. This is especially important if you've had to have your spleen removed. You'll also need an annual flu shot, as well as the meningitis, pneumococcal and hepatitis B vaccines to prevent infections. If you develop a fever or other signs and symptoms of an infection, see your doctor for treatment.
Coping with thalassemia can be challenging. But, you don't have to do it alone. If you have questions or would like guidance, talk with a member of your health care team. You may also benefit from joining a support group. Such a group can provide both sympathetic listening and useful information. To find out about support groups in your area that deal with thalassemia, ask your doctor.
In most cases, thalassemia can't be prevented. If you have thalassemia, or if you carry a thalassemia gene, consider talking with a genetic counselor for guidance before you have or father a child.
Nov. 07, 2015
- Longo DL, et al. Harrison's Online. 18th ed. New York, N.Y.: The McGraw-Hill Companies; 2012. http://www.accessmedicine.com/resourceTOC.aspx?resourceID=4. Accessed Sept. 10, 2013.
- What are thalassemias? National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/thalassemia/printall-index.html. Accessed Sept. 11, 2013.
- Kelly N. Thalassemia. Pediatrics in Review. 2012;33;434.
- Thalassemias. The Merck Manuals: The Merck Manual for Healthcare Professionals. http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/hematology_and_oncology/anemias_caused_by_hemolysis/thalassemias.html. Accessed Sept. 10, 2013.
- Mueller BU. Prenatal testing for the hemoglobinopathies and thalassemias. http://www.uptodate.com/home. Accessed Sept. 10, 2013.
- Benz EJ. Treatment of beta thalassemia. http://www.uptodate.com/home. Accessed Sept. 10, 2013.
- Musallam KM, et al. Iron overload in b-thalassemia intermedia: An emerging concern. Current Opinion in Hematology. 2013;20:187.
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Frequent self-weighing is not associated with depression in women, according to researchers at the University of Minnesota School of Public Health. A study being published in a recent issue of Preventive Medicine found no strong evidence linking frequent scale stepping and depression in women. In addition, self-weighing daily, rather than once every week or month, was associated with lower Body Mass Index (BMI) levels in women 40 years or older.
Past research has suggested that weight gain and obesity are linked to depressive symptoms, especially among women. Daily weight monitoring can provide valuable feedback that can lead to greater weight loss and less weight gain, but little is known about its effects on the psychological state.
"The purpose of the study was to examine the associations of frequent self-weighing with women's susceptibility to depression and the their BMI levels," explained Jennifer Linde, Ph.D., lead author and assistant professor at the University of Minnesota School of Public Health. "With no significant link to depression associated with self-weighing, the results suggest that daily weight monitoring could be a healthy way to keep tabs on BMI levels and weight gain."
Researchers examined data from a survey of enrolled members of the Group Health Cooperative, a group, prepaid health plan in Washington and northern Idaho. More than 4,650 women between the ages of 40 and 65 were surveyed from November 2003 to February 2005. After adjusting for BMI levels, the association between self-weighing and depression was not significant. Frequent self-weighing was independently associated with both the absence of depressive symptoms and lower BMI levels.
"The findings of the study suggest that recommendations for regular self-weighing appear to be equally beneficial for adults regardless of their depression status," said Linde.
The study was supported by the National Institute of Mental Health.
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During emergency response operations, available information may be highly uncertain and fragmented at best, as will forecasts of environmental conditions or evaluations of response equipment needs. Nonetheless, the response community must sort out what is actually known about the spill, and select and deploy equipment as soon and as effectively as possible.
Because the goal of oil spill response is to minimize the overall impacts on natural and economic resources, some resources will be of greater concern than others; and response options offering different degrees of resource protection will be selected accordingly. Decisions regarding cleanup method(s) must balance two factors:
the potential environmental impacts with the no-action alternative, and
the potential environmental impacts associated with a response method or group of methods.
Potential impacts can be determined before considering the need for, or type of, response strategies. For example, evaluating a gasoline spill in an exposed seawall environment might lead to the conclusion that, due to evaporation and low habitat use, minimal environmental effects will occur and further evaluation is unwarranted. On the other hand, assessing a spill of a middle-weight crude oil in a soft intertidal area would likely indicate a high potential for environmental effects; therefore, response methods would need to be evaluated.
The decisions to select response methods should consider the potential of each possible method for reducing the environmental consequences of the spill and the response (including a natural recovery alternative). The method, or combination of methods, that most reduces consequences effectively, should be the preferred response strategy. A method that increases impacts in the short term can be the preferred alternative if it speeds up recovery. (Recovery cannot be defined as pre-spill conditions since natural changes in biological communities will introduce variability to organisms affected by the spill.)
The environmental consequences of a spill and the response will depend on the specific spill conditions, such as the type and amount of oil, weather conditions, habitat where the spill occurred, and effectiveness of the response methods. It is imperative that planners and responders discuss and develop resource protection priorities during contingency planning so that valuable time is not lost during an actual response.
Objective: No attempt to remove any stranded oil either to minimize impacts to the environment or because there is no effective method for cleanup. Oil is left in place to degrade naturally.
Description: No action is taken, although monitoring of contaminated areas may be required.
Applicable Habitat Types: All habitat types.
When to Use: When natural removal rates are fast (e.g., gasoline evaporation, high-energy coastlines), when the degree of oiling is light, or when cleanup actions will do more harm than natural removal.
Biological Constraints: This method may be inappropriate for areas used by high numbers of mobile animals (birds, marine mammals) or endangered species.
Environmental Effects: Same as from the oil alone.
Waste Generation: None.
Objective: To prevent oil from contacting resources at risk, and to facilitate oil removal.
Description: A boom specially designed for pollution response is a floating, physical barrier, placed on the water to contain, divert, deflect, or exclude oil. Containment is deploying a boom to contain and concentrate the oil until it can be removed. Deflection is moving oil away from sensitive areas. Diversion is moving oil toward recovery sites that have slower flow, better access, etc. Exclusion is placing boom to prevent oil from reaching sensitive areas. Booms must be properly deployed and maintained, including removing accumulated debris.
Applicable Habitat Types: Can be used on all water environments (weather permitting). Booms begin to fail by entrainment when the effective current or towing speed exceeds 0.7 knots perpendicular to the boom. Waves, wind, debris, and ice contribute to boom failure.
When to Use: When preventing oil from contacting sensitive resources is important. Most responses to spills on water involve deploying boom to help remove floating oil. Containment booming of gasoline spills is usually not attempted, because of fire, explosion, and inhalation hazards. However, when public health is at risk, gasoline can be boomed if foam is applied and extreme safety procedures are used.
Biological Constraints: Placing and maintaining boom and anchoring points should not cause excessive physical disruption to the environment, and both must be maintained so they do not fail nor tangle and cause more damage. Vehicle and foot traffic to and from boom sites should not disturb wildlife unreasonably, and booms in very shallow water should be monitored so they do not trap wildlife (such as migrating turtles returning to sea or fish coming in at high tide).
Environmental Effects: Minimal, if disturbance during deployment and maintenance is controlled.
Waste Generation: Cleaning booms will generate contaminated wastewater that must be collected, treated, and disposed of appropriately. Discarded booms will need to be disposed of according to appropriate waste disposal regulations.
Click on the links for more information on Dawg Oil Absorbent Booms that will skim and absorb oil from streams, settling ponds and other waterways.
Our selection of Oil Containment Booms are ideal for a variety of applications, such as; Simplex Boom for marinas and inland waterways, Optimax Containment Boom for rough waters in streams and oceans, inflatable Air Max Boom is easy to deploy and retrieve quickly, Swamp Boom is ideal for calm waters, MiniMax Containment Boom for inner harbor use, and the Silt Max Boom for turbidity control in protected waterways.
Objective: To prevent entry of oil into a sensitive area or to divert oil to a collection area.
Description: A physical barrier (other than a boom) is placed across an area to prevent oil from passing. Barriers can consist of earthen berms, trenching, or filter fences. When it is necessary for water to pass because of water volume, underflow or overflow dams are used.
Applicable Habitat Types: At the mouths of creeks or streams to prevent oil from entering, or to prevent oil in the creek from being released into offshore waters. Also, on beaches where a berm can be built above the high-tide line to prevent oil from overwashing the beach and entering a sensitive back-beach habitat (e.g., lagoon).
When to Use: When the oil threatens sensitive habitats and other barrier options are not feasible.
Biological Constraints: Responders must minimize disturbance to bird nesting areas, beaver dams, or other sensitive areas. Placement of dams and filter fences could cause excessive physical disruptions, particularly in wetlands.
Environmental Effects: May disrupt or contaminate sediments and adjacent vegetation. The natural beach (or shore) profile should be restored (may take weeks to months on gravel beaches). Trenching may enhance oil penetration and quantity of contaminated sediments.
Waste Generation: Sediment barriers will become contaminated on the oil side and filter fence materials will have to be disposed of as oily wastes.
A silt fence can be used to prevent erosion and keep sediment out of drains and waterways. EcoBlok is reusable, lasts for years, is made of 100% recycled tires, interlocks for increased support, minimizes erosion and acts as an alternative to messy sandbags. Use our EcoBag also as a replacement for sandbags, for reusable erosion resistance.
Spill Berm with Connectors allow you to connect two or more berms to custom fit large spill areas.
Objective: To recover floating oil from the water surface using mechanized equipment. This includes specifically designed pollution equipment called skimmers, and other mechanical equipment such as draglines and dredges.
Description: There are numerous types of skimming devices, described in the annually published World Catalog of Oil Spill Response Products (Schulze 1998): weir, centrifugal, submersion plane, and oleophilic. They are placed at the oil/water interface to recover, or skim, oil from the waters surface and may be operated independently from shore, be mounted on vessels, or be completely self-propelled. Because large amounts of water are often simultaneously collected (incidental to skimmer operation) and treated, efficient operations require that floating oil be concentrated at the skimmer head, usually using booms. Adequate storage of recovered oil/water mixtures must be available, as must suitable transfer capability. Skimmers are often placed where oil naturally accumulates in pockets, pools, or eddies.
Applicable Habitat Types: Can be used on all water environments (weather and visibility permitting). Waves, currents, debris, seaweed, kelp, ice, and viscous oils will reduce skimmer efficiency.
When to Use: When sufficient amounts of floating oil can be accessed. Skimming spilled gasoline is usually not feasible because of fire, explosion, and inhalation hazards to responders. However, when public health is at risk, gasoline can be skimmed if foam is applied and extreme safety procedures used.
Biological Constraints: Vehicle and foot traffic to and from skimming sites should not disturb wildlife unreasonably.
Environmental Effects: Minimal if surface disturbance by cleanup work force traffic is controlled.
Waste Generation: Free-floating oil can be recycled. Emulsions formed during the process must be treated (broken) before recycling. Oil-contaminated waste from the treatment phase should be treated as wastewater.
Use Dawg Oil Skimmer Socks for selectively removing oil, not water from sumps, bilges and tanks. Dawg Oil Skimmer Pillows are used to absorb heavy oil spills on water and Dawg Oil Sweeps allow you to quickly and easily sweep and absorb broad sheens or surface spills on water.
Objective: To reduce impact to sensitive shoreline habitats and animals that use the water surface by chemically dispersing oil into the water column.
Description: Dispersants reduce the oil/water interfacial tension, thereby decreasing the energy needed for the slick to break into small particles and mix into the water column. Specially formulated products containing surface-active agents are sprayed (at concentrations of 1-5 percent by volume of the oil) from aircraft or boats onto the slicks. Some agitation is needed to achieve dispersion.
Applicable Habitat Types: Water bodies with sufficient depth and volume for mixing and dilution.
When to Use: When the impact of the floating oil has been determined to be greater than the impact of dispersed oil on the water-column community.
Biological Constraints: Use in shallow water could affect benthic resources. Consideration should be made to avoid directly spraying any wildlife, especially birds or fur-bearing marine mammals.
Environmental Effects: Until sufficiently diluted, the dispersed oil can adversely impact organisms in the upper 30 feet (10 meters) of the water column. Because dispersion may be only partially effective, some water-surface and shoreline impacts could occur
Waste Generation: None.
Objective: To change the physical state of spilled oil from a liquid to a solid.
Description: Chemical agents (polymers) are applied to oil at rates of 10-45 percent or more, solidifying the oil in minutes to hours. Various broadcast systems, such as leaf blowers, water cannons, or fire suppression systems, can be modified to apply the product over large areas. Can be applied to both floating and stranded oil. Can be placed in sorbent booms and used like sorbents.
Applicable Habitat Types: All water environments, bedrock, sediments, and artificial structures.
When to Use: To immobilize the oil or prevent refloating from a shoreline, penetration into the substrate, or further spreading. However, the oil may not fully solidify unless the product is well mixed with the oil, and may result in a mix of solid and untreated oil. Generally not used on heavy oil spills that are already viscous.
Biological Constraints: Must be able to recover all treated material.
Environmental Effects: Products are insoluble and have very low aquatic toxicity. Unrecovered solidified oil may have longer impact because of slow weathering rates. Physical disturbance of habitat is likely during application and recovery.
Waste Generation: If skimming efficiency is increased, solidifiers may reduce the volume of water collected during oil recovery. Oil treated with solidifiers is typically disposed of in landfills.
Objective: To break up oily sediments and surface oil deposits, increasing their surface area, and mixing deeper subsurface oil layers, thus enhancing the rate of degradation through aeration.
Description: The oiled sediments are roto-tilled, disked, or otherwise mixed using mechanical equipment or manual tools. Along beaches, oiled sediments may also be pushed to the waters edge to enhance natural cleanup by wave activity (surf washing). The process may be aided with high-volume flushing of gravel.
Applicable Habitat Types: On any sedimentary substrate that can support mechanical equipment or foot traffic and hand tilling.
When to Use: On sand to gravel beaches with subsurface oil, where sediment removal is not feasible (due to erosion or disposal problems). On sand beaches where the sediment is stained or lightly oiled. Appropriate for sites where the oil is stranded above the normal high waterline.
Biological Constraints: Avoid use on shores near sensitive wildlife habitats, such as fish-spawning areas or bird-nesting or concentration areas because of the potential for release of oil and oiled sediments into adjacent bodies of water. Should not be used in clam beds.
Environmental Effects: Due to the mixing of oil into sediments, this method could further expose organisms that live below the original layer of oil. Repeated reworking could delay re-establishing of these organisms. Refloated oil from treated sites could contaminate adjacent areas.
Waste Generation: None.
Objective: To remove oil pooled on a shoreline substrate or subtidal sediments.
Description: A vacuum unit is attached via a flexible hose to a suction head that recovers free oil. The equipment can range from small, portable units that fill individual 55-gallon drums to large supersuckers that are truck- or vessel-mounted and can generate enough suction to lift large rocks. Removal rates from substrates can be extremely slow.
Applicable Habitat Types: Any accessible habitat type. May be mounted on vessels for water-based operations, on trucks driven to the recovery area, or hand-carried to remote sites.
When to Use: When oil is stranded on the substrate, pooled against a shoreline, concentrated in trenches, or trapped in vegetation. Usually requires shoreline access points.
Biological Constraints: Special restrictions should be established for areas where foot traffic and equipment operation may be damaging, such as soft substrates. Operations in wetlands must be very closely monitored, and a site-specific list of procedures and restrictions developed to prevent damage to vegetation.
Environmental Effects: Minimal, if foot and vehicular traffic are controlled and minimal substrate is damaged or removed.
Waste Generation: Collected oil and or oil/water mix will need to be stored temporarily before recycling or disposal. Oil may be recyclable; if not, it will require disposal in accordance with local regulations. Large amounts of water are often recovered, requiring separation and treatment.
Objective: To increase the efficiency of oil removal from contaminated substrates.
Description: Special formulations are applied to the substrate, as a presoak and/or flushing solution, to soften or lift weathered or heavy oils from the substrate to enhance flushing methods. The intent is to lower the water temperature and pressure required to mobilize the oil from the substrate during flushing. Some agents will disperse the oil as it is washed off the beach, others will not.
Applicable Habitat Types: On any habitat where water flooding and flushing procedures are applicable.
When to Use: When the oil has weathered to the point where it cannot be removed using ambient water temperatures and low pressures. This approach may be most applicable where flushing effectiveness decreases as the oil weathers.
Biological Constraints: When the product does not disperse the oil into the water column, the released oil must be recovered from the water surface. Use may be restricted where suspended sediment concentrations are high, near wetlands, and near sensitive nearshore resources.
Environmental Effects: The toxicity and effects on dispersability of treated oil vary widely among products. Selec-tion of a product should consider its toxicity.
Waste Generation: Because treated oil must be recovered, waste generation is a function of recovery method, which often includes sorbents.
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©Heath Christian Book Shop Charitable Trust
At the age of seventeen Spurgeon became Pastor of a handful of believers at Waterbeach, in Cambridgeshire, meeting in what had been a dovecote [a building intended to house doves or pigeons]. Within five years he had become the best known minister in the Metropolis, judged competent before another two years had passed to conduct a service of National Humiliation (on account of the Indian Mutiny) in the Crystal Palace, when almost 24,000 persons were assembled. His pulpit ministry extended to all lands through the printed sermons which came weekly from the press, and such was the place that he had come to occupy in men's hearts that in his last illness, "for twelve days the attention of the Civilised world was centred in the testimony borne, not only to the servant of God, but to the Gospel he preached, in column after column of almost every newspaper."
Both his father and grandfather were believing ministers of the Gospel. Even as a young lad in Essex he had been an avid reader and had read many of the Puritan works long before he was converted at the age of fifteen.
Spurgeon describes his conversion as follows: "Through the Lord's restraining grace, and the holy influence of my early home life, both at my father's and my grandfather's, I was kept from certain outward forms of sin in which others indulged; and, sometimes, when I began to take stock of myself, I really thought I was quite a respectable lad, and might have been half inclined to boast that I was not like other boys— untruthful, dishonest, disobedient, swearing. Sabbath breaking, and so on. But, all of a sudden, I met Moses, carrying in his hand the law of God; and as he looked at me, he seemed to search me through and through with his eyes of fire. He bade me read 'God's Ten Words', —the ten commandments— and as I read them, and remembered what I had been taught about their spiritual meaning as interpreted by the Lord Jesus Christ, they all seemed to join in accusing and condemning me in the sight of the thrice-holy Jehovah. Then, like Daniel, "my comeliness was turned in me into corruption, and I retained no strength;" and I understood what Paul meant when he wrote, "Now we know that what things soever the law saith, it saith to them who are under the law: that every mouth may be stopped, and all the world may become guilty before God."
For years he remained under deep conviction of sin until one Sunday morning in January 1850 a snow storm forced him to cut short his intended journey and turn in to a Primitive Methodist chapel in Colchester. "The minister did not come that morning; he was snowed up, I suppose. At last, a very thin looking man, a shoemaker, or tailor, or something of that sort, went up into the pulpit to preach...He was obliged to stick to his text, for the simple reason that he had little else to say. The text was, "Look unto me, and be ye saved, all the ends of the earth."
When he had managed to spin out ten minutes or so, he was at the end of his tether. Then he looked at me under the gallery, and I daresay, with so few present, he knew me to be a stranger. Just fixing his eyes on me, as if he knew all my heart, he said, "Young man, you look very miserable." Well, I did, but I had not been accustomed to have remarks made from the pulpit on my personal appearance before. However, it was a good blow, struck right home. He continued, "and you always will be miserable — miserable in life, and miserable in death — if you don't obey my text; but if you obey now, this moment, you will be saved." Then, lifting up his hands, he shouted, as only a Primitive Methodist could do, "Young man, look to Jesus Christ. Look! Look! Look! You have nothin' to do but to look and live." I saw at once the way of salvation...I had been waiting to do fifty things, but when I heard that word, "Look!" What a charming word it seemed to me! Oh! I looked until I could almost have looked my eyes away. There and then the cloud was gone, the darkness had rolled away, and that moment I saw the sun; and I could have risen that instant, and sung with the most enthusiastic of them, of the precious blood of Christ, and the simple faith which looks alone to HIM...
E'er since by faith I saw the stream
Thy flowing wounds supply
Redeeming love has been my theme
And shall be till I die.
Beginning to Serve the Lord
In that day when I surrendered myself to my Saviour, I gave Him my body, my soul, my spirit; I gave him all I had, and all I shall have for time and eternity. I gave him all my talents, my powers, my faculties, my eyes, my ears, my limbs, my emotions, my judgment, my whole manhood, and all that came of it, whatever fresh capacity or new capability I might be endowed with.
The very first service which my youthful heart rendered to Christ was the placing of tracts in envelopes, and then sealing them up, that I might send them... I might have done nothing for Christ if I had not been encouraged by finding myself able to do a little. Then I sought to do something more, and from that something more, and I do not doubt that many servants of God have been led on to higher and nobler labours for their Lord, because they began to serve Him in the right spirit and manner. ...I used to write texts on little scraps of paper, and drop them anywhere, that some poor creatures might pick them up, and receive them as messages of mercy to their souls. I could scarcely content myself even for five minutes without trying to do something for Christ. If I walked along the street, I must have a few tracts with me; if I went into a railway carriage, I must drop a tract out of the window; if I had a moment's leisure, I must be upon my knees or at my Bible; if I were in company, I must turn the subject of conversation to Christ, that I might serve my Master. It may be that, in the young dawn of my Christian life, I did imprudent things in order to serve the cause of Christ, but I still say, give me back that time again, with all its imprudence and with all its hastiness, if I may but have the same love to my Master, the same overwhelming influence in my spirit, making me obey my Lord's commands because it was a pleasure to me to do anything to serve my God.
His First Sermon
Within a year of his conversion one of the Preacher's Association in Cambridge spoke with Spurgeon... "to ask me to go over to Teversham the next evening, for a young man was to preach there who was not much used to services, and very likely would be glad of company...I set off...with a gentleman some few years my senior. We talked of good things, and at last I expressed my hope that he would feel the presence of God while preaching. He seemed to start, and assured me that he had never preached in his life, and could not attempt such a thing: he was looking to his young friend, Mr. Spurgeon, for that... I walked along quietly, lifting up my soul to God, and it seemed to me that I could surely tell a few poor cottagers of the sweetness and love of Jesus, for I felt them in my own soul. Praying for Divine help, I resolved to make the attempt. My text should be, 'Unto you therefore which believe He is precious.' (1 Peter 2:7) and I would trust the Lord to open my mouth in honour of His dear Son. It seemed a great risk and a serious trial, but depending upon the power of the Holy Ghost, I would at least tell out the story of the cross, and not allow the people to go home without a word.
We entered the low-pitched room of the thatched cottage, where a few simple-minded farm labourers and their wives were gathered together; we sang, and prayed, and read the Scriptures, and then came my first sermon...
To my own delight, I had not broken down, nor stopped short in the middle, nor been destitute of ideas, and the desired haven was in view. I made a finish, and took up the hymn book, but to my astonishment, an aged voice cried out, "Bless you dear heart, how old are you?" My very solemn reply was, "You must wait till the service is over before making such enquiries.
The Young Soul-Winner at Waterbeach
Spurgeon was only 17 years old when he became pastor of a small chapel in Waterbeach near Cambridge. "There went into that village a lad, who had no great scholarship, but who was earnest in seeking the souls of men. He began to preach there, and it pleased God to turn the whole place upside down. In a short time, the little thatched chapel was crammed, the biggest vagabonds of the village were weeping floods of tears, and those who had been the curse of the parish became its blessing. Where there had been robberies and villainies of every kind, all round the neighbourhood, there were none, because the men who used to do mischief were themselves in the house of God, rejoicing to hear of Jesus crucified." By a strange providence, his plan to undertake formal Bible school training never saw fruition. He continued in his rural situation; his salary was £45 a year and he was thrown upon the generosity of the people because it was not enough to keep him. One reminiscence of those early days has a peculiarly modern ring about it. "In my first pastorate, I had often to battle with Antinomians—that is people who held that because they believed themselves to be elect, they might live as they liked ...I knew one man, who stood on the table of a public house, and held a glass of gin in his hand, declaring all the while that he is one of the Lord's chosen people. They kicked him out of the public house, and when I heard of it, I felt that it served him right. Even those ungodly men said that they did not want any such 'elect' people there. There is no one who can live in sin—drinking, swearing, lying, and so on—who can truly declare that he is one of the Lord's chosen people."
The Call to London
Church officers of the well known New Park Street Chapel, London heard about the "boy preacher from the Fens." Spurgeon's father recalled a conversation soon after his son had accepted the call. "Your son will never last in London six months; he has no education." His own reply was, "You are terribly mistaken, he has the best education that can possibly be had; God has been his teacher, and he has had earthly teachers too." He was twenty years old. Two weeks after his London ministry commenced one man made a remarkable prophecy, "...that young man will live to be the greatest preacher of this or any other age. He will bring more souls to Christ than any man who ever proclaimed the gospel, not excepting the apostle Paul. His name will be known everywhere, and his sermons will be translated into many of the languages of the world."
The Long Pastorate (1854-92)
The church later changed its name and venue, but Spurgeon remained its pastor for 38 years, until his death. His phenomenal success, as the prophecy proved so accurately, saw delight displayed by many, but cruel criticism and bitterness by others. A humble faith sustained him in the face of fulsome praise, glaring publicity and also wicked slanders. His wife, Susannah, whom he married in 1856, was to prove an ideal, loving and spiritual partner through his most demanding of ministries.
"I could tell many stories of the remarkable conversions that were wrought in those early days. Once, when I was in the vestry, an Irishman came to see me. Pat began by making a low bow, and saying, "Now your Riverence, I have come to ax you a question." "Oh!" said I, "Pat, I am not a Riverence; it is not a title I care for; but what is your question, and how is it you have not been to your priest about it?" He said, "I have been to him, but I don't like his answer." "Well, what is your question?" Said he, "God is just; and if God be just, He must punish my sins. I deserve to be punished. If he is a just God, He ought to punish me; yet you say God is merciful, and will forgive sins. I cannot see how that is right; He has no right to do that. He ought to be just, and punish those who deserve it. Tell me how God can be just and yet be merciful." I replied, "That is through the blood of Christ." "Yes," said he, "That is what my priest said. You are very much alike there, but he said a good deal besides, that I did not understand; and that short answer does not satisfy me. I want to know how It is that the blood of Jesus Christ enables God to be just, and yet to be merciful." Then I saw what he wanted to know, and explained the plan of salvation thus: "Now, Pat, suppose you had been killing a man, and the judge had said, "That Irishman must be hanged." He said quickly, "'And I should have richly deserved to be hanged." "But Pat, suppose I was very fond of you, can you see any way by which I could save you from being hanged?" "No, sir, I cannot." "Then, suppose I went to the queen, and said, "Please your Majesty, I am very fond of this Irishman; I think the judge was quite right in saying that he must be hanged, but let me be hanged instead, and you will then carry out the law." Now the Queen could not agree to my proposal; but, suppose she could — and God can, for he has power greater than all kings and queens — and suppose the Queen should have me hanged instead of you, do you think the policeman would take you up afterwards?" He at once said. "No, I should think not; they would not meddle with me; but if they did I should say, "What are you doing? Did not that gentleman condescend to be hung for me? Let me alone; shure you don't want to hang two people for the same thing, do ye?" I replied to the Irishman, "Ah, my friend, you have hit it; that is the way whereby we are saved! God must punish sin. Christ said, "My Father, punish Me instead of the sinner;" and His Father did; God laid on His beloved Son, Jesus Christ, the whole burden of our sins, and all their punishment and chastisement; and now that Christ is punished instead of us, God would not be just if He were to punish any sinner who believes on the Lord Jesus Christ. If thou believest in Jesus Christ, the well-beloved and only begotten Son of God, thou art saved, and thou mayest go on thy way rejoicing." "Faith," said the man clapping his hands, "That's the gospel. Pat is safe now; with all his sins about him, he'll trust in the Man that died for him, and so he shall be saved."
"From the very early days of my ministry in London, the Lord gave such an abundant blessing upon the proclamation of His truth that whenever I was able to appoint a time for seeing converts and enquirers it was seldom, if ever, that I waited in vain; and usually, so many came, that I was quite over-whelmed with gratitude and thanksgiving to God. On one occasion, I had a very singular experience, which enabled me to realise the meaning of our Lord's answer to His disciples' question at the well of Sychar, "Hath any man brought Him aught to eat? Jesus saith unto them, "My meat is to do the will of Him that sent Me, and to finish His work."
Leaving home early in the morning, I went to the chapel, and sat there all day long seeing those who had been brought to Christ by the preaching of the Word. Their stories were so interesting to me that the hours flew by without my noticing how fast they were going. I may have seen some thirty or more persons during the day, one after the other, and I was so delighted with the tales of mercy they had to tell me that I did not know anything about how the time passed. At seven o'clock we had our prayer meeting; I went in, and prayed with the brethren. After that came the church meeting. A little before ten o'clock, I felt faint, and I began to think about what hour I had my dinner, and then for the first time remembered that I had not had any! I never thought of it, I never even felt hungry, because God had made me so glad, and so satisfied with the Divine manna, the heavenly food of success in winning souls."
The church building was incapable of holding all the people thronging to hear Mr. Spurgeon. As a consequence, Exeter Hall in the Strand accommodated Spurgeon's hearers on Sunday evenings for two periods during 1855 and 1856. The Music Hall in the Royal Surrey Gardens was erected for popular concerts, but for 3 years (1856-1859) provided a home for the New Park Street congregation and the ever increasing crowds who wished to hear the young preacher. The Music Hall had three galleries and was filled to capacity with some 10,000 present each Sunday.
Satan's kingdom was being assailed and he struck back by means of the great disaster at the Music Hall in 1856. Evil men shouting "Fire!" created panic in the auditorium and several people were killed when they were crushed to death as they ran madly down the stairs. For weeks afterwards Spurgeon was in such sorrow and distress that he was quite incapable of preaching and his whole ministry appeared to be finished. However the Lord graciously sustained him, and though scarred by the memory of the tragedy for the rest of his life, he resumed preaching and indeed for several years the services at the Music Hall continued to be richly blessed by God in the salvation of many souls.
Burden of the Ministry
In one of his sermons at an annual conference of ministers, Spurgeon speaks about that faith in God necessary for godly ministers to bear much hardship and to exercise much self denial and yet to persevere in the Ministry. "My heart rejoices over the many brethren here whom God has made to be winners of souls; and I may add that I am firmly persuaded...that the privations they have undergone, and the zeal they have shown in the service of their Lord, though unrewarded by any outward success are a sweet savour unto God. True faith makes a man feel that it is sweet to be a living sacrifice unto God. Only faith could keep us in the ministry, for ours is not a vocation which brings with it golden pay; it is not a calling which men would follow who desire honour and rank. We have all kinds of evils to endure, evils as numerous as those which Paul included in his famous catalogue of trials; and, I may add, we have one peril which he does not mention, namely the perils of church meetings, which are probably worse than perils of robbers. Underpaid and undervalued, without congenial associates, many a rural preacher of the gospel would die of a broken heart did not his faith gird him with strength from on high."
As for his views on suffering, they vary greatly from much in modern Christianity that is shallow and sensationalistic. "Undergirding all Spurgeon's experience in suffering was his conviction that his ill-health was God's gift. He gained from illness a wealth of knowledge and sympathy which he could not have gained elsewhere. In the realms of sorrow he was blessed. With his own experience in view he warned his students near the [end of] his life against making a mistake over what is blessing. In the matter of faith healing, health is set before us as if it were the great thing to be desired above all other things. Is it so? I venture to say that the greatest earthly blessing that God can give to any of us is health, with the exception of sickness. Sickness has frequently been of more use to the saints of God than health has. A sick wife, a newly made grave, poverty, slander, sinking of spirit, might teach us lessons nowhere else to be learned so well. Trials drive us to the realities of religion." The benefits which Spurgeon gained, became, under God's providential hand, the possession of many others. In this connection Charles Spurgeon, Junior, wrote: "I know of no one who could, more sweetly than my dear father, impart comfort to bleeding hearts and sad spirits. As the crushing of the flower causes it to yield its aroma, so he, having endured in the long continued illness of my beloved mother, and also constant pains in himself, was able to sympathise most tenderly with all sufferers."
Spurgeon himself once gave a striking instance of how his experience had prepared him to help another. In the course of speaking at a Monday evening prayer meeting at the Tabernacle on the personal preparation which a soul-winner may have to go through in order to his greater usefulness, he said, "Some years ago, I was the subject of fearful depression of spirit. Various troublous events had happened to me; I was also unwell, and my heart sank within me. Out of the depths I was forced to cry unto the Lord. Just before I went to Mentone for rest, I suffered greatly in body, but far more in soul, for my spirit was overwhelmed. Under this pressure, I preached a sermon from the words, "My God, my God, why hast Thou forsaken me?" I was as much qualified to preach from that text as ever I expect to be; indeed I hope that few of my brethren could have entered so deeply into those heartbreaking words. I felt to the full of my measure the horror of a soul forsaken of God. Now that was not a desirable experience. I tremble at the bare idea of passing again through that eclipse of soul; I pray that I may never suffer in that fashion again unless the same result should hang upon it.
That night, after the service, there came into my vestry a man who was as nearly Insane as he could be to be out of an asylum. His eyes seemed ready to start from his head, and he said that he should utterly have despaired if he had not heard that discourse, which had made him feel that there was one man alive who understood his feelings, and could describe his experience. I talked with him, and tried to encourage him, and asked him to come again on Monday night, when I should have a little more time to speak with him. I saw the brother again, and I told him that I thought he was a hopeful patient, and I was glad that the word had been so suited to his case. Apparently he put aside the comfort which I had presented for his acceptance, and yet I had the consciousness upon me that the precious truth which he had heard was at work upon his mind, and that the storm of his soul would soon subside into a deep calm.
Now hear the sequel. Last night, of all the times in the year, when, strange to say, I was preaching from the words, "The Almighty hath vexed my soul," after the service, in walked this selfsame brother who had called on me five years before. This time, he looked as different as noonday from midnight, or as life from death. I said to him, "I am glad to see you, for I have often thought about you and wondered whether you were brought into perfect peace." To my enquiries, this brother replied, "Yes, you said I was a hopeful patient, and I am sure you will be glad to know that I have walked in the sunlight from that day till now. Everything is changed and altered with me." Dear friends, as soon as I saw my poor despairing patient the first time, I blessed God that my fearful experience had prepared me to sympathise with him and guide him; but last night, when I saw him perfectly restored, my heart overflowed with gratitude to God for my former sorrowful feelings. I would go into the deeps a hundred times to cheer a downcast spirit: it is good for me to have been afflicted that I might know how to speak a word in season to one that is weary.
It is a sort of tradition of the fathers that it is wrong to laugh on Sundays. The eleventh commandment is, that we are to love one another; and then according to some people, the twelfth is, "Thou shalt pull a long face on Sunday." I must confess that I would rather hear people laugh than I would see them asleep in the house of God; and I would rather get the truth into them through the medium of ridicule than I would have it neglected, or leave people to perish through the lack of reception of the message. I do believe, in my heart, that there may be as much holiness in a laugh as in a cry; and that sometimes, to laugh is the better of the two, for I may weep, and be murmuring, and repining, and thinking all sorts of bitter thoughts against God; while, at another time, I may laugh the laugh of sarcasm against sin, and so evince a holy earnestness in the defence of the truth. I do not know why ridicule is to be given up to Satan as a weapon to be used against us, and not to be employed as a weapon against him. I will venture to affirm that the Reformation owed almost as much to the sense of the ridiculous in human nature as to anything else, and that those humorous squibs and caricatures, that were issued by the friends of Luther, did more to open the eyes of Germany to the abominations of the priesthood than the more solid and ponderous arguments against Romanism. I know no reason why we should not on suitable occasions, try the same style of reasoning. "It is a dangerous weapon," it will be said, "and many men will cut their fingers with it." Well, that is their own lookout; But I do not know why we should be so particular about their cutting their fingers if they can, at the same time, cut the throat of sin, and do serious damage to the great adversary of souls.
His Stand for the Truth
The so-called, "Downgrade Controversy" was occasioned by articles in the "Sword and the Trowel" in 1887 (the immensely popular magazine he edited), which gave warning of the general defection from Biblical truth which was proceeding in the Nonconformist Churches; the charge was vigorously repelled in many quarters and ignored by the autumn meetings of the Baptist Union. Privately Spurgeon placed evidence of the unbelief of ministers in the Baptist Union before the Secretary of the Union, S. H . Booth, and when it became evident to him that no action would be taken, he withdrew from the Union on October 28, 1887.
"I might not have had such a loathing of the new theology if I had not seen so much of its evil effects. I could tell you of a preacher of unbelief whom I have seen in my own vestry, utterly broken down, driven almost to despair, and having no rest for the sole of his foot until he came back to simple trust in the atoning sacrifice. If he were speaking to you, he would say, "Cling to your faith, brethren; if you once throw away your shield, you will lay yourself open to imminent dangers and countless wounds; for nothing can protect you but the shield of faith..."
For 38 years he was the pastor of a huge London congregation, he travelled extensively to preach, he was the author of an immense number of books including probably the finest ever commentary on the Psalms and other works covering all aspects of Christian life and service. He established almshouses and an orphanage. From 1865 he began to publish a monthly magazine entitled, "The Sword and the Trowel" and his sermons were published weekly until 1917. He promoted and guided the work of the Colporteurs' Association and Mrs. Spurgeon was actively engaged in running the Book Fund which raised money to buy good Christian literature to supply needy ministers. As a contender for the faith and preacher of the gospel, C.H. Spurgeon was a colossus.
Spurgeon died at Mentone in the south of France in 1892, where he often wintered because of his chronic ill-health. His secretary J.W. Harrald immediately sent a telegraphed message to the Tabernacle in London. It read, "Our beloved pastor entered heaven, 11:15 Sunday night." The news became the chief subject of the Monday newspapers in London, and so heavy was the demand for copies that it was soon difficult to find one left for sale anywhere.
In a sermon preached at the Tabernacle, Spurgeon had spoken of his feelings about his funeral; ...you see my coffin carried to the silent grave, I should like every one of you, whether converted or not, to be constrained to say, "He did earnestly urge us, in plain and simple language, not to put off the consideration of eternal things. He did entreat us to look to Christ. Now he is gone, our blood is not at his door if we perish."
His Message for Us
Here was a man who lived to the full — he was all out for God. It is unlikely that any of us can compare remotely with his God-given brilliance, but we can all ask God for something of his devotion to the Saviour and his love for souls.
His life can be a great encouragement to us. His, like ours, was a time of widespread apostasy and yet he saw revival with thousands being converted while elsewhere many were turning to Romanism or liberal theology.
It is encouraging to recognise that the truths he preached are the ones we hear so faithfully expounded week by week. His God is our God, and his prayer is our prayer, "Wilt Thou not revive us again: that Thy people may rejoice in Thee?"
Author unknown. Copyright ©1996 Heath Christian Book Shop Charitable Trust, United Kingdom.
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In an article “Making Their Wishes Known,” RNs tell of making the effort to educate minorities about the importance of planning for end of life care in advance. Less than a quarter of the general population has completed advance directives, and Americans of color are even less likely to have expressed their wishes in writing
Examples of directive documents:
A health care power of attorney (aka a health care proxy) which identifies the person whom patients select to make medical decisions for them if they cannot speak for themselves.
A living will, which spells out patients’ preferences for end of life medical treatment, such as the right to refuse life prolonging care.
Some of the benefits of having advance directives is to help avoid the worst case scenario from happening. Family members are left to make the difficult decisions and not knowing for certain what their loved one would have wanted.
Part of the planning is having the knowledge of what is available out there. In focus group with Latinos, the NHPCO found that most participants were unfamiliar with the ideas of advance health care planning. Linguistic misunderstanding about certain terms such as “caregiver,” having a professional role rather than it being a family member's role. Hospice and nursing homes cannot be disguised, and have negative connotations because they go against the traditional cultural belief that it is the family’s responsibility to care for their sick and elderly relatives.
Simplifying advance directives
In June 2008, the Journal of the American Geriatrics Society recommended that oral advance directives, based on patients’ discussions with doctors, be made legally binding in all states. Health care professionals and policymakers to facilitate opportunities for discussion about advance care planning in minority communities. Once the discussion is started about planning, patients are more likely to take the next step and complete a written advance directive. Emphasis should be on getting people to think and talk about end of life planning.
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LEHIGH VALLEY RAILROAD
LEROY, GENESEE COUNTY, NEW YORK
The Lehigh Valley Railroad Derailment site is in a rural area in the Town of LeRoy, Genesee County, near the Livingston and Monroe County borders (Figure 1, Appendix A). Residences are situated throughout the area. The purpose of this health consultation is to evaluate past, current and potential future exposures to site-related contaminants in groundwater.
In December 1970, a train derailment occurred at the intersection of the railroad and Gulf Road. Two 15,000 gallon tank cars containing trichloroethene ruptured and spilled their contents onto the ground in an area with private drinking water wells. In early 1971, residents adjacent to the spill site complained of solvent-like odors in their drinking water. Based on the odors and some limited sampling, the railroad company provided either a carbon filter or a cash settlement to those with affected water supplies. The only remediation by the railroad company at the spill site was to construct ditches and berms in the spill area, which were flooded with water in an attempt to flush the trichloroethene out of the ground. No further remediation occurred.
In 1989, the New York State Department of Health (NYS DOH) sampled a private water supply as part of an investigation for another nearby site. The sample contained trichloroethene. Based on reports of trichloroethene being spilled at the 1970 Lehigh Valley Railroad Derailment, a private well sampling program was initiated to determine if this was the source of the contamination. In 1991, NYS DOH, in cooperation with the Genesee, Livingston and Monroe County Health Departments, sampled private water supplies to the east of the spill site. These sample results showed that the trichloroethene plume had migrated from the Lehigh Valley Railroad Derailment site and several wells were contaminated with trichloroethene above the NYS DOH and United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) drinking water standard of 5 micrograms per liter (mcg/L) for public water supplies. The NYS DOH and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYS DEC) requested assistance from the US EPA, which subsequently installed granular activated carbon (GAC) treatment systems on 35 water supplies. The NYS DEC installed GAC treatment systems on 3 additional water supply wells.
Groundwater is the sole source for drinking water in this rural area. Due to the shallow overburden and highly fractured bedrock, contaminants from the site have migrated about 3.5 miles to the east and discharge via springs into the trout stream, Spring Creek. Since January 1991, over 120 private residential and commercial drinking water supply wells in the area have been tested. Thirty-eight of these water supplies contained trichloroethene above the NYS DOH drinking water standard (Figure 2, Appendix A). GAC treatment systems have been installed on all 38 water supply wells. The NYS DEC is currently responsible for the operation and maintenance of the treatment systems.
In November 1991, the site was added to the NYS Registry of Inactive Hazardous Waste Disposal Sites. On March 28, 1997, the NYS DEC signed a Record of Decision (ROD) for the Lehigh Valley Railroad Derailment site. The ROD action plan for the site includes:
- Design and construction of a waterline extension which will connect all impacted residents to a potable water supply. The waterline extension will extend from the existing Monroe County Water Authority water main in the Town of Wheatland and run through the Towns of Wheatland and LeRoy and the Villages of Caledonia and Mumford. The water line extension will be designed to provide current fire flow demand.
- Tentative expansion of the water line extension component of the remedy to include the section from Spring Street, west along George Street/Flint Hill Road to Lime Rock Road. A final determination will be made based upon additional engineering and hydrogeologic analyses to be conducted during the design phase of the waterline extension.
- Design of source control measures which will include a detailed pilot study.
- Excavation and treatment (vapor extraction) of about 10,000 cubic yards of trichloroethene-contaminated soil at the former spill site. This will include removal and replacement of a portion of Gulf Road. Treated soil will be placed back on site.
- Installation of a bedrock vapor extraction system within the approximately 10 acre non-aqueous phase liquid (NAPL) zone.
- Initiation of a long term monitoring program designed to protect human health and the environment during and after construction of the above remedial plan.
Due to the scope of the contamination problems noted at the site, the NYS DEC also nominated the site for the federal National Priority List (NPL), better known as the Federal Superfund List. The nomination is subject to review by the US EPA.
In January 1991, the NYS DOH, with representatives from the Genesee, Monroe and Livingston County Health Departments and NYS DEC, visited the site to familiarize themselves with the area of the spill and locations of private drinking water wells in the area. There were no obvious physical hazards associated with the site. There was evidence that the railroad track bed was being used by all-terrain vehicle operators for recreation. In June 1991, NYS DOH again visited the site with representatives of the US EPA to familiarize them with the site and the locations of private wells in the area. Since that time numerous site visits have occurred.
The most recent visit was made by Mr. David Napier of the NYS DOH during October 1996. Conditions had not changed since previous site visits. The site is accessible, but there is no evidence of trespass and no obvious physical hazards associated with the site. Representatives from NYS DOH and county health departments collected water samples from private wells in the area on a quarterly basis from October 1991 through 1994. Since 1994, sampling has been on a semi-annual basis. The sampling is to monitor the status of the contaminant plume, to evaluate potential exposures, and if necessary, to identify the need for additional treatment systems.
The NYS DOH estimated, from the 1990 Census, that 3,807 people live within one mile of the wells which have detectable levels of trichloroethene contamination. Of this population, 96.3 percent is of the white race, 2.8 percent of the black race and 0.9 percent of other races. Within this area, 9.1 percent of the population is under 6 years of age, 18.9 percent is 6 to 10 years of age, 60.4 percent is 20 to 64 years of age and 11.6 percent is 65 years of age or older. In 1990, there were 856 females of reproductive age (ages 15-44) within one mile of the contaminated wells. The median household income in LeRoy, where the derailment occurred, was $31,603 in 1989, with 6.5 percent of the population living below the poverty level.
As part of a 1993 remedial investigation, NYS DEC's consultant Dunn Engineering Company installed 55 monitoring wells at 17 locations. Up to four wells were installed at each location to monitor groundwater at different depths. In the area adjacent to the spill site, trichloroethene was detected at a maximum concentration of 58,000 mcg/L. The average level of trichloroethene in the spill area ranged from 1,000 to 10,000 mcg/L depending on the depth of the well. Due to the high levels of trichloroethene, these samples had to be diluted for analysis. Cis-1,2-dichloroethene, a breakdown product of trichloroethene, was not detected in most samples, possibly due to the dilution. Outside of the spill area, the maximum level of trichloroethene detected was 2,100 mcg/L; most samples contained trichloroethene below 100 mcg/L.
The NYS DOH has collected water samples at 127 private wells in the area. Trichloroethene has been detected in 49 private wells at concentrations from 0.5 to 7,200 mcg/L. Most of the contaminated wells contain trichloroethene at levels between 5 and 100 mcg/L. Cis-1,2-dichloroethene has also been detected in a few private wells adjacent to the site at concentrations from 0.5 to 38 mcg/L. Although carbon treatment systems were provided to some of the residents with contaminated wells by the railroad company immediately after the spill, there was no follow-up testing and maintenance of the systems. Residents with contaminated water supplies may have been exposed to site-related contaminants via ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact for up to about 20 years.
Subsurface soils (1-10 feet below ground surface) at the spill site are contaminated with trichloroethene at levels up to 550 milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg). The soil contaminated area encompasses an irregularly-shaped source area of about 1.5 acres, with an average concentration of 100 mg/kg of trichloroethene. The maximum concentration of 550 mg/kg was detected in soil in a bedrock fracture. The potential for exposure to these levels of trichloroethene is unlikely by ingestion, dermal contact and inhalation, given that the contaminant was only detected in on-site subsurface soil. However, since the site has not been remediated; the contaminated subsurface soil, along with pure product within the bedrock continues to act as a source of contamination to the groundwater.
The NYS DOH maintains several health outcome data bases which could be used to generate site-specific data, if warranted. These data bases include the cancer registry, the congenital malformations registry, the heavy metals registry, the occupational lung disease registry, vital records (birth and death certificates) and hospital discharge information.
In May 1991, the NYS DOH initiated a health and exposure survey for residents living near the site. Questionnaires were distributed to 89 households from which water samples were collected as part of the investigation of the site. Of these, 74 households participated in the survey for an overall response rate of 83.1 percent. Questionnaires were completed by 226 individuals in these households. The questionnaire asked for information about water usage, historical water problems and individual health information. The survey data were separated into groups according to exposure status. The unexposed group included 151 individuals in households with no detectable level of contamination in the water. The exposed group included 75 individuals in households with a detectable level of contamination in the water. A summary of the results of the survey was released in November 1992. The proportion of the exposed persons reporting symptoms was slightly higher than the proportion of unexposed persons reporting symptoms, but the difference was small. The difference was not statistically significant, but the power of the statistical test was low due to the small number of people in the investigation.
In 1991, the NYS DOH held three public informational meetings and distributed fact sheets to community members and interested parties. The purpose of the meetings was to inform them of the contamination, to provide advice and to listen to their concerns. Affected residents were advised not to drink the water and on how to take additional precautions to reduce potential exposure from cooking and bathing. Bottled water was provided to people whose wells contained trichloroethene above the NYS DOH drinking water standard until treatment systems were installed. The NYS DEC has assumed responsibility for sampling the water supplies and operation and maintenance of the treatment systems. The NYS DOH and the Genesee, Livingston and Monroe County Health Departments sample private wells to monitor the contaminant plume and determine if additional wells are contaminated. Residents have voiced concerns about the effect the site has on their property values.
On March 4, 1997, the NYS DEC and NYS DOH held a public meeting to discuss a proposed remedial action plan for the site. The components of the proposal are: 1) extension of public water supply lines to the affected area, 2) excavation and on-site treatment of contaminated soils at the spill site, and 3) installation of bedrock vapor extraction wells to remove trichloroethene from the bedrock.
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Script of Act IV Romeo and Juliet
The play by William Shakespeare
This section contains the script of Act IV of Romeo and Juliet the play by William Shakespeare. The enduring works of William Shakespeare feature many famous and well loved characters. Make a note of any unusual words that you encounter whilst reading the script of Romeo and Juliet and check their definition in the Shakespeare Dictionary The script of Romeo and Juliet is extremely long. To reduce the time to load the script of the play, and for ease in accessing specific sections of the script, we have separated the text of Romeo and Juliet into Acts. Please click Romeo and Juliet Script to access further Acts.
Script / Text of Act IV Romeo and Juliet
SCENE I. Friar Laurence's cell.
Enter FRIAR LAURENCE and PARIS
On Thursday, sir? the time is very short.
My father Capulet will have it so;
And I am nothing slow to slack his haste.
You say you do not know the lady's mind:
Uneven is the course, I like it not.
Immoderately she weeps for Tybalt's death,
And therefore have I little talk'd of love;
For Venus smiles not in a house of tears.
Now, sir, her father counts it dangerous
That she doth give her sorrow so much sway,
And in his wisdom hastes our marriage,
To stop the inundation of her tears;
Which, too much minded by herself alone,
May be put from her by society:
Now do you know the reason of this haste.
[Aside] I would I knew not why it should be slow'd.
Look, sir, here comes the lady towards my cell.
Happily met, my lady and my wife!
That may be, sir, when I may be a wife.
That may be must be, love, on Thursday next.
What must be shall be.
That's a certain text.
Come you to make confession to this father?
To answer that, I should confess to you.
Do not deny to him that you love me.
I will confess to you that I love him.
So will ye, I am sure, that you love me.
If I do so, it will be of more price,
Being spoke behind your back, than to your face.
Poor soul, thy face is much abused with tears.
The tears have got small victory by that;
For it was bad enough before their spite.
Thou wrong'st it, more than tears, with that report.
That is no slander, sir, which is a truth;
And what I spake, I spake it to my face.
Thy face is mine, and thou hast slander'd it.
It may be so, for it is not mine own.
Are you at leisure, holy father, now;
Or shall I come to you at evening mass?
My leisure serves me, pensive daughter, now.
My lord, we must entreat the time alone.
God shield I should disturb devotion!
Juliet, on Thursday early will I rouse ye:
Till then, adieu; and keep this holy kiss.
O shut the door! and when thou hast done so,
Come weep with me; past hope, past cure, past help!
Ah, Juliet, I already know thy grief;
It strains me past the compass of my wits:
I hear thou must, and nothing may prorogue it,
On Thursday next be married to this county.
Tell me not, friar, that thou hear'st of this,
Unless thou tell me how I may prevent it:
If, in thy wisdom, thou canst give no help,
Do thou but call my resolution wise,
And with this knife I'll help it presently.
God join'd my heart and Romeo's, thou our hands;
And ere this hand, by thee to Romeo seal'd,
Shall be the label to another deed,
Or my true heart with treacherous revolt
Turn to another, this shall slay them both:
Therefore, out of thy long-experienced time,
Give me some present counsel, or, behold,
'Twixt my extremes and me this bloody knife
Shall play the umpire, arbitrating that
Which the commission of thy years and art
Could to no issue of true honour bring.
Be not so long to speak; I long to die,
If what thou speak'st speak not of remedy.
Hold, daughter: I do spy a kind of hope,
Which craves as desperate an execution.
As that is desperate which we would prevent.
If, rather than to marry County Paris,
Thou hast the strength of will to slay thyself,
Then is it likely thou wilt undertake
A thing like death to chide away this shame,
That copest with death himself to scape from it:
And, if thou darest, I'll give thee remedy.
O, bid me leap, rather than marry Paris,
From off the battlements of yonder tower;
Or walk in thievish ways; or bid me lurk
Where serpents are; chain me with roaring bears;
Or shut me nightly in a charnel-house,
O'er-cover'd quite with dead men's rattling bones,
With reeky shanks and yellow chapless skulls;
Or bid me go into a new-made grave
And hide me with a dead man in his shroud;
Things that, to hear them told, have made me tremble;
And I will do it without fear or doubt,
To live an unstain'd wife to my sweet love.
Hold, then; go home, be merry, give consent
To marry Paris: Wednesday is to-morrow:
To-morrow night look that thou lie alone;
Let not thy nurse lie with thee in thy chamber:
Take thou this vial, being then in bed,
And this distilled liquor drink thou off;
When presently through all thy veins shall run
A cold and drowsy humour, for no pulse
Shall keep his native progress, but surcease:
No warmth, no breath, shall testify thou livest;
The roses in thy lips and cheeks shall fade
To paly ashes, thy eyes' windows fall,
Like death, when he shuts up the day of life;
Each part, deprived of supple government,
Shall, stiff and stark and cold, appear like death:
And in this borrow'd likeness of shrunk death
Thou shalt continue two and forty hours,
And then awake as from a pleasant sleep.
Now, when the bridegroom in the morning comes
To rouse thee from thy bed, there art thou dead:
Then, as the manner of our country is,
In thy best robes uncover'd on the bier
Thou shalt be borne to that same ancient vault
Where all the kindred of the Capulets lie.
In the mean time, against thou shalt awake,
Shall Romeo by my letters know our drift,
And hither shall he come: and he and I
Will watch thy waking, and that very night
Shall Romeo bear thee hence to Mantua.
And this shall free thee from this present shame;
If no inconstant toy, nor womanish fear,
Abate thy valour in the acting it.
Give me, give me! O, tell not me of fear!
Hold; get you gone, be strong and prosperous
In this resolve: I'll send a friar with speed
To Mantua, with my letters to thy lord.
Love give me strength! and strength shall help afford.
Farewell, dear father!
SCENE II. Hall in Capulet's house.
Enter CAPULET, LADY CAPULET, Nurse, and two Servingmen
So many guests invite as here are writ.
Exit First Servant
Sirrah, go hire me twenty cunning cooks.
You shall have none ill, sir; for I'll try if they
can lick their fingers.
How canst thou try them so?
Marry, sir, 'tis an ill cook that cannot lick his
own fingers: therefore he that cannot lick his
fingers goes not with me.
Go, be gone.
Exit Second Servant
We shall be much unfurnished for this time.
What, is my daughter gone to Friar Laurence?
Well, he may chance to do some good on her:
A peevish self-will'd harlotry it is.
See where she comes from shrift with merry look.
How now, my headstrong! where have you been gadding?
Where I have learn'd me to repent the sin
Of disobedient opposition
To you and your behests, and am enjoin'd
By holy Laurence to fall prostrate here,
And beg your pardon: pardon, I beseech you!
Henceforward I am ever ruled by you.
Send for the county; go tell him of this:
I'll have this knot knit up to-morrow morning.
I met the youthful lord at Laurence' cell;
And gave him what becomed love I might,
Not step o'er the bounds of modesty.
Why, I am glad on't; this is well: stand up:
This is as't should be. Let me see the county;
Ay, marry, go, I say, and fetch him hither.
Now, afore God! this reverend holy friar,
Our whole city is much bound to him.
Nurse, will you go with me into my closet,
To help me sort such needful ornaments
As you think fit to furnish me to-morrow?
No, not till Thursday; there is time enough.
Go, nurse, go with her: we'll to church to-morrow.
Exeunt JULIET and Nurse
We shall be short in our provision:
'Tis now near night.
Tush, I will stir about,
And all things shall be well, I warrant thee, wife:
Go thou to Juliet, help to deck up her;
I'll not to bed to-night; let me alone;
I'll play the housewife for this once. What, ho!
They are all forth. Well, I will walk myself
To County Paris, to prepare him up
Against to-morrow: my heart is wondrous light,
Since this same wayward girl is so reclaim'd.
SCENE III. Juliet's chamber.
Enter JULIET and Nurse
Ay, those attires are best: but, gentle nurse,
I pray thee, leave me to my self to-night,
For I have need of many orisons
To move the heavens to smile upon my state,
Which, well thou know'st, is cross, and full of sin.
Enter LADY CAPULET
What, are you busy, ho? need you my help?
No, madam; we have cull'd such necessaries
As are behoveful for our state to-morrow:
So please you, let me now be left alone,
And let the nurse this night sit up with you;
For, I am sure, you have your hands full all,
In this so sudden business.
Get thee to bed, and rest; for thou hast need.
Exeunt LADY CAPULET and Nurse
Farewell! God knows when we shall meet again.
I have a faint cold fear thrills through my veins,
That almost freezes up the heat of life:
I'll call them back again to comfort me:
Nurse! What should she do here?
My dismal scene I needs must act alone.
What if this mixture do not work at all?
Shall I be married then to-morrow morning?
No, no: this shall forbid it: lie thou there.
Laying down her dagger
What if it be a poison, which the friar
Subtly hath minister'd to have me dead,
Lest in this marriage he should be dishonour'd,
Because he married me before to Romeo?
I fear it is: and yet, methinks, it should not,
For he hath still been tried a holy man.
How if, when I am laid into the tomb,
I wake before the time that Romeo
Come to redeem me? there's a fearful point!
Shall I not, then, be stifled in the vault,
To whose foul mouth no healthsome air breathes in,
And there die strangled ere my Romeo comes?
Or, if I live, is it not very like,
The horrible conceit of death and night,
Together with the terror of the place,--
As in a vault, an ancient receptacle,
Where, for these many hundred years, the bones
Of all my buried ancestors are packed:
Where bloody Tybalt, yet but green in earth,
Lies festering in his shroud; where, as they say,
At some hours in the night spirits resort;--
Alack, alack, is it not like that I,
So early waking, what with loathsome smells,
And shrieks like mandrakes' torn out of the earth,
That living mortals, hearing them, run mad:--
O, if I wake, shall I not be distraught,
Environed with all these hideous fears?
And madly play with my forefather's joints?
And pluck the mangled Tybalt from his shroud?
And, in this rage, with some great kinsman's bone,
As with a club, dash out my desperate brains?
O, look! methinks I see my cousin's ghost
Seeking out Romeo, that did spit his body
Upon a rapier's point: stay, Tybalt, stay!
Romeo, I come! this do I drink to thee.
She falls upon her bed, within the curtains
SCENE IV. Hall in Capulet's house.
Enter LADY CAPULET and Nurse
Hold, take these keys, and fetch more spices, nurse.
They call for dates and quinces in the pastry.
Come, stir, stir, stir! the second cock hath crow'd,
The curfew-bell hath rung, 'tis three o'clock:
Look to the baked meats, good Angelica:
Spare not for the cost.
Go, you cot-quean, go,
Get you to bed; faith, You'll be sick to-morrow
For this night's watching.
No, not a whit: what! I have watch'd ere now
All night for lesser cause, and ne'er been sick.
Ay, you have been a mouse-hunt in your time;
But I will watch you from such watching now.
Exeunt LADY CAPULET and Nurse
A jealous hood, a jealous hood!
Enter three or four Servingmen, with spits, logs, and baskets
Things for the cook, sir; but I know not what.
Make haste, make haste.
Exit First Servant
Sirrah, fetch drier logs:
Call Peter, he will show thee where they are.
I have a head, sir, that will find out logs,
And never trouble Peter for the matter.
Mass, and well said; a merry whoreson, ha!
Thou shalt be logger-head. Good faith, 'tis day:
The county will be here with music straight,
For so he said he would: I hear him near.
Nurse! Wife! What, ho! What, nurse, I say!
Go waken Juliet, go and trim her up;
I'll go and chat with Paris: hie, make haste,
Make haste; the bridegroom he is come already:
Make haste, I say.
SCENE V. Juliet's chamber.
Mistress! what, mistress! Juliet! fast, I warrant her, she:
Why, lamb! why, lady! fie, you slug-a-bed!
Why, love, I say! madam! sweet-heart! why, bride!
What, not a word? you take your pennyworths now;
Sleep for a week; for the next night, I warrant,
The County Paris hath set up his rest,
That you shall rest but little. God forgive me,
Marry, and amen, how sound is she asleep!
I must needs wake her. Madam, madam, madam!
Ay, let the county take you in your bed;
He'll fright you up, i' faith. Will it not be?
Undraws the curtains
What, dress'd! and in your clothes! and down again!
I must needs wake you; Lady! lady! lady!
Alas, alas! Help, help! my lady's dead!
O, well-a-day, that ever I was born!
Some aqua vitae, ho! My lord! my lady!
Enter LADY CAPULET
What noise is here?
O lamentable day!
What is the matter?
Look, look! O heavy day!
O me, O me! My child, my only life,
Revive, look up, or I will die with thee!
Help, help! Call help.
For shame, bring Juliet forth; her lord is come.
She's dead, deceased, she's dead; alack the day!
Alack the day, she's dead, she's dead, she's dead!
Ha! let me see her: out, alas! she's cold:
Her blood is settled, and her joints are stiff;
Life and these lips have long been separated:
Death lies on her like an untimely frost
Upon the sweetest flower of all the field.
O lamentable day!
O woful time!
Death, that hath ta'en her hence to make me wail,
Ties up my tongue, and will not let me speak.
Enter FRIAR LAURENCE and PARIS, with Musicians
Come, is the bride ready to go to church?
Ready to go, but never to return.
O son! the night before thy wedding-day
Hath Death lain with thy wife. There she lies,
Flower as she was, deflowered by him.
Death is my son-in-law, Death is my heir;
My daughter he hath wedded: I will die,
And leave him all; life, living, all is Death's.
Have I thought long to see this morning's face,
And doth it give me such a sight as this?
Accursed, unhappy, wretched, hateful day!
Most miserable hour that e'er time saw
In lasting labour of his pilgrimage!
But one, poor one, one poor and loving child,
But one thing to rejoice and solace in,
And cruel death hath catch'd it from my sight!
O woe! O woful, woful, woful day!
Most lamentable day, most woful day,
That ever, ever, I did yet behold!
O day! O day! O day! O hateful day!
Never was seen so black a day as this:
O woful day, O woful day!
Beguiled, divorced, wronged, spited, slain!
Most detestable death, by thee beguil'd,
By cruel cruel thee quite overthrown!
O love! O life! not life, but love in death!
Despised, distressed, hated, martyr'd, kill'd!
Uncomfortable time, why camest thou now
To murder, murder our solemnity?
O child! O child! my soul, and not my child!
Dead art thou! Alack! my child is dead;
And with my child my joys are buried.
Peace, ho, for shame! confusion's cure lives not
In these confusions. Heaven and yourself
Had part in this fair maid; now heaven hath all,
And all the better is it for the maid:
Your part in her you could not keep from death,
But heaven keeps his part in eternal life.
The most you sought was her promotion;
For 'twas your heaven she should be advanced:
And weep ye now, seeing she is advanced
Above the clouds, as high as heaven itself?
O, in this love, you love your child so ill,
That you run mad, seeing that she is well:
She's not well married that lives married long;
But she's best married that dies married young.
Dry up your tears, and stick your rosemary
On this fair corse; and, as the custom is,
In all her best array bear her to church:
For though fond nature bids us an lament,
Yet nature's tears are reason's merriment.
All things that we ordained festival,
Turn from their office to black funeral;
Our instruments to melancholy bells,
Our wedding cheer to a sad burial feast,
Our solemn hymns to sullen dirges change,
Our bridal flowers serve for a buried corse,
And all things change them to the contrary.
Sir, go you in; and, madam, go with him;
And go, Sir Paris; every one prepare
To follow this fair corse unto her grave:
The heavens do lour upon you for some ill;
Move them no more by crossing their high will.
Exeunt CAPULET, LADY CAPULET, PARIS, and FRIAR LAURENCE
Faith, we may put up our pipes, and be gone.
Honest goodfellows, ah, put up, put up;
For, well you know, this is a pitiful case.
Ay, by my troth, the case may be amended.
Musicians, O, musicians, 'Heart's ease, Heart's
ease:' O, an you will have me live, play 'Heart's ease.'
Why 'Heart's ease?'
O, musicians, because my heart itself plays 'My
heart is full of woe:' O, play me some merry dump,
to comfort me.
Not a dump we; 'tis no time to play now.
You will not, then?
I will then give it you soundly.
What will you give us?
No money, on my faith, but the gleek;
I will give you the minstrel.
Then I will give you the serving-creature.
Then will I lay the serving-creature's dagger on
your pate. I will carry no crotchets: I'll re you,
I'll fa you; do you note me?
An you re us and fa us, you note us.
Pray you, put up your dagger, and put out your wit.
Then have at you with my wit! I will dry-beat you
with an iron wit, and put up my iron dagger. Answer
me like men:
'When griping grief the heart doth wound,
And doleful dumps the mind oppress,
Then music with her silver sound'--
why 'silver sound'? why 'music with her silver
sound'? What say you, Simon Catling?
Marry, sir, because silver hath a sweet sound.
Pretty! What say you, Hugh Rebeck?
I say 'silver sound,' because musicians sound for silver.
Pretty too! What say you, James Soundpost?
Faith, I know not what to say.
O, I cry you mercy; you are the singer: I will say
for you. It is 'music with her silver sound,'
because musicians have no gold for sounding:
'Then music with her silver sound
With speedy help doth lend redress.'
What a pestilent knave is this same!
Hang him, Jack! Come, we'll in here; tarry for the
mourners, and stay dinner.
Script of Act IV Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare Personae
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A small molecule dubbed kartogenin encourages stem cells to take on the characteristics of cells that make cartilage, a new study shows. And treatment with kartogenin allowed many mice with arthritis-like cartilage damage in a knee to regain the ability to use the joint without pain.
The new approach taps into mesenchymal stem cells, which naturally reside in cartilage and give rise to cells that make connective tissue. These include chondrocytes, the only cells in the body that manufacture cartilage. Kartogenin steers the stem cells to wake up and take on cartilage-making duties. This is an essential step in the cartilage repair that falls behind in people with osteoarthritis, the most common kind of arthritis, which develops from injury or long-term joint use.
Science - A Stem Cell–Based Approach to Cartilage Repair
Osteoarthritis (OA) is a degenerative joint disease that involves destruction of articular cartilage and eventually leads to disability. Molecules that promote the selective differentiation of multipotent mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) into chondrocytes may stimulate the repair of damaged cartilage. Using an image-based, high-throughput screen, we identified the small molecule kartogenin, which promotes chondrocyte differentiation (EC50 = 100 nM), shows chondroprotective effects in vitro, and is efficacious in two OA animal models. Kartogenin binds filamin A, disrupts its interaction with the transcription factor CBFβ, and induces chondrogenesis by regulating the CBFβ-RUNX1 transcriptional program. This work provides new insights into the control of chondrogenesis that may ultimately lead to a stem cell–based therapy for osteoarthritis.
People with osteoarthritis have an excess of the protein, which is considered a marker of disease severity. Kartogenin also enabled mice with knee injuries to regain weight-bearing capacity on the joint within 42 days.
Lab work revealed that kartogenin inhibits a protein called filamin A in the mesenchymal stem cells. This unleashes other compounds that can then orchestrate the activity of genes useful in turning the stem cells into functional chondrocytes. In so doing, Johnson says, kartogenin seems to protect and repair cartilage.
Millions of people develop osteoarthritis as they reach old age. Cartilage serves as the shock absorber of the skeleton, but surgery to clean out torn cartilage has limited success, as does surgery to induce growth of a fibrous kind of coating at the ends of bones that have lost their natural cartilage caps. This losing battle leaves bone-on-bone friction, inflammation and pain.
“Our cartilage wasn’t meant to live this long,” says molecular biologist Mary Goldring of Weill Cornell Medical College in New York. A cartilage imbalance results from wear and tear, literally, as people age, she says. Regenerating the cartilage-making process in the body has become a primary goal in orthopedic medicine.
24 pages of supplemental material
If you liked this article, please give it a quick review on ycombinator or StumbleUpon. Thanks
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Imagine two steel springs identical in look and composition but that perform differently because each was tempered at a different rate.
A team of researchers including a Texas A&M University molecular biologist has shown that concept — that the speed of creation affects performance — applies to how a protein they studied impacts an organism's circadian clock function. This discovery provides new insights into the significance of the genetic code for controlling the rates at which critically important proteins are synthesized, and could lead to better understanding of cancers and other diseases.
"Living organisms' inner clocks are like Swiss watches with precisely manufactured spring mechanisms," said Matthew Sachs, a professor in the Texas A&M Department of Biology. "For example, if you fast-temper a critical spring, the watch may be unable to keep time, as opposed to slow-tempering it. It's not just about the composition of the components, such as which alloy is used. It's about the manner in which the components are made. Our research says the genetic code is important for determining both composition and fabrication rate for a central component of the circadian clock, and that the fabrication rate also is critical. And that's essentially a discovery."
The team, which is led by Yi Liu, a researcher in the Department of Physiology at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, was perplexed when it found a paradoxical result years ago: that optimizing the use of codons (a sequence of three nucleotides that form a unit of genetic code in a DNA or RNA molecule) specifying an essential biological clock component actually abolished the organism's circadian rhythms.
The group's research indicates that the protein in the fungal genus Neurospora they studied, frequency, performs better when the genetic code specifying it has non-optimal codon usage, as is normally found. However, when the genetic code is deliberately altered so that codon usage is optimized, clock function is lost. The reason for this is that non-optimal codon usage slows translation of the genetic code into protein, allotting the frequency protein the necessary time to achieve its optimal protein structure. The team's results also demonstrate that genetic codons do more than simply determine the amino acid sequence of a protein as previously thought: They also affect how much protein can be made as well as the functional quality of that protein.
"We found that less is more, in many cases," Liu said.
Because many genetic diseases are the result of improperly functioning proteins, Sachs says knowledge about how proteins are made and why they have impaired functions is critical to understanding almost all diseases.
"Understanding gene expression is crucial for understanding cancer and other diseases, because ultimately many of these processes involve either mutations of genes or altered expression of genes," said Sachs, who was asked by Liu to help on the research because of his translational expertise in Neurospora.
The research was selected for Advanced Online Publication (AOP) in the prestigious journal "Nature." To read the complete paper, go to http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature11833.html.
Texas A&M University: http://www.tamu.edu
This press release was posted to serve as a topic for discussion. Please comment below. We try our best to only post press releases that are associated with peer reviewed scientific literature. Critical discussions of the research are appreciated. If you need help finding a link to the original article, please contact us on twitter or via e-mail.
Free-living songbirds show increased stress hormone levels when nesting under white street lights. But different light spectra may have different physiological effects as this study finds, suggesting that using street lights with specific colour spectra may mitigate effects of light pollution on wildlife
Scientists identify the condition aphantasia, in which people cannot create images in their head
The dust in our homes contains an average of 9,000 different types of fungi and bacteria, a study suggests.
A mosquito can bear up to 23 times its total body weight on each leg, which is crucial for landing on water – the insect's secret is way it stands
Tropical species with smaller geographical ranges are more likely to die out in a warming climate than those that can adapt by ‘invading’ new regions
Most people think of bacteria as germs, signs of filth, or unwanted bringers of disease. Slowly, that view …
The gloomy octopuses crowded at Jervis Bay, Australia, appear to spit and throw debris such as shell at each other in what could be an intentional use of weapons
Therapies based on hormones that make us more trusting enhance our natural placebo effect – a finding that could alter the way clinical trials are conducted
The blind, hairless babies born recently at Washington D.C.'s National Zoo are completely dependent on their mothers—who can sometimes accidentally crush them.
The poop-hoarding insects have an amazingly advanced internal GPS that allows them to navigate by day or night.
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The Division of Entomology and Plant Pathology within the Department of Natural Resources is directed, by statute, to seek the control of any "pest or pathogen" that may harm nursery stock, crops, other vegetation, or bees. In addition, the Division of Entomology and Plant Pathology has regulatory authority to develop measures for the protection of bees and the honey industry.
"Pest or pathogen" is broadly defined in the law to list several life forms, including arthropods, nematodes, microorganisms, and mollusks. "Arthropods" include insects (examples: beetles and flies), arachnids (examples: spiders and ticks), crustaceans (example: crayfish), and myriapods (example: centipedes).
Division of Entomology and Plant Pathology
Responsibilities for the regulation of arthropods and other pests or pathogens, and for the protection of bees, are assigned by the Indiana General Assembly in statutes and implemented largely through rules. The Natural Resources Commission adopts permanent rules, and they have the force and effect of law.
- 312 IAC 18-2 Sets general standards for determining areas infested with pests or pathogens and for establishing quarantines.
- 312 IAC 18-3 Describes quarantines applicable to particular organisms (examples: black stem rust, black vine weevils, pine shoot beetles, gypsy moths, and purple loosestrife). This rule also generally governs beekeeping.
- 312 IAC 18-4 regulates nurseries, nursery stock, nurserymen, dealers, and agents
- 312 IAC 18-5 sets fees for special services by the Division of Entomology and Plant Pathology
- 312 IAC 18-6 considers trade secrets within documents filed with the Division of Entomology and Plant Pathology.
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History of Greene County
1651 – 1800
J. Van Vechten Vedder
Originally published in 1927 by Authority of
the Greene County Board of Supervisors
Transcribed by Arlene Goodwin
Town of Hunter
(Information obtained from Catskill Mountain Reflector.)
Jan. 8, 1926, fire at Haines Falls destroyed much
property at the coal and lumber yard of W. I. Hallenbeck, and the drug store and
residence of John W. Rusk.
The snow fall in Tannersville Feb. 3d and 4th
was the heaviest of the winter, with high winds and drifts. The main roads were
opened in record time, and by working throughout Thursday night all roads in the
town were open by Saturday afternoon.
At Beaches Corners March 12th Richard Merwin
suffered a broken leg when his oxen ran away in the woods.
In March the bungalow of Miss Miriam E. Lester, outside of Tannersville, was burned.
Hunter Creamery was destroyed by fire May 31st, with loss estimated $35,000. The owner was L. B. Samuels of New York city, and the creamery had been in operation for about twenty-five years.
Early on Wednesday morning, July 14th, fire broke out in Twilight Inn at Haines Falls, and proved the worst fire tragedy Greene County had ever had, resulting in the death of twenty-two persons. In the cemetery of that place, near the Methodist Episcopal church, rest the personally unidentified bodies of fourteen victims, over which a shaft will be erected and their names inscribed upon it. The burial was an impressive scene, witnessed by a large number of sorrowing relatives and citizens, and in which those of the Lutheran, Methodist. Episcopal and Catholic clergy participated. Twenty members of Tannersville fire department, who had fought valiantly to save life and property, were pall-bearers.
In September the Police Commissioner of New York city, in company with four hundred members of the Police Department and their families, dedicated the new $500,000 Indian Head Hotel, chief unit of the police recreation camp at Platte Clove.
On the occasion of the worst flood Greene County has ever known (Nov. 16th). “At the northwesterly end of the main street in Tannersville, the water rose to so great a height that automobiles were forced to travel through the west road to Elka Park, in order to gain a single block of Main street. The first floor of the Reflector Publishing Plant was completely inundated, and at 4 o’clock the entire staff of employees waded about ankle-deep and made their exit through a rear window; the greatest distance of any of the employees’ residence is not more than two-thirds of a mile, and still they were compelled to travel from four to six miles to reach their homes.” The first floor of other stores and residences were inundated and filled with debris, and required sweeping, scrubbing and even shoveling when the water subsided. Through Kaaterskill Clove the road was torn away in places and otherwise made impassable, necessitating the use of the Catskill and East Windham roads to Tannersville.
Christopher A. Martin, former Supervisor of Hunter and proprietor of the Loxhurst at Haines Falls since 1899, died May 13, 1925, at the age of sixty-three years.
Mr. Martin was a native of the town of Hunter and highly esteemed throughout that section. Always allied with the Democratic party, he was Supervisor for that town in 1922-23. He was an active member of Mt. Tabor Lodge, F. & A. M., and of various other lodges at Windham and Tannersville.
He is survived by his widow and one daughter, Mrs. Henry Myer of Haines Falls. He was laid at rest in the Haines family cemetery.
Tannersville celebrated Independence Day by a parade of firemen, Girl Scouts, N. Y. City Board of Water Supply Police, and officers of the village, headed by the Community Band of Catskill. This was attended by a large crowd of people, and in the afternoon a ball game between Westkill team and Tannersville Juniors was played, the local team being defeated. At 1 o’clock a band concert was given in the village square. Then came another ball game between Southern Bells of Catskill and the big team of Tannersville, the latter again going down to defeat. In the evening there was a fine display of fireworks. The village was filled with tourists and traffic was very heavy.
(From Catskill Mountain Reflector, Tannersville)
Mr. Charles Voss, one of the most widely known and highly respected residents of this village and Greene county, died at his home on Friday morning, Feb. 18, 1927, at the age of seventy-eight years.
For many years Mr. Voss was a prominent figure in business and political activities of the county. He took a great interest in public affairs and was always ready to give his aid to any project that was a betterment to this community or for this county. He was behind the movement to have the Clove Road converted into a state highway, a plan for which he worked unceasingly until it was consummated.
The deceased was a lifelong Republican and for many years was closely identified with his party. He held several offices, among them being President of this village and Supervisor for the town of Hunter for two terms. In the year 1904 Mr. Voss was appointed postmaster, a position he held for eighteen consecutive years.
Mr. Voss was born in Holstein, Germany, February 14, 1849. His ancestors, however, were from Holland. When a young man he came to America, and forty-two years ago he settled in this village, where he has since resided.
The funeral took place on Monday afternoon at the Methodist Church, the Rev. John K. Benedict officiating. The burial was in the Fair Lawn Cemetery, Prattsville. The Mt. Tabor Lodge, F. & A. M., of Hunter attended the funeral in a body, and the Masons’ burial services were held in the church. The pall-bearers were from the Kingston Lodge. The large crowd attending the funeral, and beautiful floral offerings were evidence of the esteem in which the deceased was held.
Rev. John K. Benedict in his few brief remarks used the
words of Emerson, “What you speaks so loudly I can not hear what you say.”
No more fitting words could be used in the life of the deceased.
The immediate survivors are his wife, who was formerly
Miss Jane E. Haner of Prattsville; one son, Ralph Voss, and two daughters, Mrs.
Oliver Perry and Mrs. Edward Smith, all of this village.
Romaine A. Butts
Romaine A. Butts, former Supervisor of the town of
Jewett, died suddenly on Thursday morning, July 15, 1925, at his home in
Hensonville. Mr. Butts was a native of the town of Jewett, having been born
there October 29, 1845. His father, Justus Butts, was one of the original
settlers of that part of the county. On October 30, 1867, he married Lizzie S.
Barkley, who died in 1911.
Mr. Butts served the town of Jewett as Supervisor for two
terms, and while a resident of Hensonville was Assessor for the town of Windham
for twelve years, his term ending with the close of 1925.
He was also a member of the Farm Bureau and of the Official Board of the
Hensonville M. E. church.
It is said of Mr. Betts that “he was a natural trader
and lover of horses, a trait well evidenced by his splendid team,” and also
that “his is a record of a life well spent, and further comment could not add
thereto, but would rather detract.”
Town of Lexington
A reunion of the descendants of Peter H. Miller and his
wife Hannah was held at Lexington Sept. 4th. One hundred and five
descendants were present.
In December Norman Deyo of Westkill was fatally injured
while riding down hill, by an automobile driven by Harry Dunham of Westkill.
This sad accident was unavoidable on the part of Dunham.
During the freshet of Nov. 16th the Schoharie kill was the highest within the memory of the oldest inhabitant. Main street was covered with water and eight families were obliged to move out, while horses and cattle were removed to safer places. Chicken-houses and other farm buildings went down stream, while others were kept from following by being anchored to trees. In the general cash store in the village the water rose until it ran over the counters. Nearly every bridge between Westkill and Spruceton was swept away, and the roads beyond description.
Later the Supervisors voted $10,000 for the improvement of Lexington town roads.
On July 16th more than 250 women attended the Women’s Democratic Club picnic, held on Mrs. George Van Valkenburgh’s lawn.
Edwin L. Ford, M. D.
Dr. Edwin L. Ford, one of the oldest and best loved among the older generation of physicians in Greene County, died Saturday afternoon, March 19, 1927, at his home in Lexington. For fully half a century he ministered to the countryside, always greeting his patients with a smile and a pleasant word.
His daughter, Mrs. Frederick J. Zinck, wife of the pastor of the Methodist Episcopal Church at Lexington, and her three children are the only near relatives surviving Dr. Ford, but he is mourned by a host of friends throughout the mountains. Funeral services were held on Wednesday at the Baptist Church, Rev. George Rustin of Halcottville officiating, assisted by Rev. Ward Howlett, pastor of the church.
Dr. Ford was a son of David and Abigail Faulkner Ford and was born Oct. 13, 1842, on the farm where he always resided and which has been in the Ford family for over one hundred and twenty-five years.
When the Civil War broke our he enlisted as a private in
Col. F., 120th Regiment New York Volunteers, and served in the
principal battles of the war. He
was wounded in the battle of Gettysburg and after recovering was taken prisoner
at Mine Run, being held in Libby, Andersonville and other southern prisons.
Nearly a year later he was returned to the northern forces in a exchange
of prisoner. After receiving his
honorable discharge he returned to his home.
In the fall of 1866 he entered the Albany Medical College, from which he
graduated Dec. 22d, 1868. In 1872 he married his first wife, Frances Cox,
daughter of Rev. Leonard Cox, a Baptist minister and once a resident of
Lexington; she died at the age of forty. In 1887 he married Annie L. Dunham, and
of this union there were two children, Mrs. Zinck, who survives and Edwin, who
died in 1906.
Fire destroyed Edwin Vanderpoel’s garage and bungalow on Jan. 5th.
Four prize awards on five exhibits of eggs were awarded Francis W. Wardle during Farmer’s Week at Cornell.
New Baltimore was one of the towns which reached her quota of membership in the Farm Bureau.
At the State Firemen’s home on April 2d John Bortal of New Baltimore passed away. He was a member of Cornell Hook & Ladder Company of that village. He was seventy-eight years old.
Explosion of an oil heater in the laundry room of Miss Bertha Wade’s residence May 22nd caused fire which did considerable damage, but house was saved by the quick work of the firemen.
In September ground was broken for Echo Grange Community Hall by County Clerk Floyd E. Jones turning the first spadeful of earth.
Harry Omrisk and Thomas Williams were drowned in the river near New Baltimore June 15th.
June 22nd, W. D. Hull, principal of Dist. No. 10, committed suicide, owing to ill-health.
Byron Mansfield, son of Jehoikim and Maria Mansfield, a
highly respected resident of New Baltimore who spent his entire life of
seventy-five years in that village, passed on Jan. 24, 1925. He was an
instructor in New Baltimore and also in Castleton, retiring several years ago.
He was President of the Board of Education, Treasurer of the Baptist church,
Trustee of Chestnut Lawn Cemetery, and for more than twenty years Secretary of
Social Friendship Lodge. He had
also filled the office of justice of the peace. He was the last of his immediate
family, his parents and sisters dying several years since, and is survived only
by three cousins (Miss Ryder, who kept house for him; George Ryder of Albany,
and James Mansfield of New Baltimore). He will be missed in the church, the
lodge room and all walks of life, his best eulogy being such utterances as that
by the much younger man who exclaimed, “He was like a father to me.”
He was buried with Masonic honors, with interment in Chestnut Lawn Cemetery. School was closed for two days and the pupils attended his funeral in a body. A bronze tablet to his memory has been placed in the school building by the Board of Education.
Town of Prattsville
Superintendent of Highways, Harvey S. Olmstead, in January asked that the bridge over the Schoharie kill be condemned. During the summer it was wrecked by an automobile, and later a temporary bridge was built while a permanent structure was in process of building. During the flood of November 16th the temporary bridge was carried away. At the present writing (July 15th) the new bridge is nearing completion. It is 150 feet in length and runs diagonally across the stream, with deeply imbedded concrete abutments. Its roadbed is 22 feet wide and made of eight-inch concrete, and its strength is such as to meet future as well as present-day demands upon it. Its cost was about $118,000. The bridge which it replaced cost $12,000 in 1870, and the iron was hauled from Catskill by horses. The earliest bridge now remembered was a wooden lattice bridge and carried away by high water in 1869. This bridge served the people well until the coming of the automobile weakened it by increasing heavy traffic, and a year ago one of these machines put it out of business and a temporary bridge was put up until another should take its place. This lasted only about two months when the flood of 1926 swept it away, and the old bridge, having been strengthened, again became an active factor in crossing the stream. The plans for the new bridge were approved by recommendations of Supervisor Rosecrans.
The Prattsville-Ashland road has been re-surfaced by George E. Williams; a Booster club formed; the Methodist church wired for electric lights, the work under the supervision of Mrs. Elmer Hull, Claude V. White and Chester D. Conine.
Donald Osmar Rickard, aged one and one-half years, was accidentally drowned in a brook near his home on Clay Hill, July 9th.
During the storm of Nov. 16th “the tea room of Vernon Chatfield on upper Main street was threatened and only by prompt action on the part of those gathered there it would have been seriously damaged. Villagers carried the Frigidaire plant and practically everything else of value to a place of safety, and the building was chained to a large maple tree. All but one post was washed from under the building. Considerable damage was done to the barn on the Fred Hill farm on the Lexington road. He also lost a shed, stack of hay and a hog-house. Cellars were inundated, Carman’s garage flooded to the depth of twelve inches, and Edward Lutz was forced to move shingles and lumber to higher elevation.
(Taken From Windham Journal.)
Windham’s fire district was enlarged in 1926 with only two dissenting votes; $115,000 of taxable property added. The Windham Hose Co. voted to purchase and present to Windham fire district an electric fire alarm system and in May a new siren weighting 600 pounds was placed on top if the hose house by Foreman George McCoubrey and a force of men.
The Silver Lake property near East Windham was sold to T. M. St. John. It contains several hundred acres, and is being laid out in streets and sections by the purchasing company, of which Charles H. Belknap of Brooklyn is president.
Munson & Ferris of Windham purchased the store and stock of Patterson Brothers, one of the oldest concerns in Windham.
On Nov. 15th Edwin Probst, a World War veteran, was lost on South Mountain. On the 18th he was found dead by Roland E. Miles and brother of Hunter, having accidentally shot himself.
During the flood of Nov. 16th Windham residents became alarmed because of dangerously high water and storm accompanied by high wind. Cellars in stores and residences were flooded, putting out furnace fires and doing much damage. Charles Phelps lost several thousand feet of lumber. Clarence Marquoit was taken to safety by Harold Moore through waist-high water. The water was pumped from some of the cellars on Wednesday by the fire company pumper.
May 20th the Butts Hotel at East Windham burned to the ground with heavy loss to the owner.
Descendants of Miles Merwin (1623), David S. Merwin (1816) and Jan Winchell Merwin held a reunion on Independence Day at Ashokan Dam.
Osborn A. Cole
Osborn A. Cole, former Supervisor of the town of Windham, died at his late home near the village of Windham on Monday morning, November 8, 1926, aged fifty-two years.
Mr. Cole was born in North Settlement, in the town of Windham, and was the son of Mr. and Mrs. John M. Cole. Form many years he conducted a boarding house which was very popular and never lacked for guests. Three years ago he developed Cole’s Glen Lake, making it a water sports resort, not only for his own guests but for the county—a far sighted, successful business venture.
He was Supervisor nearly twenty-five years ago, and again during 1924-25. At one time and for six years he was a successful Commissioner of Highways. An active democrat with hosts of friends. He as a member of the Methodist church of Windham, of Mountain Lodge, F. & A. M., Mountain Chapter, Windham, the Committee of Greene County Farm Bureau, and President of the Dairy Improvement Association.
Mr. Cole is survived by his wife, formerly Miss Tennie
West of North Settlement, and one son Millard. His funeral was largely attended
and conducted with Masonic rites.
Official List, 1926-27.
Harcourt, J. Pratt, Highland
Representative in Congress
Arthur H. Wicks, Kingston State Senator
Ellis W. Bentley, Windham Member of Assembly
William E. Thorpe, Catskill County Judge and Surrogate
James H. Reilly, Catskill Surrogate’s Clerk
Harrison I. Gardner, Greenville District Attorney
James Lewis Malcolm, Catskill County Attorney
Wendell S. Sherman, Catskill County Treasurer
Sada Haas, Catskill Deputy County Treasurer
Charles H. Arbogast, Catskill Sheriff
Andrew H. Speenburgh, Jewett Under-Sheriff
Floyd F. Jones, Cairo County Clerk
Irene Glennon, Catskill Deputy County Clerk
Sadie Durwin, Catskill Recording Clerk
Henry W. Barker, Greenville Superintendent of Poor
Harvey, S. Olmstead, Cairo Superintendent of Highways
Horace G. Baldwin, Hunter Coroner
Ichabod T. Sutton, Prattsville Coroner
William E. Brady, Athens Coroner
Mahlon H. Atkinson, Catskill Coroner
Thomas J. O’Hara, Prattsville Commissioner of Elections
Lincoln S. Hart, Catskill Commissioner of Elections
Ruth Whitcomb, Catskill Clerk Board of Elections
Thomas C. Perry, Catskill School Supervisor, First Dist.
Robert M. MacNaught, Windham School Supervisor, Second Dist.
Walter J. Decker, Hunter School Supervisor, Third Dist.
Harrold R. Every, Athens Chairman Board of Supervisors
Theron Lawrence, Jewett Clerk Board of Supervisors
James Lewis Malcolm, Catskill Referee in Bankruptcy
Pearl R. Simmons, Catskill Court Stenographer
Archie D. Clow, Catskill Sealer of Weights and Measures
Earl G. Brougham, Catskill Farm Bureau Manager
J. J. Bogan, Catskill County Veterinarian
Mary G. Rowan, Catskill County Nurse
Madge A. Morris, Catskill Child Welfare Agent
J. V. V. Vedder, Leeds County Historian
Allene R. Davis, Catskill County Librarian
Henry Van Dyke Smith, Catskill Court House Janitor
Greene Count is in the Third Judicial District, comprising of counties of Albany, Rensselaer, Columbia, Schoharie, Greene, Ulster and Sullivan.
It is in the Twenty-Ninth Senatorial District, which includes Greene, Ulster and Delaware counties.
Is in the Twenty-seventh Congressional District, made up of the counties of Greene, Ulster, Sullivan, Schoharie and Columbia.
Board of Supervisors.
Floyd L. Ives
Harrold R. Every Athens J. Frank Lackey Hunter
Herbert Bogardus Cairo Frank H. Haner Jewett
Clarence Travis Catskill Abram V. Roraback Lexington
Edward A. Webb Coxsackie Levitt C. Powell New Baltimore
William S. Borthwick Durham Frank Rosecrans Prattsville
Robert Van Houten Greenville Demont L. Chase Windham
Greene County Bar Association.
Incorporated Oct. 9, 1902.
Emory, A. Chase, President
Albert C. Bloodgood, Treasurer
Arthur M. Murphy, Vice President Jesse M. Olney, Secretary
Frank H. Osborn Clarence E. Bloodgood
Edwin C. Hallenbeck
William E. Thorpe, President
John C. Welsh,
Greene County Medical Society.
Organized in 1803; Dr. John Ely, President
Dr. Norman S. Cooper, President
Dr. William M. Rapp, Secretary
Organized in 1819; John Bagley of Durham, President.
The first annual “Fair and Cattle Show” was held at Cairo Nov. 2, 1819. The animals were exhibited in a field of Daniel Sayre, and articles of domestic manufacture, vegetables and fruit were displayed in an unoccupied store. The Society assembled at Osborn’s tavern for dinner, their hats adorned with heads of wheat and a green ribbon. The dinner cost them 31c. each.
The first year’s expense was $193.50; balance in the treasury in 1820, $126.12 ½.
Dr. L. L. Parker, President
George W. Squires, Secretary
Herbert Bogardus, Superintendent
Organized 1917 with
C. W. Gilbert, Manager
George M. White, President
Francis Wardle, Secretary Oliver Palmer, Treasurer
Charles Peck, President
Earl G. Brougham, Manager
Sheep Breeders’ Association
W. A. Finch, President
William S. Borthwick, Secretary
Guernsey Breeders’ Association
Floyd Miller, President
Jersey Breeders’ Association
Clarence H. Jennings, President
Henry R. Ingalls, Sec’y-Treas.
Fish and Game Club
Michael Cimorelli, Secretary
Charles Thorpe, President
Roy H. Freer, Secretary
Letter Carriers’ Association
Herbert Antus, President
Myron B. Van Schaack, Secretary
Committee for the Blind
Wendell S. Sherman, Chairman
Miss Ruth Hall, Secretary
Red Cross Society
J. Lewis Malcolm, President
Mrs. J. Lewis Malcolm, Secretary
J. Lewis Malcolm, President
Mrs. Champlin Clarke, Secretary
George W. Irwin, President
Miss Georgina Jackson, Secretary
Loren J. Hubbard, Agent
Board of Child Welfare
Harvey S. Scutt, Chairman
Percy W. Decker, Secretary
State Charities Aid Association
Morris, County Agent
Democratic Women’s Club
Miss Ruth Hall, President Mrs. Clifford B. Dykeman, Secretary
League of Women Voters
Mrs. Norman Cooper, District Leader
Mrs. Lauren Crook Secretary
Home for Aged Women
Mrs. James P. Philip, President
Mrs. C. Allen Hayden, Secretary
Greene County Horticultural Society
Organized Jan. 21, 1926
A. D. Gibson, President Thos. J. Riley, Secretary-Treasurer
Directors for One Year
George H. Hallenbeck, Athens Harvey Col, Cairo
Directors at Large
Charles Post, Catskill
William Albright, New Baltimore
Hiram Palmer, Catskill H. E. Utter, Durham
Otto Hille, Coxsackie O. P. Carey, New Baltimore
P. W. Stevens, Greenville
Greene County Federal Farm Loan Association
Organized June 25, 1926
W. M. Van Hoesen, Athens, President
A. Steele, Windham, Sec.
Greene County Bible Society
Rev. Andrew Hansen, President
Rev. Geo. W. Rockwell, Secretary
Miss Anna Gonnermann, Solicitor of Funds
Greene County Sunday School Association
Chas. F. Robson, President
Mrs. R. W. Plusch, Secretary
George Seward (Coxsackie), Treasurer
Greene County Ex-Supervisors Association
Established 1921 with 122 members, 17 of whom had died.
Edward A. Webb, President W. S. Borthwick, Secretary-Treasurer
Daily Improvement Association
Organized at Windham, March 29, 1926.
Osborn A. Cole, President
Raymond Meddaugh, Vice-President
Greene County Pomona Grange
George D. Hall, W. M.
Ralph Latta, Secretary
Catskill Mountain Electric League.
Harold N. Warden, President
Lester A. Minkler, Secretary
Greene County Boy Scouts
Athens, Troop 1
Edward Kisselberg, Scout Master
Cairo, Troop 1 Rev. Harl E. Hood, Scout Master
Catskill, Troop 1 C. Lauren Crook, Scout Master
2 H. C. Cowen, Scout Master
3 George F. Parks, Scout Master
4 Joseph Della Morte, Scout Master
5 John Cummings, Scout Master
Cementon, Troop 8 Horace Cross, Acting Scout Master
Coxsackie, Troop 1 Rev. Jerrold Potts, Scout Master
Greenville, Troop 1 Gerald Goff, Scout Master
Hunter, Troop 1 Lorenzo D. Edwards, Scout Master
Leeds, Troop 1 Otto Daucher, Scout Master
Prattsville, Troop 1 B. B. Blakeslee, Scout Master
Tannersville, Troop 1 George Woodworth, Scout Master
Windham, Troop 1 Rev. George F. Wells, Scout Master
The Columbia-Greene Council was chartered in 1924 with John MacLauren president. Greene County Council was chartered January 1, 1927, with J. Frank Lackey, president. Scout Camp Half Moon is one and a half miles from Cairo on Freehold road.
Greene County American Legion
Levitt Powell, New Baltimore, County Commander
Catskill-Palenville, No. 8231, calls for 8.25 miles beginning at village line on West Bridge street and connecting with state road leading from Saugerties to Palenville. To be concrete highway; Garrison Contracting Corporation of New York. Figures of contract, $471,482.50. (See Supervisor’s Report,* (* All references are to 1925 Supervisors’ Report) with map reference, pages 45 and 46)
Cooksburg-Greenville (See Supervisors’ Report, with map reference, page 55)
Greenville-Dormansville, No. 2858 (page 53, with map ref.)
Tannersville-Haines Falls ( page 41)
Coxsackie-Ravena (page 54)
Coxsackie-Ravena part 2 (pages 15-16)
Palenville-Saugerties (pages 15-16)
Catskill-Cairo, to be built in 1927 (9.19 miles) by Troy Paving Company.
Westkill-Spruceton, to be built 1927 (5 miles)
Town of Ashland
Census 1920, population 560
Census 1925, population 596
Floyd L. Ives
Supervisor Charles Tompkins
Arthur C. Lee Town Clerk Sanford Tompkins Assessor
Claude Tompkins Justice Peace Hugh Lee Overseer of Poor
Irving Tuttle Justice Peace Dwight Tuttle School Director
Melvin Wier Justice Peace Floyd Ives School Director
Frank Griffin Justice Peace Alvah Tuttle Constable
William Griffin Highway Supt. Lewis Case Constable
Ernest Patridge Assessor Claude Sutton Constable
One election district in the town, with polling place in
building used as Town Hall. No voting machines are used.
Ashland (Fourth Class) Francis L. Dodge, Postmaster
No. R. F. D. Routes
Mail carried form Ashland to Hunter; William Winter,
Prattsville-Cairo stage stops at Ashland; Chares Alle, owner
Co-Partner Dairy Corporation, Ashland, N. Y.
Organized for the manufacture of dairy products.
Co-Partner Dairy Corporation, Ashland, N. Y.
George A. Cobb,
Hugh Lee, Secretary
James A. Campbell, Treasurer
Ashland Community Club
Roy Cornell, President Frank Munson, Secretary-Treasurer
This club was organized Feb. 9, 1926, and now has (Feb.
9, 18279) seventy-nine paid members. Its purpose is to secure fire protection
for the town.
Church erected before 1799, and stood on present site of
Ashland cemetery. Its first pastor (1802-1806), was Henry B. Stimson.
Timothy Hubbard Elijah Strong Jarius Munson
Present church built 1842. Present pastor, Rev. John Entwistle.
Organized by Rev. (afterward Bishop) Philander Chase, May 11, 1799. First rector, Rev. Joseph Perry (1803-1817). First church built 1814. Present church built 1879. Present Rector, Rev. Pierre McD. Bleeker.
Ebenezer Osborn Eli Osborn John Tuttle
Benjamin Johnson Samuel Goodsell Eliphalet Wheeler
Almond Munson Amasa Tuttle Orange Munson
Jehiel Tuttle Jabez Barlow Samuel Merwin
Constant Andrews Justin Coe Daniel Merwin
Enos Baldwin Samuel Wolcott Ebenezer Johnson
Elisha Stanley Samuel Chatfield William Tuttle
1841, church built in 1842, first pastor, Rev. S. Lakin
Present pastor, Rev. Ralph S. Thorne
St. Joseph’s Roman Catholic
No regular service
Church built about 1826, now a Windham charge.
No regular service.
Civil War Veterans
World War veterans not listed on Honor Roll at Catskill:
John Cleveland Riley Waterman John Zegel
Harry Titsworth and Raymond Rivenburg came to Ashland after war.
Town of Athens
Census 1920, population 2, 361
Census 1925, population 2, 505
Harrold R. Every
Emory E. Allen Collector
William J. Clark Town Clerk Charles Starke Overseer Poor
W. F. Hitchcock Justice Peace Fred Bock Overseer Poor
Peter Van Valkenburgh Justice Peace Robert Hosford Constable
J. K. Van Woert Justice Peace Charles Hitchcock Constable
Orin Q. Flint Justice Peace George Scott Constable
Wicks B. Spoor Assessor Lawrence Ford Constable
Willis Brandow Assessor Abram Post Auditor
Sylvanus H. Cooper Assessor Gardiner Clawson Auditor
Isabell Rainey School Director David F. Whiting Auditor
Luella Bard School Director
Places of General Election.
Dist No. 1---Village Building rooms of Wm. H. Morton
Dist. No. 2---Methodist Society Hall, Lime street.
Dist. No. 3---Village Building, rooms of W. C. Brady Hook & Ladder Co.
Voting machines used since 1901.
Athens (Third Class )
Clare Masten, Postmaster
Terminal, Athens Russel Page, Carrier
Vosenkill Road, Spoonburgh Road, Kings Highway, Athens-Coxsackie Turnpike, Schoharie Road and Leeds Road.
O. Gates Porter
Wm. H. Jamieson Trustee Edward Slattery Street Com’r
Thomas Lampman Sr Trustee Charles Hitchcock Police Chief
Wm. T. Van Loan Trustee William Boyles Constable
Garret S. Dollar Trustee George Scott Constable
Frank Nichols Treasurer Robert Hosford Constable
Claud B. Whiting Clerk
One election district in village. Election held in Village Building on third Tuesday in March.
Dr Noram S.
Dr. Alton B. Daley Washington Street
Dr. Edmund C. Van Dusen Franklin Street
Orin Q. Flint
O. Gates Porter Franklin Street
Clara P. V. Flint
Myrtle Hotaling Warren Street
Harriet Rainey Warren Street
Sarah Smith Washington Street
Mary Van Valkenburgh Washington Street
Bank, organized July 5, 1916.
Gates Porter, Vice-President
P. A. Carlson, Cashier
Capital Stock $25,000. Surplus, $5,000. Deposits first year $144,000.
Jacob H. Decker
Richard Lenahan William W. Rider George H. Hallenbeck
John Nichols Frank Nichols William H. Miller
Jacob H. Decker
Richard Lenahan Vice-President
John Nichols Vice-President
Samuel Appleman Cashier
Louis Kortman Teller
Isabel Van Loan Clerk
The Bank’s firs home was located in the Tremaine Building on the South-east corner of Second and Washington streets. A new Bank building was erected in 1925 on the north-east corner of Second and Washington streets.
Athens High School
John Severance, Principal
Dr. Evarts Memorial Library, erected 1907. Presented to the village of Athens by Daniel R. and Elizabeth Evarts.
Librarian, Jennie H. Van Woert.
Number of volumes, 5,535. Circulation 1926, 17,432 volumes.
No. 129, Knights of Pythias
Athens Lodge, No. 129, Knights of Pythias
Dec. 24, 1874.
Wm. E. Church
M. of A.
Edward Ashley V. C. William Dumary I. G.
Gordon W. Brady Prelate Richard M. Watson O. G.
George S. Seaman K. R. S. Albert Brown Trustee
Wm. J. Coffin M. of F. Henry True Trustee
Albert L. Whipple M. of E. George Clapper Trustee
Wm. E. Church
M. of A.
George Brady, Gordon W. Brady, Edward Ashley, Judson N. Cooper, Henry H. Van Loan, Richard M. Watson, Chas. F. M. Greene, Erastus Brady, Frank Edwards, Charles, W. Lyons, William Bogardus, Henry True, Geo. S. Seaman, Isaac H. Tice, Alvin G. Howland, Isaac Newton, Wm. C. Brady, Wm. E. Church, Rufus Watson, William Dumary, Wm. J. Coffin, Casper Brady, Albert L. Whipple.
Percy Brandow V. C. Benjamin Whiting M. F.
Norman Cooper Sr. K. R. & S.
Custer Lodge, No, 508, I. O. O. F.
Instituted March 7, 1889, and the following named officers installed by District Deputy Grand Master, F. S. Stahl and Staff from Hendrick Hudson Lodge of Catskill, N. Y.
Charles W. Roe
Grand Ezra Cooper
L. S. N. G.
John E. Palmatier Vice Grand Dr. A. H. Getty Conductor
George E. Bates Secretary Edmund Dickman Warden
George E. Gordon Treasurer M. Boyle Inside Guard
Harvey Kennedy R. S. N. G. Gustave Tertring Outside Guard
Ira Cooper L. S. N. G. W. A. Brady R. S. S.
Geo. E. Palmatier R. S. V. G. Louis Minerly L. S. S.
installation ceremonies, Past Grand George E. Mitchell of Hendrick Hudson Lodge
was called to the N. G. chair, and instructed eight candidates in the Degree.
Lawrence Palmatier Noble Grand Elmer Benn Financial
Harmon Borfitz Vice Grand William C. Brooks Treasurer
Chas. W. Hitchcock Secretary
Frances E. Willard Rebekah Lodge, No. 343, I. O. O. F.
Instituted May, 1905
Ida E. Mackey
Susie Peloubet Vice Grand Annie Fyfe Treasurer
Ida E. Mackey
Elective Officers 1926
Angeline Requa Noble Grand
Leah Clawson Vice Grand Fannie Boughton Treasurer
Florence Brown Recording Secretary
Teator-Guilfuss-Miller Post, No. 187, American Legion
Organized in 1919
Floyd Mackey Vice Commander John Ford Jr. Treasurer
Joseph Michael Vice Commander
W. Hallenbeck Vice Commander Leslie Delamater Secretary
C. Van Loan Vice Commander Floyd A. Mackey Treasurer
Soldiers and Sailors
(Died Sept. 17, 1926)
George W. Garrison (Died Jan. 28, 1926 George Spoor
Spanish War Veterans
From State Highway east to the Brick Row, Village of
Athens, by petition of tax-payers and resolution of Board of Trustees and
purchased from the American Briklath Company, price $500.00. Deed—Dated March
24, 1925. American Briklath Company.
Town of Cairo
Census 1920, population 1,487
Census 1925, population 1,816
Supervisor Frank Dorpfeld Assessor
James P. Post Town Clerk Barney Chichester Overseer Poor
N. M. Howard Justice Peace Frank Every Overseer Poor
F. C. Burnham Justice Peace Lysander Lennon School Director
Henry Chadderdon Justice Peace Wm. K. Hobart School Director
Ira D. Vail Justice Peace Peter Hood Constable
Guy E. Meddaugh Collector Benjamin Bennett Constable
Ross Ruland Highway Supt. E. W. Mangam Constable
Vernon Titus Assessor Elmer Sherman Constable
H. H. Bogardus Assessor Richard Baker Constable
No. 1, Schermerhorn’s Hall
No. 2 Masonic Hall
Voting machines first used in 1919.
Cairo, Third Class
L. P. Miller, Postmaster
Acra, Fourth Class H. Chadderdon, Postmaster
Purling, Fourth Class R. Palmatier, Postmaster
Round Top, Third Class J. M. Fiero Jr., Postmaster
South Cairo, Fourth Class J. Fiero, Postmaster
Cairo to Prattsville, Windham Road
O. E. Kelsey Potter Hollow to Cairo, Freehold Road
Elmer E. West Cairo to Catskill, Susquehanna Turnpike
Charles Vincent Cairo to Cornwallville, Durham Road
Vernon Arnold Cairo to Round Top, Purling-Round Top Road
Cairo High School, Charles D. Coutant, Principal
Ruth Isadore Baldwin
Elizabeth Canniff Anita F. Sutter Edsall J. Meddaugh
Dorothy S. Story
Ray Eugene Person, Physician
Ott Pfordte, Mining Engineer
Miles Chadderdon, Attorney
First National Bank of Cairo
Organized October 16, 1924
Ira T. Tolley
Norman N. Howard William H. Freese
Elliott A. Jones John Cryer Barney W. Freleigh
Herbert Bogardus Roscoe C. Lacy S. E. Cozine Jr.
Harvey S. Olmsted Lysander Lennon Charles H. Phelps
Harry C. Emens
Capital stock, $25,000; Surplus $5,000; Resources, $264,209.18.
Calvary Episcopal Church
Established August, 13, 1832
Eli Brooks and George Wickes, Wardens
Ira T. Day
Henry E. Hotchkiss
Amasa Mattoon Hiram Hine Harlow Hine
William C. Howell John Lennon
In 1924 the Rev. Culver B. Alford was appointed as rector, remaining until June 1, 1926, and resigning to become chaplain of the Actor Guild, in the Church of the Transfiguration, better known as the “Little Church Around the Corner,” located on 29th Street, New York City.
Present pastor, Rev. Harl E. Hood
Was first organized at Acra but moved to Cairo and established there May 1, 1899. The first business meeting was held in the “Meeting House” August 27, 1808. The early records and papers of the church were burned in the house of Daniel Sayre, Jan. 28, 1808. At this first meeting Abner Benedict was moderator and Daniel Sayre clerk. David Reed and Daniel Sayre were among the first deacons.
Rev. Andrew Imrie
Methodist Episcopal Church
The Methodist Society began in 1815 in the house of Mrs. Sally Stevens. The first “Meeting House” was built on land donated by Benjamin Hine, the building still standing on Bross street. The first regularly appointed minister was Rev. J. Ham in 1851.
Present church property built in 1866.
Rev. M. S. Ryan,
Sandy Plains Methodist Episcopal Church
This society was organized very early in the settlement
of the town. One of the first places where services were held was at the house
of Henry Weeks (or Wickes) on Indian Ridge, the circuit rider coming around
every four weeks. John Pine was the
second class leader. The first church was built in 1837.
Charles Grose, pastor
Wm. G. Wolcott
David Dunham Orlando Hopson Frederick Salisbury
S. W. R. Showers Platt Pine
Hawkshurst, pastor 1866-68
The second and present church stands near the north end
of South Cairo bridge, and is now a part of the Cairo charge.
The present church was built in 1905.
Round Top Methodist Church
This church was founded in 1838, by the following trustees: Peter Fiero, Samuel Jones, Harvey Stoddard, John Remsen (owner of the grove) and others
Present pastor, Rev. Samuel A. McCormick
Sacred Heart Roman Catholic Church
Francis a Kelly
Organized in 1924
Richard A. Austin,
William Freese, Vice-President Norman M. Howard, Treasurer
Barney Freliegh, President Elliott Jones, Secretary
St. John’s Lodge, No. 196, F. & A. M.
Organized in 1801 or 1802. The officers were John C.
Burhans, W.M.; Amos Cornwell, S. W. ; Rufus Byington, J. W.; Forfeited its
charter during the Morgan excitement.
Kedemah Lodge, No. 693, F. & A. M.
Organized January 30, 1869. Its first officers:
Elias L. Dutcher W.
J. Seymour Miller, S.D.
Egbet Yumans, S. W. Benjamin H. Waldron, J. D.
Edward Adams, J. W. Levi K. Byington, Tyler
Luke Roe, Secretary Rev. Edward Pidsley, Chaplain
Seymour Adams, Treasurer Zanoni Beckwith, M. of C.
Thomas L. Wood, M. of C.
Other Charter Members:
George W. Mead
Reuben W. Green Francis G. Walters Solomon Christian
Edwin E. Darby Dennis M. Stewart John A. Mower
J. S. Miller Alvin B. Felt Robert Bridgen
Martin Smith A. L. Walters Lucius K. Byington
A. Timmerman D. S. Eckler Edward M. Lennon
John B. Earl,
Lodge, No. 604
Charters member: Mr. and Mrs. Ross J. Ruland, Mr. and
Mrs. Garrett Becker, Mr. and Mrs. Frank Hotchkiss, Mr. and Mrs. Frank Vaughn,
Mr. and Mrs. C. P. Row, Mr. and Mrs. F. Bonesteel.
Fraternity Lodge, I. O. O. F.
This lodge was instituted at Leeds, Jan. 22, 1875; moved
to Cairo April 1, 1897, and housed was destroyed by fire Nov. 17, 1913.
George H. Warner, Noble
J. Martin Vedder, Vice-President
Charles C Teich, Secretary H. Fiero Vedder, Treasurer
I. O. O. F. Hall was deeded to the Odd Fellows by William
H. Ford May 28, 1918, and possession was given at once. Mr. Ford died in
Oklahoma Feb. 7, 1920, and was buried in Cairo Cemetery by Fraternity Lodge,
Feb. 14, 1920.
Lodge, No. 289, Knights of Pythias.
Established July 30, 1890, Pythian Period 27. First
meeting held in Walters Hotel. Moved to lodge rooms in Masonic Hall about 1913.
Dr. N. H. Griffin,
Charles Person, Prelate
George H. Lyons, C. C. Joshua Travis, Keeper of R. & S.
Francis G. Walters, M. of E. Selden H. Hine, M. of A.
W. Burr Hall, Inner Guard Johnson Smith, M. of A.
John C. Person, V. C. Platt R Weeks, Outer Guard
Other Charter Members:
J. H. Palen
J. W. Mulberry
E. E. Guthrie John Hahn John E. Greene
H. F. Williams J. C. Palmer J. H. Lent
Hiram P. Lacy G. B. Holcomb H. R. Wells
Richard Cartan H. S. Duncan C. H. Riesdorph
W. S. Stanley J. C. Lennon J. L. Jacobs
J. H. Cammer George M. Weed F. H. Ford
James H. Sheridan
Mohican Post, No. 983, American Legion
January 16, 1925.
Louis P. Miller,
Joseph Francel, Adjutant
Percy Mower, Vice Commander Herbert Knapp, Finance Officer
James Bonesteel Commander
Cairo Hose Company
William H. Freese, President
Louis A. Miller, Treasurer
Barney Freleigh, Vice President Moses Deyo, Foreman
S. Cozine, Second Vice President Nathan Fiero, First Asst. Foreman
Howard P. Crum, Secretary W. Walters, Second Asst. Foreman
Wm. H. Freese
Louis A. Miller
James A. Bonesteel Augustus Hof Barney W. Freleigh
Sidney Timmerman Samuel A. Cozine Jr.
Other Charter Members:
George Arnold Courtney Weeks James P. Post
Elliott Mangam Louis Egnor Julius Schad
George Holdridge Andrew Freese Seymour Haines
John Duncan Jr. William Simpkins Lucius Lennon
S. E. Elliott Howard P. Crum Oscar Horton
Frederick Barlow George Van Buren Walter P. Jones
Claude Story Harry Rasmussen John Turner
Joseph O’Connor, charter member, died 1924.
S. E. Cozine,
William Dyce, Secretary
John S. Betts Post, No. 348, G. A. R.
Meetings were held in the Lodge Rooms on the top floor of
Walters Hotel in the early establishment of the Post.
Jonathan B. Webster,
W. H. Rice, Vice Commander
William Howard, Vice Commander Isaac Howard, Delegate
Albert Weaver, Alternate
James Akeley—Born Sept. 3, 1846, member of 4th
Regiment, Heavy Artillery, N. Y. S. Vol. Enlisted
Aaron Betts—Entered service April 19, 1861, as Fife
Major in 20th Regiment N. Y. S. Militia.
Discharged Aug. 2, 1865; Re-enlisted as private in Co. E 91st
N. Y. Vol. Inft.
William Brandow—Born Dec. 20, 1840, enlisted in 15th
N. Y. Engineers, N. Y. Volunteer Regiment.
Isaac S. Howard—Born Feb. 13, 1839; died Dec. 31, 1923.
Enlisted Aug. 19, 1862; discharged June 29, 1865. Promoted Nov. 1, 1864; wounded
March 25, 1865. Enlisted in 20th Regiment N. Y. S. Vol., recruited in
Ulster and Greene Co.
Enoch Walters—Born Feb. 24, 1846. A member of the 100th N. Y. S. Vol. Inft. Enlisted at Kingston Oct. 3, 1864; discharged Aug. 28, 1865, at Richmond, Va. (Capt. Sam. Ely’s Co.)
At the breaking out of the Rebellion, Alanson Walters
with his four sons resided in Greene County. All five enlisted and the father
was shot and killed in the battle of Winchester.
One son died in Andersonville prison (Nelson), another was killed in the
battle of the Wilderness, a third lost his leg above the knee at Gettysburg, and
the fourth, Enoch, still living (1926) came out of the conflict uninjured. Moses
who lost his leg was keeper of the Four-Mile Point Lighthouse, in the Hudson
Prominent in the life of the John S. Beets Post, No. 348, G. A. R., was their commander, Jonathan Brown Webster, familiarly known to the Cairoites as Captain Webster. He was the descendant of a long line of military ancestors. His maternal grandfather, Jonathan Brown, after whom he was named, was a major in the war of 1812, and his great-grandfather was a Revolutionary soldier.
The paternal grandfather, a Connecticut man, was a Revolutionary soldier whose grandfather served on the three lists of the Colony in the Pequadsh war. On an old English coat of arms in the family, a five-pointed star on its shield shows military service of an oldest son, granted by the King, by whom he was knighted at Bosworth Field.
During the Civil War he was appointed captain in the 20th Regiment, Co., A, N. Y. S. M., April 31, 1861. The regiment was mustered into service at Kingston, N. Y.; the place of general rendezvous. He had been captain in the 28th Regiment of the 12th Brigade, 3d Division of N. Y. S. M., which appointment took place November 11, 1852, and he resigned to take command of the 20th Regiment N. Y. S. M., Co. A.
He was born in New York city in 1824, the son of Samuel Webster, born at Freehold, N. Y., where his father, Samuel Sr., a Revolutionary soldier, located from Connecticut after the war. His mother, Eliza Brown, daughter of Jonathan Brown of Morris county, N. J., a major in the War of 1812. Captain Webster was recommended by Colonel George H. Sharpe for the positions of Colonel or Lieutenant-Colonel in place of Colonel Pratt, who expected to resign, but later changed his mind. The recommendation is dated August 25, 1862. Mrs. S. A. Mangam of Cairo and New York city is his niece.
Town of Catskill
Census 1920, Population 7,670
Census 1925, Population 8,563
Clarence F. Travis Supervisor
Geo. W. Swartout Town Clerk Frank Durwin Overseer Poor
Mrs. Eva Swartwout Deputy Stewart Parks Auditor
Melvin Waggoner Justice Peace John V. Bogart Auditor
Paul R. Morrison Justice Peace F. C. Kniffen Auditor
W. J. Saxe Justice Peace Patrick Ryan Constable
Louis F. Teich Justice Peace John Hines Constable
Walter Dederick Collector Bernard Cummings Constable
Eugene L. Wolfe Highway Supt. Van Dyke Smith Constable
Oliver Palmer Assessor John Fitzsimmons Constable
C. J. Hammer Assessor W. S. C. Wiley School Director
George Badeau Assessor John V. Bogart School Director
Catskill Post Office (Second Class)
Wm. B. Donahue, Postmaster
R. F. D. Route No. 1 Elmer E. Palmer, Carrier
R. F. D. Route No. 2 Raymond E. Boomhower, Carrier
Route No. 1 goes up Spring street to Hamburg, crosses to
Lime Street, circles Green Lake and follows Spooky Hollow road to four corners,
from there goes through Leeds to Cairo Junction, returning on Five-Mile Woods
road to stone school house, then to Cauterskill bridge and Catskill.
Route No. 2 goes up Spring street, delivers mail on part of Allen street (not in corporation), crosses the concrete bridge to Cauterskill and Kiskatom, going south through High Falls, and back to Catskill.
Between Catskill and Palenville mail is distributed by Irving Saxe.
Between Catskill and Cairo by Vernon Vaughn.
Palenville Post Office, Third Class C. J. Hinman, Postmaster
Leeds Post Office, Third Class Harry C. Teich, Postmaster
This office has a Star Route, Leeds-Gayhead; Oscar
Catskill Hardware & Lumber Co.
Catskill Supply Co. Inc. 1910, consolidated Jan. 1, 1926, into Catskill Hardware & Lumber Company, to furnish “everything used in construction of buildings from foundation to final cost of paint and varnish.”
Welsh & Grey
Welsh & Grey Lumber Corp.
To supply contractors and builders with lumber, masons’ supplies etc. Office located on Water street, Catskill.
New Era Apple Products Co. Inc.
Incorporated April 30, 1926. Principal business office, Leeds N. Y.
Adolph L. Hausold, Hoboken
Adolph Schaefer, Leeds
Mayone Brick Co.
1916 at Glasco.
Took possession July 1, 1925, of Freeman property, West
Bridge street (Powder Spring Farm), formerly owned by Frederick Cooke. This
company operates yards at Athens and Glasco.
Catskill Creamery Co. Inc.
Edison Post, President
Thomas J. Riley, Vice
Mamie D. Post, Secretary and Treasurer
Incorporated April 24, 1925, for the purpose of buying tested milk, which after being pasteurized is shipped to New York markets (also home consumption).
Edison Post Apple Products Corporation.
Incorporated Sept. 29, 1924, for the manufacture of sweet cider and vinegar, and shipping of apples to New York city markets.
Rip Van Winkle
Golf and Country Club
Rip Van Winkle Golf and Country Club
Mrs. J. R. MacAllister, Secretary
Catskill Country Club
M. Edw. Silberstein, President Percy W. Decker, Secretary
Heights Improvement Society
Jefferson Heights Improvement Society
Mrs. Fannie I. Clay, Secretary
Earl C. Sandt
Elias Reynolds Assessor
George W. Irwin Trustee Irving Linzey Assessor
Champlin Clark Trustee Harry Millspaugh Assessor
H. C. Smith Trustee Patrick Ryan Police Chief
G. E. D. Parker Trustee Paul Morrison Police Justice
W. O. Edwards Clerk John Zitzsmimons Constable
James McNee Treasurer John Hines Constable
Mary A. Deady Collector Van Dyke Smith Constable
J. L. Malcolm Corp. Counsel Bernard Cummings Constable
Henry Shear Street Superintendent
Board of Water Commissioners
Harvey S. Scutt
Mrs. Mark McGovern, Bookkeeper
M. Edw. Silberstein William Shufelt, Engineer
Frank H. Cooke Joseph Bennett, Fireman
J. C. Beare, Superintendent William Saxe, Fireman
Counselors at Law
Attorneys and Counselors at Law
Josiah C. Tallmadge John C. Welsh Charles G. Coffin
Orliff T. Heath Lee F. Betts G. Howard Jones
J. Lewis Patrie Lester R. Smith John D. Whittaker
Ambrose Jones Clarence Howland
Osborn, Bloodgood, Wilbur & Fray Decker & Malcolm
Lyle B. Honeyford
Charles E. Willard
William M. Rapp
George L. Branch Mahlon H. Atkinson James B. Rouse
George R. DeSilvia F. W. Goodrich S. A. Holcomb
Leon L. Parker* J. J. Bogan (County Veterinarian)
(*Dr. L. L. Parker, veterinarian, has been assigned the towns of Catskill, Cairo, Athens, Coxsackie and New Baltimore. Dr. G. Clark DeWitt of Oak Hill, for Durham and part of Greenville. Dr. Frank L. Haner of Jewett, all mountain towns excepting Halcott and a portion of Prattsville.)
Tanners National Bank
This bank was incorporated under the name of Tanners Bank (safety fund) March 14, 1831, and re-incorporated under present name in 1865. Its firs president was Orrin Day; cashier, Frederick Hill; vice-president, S. Sherwood Day.
Charles L. Beach John Breasted
Edgar B. Day George H. Penfield John T. Mann
S. Sherwood Day Rufus H. King Joshua Atwater jr.
Francis Sayre Joshua Fiero jr. Francis N. Wilson
Is capital stock in 1831 was $100,000.
William Palmatier, Cashier
Capital stock $150,000.00 Surplus $150.000.00 Undivided profits $85,434.45
In November, 1925, County Treasurer Wendell S. Sherman, who had been assistant cashier since 1912 and associated with the bank for nearly twenty-six years, was promoted to vice-president.
Catskill Savings Bank
This bank was incorporated under its present name April 1, 1868l. Its first president was John Breasted; Edgar Russell, secretary. It began business in the main room of the Tanners Bank, and there remained until January, 1909, when it moved to its own building.
Wm. W. Palmatier,
A. C. Bloodgood, Vice President
Addison P. Jones, Second Vice President and Secretary
C. Edsall Fiester, Assistant Secretary
Assets July 1, 1927, $6,484,804.29
Catskill Savings and Loan Association.
It has been stated that William S. Torrey and Charles A. Wardle fathered the Association, and its first officers were
Thomas E. Ferrier, President
W. E. Torrey, Secretary
P. Gardner Coffin, Treasurer W. W. Bennett, Attorney
John L. Kennedy was first to secure a loan.
Josiah C. Tallmadge, President
Thomas E. Jones, Secretary
Assets, $515,547.79 Loans $103,773.75
Christ’s Presbyterian Church .
Incorporated 1803. Church built 1808.
Rev. Andrew Hansen,
Rev. C. G. Hazard, Pastor Emeritus
First Reformed (Dutch) Church.
First Church built 1828, present church 1853
Pastor, Rev. Jacob Van Ess.
St. Luke’s Protestant Episcopal Church.
Rev. Walter E. Howe (1926)
St. Luke’s parish was founded before 1800; First church dedicated 1809; Corner stone of present church, 1883. Incorporated on St. Bartholomew’s Day, August 24, 1801.
Methodist Episcopal Church.
Pastor, Rev. Grant E. Robinson.
First church built 1824, present church 1864.
First Baptist Church.
Pastor, Rev. G. W. Rockwell
Church organized 1803. Present church built 1873.
St. Patrick’s Roman Catholic Church.
Established 1853. Present church built 1885.
Rev. John L. Smith, Rector. Rev. William Martin, Assistant
Second Baptist Church.
Pastor, Rev. Trussie Johnson.
The corner stone was laid July 26, 1925; its cost $9,000. Rev. George W. Rockwell of the First Baptist Church preached the dedicatory sermon from these words, “Thou art Peter, and upon this rock will I build my church and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it.” Dr. Hazard spoke in connection with the corner stone. A review of the church history was read by Mrs. Julia Gunnel, one of the founders. Mrs. Julia Cobb, organizer and president of the Silver Leaf Building Club, which inaugurated the drive for funds for a new church, also addressed the gathering.
Mt. Tabor A. M.
E. Zion Church.
Mt. Tabor A. M. E. Zion Church.
Pastor, Rev. J. H. Edwards Organized 1914.
Church of Science Church.
This church was started with a few members in 1917. The first meetings were held in the Sage Building, and from there in 1918 they moved to Clark street. In 1923 a church was built and dedicated on the corner of Broad and Livingston streets, and, free from debt, its service was held in September of that year. This church has two readers and six trustees.
Temple of Israel, Catskill.
Rabbi Benjamin Schwartz.
Leeds Reformed (Dutch) Church.
Organized as Katskill and Kocksackie 1732.
Present church built 1818. Rev. George D. Wood, Pastor.
Episcopal Church, Leeds.
Methodist Episcopal Church, Leeds.
Church built 1860. Rev. G.O. Wilsey, pastor
Roman Catholic Church, Leeds.
St. Bridget’s Roman Catholic Church, Leeds.
Established and church built in 1878.
Episcopal Church, Palenville.
Methodist Episcopal Church, Palenville.
Rev. Leslie G.
Gloria Dei Episcopal Church, Palenville.
Rev. Harl E.
Hood, in charge.
Roman Catholic Church, Cementon.
Catskill High School.
1927 High School Graduates
Ruth MacClain (H)
Beatrice Bartoo (H) Katharine Eckler Mildred Morehouse
Edith Bates (H) Francis Fowks George Parker
Mabel Beare William Freese Donald Rightmyer
David Chassy (H) Doris Heath George Rosengren
Harriet Cole Georgiana Heath (H) Irving Seeley
Orlando Craft George Holdridge Marian Silberstein
Carlton Coutant Mamie Kiebart Lena Smith
Naomi Decker Hertha Latimer Harry Townsend
Mary Vicevich Virginia Winans (H)
Mrs. Thomas C. Perry, instructor in the second grade, and
wife of Superintendent Perry, died at her home in Catskill, Marcy 17, 1926. She
was devoted to her work and greatly loved as a teacher.
Miss Helen Finnigan, instructor in the third grade, died at the Albany Hospital Jan. 30, 1926. She was successful teacher.
St. Patrick’s Academy
Marie Van Loan
Hebrew School, Catskill
Rabbi Schwartz, Instructor.
Town of Catskill
There are fifteen school districts having school buildings in the town. No. 1 (Catskill) is a Union Free School. Nov. 5 contracts with No. 1, and No. 14 contracts with Nos. 1 and 10.
Palenville (Rowena Memorial)
Alice E. Jones,
Arthur C. Lewis, Principal
John W. McMenamy, Principal
Catskill Public Library
Endowed by Andrew Carnegie, 1901.
George W. Irwin,
President Mrs. Frank
H. Osborn, Treasurer
Miss Emily Becker, Librarian, Mrs. Mabel Sommerville, Assistant.
Emory A. Chase Memorial Law Library
Percy W. Decker
Benjamin I. Tallmadge
J. Lewis Malcolm
Miss Allene Davis, Librarian
No. 468, F. & A. M.
Catskill Lodge, No. 468, F. & A. M.
Organized 1859. John H. Bagley, W. M.
The Masonic Order is closely connected with the early
history of Catskill village. It is first heard of during the years 1793-4 and
was then known as “Harmony Lodge.” Among those who instituted it were Thomas
Thomson, Jacob Bogardus, Hezekiah Van Orden, George Taylor, Rufus Stanley and W.
In 1818 Catskill Lodge, No. 302, which numbered among its members many of those formerly of Harmony Lodge, held meetings in Botsford’s tavern on the corner of Main and Thomson streets. Its charter was signed by Dewitt Clinton.
Charles J. Bagley,
Henry Layman, Secretary
Hendrick Hudson Lodge, NO. 189, I. O. O. F.
Instituted in Catskill Jan. 14, 1845. Its charter members:
William Bennett B. O. Wait Nathan Mack
James Johnson Peter Baurhyte William Adams
George Bell Peter Hamblin James H. Van Orden
A. D. O. Brower
The first death was that of John Lusk, in March 1848.
L. Fred Rockerfeller,
Leroy Hover, Secretary
Athabasca Tribe, No. 251, I. O. R. M.
Organized thirty-three years ago.
On Past Sachem’s night, 1926, four charter members were
present: R. J. Stahl, P. D.
Hitchcock, B. K. Van Valkenburgh and Charles Reinhart.
John Baker, Sachem
Scott, Keeper of Records
Catskill Lodge, B. P. O. E.
John C. Welsh,
Wm. C. O’Brien, Secretary
Society of Sts. Cosmo and Damien.
Joseph DiPerna, Secretary
Bayard Taylor Unit, S. S. A.
Organized by Edwin Schaefer July, 1919.
Robert Henke jr., Magistrate
Harold D. Bush, Secretary
Malaeska Lodge, Knights of Pythias
Instituted April 16, 1873. Charter Members:
J. F. Sylvester
A. D. Wilbur
F. P. Joesbury
William Joesbury J. P. Baird I. W. Van Gorden
E. K. Wilcox William B. Gay I. A. Penfield
B. F. Conklin Wheeler Howard Warren E. Egnor
George R. Olney J. R. Burgett David Mackey
Egbert Beardsley Gottlieb Fromer C. A. Weed
James B. Mitchell
Snyder, Keeper of Records and Seal
Knights of Columbus.
Organized Mary 30, 1901.
First Grand Knight, Thomas J. McLaughlin
P. D. Hitchcock,
James E. Wicks, Recorder
Wilfred Ford, Financial Secretary
Rip Van Winkle Club.
This club celebrated its fortieth birthday in 1925.
George A. Deane,
Lewis A. Freese, Secretary
Catskill Chamber of Commerce.
Herman C. Cowen,
Willis P. Goldin, Secretary
In April, 1925, the Health Association which had existed
for some time was merged in the Parent-Teacher Association with Mrs. Fred Fiero
Miss Alice Bobcock,
Mrs. John L. Fray, Secretary
L. L. Parker, President
D. Harold Bush,
Twilight Baseball League
Edwin J. Thomas, President
John J. Fitzsimmons, Secretary
Henry Place, Treasurer
Catskill Fire Department.
The village fire department had its origin April 1, 1797,
when an Act was passed “for the better extinguishing of fires in the village
of Catskill, County of Albany,” Trustees were empowered to appoint firemen,
not more than fourteen to each engine, giving certain exemptions for public
service, and in Section 4 it was further enacted in brief as follows: Trustees,
justices and constables were immediately to repair the scene of the fire with
staves and other badges of authority as should be ordained by a majority of the
trustees to be worn. They should assist in putting our fires and prevent goods
from being stolen. (Catskill Packet).
F. N. Wilson Hook & Ladder Co., No. 5.
seventy-second annual dinner, 1926.
Celebrated seventy-second annual dinner, 1926.
Howard Rightmyer, Secretary
A. M. Osborn Hose Co., No. 2.
Reorganized and adopted its present name June 7, 1886.
John J. Fitzsimmons,
John F. Cummings, Secretary
Wiley Hose Co., No. 1.
Henry F. Place,
Roy H. Freer, Secretary
Citizens Hose Co., No. 5.
Edward M. Henderson,
Gordon F. Wolfe, Secretary
Leeds Hose Company
The Leeds Hose Company incorporated April 3, 1925, owes
its beginning in 1923 to J. R. Person, who interested others in the project and
was the means of raising the firs money ($83) for the purpose of a fire truck.
This was purchased Oct. 26, 1923, and the company turned out to their
first fired at Mrs. E. R. Potter’s tenant-house Dec. 2, 1923. A fire alarm was
set up Dec. 30. 1924.
On Nov. 12, 1924, a lot was purchased of Marietta Harris, on Main street, for a hose house, and the plans of Otto Daucher accepted March 5, 1925. The building was completed during the year. Two additional chemical tanks were added to the equipment in 1926.
James, R. Person, President
Arthur F. Kamm, Foreman
Lewis Wolfe, Secretary Lawrence Wolfe, Assistant
Charles Bunce, Treasurer James O’Connell, Second Assistant
Board of Directors.
J. Fred Elting Harry C. Teich
W. L. Van Vechten
Lewis Wolfe, Secretary
Howitzer Co., 10th Regiment, N. Y. N. G.
The deed for the land upon which the Armory was built was dated Sept. 1, 1888, and was given by William J. Hughes, Geo. W. Holdridge and Hannah Holdridge, who had secured the property. The Company was then known as the Sixteenth Separate Company and the officers at the time the Armory was built were: Arthur M. Murphy, Captain; Frank E. Van Gorden, First Lieutenant; Chas. E. Nichols, Second Lieutenant.
The Armory was built by Contractor Geo. W. Hildridge for $18,673, and Mr. Holdridge was awarded a bonus of $1,000 for excellent work, for which he had been strongly commended by the architect, I. G. Perry.
Catskill Post 110, American Legion.
Nicholas Leone jr., Adjutant
Sullivan-Teator Post, Veterans of Foreign Wars.
Henry V. D. Smith, Commander
William Scott, Adjutant
John W. Watson Post, No. 514, G. A. R.
Watson Post was named after one of the sons of Catskill,
Lieut. John W. Watson, youngest son of Judge Malbone Watson of that village.
Lieut. Watson was killed in the battle of Nashville. He enlisted in the 5th
Iowa Cavalry as a private in 1861, winning rapid promotion. Attached to the army
of General Sherman, he was in many perilous engagements of showed great bravery.
A more extended account of his life and service can be found at the G. A. R.
rooms in the Court House.
Geo. W. Holdridge*
Edward Martin (deceased)* J. B. Rouse, M. D.
W. W. Hull William Brandow
John Young Charles Trowbridge
Peter Overbagh Edward Carpenter (deceased)
Charles Wilday William Swartz
George Coons Aaron Betts
George W. Winans (deceased) Erick Walters
William Caniff, Commander (deceased) * Charter Members.
Commander Caniff received the appointment of Aide-de-camp
on the staff on Commander D. J. McMillian, Dept of New York State G. A. R.
William Hull of Catskill, who recently passed his eighty-sixth birthday (June 7th) was a member of Company D, 120th N. Y. S. Vol., under Captain Lansing Hollister of Coxsackie, which took part in the battle of Gettysburg July 2, 1986. He enlisted at Ashland, Greene Co., August 22, 1862, and a little less than a year later, in the late afternoon of July 2d, with General Sickles’s corps advanced three-quarters of a mile beyond the main Union lines where the troops bore the brunt of the first charge.
“This,” says Mr. Hull, “was owing to the fact that Sickles disobeyed instructions and left a strong position to lead his men to the front where they were without protection.” When the order to fire came Hull shot with the rest but without result, as he saw nothing to shoot at, the company being drawn up at such and angle as to put the enemy on their left. A bullet went through his leg just above the knee, and it was with great difficulty he crawled to the rear, his only fear that of being made a prisoner. His captain was instantly killed, the second lieutenant lost his arm, and Stephen Hann of Prattsville was also killed and many others wounded. Most of Company D were from Greene county.
Census 1920, Population 2,994
Census 1925, Population 3,477
Edward A. Webb Supervisor George M. Lamb Assessor
F. P. Donovan Town Clerk Harvey A. Truesdell Assessor
E. C. Hallenbeck Justice Peace Albert W. Pierce Assessor
Wm. T. Haswell Justice Peace E. S. Anthony School Director
Wm. R. Palmer Justice Peace A. C. Fairchild School Director
Francis Worden Justice Peace John E. Cure Constable
Isaac T. Boyce Collector John Q. Adams Constable
A. C. King Highway Supt. Chas. H. Hill Constable
A. C. Fairchild
President Wm. T. Haswell
Wm. H. Salisbury Treasurer Arthur Spoor Trustee
Wm. E. Brady Clerk Guerney J. Wilson Trustee
Coxsackie National Bank.
Capital stock, $100,000
Surplus and undivided profits $121,347. 44
Philip A. Goodwin,
Henry A. Jordan, Cashier
O. L. Whiteman, Vice-President W. H. Salisbury, Assistant Cashier
L. Worden, Postmaster
West Coxsackie George Hubbard, Postmaster
Climax August F. Lubbin, Postmaster
Urlton Harold G. Haines, Postmaster
Physicians Attorneys Druggists
A. W. Van Slyke
Curtis & Warren
Jordan & Marsh
I. E. Van Hoesen
J. C. McClure
John L. Loutfian Dr. W. I. Sax Frank A. Yaguda
Rev. M. G. Nies, Pastor
Second Reformed Church
Christ’s Episcopal Church.
Rev. Jerrold C. Potts, Pastor
Methodist Episcopal Church
Rev. Emmett E.
Church built in 1917
St. Mary’s Roman Catholic Church
Church built in 1900
Bethel A. M. E. Church
Church in 1856.
Coxsackie High School
Class of 1927
Neal Brandow Mark Scully
Alice Truesdell Naomi Barlow Irving Van Dyck Sax
Louis Coment Eugene Bronk Vera Van Denburgh
Heermance Memorial Library
Miss Margaret V. S. Wallace, Librarian.
Mrs. Leroy Spoor
and Mrs. William Doherty, Assistants
Dr. A. W. Van Slyke
O. L. Whitman
Henry A. Jordan O. J. Greene
Ark Lodge, F. & A. M.
George Cornwall, Master
Geo. W. Barber, Secretary
Coxsackie Lodge, I. O. O. F., No. 351
Grover Roberts, N. G.
W. H. Parslow, Secretary
Knights of Columbus.
Francis Dorlan, G. K.
Rod and Rifle Club
Geo. T. Morgan, President
Frank H. Wehrle, Secretary
Board of Trade.
George S. Marsh, President
D. Pen Dell, Secretary
E. C. Hall, Secretary
Village Improvement Society
Opened Rest Room
April 25, 1927
Florence Perkins, President
Mrs. H. L. Cooper, Rec. Secretary
Mrs. Marsh, Vice-President Miss M. Whitmore, Cor. Secretary
Mrs. G. I. Titus, Treasurer
Lyman Black, President
Chas. D. Pen Dell, Secretary
Veterans Fireman’s Association
Of thirty-eight charter members five are still living
(1927). E. C. Hallenbeck, Leland Smith, Matthew Moran, A. C. Thomas, Alonzo
Geo. H. Scott Hook & Ladder Co.
Chas. D. Pen Dell,
Wm. H. Parslow, Secretary
Coxsackie Hose Co.
Otto Mueller, Foreman
H. Hill, Secretary
D. H. Hamilton Steamer Co.
Leo Longthon, Foreman
William Latte, Secretary
Town of Durham
Census 1920, Population 1,211
Census 1925, Population 1,196
Wm. S. Borthwick
Ralph Ruland Assessor
Vernon Baldwin Town Clerk Romaine Spencer Assessor
P. A. Scott Justice Peace John E. Huyck Assessor
J. S. G. Baldwin Justice Peace Webster Morse Oversee Poor
H. E. Utter Justice Peace Wm. D. Hull School Director
E. L. Strong Justice Peace N. G. Knowles School Director
Harold Turk Collector Fred S. Anthony Constable
Judson Moss Highway Supt.
Dist. No. 1—Located at Presbyterian Hall, Durham village.
2—Located at Lawyer’s Hall, Durham
Durham Joseph Baldwin, Postmaster
Cornwallville Addison Z. Smith, Postmaster
East Durham Grace O. Meloy, Postmistress
East Windham H. Anable Butts, Postmaster
Oak Hill Ernest E. Ford, Postmaster
South Durham W. Gates Van Orden, Postmaster
Sunside Lillian Bush, Postmistress
Rural Mail Carrier Albert E. Smith.
Route begins at Cornwallville post office, then via Edmont and Hedges farms to East Durham; thence Carter Bridge to Wright Street, Dean’s Mills; thence to J. Albert Hollock’s Charles Jennings’s, J. W. Mulbery’s, Shady Glen, George Hull’s, Elisha Parks’s, Lewis Hill’s, Arthur Strong’s, Hervey Street, Hervey Street school house, the Boughton’s corner via Gideon Palmer’s, thence to Cornwallville.
Cornwallville Grain Threshers’ Association
Incorporated 1925, for purpose of threshing grain for farmers.
Latta, Secretary, Treasurer
10 and 14 contract. All are common
Duncan Sinclair, M. D.
M. Herbert Simmons, M. D.
Dr. G. Clark
Dewitt, Oak Hill, N.Y.
W. Mace Laraway,
Oak Hill, N. Y.
Civil War Veterans
Sherman, Cornwallville, N. Y.
Mrs. A. Z. Smith Secretary
Census 1920, Population 1,362
Census 1925, Population 1,394
Robert Van Houten Supervisor
Egbert J. Abrams Town Clerk Leroy Schofield Assessor
A. J. Cunningham Justice Peace Millard Felter Assessor
J. W. Hallock Justice Peace Jacob Cameron Overseer Poor
Elmer Story Justice Peace C. P. MaCabe School Director
Cornelius Bauman Justice Peace O. T. Losee School Director
Reuben Waldron Collector Clarence Boomhower Constable
Stanley Ingalls Highway Supt. Albertus Becker Constable
building formerly owned by David E. Powell, Greenville
Dist. No. 2—Parks Hotel, Freehold.
Dist. No. 3—Rooms of A. J. Cunningham, Greenville
Greenville Village (Third Class) Homer Hook, Postmaster
Freehold Village (Third Class) Olin D. Beers, Postmaster
Norton Hill Village (Fourth Class) P. R. Stevens, Postmaster
Greenville Center (Fourth Class) Mrs. Phelps, Postmistress
Gayhead (Fourth Class) Reuben Waldron, Postmaster
Surprise (Fourth Class) Robert Blenis, Postmaster
R. D. Route No. 1
Thurman Vaughn, Carrier
R. D. Route No. 2 Charles Newman, Carrier
Terminal of Routes Greenville
Charles P. McCabe, M. D. W. A. Wasson, M. D.
Gardner, Norton Hill, N. Y.
James M. Austin Lodge, 557, F. & A. M.
Its charter was obtained and its first meeting held in 1864.
John W. Hoffman,
Electus Ramsdell, S. W. David Turner, Treasurer
Humphrey Wilbur, J. W. A. N. Bentley
James Stevens, S. D. I. I. Van Allen
B. F. Hisert, J. D. Luman Ramsdell
Platt Coonley, Tyler J. E. Collins
W. P. Stevens,
Ralph M. Youmans, Secretary
Greenville Post, American Legion
Organized Sept. 18, 1919.
Lynn D. Wessels, Commander
W. P. Stevens, Vice Commander
Organized November 11, 1894
Spanish War Veterans
Christ’s Protestant Episcopal Church
Rev. Harl E. Hood, Rector
Organized April 4, 1825, at the house of Reuben Rundle.
built in 1852.
Rev. E. D. Van Dyck, Pastor
Organized by Beriah Hotchkins, 1790.
First sermon of Hotchkins was preached April 5, 1789,
Spees’ barn. Church erected 1872.
Methodist Episcopal Church.
Rev. A. P. Lakeberg, Pastor
Organized in 1825.
A church was
built in 1825 at West Greenville, removed to Greenville in 1856.
This church was burned and present one built in 1873.
Greenville High School
J. Kearney, Principal
Town of Halcott
Census 1920, Population 272
Census 1925, Population 268
Supervisor Sherman Ellis
Marshall Bouton Town Clerk Roswell Bouton Assessor
John Ballard Justice Peace Earl W. Jenkins Assessor
Arthur Gordon Justice Peace Hiram Avery Assessor
M. K. Morse Justice Peace Robert Van Valkenburgh School Director
Robert Van Valkenburgh Justice Peace Amos Avery Constable
John f. Van Valkenburgh Highway Supt. Sherman Ellis Constable Garfield Reynolds Constable
No. 1 Grange Hall, Halcott Center.
Halcott Center (Fourth Class)
F. Thorn Moseman, Postmaster
Methodist Episcopal Church
Rev. F. P.
Dedicated December 29, 1849
J. P. Van
Valkenburgh Travis Faulkner
Travis Faulkner Fred Bouton
J. L. Van Valkenburgh J. P. Van Valkenburgh
Mrs. L. Van Valkenburgh Myron Morse
Mrs. W. D. Griffin Lorenzo Van Valkenburgh
Mrs. J. C. Johnson J. C. Johnson
Mrs. Effie Kelly Mrs. Lemuel Kelly, Pres. L. A. S.
Mrs. B. A. Scudder Mrs. A. C. Johnson, Director
Sunday School Recreation
Halcott Center Creamery Company
Milk Plant, principal place of business, Andes, N. Y.
Walter Ostrander, Secretary-Treasurer
Greene Valley Grange, No. 882.
Organized Oct. 4, 1899
The Grange purchased the vacant Kaufman creamery and then
traded buildings with the Halcott Center Co-operative Creamery Company. This
trade was mutually advantageous. The former Co-operative
Creamery was remodeled for a Grange Hall and in addition to the uses of
the Grange has been used as a community hall.
K. Crosby, Steward
James M. Whitney, Overseer Wilbur Whitney, Assistant
Esther Jane Jenkins, Lecturer Maritta Peet, Assistant
Earl Jenkins, Treasurer Augusta Ballard, Pomona
Alexander Van Valkenburgh, Chaplain Lena Ballard, Ceres
Celestia H. Moore, Secretary Horace Peet, Gate Keeper
World War Veteran
Town of Hunter
Census 1920, Population 2,309
Census 1925, Population 2,925
J. Frank Lackey Supervisor
Geo. E. Sweet Assessor
Paul Fromer Town Clerk Harry R. Knight Assessor
Bert F. Baker Justice Peace Richard F. Haines Assessor
Owen Glennon Justice Peace Joseph Kissley Overseer Poor
George Griffin Justice Peace Frank White Overseer Poor
Joseph Farrell Justice Peace E. Delmar Smith School Director
Harry F. Thorpe Collector Helen T. Johnson School Director
J. E. Gillespie Highway Superintendent
Samuel D. Scudder
Mayor Andrew J. Hill Treasurer
R. Lee Rose Trustee Wm. G. Bynder Police Justice
Ralph Voss Trustee Frank North Street Supt.
Percy Wilson Clerk Fred Carn Collector
Edwin A. Ham Mayor
Max Iskin Treasurer
Frank Barkley Trustee Irving Boyarsky Collector
Fred Quick Trustee Claude Lake Police Justice
William Ryan Clerk Abraham Gordon Street Supt.
Hunter Chamber of Commerce
Isidore Reiss, President
George J. Strenk, Secretary
Tannersville Chamber of Commerce
J. Frank Lackey, President
Clara E. Lackey, Secretary
E. Delmar Smith, Treasurer
Mountains National Bank
Capital Stock $50,000, Surplus $10,000, Undivided Profits $11,650.50
M. Lackey Jr., President Sam Golding, Vice-President S. D. Scudder, Cashier
Tannersville Fire Department
E. Delmar Smith, Chief
David E. Showers, Assistant
Jacob Fromer Fire Company
M. Lackey Jr., President
Samuel Greene, Secretary
Ernest Haines, Foreman Fred Wilson , Assistant Foreman
& Ladder Company
Citizens Hook & Ladder Company
Andrew J. Hill, President
Louis Hyser Jr., Secretary
Gordon C. Campbell, Foreman Thurber Kerr, Assistant Foreman
Hunter Fire Department.
Albert N. Taylor, Chief
Hunter Hose Company
August Strenk, President
Arthur J. Baldwin, Secretary
Walter J. Decker, Foreman Geo. J. Strenk, Assistant Foreman
Tannersville Boy Scout Council
J. Frank Lackey, President
Geo. B. Prosser, Secretary
George Woodworth, Scout Master
American Red Cross, Onteora Branch.
Greene County Chapter, Tannersville, N. Y.
Mrs. George D. Barron, Secretary
Miss Madeline Regan, Registered Nurse in charge
Health Center, Tannersville Red Cross Emergency Hospital
Bunt-Brewer Post, American Legion
George Prosser, Adjutant
Leo Squires Post, American Legion
Leslie Diston, Adjutant
Church of the Immaculate Conception Haines Falls, N. Y.
St. Frances De Sales Church Elka Park, N. Y.
St. Mary’s Roman Catholic Church Hunter, N. Y.
Rev. William H. Sheridan, Pastor
Tannersville, N. Y.
Methodist Episcopal Church Tannersville, N. Y.
Rev. H. H. Black, Pastor
Methodist Episcopal Church Haines Falls, N. Y.
Methodist Episcopal Church Platte Clove, N. Y. Rev. L. C. Booth, Pastor
Methodist Episcopal Church Hunter, N. Y.
Rev. C. B. Livingston, Pastor
St. John’s Episcopal Church Tannersville, N. Y.
Rev. Alonzo Wood, Rector
All Souls Church Onteora Park, Tannersville, N. Y.
Rev. J. B. Warner, Pastor
Church of All Angels Twilight Park, Haines Falls, N. Y. Pulpit supplied
Union Chapel Twilight Park, Haines Falls, N. Y.
Rev. Wallace McMullon, Pastor
Kal Israel Anshi Hunter, N. Y.
Rabbi Hirsh Rapoport, Pastor
Congregation Anshi Tannersville, N. Y.
Rabbi M. Horowitz, Pastor
Onteora Lodge, No. 322, Knights of Pythias, Tannersville, N. Y.
Ernest Cole, Keeper Records
Onteora Temple.. No. 72, Pythian Sisters, Tannersville, N. Y.
Mabel Cole, M. E. C. Marian H. Showers, M. of R. and C.
Mt. Tabor Lodge, No. 807, F. & A. M., Hunter, N.Y.
Peterson, W. M.
Walter J. Decker, Secretary
Mt. Tabor Star Chapter, No. 284, O. E. S. Hunter, N. Y.
Walter G. Peterson, W. P.
Carries B. Lake, Secretary
Lockwood Lodge, No. 653, I. O. O. F. Hunter, N. Y.
George E. Sweet, Secretary
Tannersville, N. Y.
Gladys D. Pyer, Principal
Hunter, N. Y.
John S. Woods, Principal
Attorneys at Law
Dr. Horace G. Baldwin
Dr. Maurice Axelrad Dr.
Pharmacist and Druggists
Lackey & Lord Solomon Horowitz
Adolph Cohen Regina H. Lackey Charles Shuman
Rae Cohen Howard C. Matthews Hyman Angel
Dr. LeRoy G.
Harding Showers Morris S. Schapiro
Margaret F. Murray
Madeline Regan Olive Crum
Stanley D. Francis Tannersville
Frank G. Cosby
Horace G. Fromer Hunter Mary Bunt Elka Park
James H. Layman Haines Falls
Hunter Public Library
Hunter, N. Y.
Mrs. Herman Krom, Librarian
Haines Falls Public Library Haines Falls, N. Y.
Mrs. Charles B. Legg, Librarian
Town of Jewett
Census 1920, Population 883
Census 1925, Population 861
Frank H. Haner Supervisor A. D. Morse
Cyrus Carr Town Clerk Clayton Mead Overseer Poor
John Northrop Justice Peace Marvin Mulford Overseer Poor
Ralph Carr Justice Peace S. Clifford Hall School Director
Henry Distin Justice Peace J. Woodworth School Director
Benjamin Merwin Justice Peace Percy Cook Constable
John Merwin Collector Elmer Northrop Constable
Merritt DeLong Highway Supt. Wesley Gripman Constable
William H. Ward Assessor William Lawrence Constable
Frank C. Carr Assessor Arthur Barnum Constable
One election district.
Voting machine first used in 1919.
Jewett Heights (Fourth
William Rice, Postmaster
East Jewett (Fourth Class) Herbert Edson, Postmaster
From Hunter to Windham
Welcome Moore, Carrier
From Hunter to Lexington Samuel Loucks, Carrier
Jewett, N. Y.
Methodist Episcopal Church, East Jewett.
Rev. H. H.
Census 1920, Population 1,075
Census 1925, Population 899
Abram b. Roraback Supervisor
Robert S. Tuttle Town Clerk Everett A. Cross Assessor
Chris Riley Justice Peace Daniel C. Kirk Overseer Poor
E.E. Dunham Justice Peace Abram Truesdell Overseer Poor
Sidney L. Deyoe Justice Peace Edward Palmer School Director
Romain L. Kirk Justice Peace Edward Irwin Constable
Leslie Van Valkenburgh Collector W. S. Clawson Constable
W. E. Dunham Highway Supt. Alden Hyatt Constable
James Herdman Assessor R. Van Valkenburgh Constable
Dist. No. 1
Lexington House, Lexington Village
Dist. No. 2 Westkill House Pavilion Westkill
No voting machines used.
Lexington (Fourth Class) Eugene Bailey, Postmaster
Bushnellville (Fourth Class) Mary Kelly, Postmistress
Westkill (Fourth Class) Oliver L. Hare, Postmaster
Spruceton (Fourth Class) Bertha Riley, Postmistress
No R. F. D. Routes excepting one starting out of Prattsville, following the Prattsville and Lexington state rod to Mosquito Point, thence the Little Westkill section to Prattsville.
Star Route, Lexington to Hunter (8 miles) Samuel Loucks, driver
Star Route, Lexington to Shandaken (11 ½ miles) Alden Hyatt, driver
Star Route, Westkill to Spruceton (5 ½ miles) Ferris Herdman, drive.
Persons, Lexington, N. Y.
Lexington Creamery Co. Inc.
Incorporated for the purpose of manufacturing cream, cheese, etc., Office and principal place of business, 363 Cherry St., New York City.
L. B. Samuels,
Civil War Veterans
William Frayer, about eighty years of age, Lexington, N. Y.
The highway leading from the head of the Spruceton valley
and passing through t so-called Diamond Notch, leading to the Hunter town line
near Lanesville, was abandoned Nov. 26, 1924, by order of the Town Board of
Town of New
Census 1920, Population 1,536
Census 1925, Population 1,554
Levit C. Powell
Supervisor Herbert Travis Assessor
Lyles Z. Nelson Town Clerk A. L. Kniffen Assessor
Wyman Kniffen Justice Peace C. H. Burger Collector
M. W. Smith Justice Peace I. G. Tompkins Overseer Poor
A. L. Wheat Justice Peace Alfred Williams Constable
C. J. Lisk Justice Peace William Fink Constable
Charles Statts Highway Supt Charles H. Bronk School Director
Jurdenette Carr Assessor E. C. Vanderpool School Director
No. 1, Cornell
New Baltimore Village
No. 2, Town Hall Hannacroix No. 3 Hall at Medway
New Baltimore (Fourth Class) Platt S. Wheat, Postmaster
Hannacroix (Fourth Class) Clarence Albright, Postmaster
Rural Route No. 1, from Hannacroix Volney Titus, Carrier
To West Coxsackie Arthur Carr, Carrier
To Ravena E. C. Griffin, Carrier
Percy G. Waller Leland Winn
Laura A Carey, C. N.
Ella McCann, C. N.
Bertha Hotaling C. N.
Cornell Hook & Ladder Company
Levit C. Powell, Secretary
Social Friendship Lodge, No. 741, F. & A. M.
9, 1874, with 21 charter members.
Anthony H. Holmes Benjamin Hotaling
Dewitt A. Fuller
John Colvin Leonard Marshall Philo H. Backus
James H. Chase John A. Davis Stephen Mead
George W. Smith Jacob B. Holmes Edwin S. Colburn
A. V. S. Vanderpoel James B. Miller Horace Rennie
A. J. Vanderpoel Isaac Burns Geo. H. Johnson
Ira Wilson John H. Hotaling Stephen Springstall
The first officers were: Anthony H. Holmes, W. M.; John Colvin, S. W. ; James H. Chase, J. W.
John H. Hotaling is the only surviving charter member, and the late Byron Mansfield was secretary for twenty years.
Wyman C. Kniffen, W.
Arthur L. Kniffen, Secretary
A. O. Bliss Post, No. 305, G. A. R.
Organized Oct. 25, 1882. Its charter members:
John W. Wiggins, Commander Frank Green, O. R.
Robert Wilson, Vice President Elias Van Steenburg, O. D.
Henry W. Mead, Adjutant David Layton, O. G.
John Sullivan, Vice Adjutant Chas. C. Lowery, Chaplain
Joseph Smith Peter Van Hoesen
John F. Wright James L. Warner
James S. Frazier Norton Links
G. F. Hopper Sylvanus P. Eaton
Richard H. Burlingham, U. S. Navy, is only
Civil War veteran living.
C. V. Baldwin, W. M. Howard Forman, Secretary
Tuesday, Jan 25th, was opening night, when new home was dedicated.
Reformed (Dutch) Church
Elders (1834) Deacons (1834)
Tunis P. Van Slyke William Mansfield
Stephen Parsons Andrew Vanderpoel
Peter Matthews Fountain H. Slater
Dale S. Baldwin (Clerk)
Orlando Cary Dr. P. G. Waller
Paul O. Deitz Platt S. Wheat
Bronk Van Slyke Paul Van Slyke
Rev. Peter DeMeester, present pastor
Dr. Percy G. Waller
has served as treasurer for twenty-eight years.
Methodist Episcopal Church
New Baltimore was a charge on the Coeymans circuit, and a Mr. Hilton was the first known class leader. Its church was built during 1855-56, under Rev. J. D. Macomber; building committee was Alanson Scott, William M. Scribner, and William C. Hinman; its cost $1,400. The corner-stone of a second church was laid August 26, 1873; its cost $8,575.
Rev. N. J. Hess, present pastor.
Medway Christian Church
Organized in 1807, present church built in 1861
Rev. W. D.
First Baptist Church
This church was organized in February 1869, the church dedicated October 1870. Before the church was built services were held in the schoolhouse and afterward in the village hall. The cost of the church and site was $4,000. The first pastor, Rev. G. W. Slater.
Stockton, present pastor
Census 1920, Population 830
Census 1925, Population 817
Frank Rosecrans Supervisor
Warren D. Becker Town Clerk Roscoe Decker Overseer Poor
Lyman Alberti Justice Peace Mamie Peckham School Director
Cyril Thorington Justice Peace A. A. Disbrow School Director
William Traver Justice Peace Edmund W. Deyo Constable
Vernon Chatfield Justice Peace Floyd Decker Constable
Chas. W. Becker Collector Herbert D. Ives Constable
Jason Brandow Highway Supt Franklyn Marquit Constable
Willis G. White Assessor Charles W. Becker Constable
Charles Shoemaker Assessor
R. F. D. Route B. S. Disbrow, Carrier
Reformed (Dutch) Church
Established early in 1802 by Rev. Labaugh, who began preaching in houses and barns. He was followed by Rev. Cornelius D. Schermerhorn, under whom in 1804 a house of worship was erected.
Rev. J. D. Hopkins, present pastor.
Methodist Episcopal Church
Connected with Durham circuit 1823-34. The church was built about 1834, on land given by Colonel Pratt. First pastor, Rev. Thomas S. Barrett
Rev. Ralph S. Thorn, present pastor.
Protestant Episcopal Church
Services were held before 1843; Rev. Thomas S. Judd the first rector in charge. The church was built by Nelson Finch and consecrated Sept. 25, 1846, by the Right Rev. William Heathcote Delancey. No present pastor.
Oasis Loge, No.
119, F. & A. M.
Oasis Loge, No. 119, F. & A. M.
Organized in 1847 by Mr. Willard of Troy, N. Y., and the
following officers installed: C. K. Benham, W. M.; _____ Bouton, S. W.; _____
Scanlon, J. W. Previous to this
(1827) Aurora Lodge, F. & A. M., was instituted.
Ichabod T. Sutton, M. D., Prattsville, N. Y.
George H. Fifield O. C. Hays Chas. W. Bouton
& Cream Association
Prattsville Milk & Cream Association
E. W. Benson, President
Austin E. Hummel Secretary
Rod and Gun Club
Chas. W. Ives, President
Frank M. Layman, Secretary
Town of Windham
Census 1920, Population 1,246
Census 1925, Population 1,336
Demont L. Chase Supervisor
Henry Vining Assessor
Grant F. Morse Town Clerk B. S. Shermerhorn Overseer Poor
Geo. L Cook Justice Peace Sidney E. Payne Overseer Poor
Thomas Cryne Justice Peace E. A. Brainerd School Director
John Barlow Justice Peace G. W. Osborn Jr. School Director
J. F. Moseman Justice Peace Charles Garvey Constable
F. B. Thompson Collector Vance Fancher Constable
Frank Butts Highway Supt Howard Thompkins Constable
Roscoe W. Howard Highway Supt Daniel Deyo Constable
Julian Beers Assessor Harry Turk Constable
Hensonville (Third Class) Walter J. Pelham, Postmaster
Maplecrest (Fourth Class) S. A. Moseman, Postmaster
R. F. D. Routes
North Settlement; Old road, Brooksburgh. Starts and ends at Windham, Carrier, Donald F. Munson.
Star Route 7421; terminals, Windham and Hunter. Windham-Hunter road. Carrier, Welcome Moore.
Star Route 7422; terminals, Hensonville and Tannersville. Maplecrest-East Jewett road. Carrier, Clarence Tompkins.
Star Route 7415; terminals, Prattsville-Cairo on Mohican
Trail. Carrier Charles Alle.
H. H. Baker, Windham
Sidney L. Ford, Hensonville
Dr. W. E. Stevens, Dentist Benjamin I. Talmadge, Lawyer
Wallace M. Gill, Veterinarian
H. T. Avery, Druggist
First National Bank
Dr. S. L. Ford, President
G. Munson, Cashier
S. O. Robinson, Vice President Edward Miller, Assistant Cashier
F. A. Strong, Vice President
Seven common schools and one union free school (No. 3). No. 5 contracts with No. 3.
Windham High School
Class of 1927
Wesley Towner Frank Ryan
Harvey Brockett John Garraghan Margaret Munson
Edward Phelps William Davis Mabel Schermerhorn
Glenn Beers Elwood Hitchcock Nina Moore
Katharine Strong Arlie McGlashan Viva Jordan
Irene Clark Charles Holdridge
George Cook, Principal
Mountain Lodge, No. 529, F. & A. M.
This lodge originated in 1804 under the name of Revival
Lodge No. 117, which was instituted
in the meeting-house in Batavia, when there were present officers of the Grand
Lodge of the State of New York, among them Cadwalder Coldern. At this time
Samuel Gunn was designated Master; Thomas Benham, Senior Warden; George
Robertson, Junior Warden, IN 1807 this lodge organized under the title of
Harmony Mark Master Lodge, and in 1863 re-organized under the present title.
Geo. W. Osborn Jr., W. M.
Benjamin I. Talmadge, Secretary
Gem City Lodge, I. O. O. F.
Harry Lammond, N. G.
Arthur Sherman, Secretary
Windham Hose Company
Harold B. Moore, President
Richard G. Munson, Secretary
Hensonville Hose Company
Elbert O. Chase,
Walter J. Pelham, Secretary
Hensonville Cornet Band
George Radcliff, Jr., Secretary
John H. Hayes, Director
Benjamin I. Talmadge,
Fred M. Goslee, Secretary
Windham Public Library
Miss Margaret Osborn,
R. M. MacNaught, Secretary
Miss Hattie Coe, Librarian
First Presbyterian Church
Organized before 1800. First church raised Dec. 31, 1800;
enclosed the following year and completed in 1814. First pastor, Rev. Henry B.
In 1831 the church was divided, the eastern division building a church 2 ½ miles west east of the old one (1831), and the Center Presbyterian formed on the 29th of April, 1834, under the direction of Rev. David Porter, D. S. Present church dedicated Jan. 1, 1835. First pastor, Rev. Leonard B. Van Dyke, 1835-61.
Rev. John J.
McClelland, present pastor.
Methodist Episcopal Church.
Part of Albany circuit in 1805; of Durham circuit in
1823. Seth Crowell and Henry Stead were in charge 1805.
Rev. G. F. Wells, present pastor
Hensonville M. E. Church
Present church built in 1874; dedicated Feb. 17, 1875.
Built through the efforts of Rev. Seney Martin. Pastor in charge, Rev. H. F.
Odell. The bell was purchased by the Ladies’ Aide Society.
Rev. Harry Lammond, present pastor.
Free Methodist Church of Big Hollow
Organized June 24, 1871. Present church built in 1875
Rev. W. G.
Peterson, present pastor
Big Hollow (Maplecrest) Presbyterian Church.
Organized Dec. 10, 1822. First meeting-house burned Feb. 3, 1833; present church soon rebuilt. Erastus C. Peck assisted in building this church, hewing some of the timbers. He died in 1905, aged ninety-six years.
Lamond, present pastor.
St. Theresa Roman Catholic Church.
Dedicated Monday, July 26, 1926, by the Rt. Rev. E. F.
Gibbons of Albany. Dedication services preceded the Mass which was sung by the
Rev. R. J. Roberts, Troy, N. Y. there were twenty-five priests present.
The Bishop was assisted by the Rev. P. J. Dwyer of Philmont, and the Rev.
C. J. King of Ravena, N. Y.
Dist. No. Ashland Dist. No. Catskill
1 Edna M. Hall 1. George H. Chadwick, Principal
3 Wilma McMyne Florence Smith
4 Ada E. Smalling Marguerite L. Young
5 Alice E. Dorn Anna A. Eells
6 Catherine Morse Adelaide Lewis
Dist. No. Athens Lola F. Conklin
1 Michael A. McCall, Principal Mrs. Roy Coughtry
Elizabeth C. Slattery Anna M. Barlow
Isabelle C. Rainey Susan C. Deakin
2 John Severence, principal Florence T. White
Ethel Torgesen Henrietta Lewis
Marion Cooney Faith D. Avery
Mildred Strongman Beulah I. Timmerman
Katharine E. Widmann Elina C. Van Dyke
Gertrude Ellsworth Mary C. Timmerman
Frances P. Mangeot Katharine G. Slattery
Mrs. Marion B. Scudder Bessie R. Muller
Anna M. Ford Olive P. Kennedy
M. Blanche Smith H. May Ford
Mrs. Helen J. Wood Edna Maguire, librarian
3 Pauline Tompkins Teresa O’Shea , health nurse
4 Viva B. Clawson H. Leon Sheppard, physical director
5 Edrie Warner Eli Bartoo, agriculture
6 Elizabeth Scott
Dist. No. Cairo Alice L. Babcock, principal
1 Charles Coutant, principal Alice Ernst
Miss Crossley Anna H. Smith
Miss Davis Mabel Hughes
Miss Gurley May E. Van Valkenburgh
Mrs. Charles Coutant Pauline Davis
Leonard DuBois H. May Ford
Helen Chadderdon 2 Mrs. Verona A. Beare
2 Emily M. Dorpfeld 3 Alice E. Jones, principal
3 Ethel Ruland Virginia Blakelock
4 Albert Morrison 4 Ruth Steele
5 Ethel Bailey 5 Jessie Hevner
6 Esther H. Knapp 6 Lettie P. Holmes
7 Bessie Lee Jones 7 Ensey Bailey
8 Harlan G. Wiltse 8 Bessie C. Van Arsdal
9 Lauren M. Barker 9 Hazel Crocoll
10 Isabelle D. Lane 10 Arthur C. Lewis, principal
11 Ruth Van Hoesen Ferdina Timmerman
Julia M. Vedder Effie Bates
12 Mary O’Brien, principal 11 Ruby F. Rundell
Eva A. Dunn 12 Henrietta Morse
13 George P. Holmes 14 Contracts
15 John W. McMenamy, principal 15 Mary A. Foster
Frederick D. Johnson 16 Esther Van Tassel
Florence E. Cole Dist. No. Greenville
Elizabeth Worth 1 Harriett Spalding
2 Edna Story
Dist. No. Coxsackie 3 Harriet Wickse
1 Robert Chalone, principal 4 C. F. Kerney, principal
Mrs. Rebecca Bogardus Viola Light
Esther Barnes Cecelia Bliss
Mae Fitzgerald Alice Stevens
Mildred Campbell Mary Mabie
Rose M. Seenman Charlotte Story
Ellen Smith Helen Salley
Mrs. Alice Case Scott Ellis
Edith J. VanDenburgh 5 Alice Chesbro
Mrs. Mary Waters 6 Eva Evans
Mrs. Dudley Lyall 7 F. May Shaw
Mrs. Robbins 8 Irene Worth
Ella O’Brien 9 Contracts
Mrs. Nellie Lewis 10 Gladys Beylegaard
Viola Sabedra 11 Dorothy Irish
Miss Olmsted 12 Howard Story
Miss Hickey 13 Contracts
Mrs. Jessie Smith 14 Ruth Corley
Catherine Hotaling 15 Contracts
Josephine Cohan Dist. No. Halcott
2 Gertrude Tyron 1 Mrs. Leora Kittle
3 Mrs. Alma Simpson 2 Mary V. Griffin
4 Mrs. Bertha Hallenbeck 3 Ethel Sanford
5 Mrs. Frank K. Swartwout 4 Marjorie H. Todd
6 Jennie A. Whitbeck
7 Mrs. Beulah K. Roe Dist. No. Hunter
8 Mrs. Dorothy L. Brooks 2 John S. Woods, principal
9 Mrs. Wilema Conrad Helen L. Hann
Dist. No. Durham Mary V. Howard
2 Hannah Wheat Ada L. Purdy
3 Gertrude Murta Mrs. Ruth L. Strenk
4 Mrs. Lloyd Tompkins Mrs. Cecile Woods
5 Elizabeth Eldred 3 Doris Decker
6 Olin Haskin 4 Gladys P. Dyer, Principal
7 William A. Fox Mary Gormley
8 Mary D. Wade Agatha Flick
Dist. No. Hunter Dist. No. New Baltimore
4 James Flahive 1 Anna White
Leon M. Peters 2 Susie Cary
Muriel Prediger 4 Jessie Boyd
Mrs. Jessie Showers 5 Florence Wood
Annie Glennon 7 Lydia Smith
6 Jennie Downs 8 Lelita Mahler
7 Mrs. Miriam E. Lester 9 Contracts
8 Stewart W. Tuttle, principal 10 Caroline D. Shear
Mrs. Anna Tuttle 11 Grace Gibbs
Anne E. Stock 12 May B. Blake
Marianna Gorham 14 Hazel C. Bailey
9 Vera McLean
10 E. Delmar Smith Dist. No. Prattsville
1 Mary MacCoubrey
Dist. No. Jewett 2 Fred Russell, principal
1 Ernest F. Cole, principal Hazel V. Gregory
Vesta L. Tompkins Mrs. Dora E. Petherbridge
2 Lucile E. Woods 3 Mrs. Mary E. Peckham
3 Mrs. Hazel Wilson 4 Mrs. Katharine Bishop
4 Mrs. Dema Crosby 5 Mrs. Alta L. Hapeman
6 Nelson Griffith 6 Mrs. Nina L. Griffin
7 Mrs. Belle Cruikshank
8 Mrs. Gladys Peck Dist No. Windham
1 Dorothy Chase
Dist. No. Lexington 2 Edythe Vining
3 Margaret Dunham 3 George L. Cook, principal
4 Beulah M. Jennette Shirley D. MacNaught
5 Mrs. Alice Stiles Mildred Miller
6 Mrs. Olive Shoemaker Irene Michael
7 Mrs. Blanche Van Valkenburgh Abner Woodworth
8 Mary Bergin Raymond Moseman
9 Mrs. Iva O. Hand Alice Stevens
10 Mrs. Ruth West 4 Mary L. Duham
11 Mrs. Gladys Van Valkenburgh 6 Contracts
12 Mrs. Elsie W. Ellis 7 Alice Brandow
13 Mrs. E. Van Valkenburgh 8 Ellen MacGlashan
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The state of Oklahoma is near center mass of the United States bordered by Texas to the south and west, New Mexico to the west, Colorado to the northwest, Kansas and Missouri to the north, and Arkansas to the east. Prior to statehood in 1907, one half of the state belonging to several Indian tribes was called Indian Territory. The other part, mostly the western half, was called Oklahoma Territory and belonged to the United States. Because of its rough and rugged nature, early history books sometimes referred to the area as the “uninhabitable” part of the United States.
On September 28, 1891, immediately after a land rush, Chandler was founded. In the land rush some 975,650 acres of land, formerly owned by the Sac and Fox, Iowa, Pottawatomie, and Shawnee Indian tribes, was divided among thousands of people participating in one of many land distributions in the Oklahoma Indian Territory.
Originally, Chandler only comprised an area of about one square mile. The first plat divided the town east and west by numbered streets 1-15, and north and south by eleven named streets such as Manvel, Allison, and Steele Avenues (city map of Chandler can be found in Appendix A). Since Chandler's original founding, city boundaries have been extended several times. Despite the expansion, the majority of the residents still live within the original 1891 city boundaries.
While there have been some variations, the population of Chandler has never gone above 3,000. The 1900 census recorded about 2,000 residents, and the one in 2000, almost 3,000 citizens.
Chandler is a typical Oklahoma county seat. Manvel Avenue, a main street several blocks long, is the centerpiece of town (and is often referred to as “ Main Street” in our story. Most businesses, office buildings, and the county courthouse are located along Manvel Avenue. Residential housing extends outward for several blocks in all directions. Most residential homes were built on spacious lots, and during the first half of the 20th century colorful vegetable gardens filled their yards. Sometimes part of a yard would house a cow, chickens, or other livestock. Off to one side of the business area, one normally found a large agricultural facility such as a grain mill and elevator. As in many Oklahoma towns, business and agriculture co-existed in close quarters.
In Chandler, the county courthouse was located near the center of town. My uncles recall one of its most amusing features. Before indoor plumbing and water fountains were established, a large, open barrel of public drinking water was maintained just inside the front entrance to the courthouse. A cup hung from each side of the barrel; one of the cups was clearly labeled, “For Colored Only.” After seeing people chewing tobacco and others with dirt-covered beards quenching their thirst, none of the Ellis family would drink from the barrel.
Oklahoma towns are generally located on flat land, with unobstructed views in all directions. In this respect Chandler is quite different. The town is neatly perched on top of a large hill within which are a series of smaller hills. The town’s homes, stores, and buildings are scattered among the smaller hills. In some places, driving on city streets is like riding a roller coaster.
“Bell Cow Creek” is a well-known local landmark, running west of Chandler, barely touching the western-most edge at Tilghman Park, and probably deriving its name from a cow. On farms a bell was hung around the neck of the cow that always started home first. This cow led the remainder of the herd back to the safety of the barn at the end of the day. The Ellis children and their friends, both black and white, spent many hot, happy summer hours swimming in the small reservoir created by the creek.
In the Chandler area earth is reddish in color not a true red, but a color similar to that found in bricks used to build houses. This special “flavor” of red colors the landscape with a dull building brick appearance. The red earth turns to a fine, irritating dust in the dry season. It is impossible to escape the red dust whipped about by small gusts of unexpected wind. Houses located near unpaved roads must be dusted two or three times a day.
In the rainy season, the earth turns to red clay. In the old days, the heaviest rains came in May. From February to mid-June, at times it was barely possible to navigate the dirt roads of the county. Those who arrived in the city by horse and buggy were covered with red clay, their animals painted red from head to hoof. At the end of their journeys, those who walked the roads faced the time consuming task of cleaning thick red mud from their shoes and clothing.
In the 1920s, and possibly earlier, to facilitate walking in the downtown area, wooden walkways were built in front of the stores and offices on Manvel Avenue. The wooden sidewalks resounded with “thuds” whenever someone walked on them. Imbedded in today’s cement sidewalks are some of the original horse rings used by cowboys, travelers, and everyday visitors to tie up their horses.
Chandler’s special type of red earth was perfect for making bricks. Bricks made in Chandler were shipped all over the state. Before statehood, the bricks were stamped “OT,” for Oklahoma Territory. The few subsequently produced were stamped “Chandler, Okla.” Today, these bricks are sold as souvenirs and antiques.
The wind and shifting red dust often hide vestiges of the past. Urban Green and his family were white residents who lived on a farm about 1½ miles north of Dudley, Oklahoma about 18 miles northeast of Chandler. Urban recalls a happy childhood playing with the children of his black neighbors. He specifically recalls an old swimming hole just behind the family farmhouse. In the 1920-30s, many playful hours were spent jumping from a natural solid-rock platform into the water some seven or eight feet below. In the 1990s Urban returned to the old home site. The swimming hole and the rock platform were no longer visible. Over the period of 60 years, both the swimming hole and the natural rock platform had been completely swallowed by the wind-blown, shifting sand of Lincoln County.
No early-day Chandler story is complete without some discussion of cotton. Almost every resident, black or white, was affected by the planting, caring for, and harvesting of cotton. Cotton had a significant economic impact on the citizens of Chandler and throughout the state. From the town’s founding in 1891, until the mid-1920s, the production of cotton and related activities were the most important sources of income for the town’s citizens.
Cotton fields ringed the residential areas of Chandler. At harvest time, in the months of September and October, a white doughnut of cotton fields surrounded the large cluster of homes adjacent to the business district.
Beginning at age six children learned to pick cotton, many continuing throughout their lives. Full attendance at school for older children could not be expected before mid-November, after the entire cotton crop was harvested. While both black and white residents worked in the cotton fields, the majority were black. Every Ellis child knew all aspects of picking cotton.
Growing cotton requires several processes. The first was to plant the cottonseed in small furrows dug in the ground with hoes. In Chandler this furrow digging took place in late May. The second process was “chopping” cotton when workers chopped the grass and weeds that continuously competed with the cotton plants. They also thinned out excessive cotton plants that could impair the crop’s quality. Chopping was difficult manual labor, but not the hardest task. The final process, picking cotton, was the most grueling.
Almost all cash income for many families was earned during cotton-picking season. A skilled hand, working at full speed, could pick as much as 500 pounds in a 12-hour period. In the mid-1920s, a pound of cotton was worth about 50 cents to two dollars per 100 pounds. Prices varied depending on the quality of the cotton. In the early 1920s, because of severe droughts, damage from boll weevils, and other blights, cotton production was significantly reduced in Oklahoma. As a result, many “cotton picking” families were forced to temporarily relocate to simply earn a living. Entire families would go to other states for four or five months each year, returning at season’s end with their total cash income for the remainder of the year.
Each year, an award was given to the first planter presenting a bale of cotton to the local cotton mill. The award was given to encourage farmers to begin harvesting as early as possible, since the more cotton milled, the greater the profit for the cotton mill owner.
A cottonseed oil factory was located at the end of Allison Avenue, where it meets 15th Street. Oil was made from the cottonseeds not used for planting the next year’s crop. Twice a day, at the change of work shifts, the cotton oil mill sounded a loud whistle at exactly 12 noon and 12 midnight. The sharp, shrill whistle could be heard cutting throughout the town. For many, it was their only clock.
There are two transportation linkages of historic importance to Chandler: “Route 66” and the Frisco Railroad Line. Route 66 is a nationally known highway that runs down the main street of Chandler. Running through the middle of town, it brought a significant amount of commercial business as travelers crossed the state and the country. Entering Chandler from the west on 15th Street, Route 66 follows Manvel Avenue north to 5th Street. At 5th Street, Route 66 angles east and meets 1st Street. At 1st Street, it goes due east for 14 miles to Stroud, and then another 55 miles east to Tulsa. For many years, the Ozark Trail, as Route 66 was originally known, was a key road linking the West to Chicago.
Beginning about 1950, section by section, a series of interstate and federal highways replaced Route 66. The Turner Turnpike now passes within a few hundred yards of Chandler's northern city limit. Opening May 16, 1953, the turnpike connected Oklahoma City with Tulsa making it unnecessary to enter Chandler when traveling through the middle of the state. Development of the turnpike was a major blow to the local economy and one of the reasons for lack of population growth in the last 50 years. Establishing the turnpike had a similar effect on many other small towns in Oklahoma, such as Kellyville, Bristow, Depew, Stroud, Davenport, Warwick, Wellston, Luther, and Arcadia.
The other important transportation link, the Frisco Railroad, dissected Chandler from the northeast to the southwest. The railroad bed made a large “S” figure as it ran through the middle of town. Used only for freighting, the railroad bed is still in place. The last passenger train stopped running in 1974.
Two events affecting life in Chandler deserve special attention. After the September 22, 1891 land rush giving birth to Chandler, the small settlement became a boomtown. Local businesses developed along the main street for about four full blocks. This thriving business district included hotels, several saloons, stores, and other establishments. In 1897, a tornado completely wiped out the business area and many of the new homes constructed near it. The tornado was a traumatic event for James Riley and his family.
The tornado struck several years after James and Ann Riley moved to the farmhouse a mile and a half from Chandler. Maggie Riley was only 17 years old at the time. Zodie, Polly and Winfield were all younger. The second event was the Depression of the late 1920s and early 30s, which will be discussed further in Chapter 4.
Since the founding of Chandler in 1891, the number of black families living in the city has significantly fallen. The national census of 1900 recorded 2,024 persons living in Chandler; 52 black families, consisting of 274 people, were listed. In the 1996 Lincoln County census report, of the 877 blacks counted for Lincoln County, approximately 200 lived in Chandler.
There are several possible explanations for the reduction in the city’s black population, all of which need further investigation. The first and most obvious explanation is availability of employment. Many black families depended on cotton as a major source of income. When the cotton crop declined, many families had to move to other areas to earn a living.
The second explanation is a political one or one based on civil rights issues. The first state constitution in 1907 was amended to add a number of policies requiring segregation and restricting the ability of blacks to vote. The desire to avoid such laws in their previous home states was a major factor bringing hopeful black citizens to Oklahoma. Faced with repugnant, freedom-stifling laws of the new state constitution, they migrated again to other areas of the U.S. and Canada.
While segregation and racism existed, in Chandler, its impact was significantly less as compared with all other parts of Lincoln county and the state of Oklahoma in general. Prior to 1940, 33 of Oklahoma ’s 77 counties did not have any black residents. Most of these all-white areas were located in the northwest part of the state. Chandler, like all towns in Oklahoma and most of the south, was segregated. In Chandler segregation was not as harsh as in other parts of the county and state. In the majority of contacts, whites and blacks were respectful. They often called each other “sir” or “ma’am.” My uncles recall their father always being addressed as “Mr. Ellis” or “Mr. Whit” by both black and white persons. Obviously there were exceptions to this compatibility. Some found it very difficult to extend these courtesies. Grandma Riley was called “Auntie” one time only! this by a young white man who had just arrived from one of the deep-south states to start a new life in Chandler. On his first day of employment at one of the local stores, he made the deadly mistake. There was no need for the shop’s owner to correct the young man. Ann Riley took care of everything in two or three quick and well-aimed sentences. From then on the young man always referred to her as “Mrs. Riley.”
During the first half of the 20th century, black and white children often played together in all parts of town. For example, highly contested football and baseball games were played on the spacious lawn of the county courthouse. Such games were much more predominant among the boys who moved from one area to another as they played baseball and other sports. Girls were not permitted to go far from home by themselves, so as a result, young girls had fewer contacts with children of other races.
There were occasional racial incidents, but in general the black, white, and Indian citizens coexisted in a comfortable environment. While racial harmony existed in Chandler, a well-defined separation has always been in place. White, Indian, and black citizens maintained separate lives. Today, as in the past, the three groups attend to their own places of worship and participate in separate social activities.
The town’s cemeteries have been integrated since 1954. However, only two whites (spouses of blacks) have been buried in the “black” cemetery (Clear View) and only two blacks have been buried in the “white” cemetery (Oak Park).
Until about 1950, restaurants, public transportation, medical services, hotel accommodations, etc. were segregated. However, there were always exceptions. From the beginning of Chandler, and despite criticism from their neighbors, some white businesses disregarded segregation and served blacks and Indians, as well as Chandler’s white citizens. A.D. Wright’s drugstore was one example of equal treatment and service to all.
A.D. Wright founded one of Chandler’s first businesses. His pharmacy was set up in a tent in downtown Chandler. At A.D. Wright’s drugstore, everyone was welcome to sit and eat in the front part of the facility. Black residents seldom took advantage of this opportunity because they did not feel comfortable in doing so.
Dr. John Adams was a white doctor willing to make calls at the homes of black citizens. Dr. J. Paul Smith, another white physician, assisted with my birth and that of my brother Whit. We were born at the 12th Street Ellis house in the early 1940s. I was born with a life-threatening medical problem that could not be treated in Chandler. The nearest medical facility was in Oklahoma City. The main hospital there had several hundred beds, four of which were reserved for colored people. There was a long waiting list to use those four beds. Dr. Smith, through his personal contacts, made arrangements for my immediate hospitalization. The day after my birth I was rushed to the hospital and received a life-saving operation. Without Dr. Smith’s intervention, the operation would not have been impossible.
Chandler’s first schools were integrated and jointly attended by Indians, blacks, and whites. Maggie Ellis completed grades one through eight in an integrated school. However, in 1907, under amendments to the first state constitution, Oklahoma state law required a segregated school system. Grandma Ellis openly expressed her feelings about the new constitution: “One day I was free and the next day I lost everything.”
The Chandler school system was segregated until 1955, one year after the Brown versus the Board of Education court battle ended with the Supreme Court declaring segregation was unconstitutional. The remainder of the county watched the integration process at Chandler High School to learn how best to carry out this sensitive task. In some of the adjacent towns, because of resistance, integration took more than two years.
Around World War I, there were attempts to expand a local Ku Klux Klan (KKK) organization. While there were a few shows of strength, with marches and night rides, the black community never considered the Chandler KKK particularly threatening. During a horseback ride of Klan members down the Main Street of town, a black observer recognized one of the masked marchers and shouted, “Mr. Gladson, what you got that sack over you head for? Everybody knows who you is!” Many times black residents were saddened to find their close white acquaintances, and other persons least expected, among the masked Klansmen.
Ora Ellis’s first memory, as a four-year-old, was a night ride of Klansmen in 1919. He recalls the memory as terrifying: the horses and riders, by the light of torches, cast eerie shadows on the landscape as the hooded group rode down the middle of Manvel Avenue late one night.
There was an interesting phenomenon about secrecy among Klansmen. The black citizens of Chandler knew the identity of Klansmen for one simple reason. They did much of the laundry in white homes! It was difficult for Klansmen to conceal their identity from those washing and ironing their clothes and white uniforms.
There are no records of lynchings in Lincoln County. In other parts of the state, lynchings were not frequent but physical mistreatment of blacks was not uncommon. It should be noted, however, that perhaps the worst single act of domestic violence in the U.S. took place in Tulsa, Oklahoma during the summer of 1921. During the two days of whites assaulting and arsoning the black Tulsa neighborhood, over 300 black citizens were murdered, 800 people admitted to local hospitals for injuries, 35 city blocks composed of 1,256 residences were destroyed by fire, and nearly $2 million dollars (almost $17 million after adjustment for inflation) in property damage.
While Chandler never had them, several nearby towns had “sundown to sunup” rules. The most common restriction was to forbid travel in certain parts of a town from sundown to sunrise or to banish blacks from being within the city limits after dark. There were such rules in other parts of the county, but never in Chandler.
It was not until 1936, when the movie “Green Pastures” was shown in Chandler, that blacks were allowed, on a one-time basis, to attend a downtown theatre. During the showing of this movie, they were required to sit in the balcony section of the movie theatre.
In the late 1930s, William Mingo, a County Agricultural Extension Agent, operated a small movie theatre located at the corner of Allison Avenue and 15th Streets. It was a crude, temporary facility made by placing planks over a large ditch running parallel to 15th Street. The movie served the black community on Friday and Saturday nights. Mingo sometimes showed movies in other parts of the county as well.
In the early days of Chandler, local newspapers played a key role in maintaining segregation and reinforcing poor images of black people. White-owned papers, published in the late 1890s and early 1900s, almost never mentioned black citizens. I remember scanning the most popular county papers from 1897 to 1902 and finding only a few articles about black citizens. One was a short article about a member of the territorial legislature supporting a program to send all blacks back to Africa; a second article announced a new cream that could change skin pigmentation from black to white. The article suggested that this was the best way of solving the “problem” of being black.
The publication of The Black Dispatch by Roscoe Dungee in 1914 and the Crisis in1917 by the NAACP were the first opportunities for positive media comments on the state’s black population.
In many towns, the railroad tracks were a demarcation line separating black and white communities. This was not the case in Chandler. While there were concentrations of black residents in places such as the “Bottom,” both races lived in almost all parts the city. Appendix A is a map indicating the 1920-30s locations of some of the private homes and other places mentioned in our story.
In 1908, Dr. Conrad was the first black doctor to arrive in Chandler. After a year or so, he moved to Guthrie, a more lucrative location.
In 1923, Dr. Sanders, another black physician, set up shop in Chandler. Within four or five years, he moved his main office to Boley, where there were more patients. He returned to Chandler on weekends to provide services to the black community.
The most common medical need in the black community was assistance with childbirth. In the early part of the century, a group of Chandler midwives Mrs. Gates, Katie Neal, and Omega Thurman largely handled this task.
The Indians had special medical and school facilities on local reservations. The nearby Sac and Fox Indian Reservations’ health facilities often provided assistance to both Indian and black citizens. Because of this, it is not unusual for black residents to have birth certificates indicating Indian Reservation birth.
One fall evening in 1940, Maggie Ellis, received an unexpected visit from Mrs. Clinton Goodberry, a nearby white neighbor. She also lived on 12th St. and was a close friend of Maggie Ellis and many other black community mothers. She quickly related a short, alarming story. The family of a local white girl was concerned about a too-friendly relationship developing between the youngest Ellis child and their teenage daughter. Suggestions were made that violence against George was a quick way to end the relationship. Within an hour of receiving this information, George Ellis, a senior at Douglass School, was on his way to Langston, Oklahoma, where he remained until finishing high school the following year. George Ellis later described his relationship with the white girl as nothing more than politely recognizing each other several times on Manvel Avenue., exchanging smiles and nothing more. He also thought that part of the problem was jealousy. He often drove Grandpa Riley’s automobile, which was a newer and much more luxurious model car than the one driven by the girl’s parents.
The “Bottom” was a nickname given to a one-block-wide housing area-extending north and south from 15th Street to 9th Street and east and west from Allison to Keokuk Streets. When standing on the front porch of the Ellis house on 12th Street, by looking south you can see the lower part of the Bottom. When standing at the southern end of the Bottom, looking north it appears that someone took a giant ice cream scoop of dirt from the earth’s surface. Perhaps, the impression left by the “giant scoop” was the basis for the name Bottom. It encompassed about 20 houses, several churches, and a cotton gin. While the Bottom housed people of both races, it was the city’s largest conclave of black residents.
Ray Shafer and his family were one of two white families living in the Bottom. The second family was that of Mr. Ellis Jackson. The Jacksons had several children; one, Eileen, was a constant playmate of my mother, Ann. Donna Sue Shafer, Ray’s oldest daughter, describes a very normal and happy existence for her family. They enjoyed living in harmony with other Bottom residents. Donna Sue recalls many times being the only white face at Mingo’s movie house, also located in the Bottom.
Ray Shafer ran a successful auto repair shop out of a garage built to the rear of their house. Ray built the house by himself. He personally hauled local rocks from several miles away to build the structure. His house construction was done in the evenings, after a full day of work at his shop. The house and garage still stand in the Bottom.
One terrible childhood memory haunts Donna Sue Shafer Galbraith. At a young age Donna Sue, her brother, two sisters, and three neighborhood children were playing in front of their house when a drunk driver lost control of her car and injured all of the children. The youngest Shafer daughter, two-year old Nita Rae, was killed.
The Bottom was also the home of one of Chandler’s most famous smile makers Ellis Charles, more commonly known as “Piggy.” Piggy was a very handsome man, as described by both women and men. Piggy Charles’ home was located directly across from Ray Shafer’s brick house and about one hundred meters northwest from Chandler’s railroad station. As far as anyone knows, Peggy’s father was a black man and his mother a full-blooded Creek Indian. Sarah, Piggy’s wife, was an unusually charming woman who worked as a cook. She was petite, standing about five feet, two inches, and known throughout the town for her hourglass figure and spotless appearance. She was never seen without a freshly pressed dress and neatly groomed hair. After working 12 hours in a hot kitchen, Sarah would return home with clothes neatly arranged and clean just as if she were starting the day.
From Piggy’s house, the constant arrival and departure of trains could be heard throughout the day and into the night. The sounds became second nature to Bottom residents and presented no distraction.
Piggy and his wife, Sarah, lived in the Bottom during the Depression. From the front room of his home, Piggy ran one of the county’s most famous “speakeasies.” A speakeasy was a place selling bootleg alcoholic beverages during the Prohibition Era. Speakeasies were small clubs, just one or two rooms, where dancing and card playing were common. Open until the early hours of the morning, they were hangouts for singles looking for “friends.” Many a night a wayward husband was dragged from Peggy's by his irate wife.
Neighbors jokingly told of seeing Federal agents going in the front door of Piggy’s home as he quickly departed through the rear of the house, dumping bottles of “bootleg” whiskey as he ran.
After living in the Bottom for many years, Sarah and Piggy purchased a home on Keokuk Avenue, only several hundred meters from their home in the Bottom. The house stands today, neat and tidy just like Sarah. Her name, Sarah Charles, remains engraved on the two corner posts on either side of the driveway entrance to the house.
Piggy later became a constable and then a custodian at a local bank. He and Sarah never had children of their own but raised six of Piggy’s brothers’ and sisters’ children. Piggy died in 1957 and Sarah about 10 years later. They are buried side-by-side in Clear View Cemetery. Sarah’s grave remains without a headstone.
Much has been written about America’s legendary black professional baseball leagues that flourished in the 1920s, 1930s, and early 1940s. Unfortunately, little has been recorded about the local amateur baseball organizations that served as an informal farm team system for the professional league. An excellent example of the farm team system was found in Chandler.
In the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, playing baseball was one of the most popular spring and summertime activities. A large network of black professional teams played in small stadiums throughout Oklahoma, and an extensive amateur black baseball system was established. Teams in the amateur league played wherever space was available. This was often nothing more than a cow pasture borrowed from a local farmer.
A white baseball team system was organized in Chandler sometime in the 1920s. It was not until 1930 that black teams began playing. They played on a field located in southwest Chandler 12th Street, where the street runs into Joe Long Avenue. At the age of twelve, Francis Ellis was the team’s first batboy. He served in that position until 1934, when he departed for studies at Langston University. He recalls many interesting stories about the team.
As batboy, Francis traveled with the team throughout the state and sometimes into southern Kansas and northern Texas. Francis’s parents, Maggie and Whit, were acquainted with the team’s manager, Tom Black. Before allowing Francis to take the batboy position, Maggie had a private talk with Tom to ensure special attention would be given to their young son when the team was on the road. Tom promised Maggie he would serve as surrogate father when the team left Chandler.
Between 1930 and 1933, the Chandler Team, as they were called, proved to be one of the best on the state “colored amateur baseball” circuit. While there were teams organized in almost every large black community, there were only 10 or 12 that were considered good teams. The Chandler team was one of the top teams in this elite group. Usually the top teams only played among themselves to ensure strong competition and big crowds.
Games were played on the weekends. The team was comprised of players from a wide range of ages; there were high school students and men in their 20s and 30s as well. Two of Ora Ellis’s classmates, Floyd Brown and Charleslo Williams, were on the team. There was no formal system for managing play between teams. All games were informally arranged between managers.
Transportation was a major problem. Team member cars usually transported the team and its equipment. For nearby games it was not uncommon to arrive on a flat-bed truck. Riding over unpaved backwoods roads on a flatbed truck guaranteed half of the players started the game with multiple bruises covering much of the lower part of their bodies.
A complete team consisted of 9-14 players, which resulted in some teams competing with only one player at each position. It also meant that each athlete had to play at several positions. Noted for strong hitters and excellent fielders, the Chandler team was a remarkable assortment of talented athletes.
In addition to winning the ball game, a good team also had to entertain the crowd. Each team had one or two “clowns” to carry out this important task. The team clown would have a wide assortment of tricks. Almost every clown could perform two basic maneuvers. The first was to catch the ball and then immediately fall to the ground in the splits, one leg completely extended forward and the other in the opposite direction. The most talented clowns could immediately regain their footing with minimum use of their hands. The second move was done when catching a fly ball. The ball would land in the fielder’s glove and be immediately tossed 6-10 feet in the air. On the upswing journey, the clown would take off his hat and fan the air below the ball as it was on the rise, then replace the cap on his head and catch the ball before it landed on the ground.
In 1933, Francis Ellis had the opportunity of a lifetime to bat against the legendary Black Hall of Fame pitcher, LeRoy “Satchel” Paige of the Kansas City Monarchs. The Chandler team had been invited to play as the second attraction at a stadium hosting the Monarchs. The Monarchs was one of the top teams in the country and the featured attraction. They were scheduled to play against another professional team which was unable to appear. At the last minute, the Chandler Team was asked to substitute as the Monarchs’ opponent.
Satchel Paige pitched, and his team quickly established a large lead, as was expected. Near the end of the ninth inning, for the sake of humor, Satchel boasted to the crowd that the Chandler team could even send in the batboy and he would also strike him out. The Chandler coach went along with the joke and told 15-year-old Francis to take his place in the batter’s box. Francis prepared to receive the first pitch. He was wearing his neatly pressed uniform with the words “Batboy” in big letters on the back (letters were cut out and sewn on by his older sister Roberta).
Satchel waved for the other members of the Monarchs to leave the field: “I don’t need no help to take care of this little matter.” Francis took a warm-up swing with his bat. The crowd began to cheer for him. Satchel wound up and delivered one of his famous super spin pitches.
The pitch had so much spin it gave the batter only one option hit the ball with a short bounce that usually landed in Satchel’s glove outstretched in some comical fashion. Francis made a powerful swing at the ball and hit it solidly. The ball took the expected short bounce on the ground, landing about 15 feet in front of Satchel’s waiting glove. Instead of landing in “Satch’s” poised glove, it bounced about two feet over his head and continued into the outfield. Satchel Paige made no attempt to field the ball and applauded along with the shouting crowd as Francis quickly ran around the bases and touched home plate.
The game ended soon after Francis’ home run. All members of the team returned to Chandler with a once-in-a-lifetime memory of playing against “Satch” and the great Monarchs. I have a lifetime legacy that my uncle “homered” off of the great Satchel Paige.
It is my hope that this chapter has presented Chandler, not as a typical small town in Oklahoma, but one with some powerful differences in white community enlightenment toward their black neighbors, as shown by my family’s experiences. There are two very important observations on segregation. Despite this fairly compatible picture, among the black community there was deep, constant concern about what could occur if their white neighbors were aroused.
Secondly, segregation initially denied black residents access to the same quality of resources and opportunities as their white neighbors. Unlike the situation in most other towns, in Chandler this disadvantage was converted to a positive force uniting the black community and motivating it to perform at a higher level. A key individual in this process was Mrs. L. Lena Sawner, Principal of Douglass School, whose contributions are discussed in Chapter 8.
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Jordan opposed the war against Iraq.
- Population: 4.5 million
- Main languages: Arabic
- Main religion: Islam
- Money: 1 Jordan dinar = 1,000 fils
Jordan's rulers felt it was a lot more important to sort out the fighting between Israel and the Palestinians.
Many Palestinians live in Jordan and the country gets its oil from Iraq.
During the 1991 Gulf war Jordanian troops did not join the international alliance against Saddam.
Jordan remained neutral, not supporting either side.
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Climate reconstructions based on tree rings have become a major point of contention. In 1998, a climate scientist by the name of Michael Mann had the misfortune of publishing a Northern Hemisphere temperature reconstruction dubbed “the hockey stick,” due to the appearance of the abrupt warming of the last century. He quickly became a favorite target for several high-profile contrarians, which has brought him a great deal of harassment.
Lost in the noise of this blogosphere-generated public controversy is the fact that real debates do go on between climate scientists. Recently, Michael Mann has gotten himself into one of those, as well.
It started with a paper published last year by Mann, Jose Fuentes, and Scott Rutherford, one that focused on a curious feature of some reconstructions of temperature based on the width of annual tree rings. When you look at the tree rings that were laid down at times of large volcanic eruptions, the cooling in the reconstruction is much smaller than the dip in temperatures predicted by climate models.
Mann and his colleagues found that this could be explained by a failure of some trees to grow at all in that year, producing no ring whatsoever. Many of the trees used for temperature reconstructions grow at high altitudes, where their growth is limited by temperature. For some, a large, sudden cooling could push the tree below the minimum temperature threshold for growth.
If that were to occur, any residual growth associated with the year of the eruption may actually have been laid down during the following year (as the cold temperatures ease up), and the date assigned to each ring after that would be off by one year. Merge the rings from the year of the eruption a subsequent (warmer) year, and the result will indicate a warmer temperature than the tree actually experienced. The data become “smeared” because some tree chronologies shift, while others, like those from trees at lower altitudes, don’t.
By using a simple model of tree ring growth that simulates artificial records, Mann and his colleagues found that taking this into account could produce hypothetical reconstructions that better matched the climate model predictions.
Many of the dendrochronologists who compile these tree rings records took offense to the idea that they hadn’t noticed such an important error. After all, researchers always cross-check tree ring records with other trees in the area to look for issues like skipped rings and growth variation between individual trees.
Recently, twenty-three of those scientists submitted a comment to Nature Geoscience about the Mann, Fuentes, and Rutherford paper. In it, they outlined what they felt were flaws in the methods of the paper. They questioned the values chosen for certain parameters in the model of tree ring growth that was used, claiming that they were out of line with best estimates. The comment also pointed to uncertainties in the climate model simulations of volcanic eruptions that were compared to the tree ring reconstructions. Finally, they emphasize that the paper presents no actual evidence of missing years in individual records.
In the published reply by Mann, Fuentes, and Rutherford (as well as a blog post written by Michael Mann), the authors note that their paper presents a hypothesis to explain the perceived mismatch in tree ring reconstructions, but does not claim to demonstrate that the hypothesis is correct.
But they do push back against most of the criticisms of their work. They justify the use of their tree ring growth model, explaining the rationale behind their chosen parameter values. In addition, they claim that the uncertainty in climate model simulations of eruptions is not great enough to erase the discrepancy with the reconstructed temperatures.
Most importantly, the researchers explain why they think it’s possible that missing rings could have slipped past dendrochronologists, despite their cross-checking. They believe that the cold temperatures associated with the eruption would prevent any of the trees in a region from growing. To detect the missing ring, the trees would have to be cross-checked with trees sufficiently far away to have experienced warmer temperatures.
The debate is not without significance. Some researchers have tried to estimate the sensitivity of the climate to change by examining these records of volcanic eruptions. You can compare the amount of solar radiation reflected by volcanic emissions to the change in temperature that resulted. Because the tree ring reconstructions don’t show much cooling during eruptions, the estimates produced with this method have been lower than those made using other approaches. If the reconstructions are hiding a greater response to eruptions, it's possible that all the estimates may fall in line.
While researchers draw conclusions from data sets like these tree ring temperature reconstructions, they also understand that the data are imperfect and are constantly trying to ferret out those imperfections. So while some who reject climate science have repeatedly accused Michael Mann of manipulating data or covering up flaws (accusations he’s been cleared of by multiple investigations), here he is getting into a bit of a dust-up by looking for problems.
As Mann and his colleagues point out, their idea is just a hypothesis awaiting testing. To them, the hypothesis is attractive because it’s capable of explaining an interesting discrepancy. To the dendrochronologists who submitted their comment, that’s irrelevant until there’s solid evidence for it (which they don’t believe will turn up).
Eventually, if Mann's hypothesis is found to be correct, we'll be able to improve the temperature reconstructions. If, instead, the dendrochronologists are vindicated, that could lead to a different understanding of what the discrepancies mean. Since this is a scientific debate, the data will get the last word—and, right now, the data aren't in yet.
While we're waiting for that data, however, the argument shows why most of the actual scientific debates don't make the news: they're generally slow-moving, exceedingly technical, and, individually, they don't change much about our overall understanding of a field.
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You & Your Hormones is the official public information website of the Society for Endocrinology
A gland is an organ which produces and releases substances that perform a specific function in the body. There are two types of gland. Endocrine glands are ductless glands and release the substances that they make (hormones) directly into the bloodstream. These glands form part of the endocrine system and information on them is included in this website. There is another type of gland called an exocrine gland (e.g. sweat glands, lymph glands). These are not considered part of the endocrine system as they do not produce hormones and they release their product through a duct. Information on these glands is not included on this website.Endocrine glands, such as the pancreas and thyroid gland, use the bloodstream to monitor the body’s internal environment and to communicate with each other through substances called hormones, which are released into the bloodstream.
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Reverse psychology is a formal method which involves the championing of a belief or behavior that is opposite to the one want. A common form of reverse psychology is to forbid an action. In this method the person being maneuver is usually have no knowledge of the situation. Reverse psychology is more likely to be successful with people who really have a high need for control.
Related journals of Reverse Pyschology
Mental Illness and Treatment, Applied and Rehabilitation Psychology: Open Access, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, European Journal of Social Psychology, Journal of Cognitive Psychology and Advances in Cognitive Psychology, Reverse Pyschology Journals.
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The Controversy over the Origins of the Moundbuilders
Long before America came into being, there lived people, who, at some point long ago, used the earth to build mounds. These mounds took many shapes and forms, from animal effigies, to symbolic forms, to tumuli that were used to bury their dead. Although they have been located in some shape or form throughout the American continent, and even the world, the most curious of these could be found in the fertile land of the Mississippi Valley, in what is now Ohio, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and other Midwestern states. Settlers, as well as the Native American tribes they inhabited the land with, knew little of the people who built these curious structures. In the spirit of discovery, settlers and researchers (both amateur and professional alike) began to open the mounds and formed theories based on the relics and bones that they found inside. In fact, it is said that even Thomas Jefferson opened and studied one of these mounds, attributing its creation to the ancestors of the Native Americans that lived near the east coast. “Professional” evaluation didn't really begin until the early 19th century, when the interest in archeology increased, and professional groups such as the American Antiquarian Society (inc. 1812) were formed with help from the government in order to conduct studies on the prehistory of America(1).
Early on, the archaeologists studying the mounds, both amatur and professional, argued on one major question; Who built the mounds? Today it is widely acknowledged that the builders of these structures were in fact the ancestors of some of the Native American tribes, but in the 19th century stories about their creators often implied that either some unknown “civilized” race built them or that the builders were somehow of European decent. Either way, the Indians were often thought to have wiped these “civilized” races out, or at least replaced them. This story allowed for justification of the abuse that settlers and the government gave to Native Americans. It served to strengthen the view that the Indians should be removed, a justice of sorts, because the Indians had done the same to the moundbuilders so many years ago.
These Eurocentric beliefs were repeated or at least alluded to in the media through the 19th century, even after the scientific community came to a consensus on the topic. The myth of the moundbuilders were consistent with the dominant view of the Native Americans, which were a driving force in the atrocities committed against them such as fraudulent land deals, violent clashes(2/3), removals to reservations, total expulsion from states, liquor prohibitions that led to arrests(4), grave robbing(5), denial of citizenship, and lack of voting rights. These beliefs also helped to disconnect Native American groups from the mounds themselves. This aided in the destruction of these sites and institutionalized forms of grave robbing to occur, because the society that created the mounds, whose dead were buried inside, were considered long extinct.
One of the first professional studies into the Midwestern earthworks was performed by Caleb Atwater, who, according to later researchers E.G. Squier and E.H. Davis, “deserves the credit of being the pioneer in this department.”(6) His study, “A Description of the Antiquities Discovered in the Western Country”(7) was conducted under the American Antiquarian Society and published in 1833. In first portion of this report, he condemns the amount of speculation by amatures concerning the mounds, saying, “whilst the common herd of scribblers on this subject, resemble the ignis fatuus, which, as the poet says, 'leads to bewilder, and dazzles to blind.' ”(8) He then describes the three types of artifacts that he had identified: those of Indian origin, those of contemporary European origin, and those created by “the people who raised our ancient forts and tumuli.”(9)
Of the Native American artifacts, he says they “are neither numerous nor very interesting.” He describes the Indian graves, saying that, “ten chances to one but some article is discovered, which shows that the person had been buried since America was visited by people of European origin.”(10) Although Atwater never directly says so in his report, his description of the Indian burials, and the concentrations of Indian populations implies to readers that the Native Americans are a relatively new addition to the American continent.
He then goes on to describe the artifacts from early European settlements in America from the 16th and 17th centuries and explains that although sometimes these artifacts may be found alongside of those belonging to the moundbuilders, there is no reason to believe that the two had any relationship. He uses this to refute one of the moundbuilder myths that believed the Spanish Conquistadors or the French missionaries were the builders.
He also asserts that there have been no relics found with writing on them that did not belong to the time after Columbus discovered this continent. (11) The finding of “tablets” in mounds was common during this period, and often could be attributed to hoaxes, perhaps done to further a belief that claimed the ancients were of Hebrew or European origin. These hoaxes or stories continued to surface in the news throughout the 19th century often surrounded by sensationalism. Although some news articles stated the doubt in such objects (12) some reported the finding as fact or at least failed to comment on the likelihood that the object was not from ancient biblical societies. (13) The latter of these surely was an influence in the false beliefs surrounding the mounds.
Of the mounds, Atwater claims that they “owe their origin to a people far more civilized than our Indians, but far less so than Europeans.”(14) He describes and compares the Midwestern earthworks various structures built in ancient Europe, Siberia, Egypt, Asia, and Russia calling for the reader to draw his or her own conclusion but also implying that the origins must owe themselves to somewhere other than the Indians.(15) He did not believe that the Native Americans had the ability to construct the earthworks due to their savagery. The view that Indians were not able enough to accomplish such feats was perhaps the most common argument for the idea that an ancient civilized race MUST have existed before the Indians.
This idea was often repeated in the media through the 19th century. Commonly, it was presented with racist undertones implying stereotypes that existed about Indian people. An illustration of this media construction was found in an issue of the Baraboo Republic (Feb. 13, 1878) that describes the discovery of a millstone in Wisconsin by a man named Rice. The article stated that Rice noticed a resemblance between the stone and a description of an ancient Hebrew millstone. The stone, according to the article was believed to be from the same period as the moundbuilders due to its age. The article also states that the makers of the stone “must have been partially civilized – at least far above the grade of Indian today,”(16) reinforcing the view that Native American people were somehow inferior to Europeans, or other “civilized” groups.
In 1847, researchers E.G. Squier and E.H. Davis published what is today considered to be the most comprehensive survey and study of the Mississippian earthworks. Their work cataloged and described a number of works, and compromised the first volume of the Smithsonian's “Contributions to Knowledge” series. This is often cited by later researchers, such as Increase Lapham, and is perhaps responsible for the increased interest in this subject during the later half of the 19th century. Although Squier and Davis attribute to Atwater credit for the first attempt to catalog the earthworks, they also condemn his methods, saying his work, “contains many errors, for which however we can find ready apology . . . -- errors which, under the present advantages of research, would be inexcusable.”(17) Squier and Davis's treatment of the mounds' origin is somewhat more objective than Atwater's. They claim that the “ancient population was exceeding dense”, and that they were an agricultural society, unlike the modern Indians.(18) These assumptions, Squier and Davis based on the number and quality of the works they surveyed.
The study considered to be the end-all for the debate about the moundbuilders was written by Increase A. Lapham and published by the American Antiquarian Society in 1855. In this study, entitled “The Antiquities of Wisconsin”, Lapham states that, “We may, without assuming any far-fetched theories, suppose that a nation or tribe of red man formerly occupied the country now known as Wisconsin . . . “ and that these people were the builders of the mounds.(19) He also agues against Squire and Davis's idea that an agricultural society existed, claiming that the ancient works were in the same locations that the modern Indians used, indicating that their ways of life were similar. His conclusion, based on surveys taken, was that “the mound-builders of Wisconsin were none others than the ancestors of the present tribes of Indians.”(20) Lapham's work and later works by Cyrus Thomas (21) were essentially the final word in the debate, as their studies were seen as proof of the idea that the moundbuilders were ancestors of Native Americans.
The media, however, continued to propagate the myths, with stories such as Mr. Rice's discovery of his Hebrew stone(22), or a 1906 article in the Madison Democrat, titled “Who Built the Wisconsin Mounds?”, where the author states that, “No such Indian settlement as we have knowledge of could have built them,” and that the question of the moundbuilders remains unsolved.(23)
Indeed, so long as theories from the dominant culture are repeated without question, the mystery will remain unsolved. It is important to understand that historically, even “scientists” are affected by the popular views and stereotypes that are repeated in the media and that these views can have negative and long term impacts. Many of the bones and artifacts taken from the earthworks are now stored in the Smithsonian museum, and the current fight surrounding the origin of the bones is preventing interested tribes from their lawful right to rebury their dead. The assertion that the tribal origin cannot be determined, and further study of the bones is needed, is not all that different than the 19th century debate of their origin. Lapham and Thomas may have decided the debate, but they were far from the last word.
1. A.J. Conant, Foot-Prints of Vanished Races in the Mississippi Valley (St Louis: Chancy R. Barns, 1879): Page iii
2. “North Western Fronteer”, Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, Morning Edition, January 9, 1846.
3. Untitled Article, Milwaukee Sentinel, September 11, 1862.
4. Untitled Article, Milwaukee Sentinel, November 16, 1867.
5.Untitled Article, Milwaukee Sentinel, May 7, 1868.
6. E.G. Squier and E. H. Davis, “Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley”, Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, vol. I (Washington: The Smithsonian Institution, 148): Page xxxiii.
7. Caleb Atwater, “A Description of the Antiquities Discovered in the Western Country”, Writings of Caleb Atwater (Columbus: Caleb Atwater, printed by Scott and Wright, 1833).
8. Atwater, “A Description of the Antiquities Discovered in the Western Country”, 10.
9. Atwater, “A Description of the Antiquities Discovered in the Western Country”, 10.
10. Atwater, “A Description of the Antiquities Discovered in the Western Country”, 12.
11. Atwater, “A Description of the Antiquities Discovered in the Western Country”, 15.
12. “Important Discovery in Ohio”, Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, Morning Edition. July 11, 1860.
13. Untitled Article, The Baraboo Republic, Feb. 13, 1878.
14. Atwater, “A Description of the Antiquities Discovered in the Western Country”, 18.
15. Atwater, “A Description of the Antiquities Discovered in the Western Country”, 108-115.
16. Untitled Article, The Baraboo Republic, Feb. 13, 1878.
17. E.G. Squier and E. H. Davis, “Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley”, xxxiii.
18. E.G. Squier and E. H. Davis, “Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley”, 301-303.
19. Increase A. Lapham, “The Antiquities of Wisconsin”, Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge (Washington D. C.: The Smithsonian Institution, June 1855): 89.
20. Increase A. Lapham, “The Antiquities of Wisconsin”, 90.
21. Cyrus Thomas, The problem of the Ohio Mounds (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1889)
22. Untitled Article, The Baraboo Republic, Feb. 13, 1878.
23. “Who Built the Wisconsin Mounds?”, The Madison Democrat, March 25, 1906.
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Psychology & Culture Ebooks
Dynamic Psychology (1918)
Book Description Report this book
Robert Sessions Woodworth (1869-1962) was an influential American academic psychologist of the first half of the twentieth century. He studied under William James along with such prominent psychologists as Leta Stetter Hollingworth, James Rowland Angell, and Edward Thorndike. A graduate of Harvard and Columbia, his textbook Psychology: A study of mental life, which appeared first in 1921, went through many editions and was the first introduction to psychology for generations of undergraduate students. His 1938 textbook of Experimental Psychology was scarcely less influential, especially in the 1954 second edition, written with Harold H. Schlosberg. He is known for introducing the Stimulus-Organism-Response (S-O-R) formula of behavior.
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By Les Thompson
Find Out More
What is RFID?
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is an automatic identification method, relying on storing and remotely retrieving data using devices called RFID tags or transponders. An RFID tag is a small object that can be attached to or incorporated into a product, animal, or person. RFID tags contain silicon chips and antennas to enable them to receive and respond to radio-frequency queries from an RFID transceiver.The advantage of RFID over traditional scanning methods such as barcodes is the technology does not require a line of sight to function.
What’s the difference between passive and active tags?
Active RFID uses an internal battery within the tag to continuously power the tag and its radio frequency communication circuitry. Active RFID allows extremely low-level radio frequency signals to be received by the tag. The tag then can generate high-level signals back to the reader. Active RFID tags are continuously powered, whether in the reader's range or not, and are normally used when a longer tag read distance is desired.
Semi-passive RFID uses an internal power source to monitor environmental conditions, but requires radio frequency energy transferred from the reader. Semi-passive RFID tags use a process to generate a tag response similar to that of passive tags. Semi-passive tags differ from passive in that semi passive tags possess an internal battery for the tag's circuitry. This allows the tag to complete other functions such as monitoring of environmental conditions such as temperature or shock, which may extend the tag signal range.
Passive RFID relies on radio frequency energy transferred from the reader to the tagin order to power it. Passive RFID tags reflect energy from the reader or receive and temporarily store a small amount of energy from the reader signal in order to generate the tag response. Passive RFID requires strong radio frequency signals from the reader, and the signal strength returned from the tag is constrained to very low levels by the limited energy. Passive RFID tags are best used when the tag and reader will be in close proximity to one another.
RFID Technology Solutions
LRNi, a leader in the rapidly evolving RFID industry, we specialize in the design, engineering, manufacturing and implementation of “Active” RFID systems and products. We offer scalable, turnkey solutions to optimize business productivity in many industries. LRNi’s patented antenna technology has been instrumental in bringing RFID-enabled asset monitoring solutions to healthcare, QA visibility to manufacturing, and vehicle/weapon monitoring to law enforcement. With the development of a system to sequence “Active RFID Tags” in production environments, LRNi has become the proven close-proximity expert in “Active” RFID. LRNi has also provided a major carpet manufacture with their Mobile Asset Tracking and Control System. LRNi is tracking trailer and trucks on the yard to provide position and when dock doors are empty or being used. This data is being handed off within the company and they are using this information for logistical purposes.
Traditional methods for tracking mobile equipment and personnel in the field are labor intensive and often inaccurate, creating operational inefficiencies. LRNi’s Active RFID-based solutions can alleviate these business challenges by providing real-time visibility of field-based inventory, assets and personnel. Accurate and timely information improves business processes and provides the data you need to make sound business decisions.
At LRNi, we can assist you in understanding and arriving at the best solution for your RFID needs. We can help you understand and implement the most appropriate solutions to provide your company with a competitive edge required in an environment of improving efficiencies. LRNi has support plans to ensure the most appropriate technologies are leveraged for implementation from a cost and function perspective.
LRNi can help in selecting the proper system consisting of tags, readers, antennae, and software when devising your overall system. If required, we can create custom, innovative solutions to meet the customer’s special needs.
LRNi will demonstrate the benefits of RFID deployment and explain the variables involved along with the approach and cost. We then help validate the approach via a proof of concept plan. If required, a pilot is run to identify and demonstrate the appropriate solution and offer optimizations to existing and new processes.
From consultation to development to deployment and maintenance, LRNi has complete solutions for all RFID needs. While each of the services is available separately, we also work on a turnkey project basis to deploy RFID systems in an organization.
- Locate and track critical equipment to improve emergency response
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Vehicle and Weapon Monitoring
- Loss and theft prevention.
- Access control.
- Locate and track personnel or guests.
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- Locate and track trailers or containers.
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- Locate vehicles or equipment on yards or warehouses.
- Monitor status of work in progress.
- Locate and track tools and equipment.
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and inventory control software systems.
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work to monitor and improve quality.
- Employee tags can be used for security and time clock.
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Ph.D. University of Melbourne, Australia
The fungal kingdom consists of an estimated 1.5-5 million species. Many of the best characterized species play either beneficial or detrimental roles in human endeavors: fungi are essential for life on earth and we interact with them on a daily basis. For example, fungi are used to produce or modify foods and drinks, the source of life-saving pharmaceuticals, recycle nutrients in the environment, and interact with the roots of more than 80% of land plants in a symbiotic relationship. On the other hand, fungi are the main agents of plant disease and rot wood, as well as causes of allergies and are common human infectious agents. A few species also cause life-threatening mycoses, especially in people with reduced immune function. Fungi are the most closely related group of organism to the animal kingdom. As such, they serve as models to understand both animal and eukaryote biology. For example, the concept that one gene encodes one protein was derived from Neurospora crassa (of note, those strains are housed next door in SBS in the Fungal Genetics Stock Center) and the genetics of cell cycle control (i.e. the underlying basis for all cancers) were elucidated through mutant studies in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe.
Research in the laboratory is focused on how fungi sense their environment and transmit the signal to change physiology and development. We work on multiple and diverse species to address long-standing questions in fungal and eukaryotic biology using these organisms. The long-term goal is to develop strategies to reduce the adverse effects of fungi.
One research focus is how light is pereceived in fungi to alter the properties of pathogenic and other model fungi (i.e. Cryptococcus neoformans and Phycomyces blakesleeanus). Light has many effects on the way fungi grow. Often spore production is controlled by light, and since spores are one of the reasons for fungal success, understanding sensing and gene regulation by light is important to control fungi. Light is also linked to fungal virulence. Many fungi sense light, and in most of these species the machinery behind light sensing is the same, named White Collar 1 and 2 after the phenotypes of mutants originally isolated in N. crassa. The homologous genes control light-sensing in C. neoformans and P. blakesleeanus, which are distant relatives from N. crassa.
A second interest is on uncovering virulence mechanisms and potential drug targets in human pathogenic fungi, using C. neoformans. Fungi are some of the most common human infectious agents, particularly those that infect skin and nails, or cause yeast infections. Fungi also kill people, particularly if they have reduced immune functions due to a number of reasons. In the early 1980s, life-threatening fungal disease increased dramatically with the AIDS pandemic, and in countries without access to anti-viral and anti-fungal drugs, fungi are a major cause of mortality. C. neoformans is estimated to kill more than 600,000 people each year globally. Frustratingly, many of the cutting-edge developments in medicine, such as organ transplants, chemotherapy, or corticosteroid drugs, leave patients at high risk of fungal diseases. We use genetic screens to identify genes that the fungus has that are required for causing disease or essential for fungal viability. The proteins encoded by these genes are targets for rationale drug design, or at very least provide insight into why they are needed in fungi may provide practical measures to reduce fungal disease incidence.
Our third area of investigation explores the unique properties of several species of red yeast (subphylum Pucciniomycotina). These yeasts are common saprophytes in the environment. They represent a distinct group within the basidiomycetes that also includes the rust fungi that plague world agriculture. At present, very limited gene functional information is available from this group, in part because the rust species cannot be grown outside their plant hosts. Gaining gene information from the cultivable red yeasts is important for understanding, at a kingdom-wide level, the distribution of genes and their functions in fungi. We have recently developed the techniques and tools to transform red yeast species, and are now using these approaches to investigate gene functions in these fungi.
Our research uses a variety of experimental approaches. In addition to standard microbiology methods, we use molecular biology techniques, often coupled to forward genetic mutant screens, as well as classical Mendelian genetic crosses.
Magditch DA, Liu T-B, Xue C, Idnurm A. (2012) DNA mutations mediate microevolution between host-adapted forms of the pathogenic fungus Cryptococcus neoformans. PLoS Pathogens 8: e1002936. Article
Tagua VG, Medina HR, Martín-Domínguez R, Eslava AP, Corrochano LM, Cerdá-Olmedo E, Idnurm A. (2012) A gene for carotene cleavage required for pheromone biosynthesis and carotene regulation in the fungus Phycomyces blakesleeanus. Fungal Genet. Biol. 49: 398-404. Article
Idnurm A. (2011) Sex determination in the first-described sexual fungus. Eukaryot. Cell 10: 1485-1491. Article
Idnurm A. (2011) Sex and speciation: The paradox that non-recombining DNA promotes recombination. Fungal Biol. Rev. 25: 121-127. Article
Ianiri G, Wright SAI, Castoria R, Idnurm A. (2011) Development of resources for the analysis of gene function in Pucciniomycotina red yeasts. Fungal Genet. Biol. 48: 685-695. Article
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The Tarc were a sentient crustacean species, indigenous to the planet Hjaff. Standing at around two meters tall with four arms and a chitinous exoskeleton, they appeared intimidating to most humanoids, a reputation furthered by their ruthless and emotionless behavior. The Tarc, in fact, did not lack emotions, but believed them to be private and not to be shared with others. Fiercely protective of their culture and sovereignty, the Tarc saw other species as a threat to both of these and, as a result, were extremely isolationist as a society. The Tarc colonized the star systems around their homeworld, making the area a buffer between them and the rest of the galaxy and using their navy, the Ivlacav Gourn, to destroy any intruders. That practice led the species into conflict with the Galactic Empire during the Galactic Civil War.
Biology and appearanceEdit
The Tarc were a carnivorous species of crustacean that originally evolved from large sea-dwelling creatures. However, evolutionary pressures forced them to adapt to life on land, where they became well adapted to the arid desert environment of the three continents of their homeworld, Hjaff. These adaptations included great tolerance for high temperatures and the ability to go without fresh water for extended periods of time, despite their aquatic origin. Such traits derived from the Tarc being covered entirely in a chitinous exoskeleton that could store water and act as a means of controlling body temperature. The exoskeleton also provided protection from damage but made the Tarc far heavier and bulkier than Humans and humanoids of similar size. However, the added size made them more intimidating.
The Tarc were hairless bipeds, possessing two legs and four arms, as well as two eyes and a pair of antenna on their head. The upper pair of arms were dexterous with three fingers on each hand, while the lower arms ended in claws used for fighting. On average adult Tarc stood between 1.75 and 2.2 meters tall. Despite their size, they had surprisingly quick reflexes, although their weight caused them to be relatively slow on land.
Due to their diet of meat, the Tarc never evolved the need for lips, teeth or tongues. Instead, they possessed hollow spikes inside their mouths, which injected acidic saliva into food. Once the food was shredded into smaller pieces, it then was ingested directly through the spikes for nourishment, as the Tarc lacked stomachs. The lack of such an organ meant the Tarc could not digest tough or sinewy meat, so their diet consisted of sand mollusks and other small creatures with soft flesh native to the deserts of their homeworld.
Society and cultureEdit
Most other beings generally perceived the Tarc as cold and emotionless, since the species considered the emotions they did have as personal, rarely sharing them with others. They often came across as ruthless, only caring about their own survival, although that was entirely a product of their culture and the environment in which they lived. A Tarc's actions were always necessary and decisive, aiming to achieve a specific result within a set time period, often more short term than long. If an action did not achieve the desired result, another was quickly implemented to replace it. Deliberation was rare amongst the Tarc and not highly valued.
The Tarc's society originally was divided among a large number of nations, each prioritizing the protection of their own sovereignty and culture against the others. Although the Tarc were not a particularly violent or warlike species, international disputes led to many wars when they saw aggression as a logical action to achieve their goals. The Tarc's tactics normally consisted of using overwhelming force to defeat and then destroy the enemy in a short period of time, with mercy never being an option. The Tarc only engaged in conflict for what they believed was truly an appropriate action to achieve the goal they sought, very rarely doing so out of anger or hatred, although they were capable of such emotions. However, during combat, the Tarc sometimes became enraged due to their pent up emotions. Whilst in this state they were incredibly dangerous, attacking anything and anyone nearby.
The Tarc's culture developed as the nations became more advanced and came to depend on each other and the global economy of Hjaff more than that of individual states. The nations eventually integrated into a single union that sought stability. This government was politically a hierarchical system and was led by two political bodies, the continental leadership and the Keddek, an individual planetary leader. The continental leaders were three individuals, each representing one of Hjaff's three continents, who acted as advisers to the Keddek and assisted in carrying out the Keddek's rule. The Keddek was superior to the three leaders and had near full power over the entire species but had to obey the Hjaff constitution whilst ruling. If not, the continental leaders were expected to overthrow the ruler with their combined military strength and choose a replacement. All positions of leadership within the Tarc political system were held for eight standard years—the equivalent of ten of the Tarc's years—before a vote was taken to determine who would next hold the position. All Tarc were expected to vote in these elections; those who did not faced punishment normally in the form of a prison sentence or indentured servitude.
The Tarc possessed a zero-tolerance policy in relation to other species, something that could border on xenophobia, as they saw non-Tarc as a threat to their way of life. That was exacerbated by the Tarc mouth structure, which resulted in the Tarc language being spoken in a series of clicks and clacks from their mouth spikes accompanied by growls and grunts. Besides their own language, the lack of a tongue meant the Tarc could not speak Basic or most other languages, and so communication with other species was difficult. The space surrounding their homeworld in the Colonies was colonized and acted as a buffer between them and the rest of the galaxy, with the Tarc navy—the Ivlacav Gourn—destroying any starships that entered the region. The species attempted no further expansion beyond their defended region, and it was a crime for a Tarc to leave their home system without specific permission.
The Tarc originally evolved in the oceans of Hjaff before beginning to move onto the shores at an early stage in their development. Once on land, they moved evolutionarily further away from their aquatic origins and geographically deeper into the deserts that made up most of their homeworld. In such harsh conditions, the species developed complex tools to help them survive, and they soon advanced and spread across the planet. The early members of the Tarc species segregated into a large number of different nations of varying size and strength across the different continents of Hjaff. These nations each sought to defend their individual cultures and sovereignty and, as a result, often came into conflict with one another. After a long period of these various international wars, in which the Tarc's society and technology slowly developed, each nation gradually came to depend on the others as a global economy formed. Due to such interdependence, the Tarc nations eventually ceased to fight one another and integrated into a single union, lead by a global leader named the Keddek and a body of three continental leaders.
Shortly after the formation of the union, the Tarc began space exploration in the surrounding systems of their own Hjaff system. They colonized these regions, taking control of twenty systems and then encountering other sentient life. The Tarc were horrified but not shocked to discover alien life, but they interpreted such outsiders as a threat to their culture. The Tarc immediately retreated and ceased all space exploration, leaving their colonized systems as a buffer between them and the rest of the galaxy. Military outposts were built on many worlds at the edge of their region of colonized space, and the Tarc navy destroyed all intruders on sight.
Such policies led to a number of skirmishes between the Ivlacav Gourn and the Imperial Navy during the reign of the Galactic Empire. The Tarc won all such skirmishes, prompting Imperial Moff Joss Leskwin, who governed the region of space containing the Tarc-controlled systems, to form a strike force strong enough to take on the Tarc navy and engage the species in full-scale war. As the conflict escalated, some Tarc suggested that the species should seek aid from the Alliance to Restore the Republic, a rebel force simultaneously in conflict with the Empire in the Galactic Civil War. Those individuals believed the Tarc culture would be preserved better under Rebel control than that of the Empire. However, such Tarc had little political representation or influence.
Prominent Iyra Sentientologist Tem Eliss wrote an entry on the Tarc species in his book, The University of Sanbra Guide to Intelligent Life, during their conflict with the Empire. In the book he theorized that most likely the Abinyshi species, who inhabited the planet Inysh in the Inysh system close to Hjaff, were the first other sentient species the Tarc encountered. At the time of the book's writing, the Keddek on Hjaff was named Visacc.
Tarc in the galaxyEdit
Given that the Tarc were forbidden to leave their region of colonized space, very few were found in the rest of the galaxy. Due to the isolated nature of the Tarc and their inability to speak Basic, those Tarc who did leave Hjaff had an incredibly difficult time communicating with other beings, as almost no non-Tarc spoke their language. Given the restrictions on leaving their homeworld, most Tarc found away from Hjaff and its surrounding systems were outcasts or criminals and, as such, often came to work for criminal organizations. They usually found employment as bodyguards, enforcers, bounty hunters, and assassins, due to their intimidating appearance and strength. One such Tarc, active during the Galactic Civil War, was Fascyn, who became an assassin and bounty hunter as part of House Salaktori, the preeminent member house of the Bounty Hunters' Guild. Fascyn was personally selected by the house's CEO to join the organization, as all members were.
Behind the scenesEdit
The Tarc were created as a species for West End Games' Star Wars roleplaying game, with a detailed description of the race given in the fourteenth issue of the Star Wars Adventure Journal. The article, part of the Alien Encounters series, was written by Trevor J. Wilson and Craig Robert Carey, and published in 1997. The article included an illustration of a Tarc by Pablo Hidalgo and roleplaying attributes for the species that favored dexterity, strength, and perception, whilst granting the Tarc average scores in the remaining attributes. Some of the information from the article was then republished in Alien Encounters, a West End Games supplement book released in 1998 compiled by Paul Sudlow. The Tarc have received no other mention in Star Wars-related media save an entry for their homeworld, Hjaff, in The Complete Star Wars Encyclopedia, published in 2008 and written by Stephen J. Sansweet and Hidalgo.
- "Alien Encounters"—Star Wars Adventure Journal 14 (First mentioned)
- Alien Encounters
- The Complete Star Wars Encyclopedia, Vol. II ("Hjaff")
Notes and referencesEdit
- ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 "Alien Encounters"—Star Wars Adventure Journal 14, pp. 195–200
- ↑ 2.0 2.1
- ↑ The Complete Star Wars Encyclopedia, Vol. II, p. 45 ("Hjaff")
- ↑ "Alien Encounters"—Star Wars Adventure Journal 14, p. 186
- ↑ Galaxy Guide 10: Bounty Hunters, p. 99
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Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is the cornerstone of messaging interoperability across the Internet. Microsoft Exchange Server has always been able to send messages to other SMTP servers by using the Internet Mail Connector (IMC), an optional added-cost component for Exchange Server 4.0, and the Internet Mail Service (IMS), a standard component available to all Exchange Server 5.5 and 5.0 servers. Although anyone can now opt to install the IMS, SMTP connectivity isn't at the heart of earlier Exchange Server versions. The IMS is like any other connector to email systems (e.g., Lotus Notes, cc:Mail, IBM PROFS) and functions as a partner service to the X.400-based Message Transfer Agent (MTA), which makes all the decisions about how to route messages within an enterprise. Routing is a process that assesses the addresses in message headers and decides how best to transport the messages inside and outside a messaging system's boundaries. In Exchange Server 5.5 and earlier, the MTA performs this function. In Exchange 2000 Server (formerly code-named Platinum), a brand-new SMTP-based routing engine takes over.
The architecture that groups different connectors around the MTA goes back to the earliest designs for Exchange Server and reflects the position that X.400 once held as the standard for messaging interoperability. Currently, SMTP holds that position—specifically, the enhanced versions of SMTP that the major messaging systems now implement. SMTP is at the heart of Exchange 2000's message routing and will keep mail flowing during your migration from older Exchange Server systems.
Before Exchange 2000 hits the streets, you need to understand SMTP's history and evolution, its integration with Exchange Server, its role in routing and administration, and its future in the messaging realm. You also need to know how routing groups logically group servers together for the process of sending email. I've based this article's technical information on Exchange 2000 beta 3. The graphical appearance of the screens might change before the software's final release. However, the details about how routing works is unlikely to vary from what I describe.
SMTP's History and Evolution
In 1982, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) defined SMTP in Request for Comments (RFC) 821 and RFC 822. True to SMTP's name, the original protocol was simple and concentrated on the task of sending 7-bit plaintext messages across an IP link between a client and a server. Port 25 is the default port for all SMTP operations.
Since 1982, SMTP has evolved to accommodate the requirements of today's messaging environment. Not surprisingly, given the Internet's pace of change, evolution has been brisk in recent years. Extended SMTP (ESMTP) and Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension (MIME) are the two major advances that have enabled SMTP to deliver highly functional messaging systems.
ESMTP. ESMTP lets vendors add extensions to the basic SMTP service so that they can deal with different classes of messages or other functionality. Exchange Server 5.5 supports ESMTP also because it allows easier pickup of messages queued at ISP mail systems. You need this capability if you connect to the Internet through an ISP and aren't online all the time. The ISP holds messages for your domain until a connection exists, at which point you can instruct Exchange Server to fetch the messages for delivery to local recipients.
Earlier versions of Exchange Server support some ESMTP commands. (For more information about ESMTP, go to the Simpler-Webb Web site at http://www.swinc.com.) For example, to support SMTP over dial-up connections, Exchange Server 5.5 added the extended turn (ETRN) command extension, which also simplifies message dequeuing. (For more information about ETRN, check out http://www.exchangepop3.com/ep3/support.faq/r.faq.general.whynotuseetrn.html.) To support authenticated and encrypted connections between Exchange Server and other SMTP servers, Exchange Server 5.5 Service Pack 2 (SP2) and later versions added the AUTH=LOGIN, STARTTLS, and TLS extensions. To determine the level of ETRN support that an SMTP server offers, you can use Telnet to connect to port 25 and issue an EHLO command. The server responds with a list of keywords for the extensions it supports. Screen 1 shows the support that Exchange Server 5.5 SP2 offers, and Screen 2 shows the list that Exchange 2000 offers. The most important of these new extensions are CHUNKING, PIPELINING, Delivery Status Notification (DSN), and X-LINK2STATE (which I talk about later).
- CHUNKING supports streamed-mode data transfer, which means Exchange 2000 can send and receive messages in binary chunks rather than line by line. Older SMTP servers, including the IMS, process SMTP messages as if they were composed of lines of text instead of the complex structure of body parts (i.e., the pieces that make up a message) we see today. From a performance perspective, the ability to process message data on a binary basis is important—especially as attachments grow larger.
- PIPELINING also aids performance.
It lets the SMTP server issue a set of commands without pausing to wait for an acknowledgment from each command.
- DSN lets Exchange 2000 provide standard delivery and nondelivery notifications to users. These notifications replace some of the esoteric and cryptic content that Exchange Server 5.5 sends to users when messages fail to get through via the IMS.
MIME. Sending plaintext messages can be boring, especially in today's graphical age. Early encoding schemes such as UUencode let correspondents exchange attachments and formatted text, but these schemes typically weren't well integrated. Also, you needed to precisely configure the tags that different attachments used before you could confidently send an attachment that the recipient could understand.
MIME solves this configuration problem by establishing rules for the labeling and transmission of different data types within messages. Basically, MIME tells mail systems how to process body parts so that recipients see exactly what the sender intended. You're probably accustomed to using MIME to send items such as Microsoft Word documents and Microsoft PowerPoint presentations between companies. MIME is also the basis for the transmission of streaming data such as audio and video messages, which tend to be much larger than documents or presentations. A famous example is the 25GB Phantom Menace trailer, which caused many email systems to gasp for breath as users forwarded the trailer to friends.
Connector limitations can restrict the size of outgoing messages and stop users from sending such large attachments to other companies; however, circulating large attachments can stop or retard the flow of internal mail. Administrators justifiably worry about the impact that large messages have on systems and discourage people from sending large voice or video attachments. However, large attachments are the way of the future. You can only expect to see an increasing number of large attachments floating around your network.
SMTP and Exchange 2000
Microsoft built Exchange 2000 on the premise that SMTP is the basic protocol for all server-to-server communications—a radical departure from previous implementations, which use remote procedure calls (RPCs) for most server-to-server communications. The move away from RPCs is welcome. When they work, RPCs are great, but they require a lot of bandwidth to work effectively all the time. When RPCs don't work, large message queues can accumulate very quickly. Moving away from RPCs is part of Exchange 2000's general tendency to replace proprietary Microsoft protocols with Internet protocols. Exchange 2000 uses RPCs only when connecting to a downstream server in a mixed-mode organization. (A mixed-mode organization supports both Exchange 2000 and earlier servers.) This use is logical, because RPC is the only protocol that provides guaranteed availability across every version of Exchange Server.
In earlier versions of Exchange Server, you needed to separately install and configure SMTP support. By contrast, SMTP automatically installs on all Exchange 2000 servers. Indeed, every Windows 2000 (Win2K) server installs a basic SMTP service that lets applications send data between servers. Win2K uses this capability to replicate Active Directory (AD) information between Win2K sites. After you install Exchange 2000, the basic SMTP service extends with new capabilities, including support for mailboxes and the advanced queuing mechanism. Technically, Exchange 2000 upgrades the SMTP service to support Collaboration Data Objects (CDO) 3.0 instead of 2.0. Among the other changes, the advanced queuing mechanism allows the implementation of mailbox and connector restrictions. Installing the first Exchange 2000 server in a forest updates the AD schema to support the additional attributes that these restrictions require. In addition to the mailbox quotas that Exchange Server 5.5 supports, you can now stipulate that a connector is available only to specific users or barred to others, or that messages of a certain size can travel across a connector only at specific times.
The fact that Exchange 2000 extends Win2K's basic SMTP service illustrates the tight integration between the OS and the messaging server. Whereas Exchange Server 5.5 and Windows NT have a close relationship, Exchange 2000 and Win2K connect at many different points at a lower level. This weave of interconnections complicates systems administration and places a premium on attention to detail. To manage an Exchange 2000 system successfully, you must be aware of all of the dependencies and linkages. Screen 3 shows that the SMTP service depends on Microsoft Internet Information Server (IIS), the Exchange Server Information Store (IS), and Exchange System Attendant services. Problems that occur with IIS or the IS might affect the SMTP service. Likewise, if the SMTP service experiences difficulties, you probably won't be able to send messages between your server and other Exchange servers, or to the outside world. An SMTP malfunction will also affect other applications. For example, because replication between Win2K sites can occur through SMTP messages, AD intersite replication might stop working if you misconfigure SMTP on a domain controller.
Through IIS 5.0, Win2K implements virtual server support for a selection of Internet protocols, including HTTP, SMTP, POP3, and Internet Message Access Protocol 4 (IMAP4). Think of a virtual server as a combination of a protocol, port number, and configuration data. Multiple virtual servers can run on one physical computer, so you can now run multiple SMTP virtual servers on one Exchange 2000 server. The default virtual server will connect to port 25, but you could equally assign other virtual servers to use other ports and then use those virtual servers to handle email going to different domains. This important piece of functionality lets Exchange 2000 support many different email domains on one server, which is something that ISPs need to do all the time. Additionally, Exchange 2000 supports multiple SMTP connectors on a virtual server. Think of IMS as an SMTP connector. Today, you can run only one SMTP connector on a physical computer, but with Exchange 2000 you can configure multiple connectors, each for a specific purpose. For example, you might configure one connector to route messages to internal systems and another to send all external mail and direct that external mail through a SmartHost system, where a virus checker checks messages before they go to the Internet.
Exchange Server 5.5 groups servers into sites—one or more servers connected in a common management unit that uses LAN-quality bandwidth. You connect sites to form an organization, a management unit that shares a common directory and configuration. The organization concept remains in Exchange 2000. Only one Exchange 2000 organization can exist in a Win2K forest because servers now share configuration data through AD's configuration naming context.
Win2K uses the term site to describe a collection of servers that share a common network—in this case, one or more IP subnets define the network. Win2K sites are far more tied to the underlying network than Exchange Server 5.5 sites are. I doubt we'll see a Win2K site that spans the world, but I know of several successfully implemented Exchange Server worldwide sites. (For more information, see Ian Tweedie, "Global Site," July 1999.) Win2K sites don't have the same profound administrative effect that sites have in Exchange Server 5.5, in which a site marks the boundary for administrative, security, and replication operations.
Administrative groups and routing groups replace Exchange Server 5.5 sites. An administrative group sets the boundary for management operations. The administrator manages all the servers in an administrative group according to common policies, which might remind you of the way servers in an Exchange Server 5.5 site share settings (e.g., default site addressing). Routing groups define how messages flow between an organization's servers. Each server in a routing group can make a point-to-point connection to another server on a demand basis in exactly the same way that servers connect in an Exchange Server 5.5 site. In mixed-mode organizations, one administrative group and one routing group represent each Exchange Server site. In mixed mode, Exchange 2000 pretends that it uses the site model. Because older servers don't understand the division between administration and routing, Exchange 2000 must mimic the site structure. Later, when all servers are running Exchange 2000, you can switch the organization into native mode and split the groups to form a different structure.
Sites work extremely well in small organizations in which administrators typically monitor management and routing. However, large enterprises often have teams to take care of server management and the email backbone. The good news is that you can manage Exchange 2000 in the same way that you manage Exchange Server 5.5, if those procedures make sense for your company. But Exchange 2000 gives you greater management granularity by letting you allocate responsibilities to different teams. Greater granularity in systems administration is a theme throughout Win2K. Microsoft designed the Microsoft Management Console (MMC) framework so that you can build customized consoles by assembling snap-ins that meet specific needs.
Many large companies operate multiple levels of support from their Help desk. The Help desk, in turn, takes the support calls to backup support, which might take complex problems directly to Microsoft support. Exchange Server 5.5 provides one tool that everyone can use—the Microsoft Exchange Administrator program. Certainly, a single all-in-one tool is convenient. However, why should someone who simply changes users' directory information have access to a tool that administrators who configure complex components such as X.400 or SMTP connectors use?
Screen 4 shows the Exchange 2000 System Manager, an MMC console comprising several snap-ins that is the closest thing you'll find to Exchange Administrator. The fact that you can allocate the snap-ins to different groups makes granularity possible. The screen shows the relationship between administrative groups and routing groups. An administrative group typically has a broader range and scope than a routing group. In this example, three administrative groups manage a worldwide deployment, and each administrative group has one or more routing groups. The QEMEA (European) Administrative Group spans four routing groups (i.e., France, Germany, Ireland, and Valbonne).
All the servers inside a routing group can communicate with one another automatically. The same situation exists in an Exchange Server 5.5 site, but the servers communicate differently. Remember that Exchange Server 5.5 servers use RPCs, whereas Exchange 2000 servers use SMTP and connect to the standard port 25. Another basic difference between Exchange Server 5.5 and Exchange 2000 is that directory replication generates much of the intrasite traffic between Exchange Server 5.5 servers, whereas the vast majority of email that users send between Exchange 2000 servers is interpersonal communication. Exchange 2000 sends a small amount of data to update servers about the state of the network, but this data represents far less overhead than the overhead of a site's directory replication. Directory replication is now AD's responsibility.
Connecting Routing Groups
You can use the Routing Group Connector (RGC), the SMTP connector, or the X.400 connector to connect routing groups. In some respects, the RGC is the equivalent of Exchange Server 5.5's RPC-based Site Connector. The RGC is easy to set up and configure and is typically the connector of choice. Unlike the Site Connector, the RGC offers you a finer degree of control over the servers that participate in routing. The Site Connector lets you select all servers in a site or a nominated bridgehead server to handle traffic for the site. The RGC lets you nominate as many servers as you want to act as a bridgehead. The RGC also lets you restrict the connector to particular users, define the priority of traffic across the connector (i.e., high, medium, or low), and determine the connector's availability. You can also establish a schedule to control when large messages go across the connector, so you can prevent large attachments from interfering with typical business traffic.
The RGC handles only SMTP traffic and runs under the context of an SMTP virtual server. The RGC is a unidirectional connector, and you must configure both sides of the connection before messages can flow both ways. However, if you have permission to perform administrative operations in the target routing group, you can set up both sides of the connection in one step.
Screen 5 shows the properties of an RGC linking the Ireland routing group with the Valbonne routing group. The Do not allow public folder referrals check box is important. By default, the check box is cleared; therefore, users can connect to public folder replicas on a server in another routing group across this connector. In Exchange 2000, referrals replace Exchange Server 5.5's concept of public folder affinity, and routing groups now achieve the notion of control that sites and locations (or subsites) previously accomplished. When users attempt to access a public folder, Exchange 2000 first attempts to refer the users to a replica of the public folder that resides on the same server as their mailbox. If a replica is unavailable, Exchange 2000 then refers the users to another server within the users' routing group. If a replica is still unavailable, Exchange 2000 attempts to refer the users to a replica of the public folder that resides in a routing group across the lowest-cost connector. Each connector has a cost (i.e., from 1 to 100) that rates the expense (in network terms) of connecting to a target bridgehead. Lower values indicate a preferred route. In the case of the RGC that Screen 5 shows, the cost of the connector is 1, the lowest possible value. This connector is a preferred route to a public folder replica if the replica is available in the Valbonne routing group.
The RGC uses SMTP, so why do we need a separate SMTP connector? The answer is simple—Exchange 2000 is still a small presence in the SMTP world. People want to communicate with other domains that use SMTP, and they'd like to do so in as functional a manner as possible.
Like the RGC, the SMTP connector runs under the context of an SMTP virtual server. The RGC uses the Exchange 2000 configuration data in AD to route messages, whereas the SMTP connector uses standard SMTP routing techniques such as the mail exchanger (MX) records in DNS. Therefore, whenever you want to route messages to a SmartHost system, use MX records as the basis for routing, or simply send messages outside Exchange Server (including to the IMS running on older Exchange servers), you need to use an SMTP connector.
Screen 6 shows an SMTP connector in action. This connector sends all messages to smarthost.compaq.com. Smart hosts are mail servers that often act as central collection and dispatch points for an enterprise's SMTP mail. Bringing messages together to a central point before they leave the company lets you check the messages for viruses and profanity. Smart hosts also let you verify that users are complying with company standards (e.g., attaching disclaimer text on messages, refraining from sending classified information to external correspondents). MIMEsweeper (http://www.mimesweeper.com) is a popular example of software that runs on smart hosts.
Setting up the connector to route all mail to a smart host is one step toward control. You can achieve finer control through the SMTP connector's Address Space property sheet, which is where you define the SMTP domains that Exchange 2000 can reach through the connector. The default setting is an asterisk (*), which means that Exchange 2000 can reach all domains. However, in some cases, you might want Exchange 2000 to handle a specific domain's messages in a certain manner. Screen 7 shows the address space configured for a specific domain (i.e., compaq.com). With this configuration, the connector can only handle messages addressed to a recipient in compaq.com; all other messages must find another route. At the bottom of the dialog box in Screen 7, you can see how Exchange 2000 controls the connector scope. Exchange Server 5.5 introduced the Connector scope feature, which restricts the availability of a connector to other servers. In Exchange Server 5.5, you can restrict a connector to servers at a location, site, or the organization. In Exchange 2000, you can restrict either to the routing group or the organization. In Screen 7, the connector is available only to the servers in the local routing group.
Link State Routing
A connector is simply a link between a routing group and another set of systems. Multiple routing groups and connectors can operate within a company. Therefore, to foster effective decision-making about message routing, you need a mechanism that informs all the servers about these other servers and connectors.
To maintain a list of all possible routes within an organization, Exchange Server 5.5 uses the Gateway Address Routing Table (GWART). A server called the Relative Identifier (RID) master (typically the first server you install in a site) builds the GWART nightly, using information replicated around the organization. The other servers in the site automatically share the GWART. Thus, every server in a site has a common understanding of the available connectors and the best way to route messages.
Exchange Server has used this mechanism since 1996. The GWART is fairly successful, but its nondynamic nature is a major drawback. The GWART works best when the network is stable and servers and connectors are available in a predictable manner. If inoperative connectors introduce a level of unpredictability into the routing equation, the GWART loses some of its effectiveness and the potential for misrouting grows. Misrouting doesn't result in lost messages. However, misrouting can send messages down paths that might lead to a dead end. Such an occurrence requires you to reroute the messages so that they can reach their final destination. Rerouting is expensive and slows message delivery, so you need to avoid it.
We can't all have a wonderfully stable network environment, so we need to move toward a more dynamic way of updating servers about the current state of the network and the routes that are available to send messages. Exchange 2000 uses Link State Routing. LSR lets servers update one another about changes that occur to network links or connectors. Information about those changes broadcasts quickly to other routing groups so that their picture of the network is current.
Imagine that a network error causes a connection to a routing group to fail. After 60 seconds, the bridgehead server makes a second attempt to contact the bridgehead server in the remote routing group to determine whether the fault is a temporary glitch. If the connection fails, the bridgehead server tries twice more before concluding that the problem is persistent. The server marks the link as down and establishes a connection (using port 3044) to the Routing Group Master. Each routing group nominates a Routing Group Master to collect updates from the servers in the routing group and also to collect updates from other routing groups. With that information, the Routing Group Master builds a Link State Table (LST), which represents the current state of the routing network. The Routing Group Master is typically the first server you install into a routing group, but you can easily use the Exchange System Manager console to transfer this role, as Screen 8 shows.
After the Routing Group Master receives the update about the inoperative link, it adjusts its LST and broadcasts details about the new LST to all the routing group's servers. Once again, communication takes place through port 3044 using a special protocol called LSA, which Microsoft developed for this purpose. Exchange 2000 uses an ESMTP extension called X-LINK2STATE to send link-state updates between routing groups across the RGC and SMTP connectors. Exchange 2000 sends updates between bridgehead servers, which then pass the updates to the Routing Group Master in the local routing group. Exchange 2000 can also send updates in the form of application-specific data across X.400 connectors. The passed data is highly compressed, so Exchange 2000 needs only a matter of seconds to pass the information and create a new LST for the routing group. The addition of new servers or the creation of new connectors also initiates link-state updates.
Link-state updates ripple quickly through an organization. The aim is to reach every server in an organization within a matter of minutes—rather than hours or days, as can happen today. Updates travel as quickly as messages move between servers. Because Exchange 2000 needs to transfer so little data, link-state updates typically move across extended links before administrators realize that a problem exists.
The Future of Messaging
I've only scratched the surface of Exchange 2000's new technology. In addition to the split between administration and routing, the messaging system offers a host of settings that you can apply to the SMTP service and its virtual servers to make messages flow. Also, to link the servers in an Exchange Server organization together, we have a set of new connectors. If that weren't enough, the topic of link-state routing is substantial enough to warrant a separate discussion in its own right.
Above all, the fact that Exchange 2000 is very different from its predecessors is clear. Given that Exchange 2000 can run only on Win2K and that you must have a solid infrastructure in place before you deploy your first Exchange 2000 server, your knowledge of how SMTP works with Exchange 2000 might take time. However, you need to understand now that SMTP is just one of the close dependencies that exist between Win2K and Exchange 2000. SMTP represents the future of message routing in Exchange Server.Corrections to this Article:
- When Exchange 2000 and SMTP identifies what the acronym RID stands for, it cites the Active Directory (AD) term rather than the Exchange term. In the context of the article, RID stands for Routing Information Daemon, not Relative Identifier.
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How much power do you think your words hold? After commemorating the life of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. yesterday, we will focus today on an aspect of his life in which he excelled: giving powerful, life-changing speeches.
The greatest speakers throughout history have used a combination of vocabulary, sentence structure, grammar, and - for today's lesson - figurative language to move their listeners to action. We've already seen powerful examples of figurative language in our book, and we'll look at some real-examples today.
1. Your first task is to refresh in your mind the major types of figurative language. Do that by going to the link below:
2. Second, in your books, read Eli Wiesel's Nobel Prize acceptance speech. Note the figurative language he uses in his speech. Leave comments that give an example of figurative language he used and explains them. (I have left an example)
3. Look for the following types of figurative language.
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When industrialisation began, little thought was given to its ecological effect. Raw, untreated sewage was allowed to pollute the seas and rivers. Animals were killed for the profit to the point of extinction. The loss of trees through uncontrolled deforestation caused erosion and unstable climate.
Acid rain was caused by poisonous gasses man sent into our atmosphere. Chemicals in pesticides killed animal life. Herbicides destroyed plants. The balance of nature was disturbed.
It is only now we are waking up to the problem. More natural, organic farming is advocated. Legislation controls the disposal waste products into our air and water. Wildlife organisations are becoming more militant in their fight for animal rights. Replanting policies in some part of the world means that our forests should in future be sustainable. We can only hope that growing public awareness and enlightened legislation will produce a new world which is safe for us and will provide a good quality for our future generations.
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His Highness Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, the mujaddid (reviver) of the year Hijri 1300, who devoted his entire life to communicate the message of Islam and call people to live by the morality of the Qur’an and worked, with all his might and main, to establish the Unity of Islam, was born in the village of Nurs , Hizan Province of Bitlis on March 12, 1878.
His Highness Said Nursi was exemplary in giving a sincere struggle on the path of Allah at every moment of his life. His profound knowledge in religious and positive sciences he learned at an early age was acclaimed by the scholars of his time, and due to his sharp intelligence, strong memory and superior abilities, he was called by the name “Bediuzzaman”, meaning “The most unique, superior person of the time.”
Bediuzzaman Said Nursi arrived at Istanbul in 1907 in order to get permission for a university he was planning to found which he called Madrasah al-Zahra, which would provide education both in religious and educational sciences in order to resolve the problems of education in the East, something he considered to be the most urgent need of the region. With his profound knowledge he was also accepted in a very short time by the scientific community of Istanbul. His various articles were published in newspapers and magazines, and he also lent support to the government by participating in arguments about freedom and constitutional monarchy. Despite this however, the government of the time felt unease about the interest scholars, pupils, madrasa instructors and politicians in Istanbul showed to him. For this reason, he was first sent to a mental hospital and then to prison.
Although he played a unifying role with his articles and speeches following his release, he was unjustly accused and arrested in 1909 on claims that he had participated in the March 31st Incident. He was put on trial for his life but subsequently acquitted.
Following this incident, Bediuzzaman returned to the East. During the First World War, he established a militia force, together with his followers, and played an active role in the defense of the country. During this war he showed great success as the voluntary regiment commander;, ultimately he was taken as a prisoner of war by the Russians. At the end of three years of captivity, he, by Allah’s will, managed to escape from captivity, and secretly returned to Istanbul.
Statesmen and scholarly circles in Istanbul met Bediuzzaman with great interest. He was assigned to the membership of Dar al-Hiqmad al-Islamiyya, the Academy of Islam. With the salary he received, he started to publish and distribute his books for free. Then Said Nursi prepared a cautionary booklet titled, The Six Wiles of satan that revealed invading forces’ real intentions, which, upon an order issued by the commander of the invading forces, caused him to be wanted dead or alive.
He ardently advocated and supported the National Struggle. Mustafa Kemal Ataturk personally invited him to Ankara, where he was welcomed by a state ceremony on his arrival. He was offered the posts of deputyship, the Public Ministry of the Eastern Provinces, and Directorate of Religious Affairs but, as a person who was aware of the transitory nature of worldly posts. and only desired the life of the Hereafter, he rejected them outright and always remained distant to politics.
When the Sheikh Said rebellion erupted in 1925, although he had no connection with the incident, Said Nursi was taken from Van province where he secluded himself and was exiled to Burdur, and then to the Barla district of Isparta. Bediuzzaman wrote a great part of his work the Risale-i Nur Collection in this period of exile.
In 1934, some circles, who realized that the Risale-i Nur Collection was the toughest barrier against the Darwinist-materialist mindset, wanted him to be brought to the center of Isparta in order to have stricter control over him. Sukru Kaya, the Interior Minister of the time, made a statement in the Cumhuriyet daily on May 10, 1935, which groundlessly accused him of irrational slanders such as declaring his prophecy, deceiving naive young people and taking their money, and obscurantism. Upon this, a search was carried out in Said Nursi’s home, and all of his books were confiscated, although there was nothing unlawful in them. He was taken into custody and questioned but, seeing that his works had constituted no element of crime, he was released. A few days later, the acting Interior Minister and General Commander of the Gendarmerie arrived at Isparta together with a fully equipped squadron, deployed soldiers all along the Isparta-Afyon highway, and took Isparta and its vicinity under control. Then in the morning, Bediuzzaman, who had no intention other than serving in Allah’s way, was taken out of his home, handcuffed, and, together with his followers, transported to Eskisehir by military trucks. All through his trial he was kept in custody. Then, upon the verdict of Eskisehir High Criminal Court’s decision, he was sentenced to 11 months imprisonment, together with compulsory residence in Kastamonu. Each of his fifteen followers were also sentenced to six months imprisonment.
Bediuzzaman was brought to Kastamonu for compulsory residence, and forced to reside in the upper floor of the security headquarters. Then he was relocated to another apartment just a few meters away from the security headquarters. He was not even allowed to close his curtains. The exile in Kastamonu continued for eight years.
Bediuzzaman, who was brought to Kastamonu for compulsory residence under police custody, was arrested once again upon the order issued by the Isparta prosecutor in 1943. Despite his severe illness, he was taken to Ankara, and then by train to Isparta. Upon merger of the files of the cases related to the Risale-i Nur Collection with the case in Denizli, he was sent to Denizli. The imprisonment in Denizli again started under isolation. During the imprisonment and trial stages that took place under very hard conditions, Bediuzzaman continued to write the Risale-i Nur. Despite his acquittal and release in 1944, the government of the time ordered Said Nursi to be subjected to compulsory residence in the Emirdağ district of Afyon.
Bediuzzaman was placed in a room across from the government building and kept under constant surveillance. He was disallowed to even go to mosque in order to prevent him from talking to people. The exile in Denizli, where he was continuously kept under custody, took place under more severe conditions than his imprisonment in Denizli. During this period his opponents, who were unable to render him ineffective by resorting to lawful methods, tried to martyr him by poisoning. Throughout his life, Said Nursi survived 23 attempts of poisoning ,and three of these attempts were made during his exile in Emirdag.
While all this oppression was taking place, the Risale-i Nur Collection was copied by Bediuzzaman’s followers with great zeal, and thus the message of the Qur’an was communicated to masses. Especially with the use of mimeographs, these works were carried out more rapidly.
With the Supreme Court’s approval of the acquittal verdict given by the High Criminal Court of Denizli in 1944, Bediuzzaman was released. However, the Risale-i Nur Collection’s becoming widespread started to make certain circles feel uneasy. In January 1948, Said Nursi and fifteen of his followers were taken from their houses and workplaces to the prison in Afyon; despite all these hard conditions, Bediuzzaman did not cease to write his works.
In December 1948, Bediuzzaman Said Nursi was sentenced to 20 years imprisonment, but it was appealed and decided in favor of him. However, despite this verdict of the Supreme Court, the High Criminal Court of Afyon extended the trial and ensured that he spent 20 months in prison. Said Nursi spent this duration of the penalty he did not deserve as a prisoner, and then he was released in September 1949. But upon an order issued by the authorities in Ankara, he was subjected to compulsory residence in Afyon, and he could only return to Emirdag in December.
In 1951 a case in Emirdağ, and just a year later another case in Istanbul, was opened against Bediuzzaman due to his book titled, “The Guide for the Youth.” In the trial made in Istanbul, the court made a decision in favor of him, and closed the case.
He was subject to scores of incomprehensible slanders including allegedly being insane, taking women to his house, drinking raki (an anise-flavored liquor), and exploiting religion for his personal interests, but he was acquitted of all these accusations.
In January 1960, because his entrance to Ankara was prevented by the police, he went to Isparta. His Highness Said Nursi, who was very sick and now 83 years old , went to Urfa together with his followers. His sickness made him unable to walk, but still the police tried to take him back to Isparta upon the order of the Interior Minister. While this oppression persisted, Bediuzzaman passed away.
Bediuzzaman, who spent 30 years of his life in prisons and exile, spent all his life under these harsh conditions to advocate the Unity of Islam. As result of the works Bediuzzaman and his loyal followers, carried out with great sacrifice and suffering, the morality of Islam founded on love, and represented by the Risale-i Nur Collection took root in Anatolia, by the leave of Allah. In the words of Bediuzzaman, it is impossible “for anyone to eradicate it from the heart of Anatolia.”
Bediuzzaman Said Nursi who said; “Do not be afraid! I broke the back of irreligion. It can no longer reign in this country!” spent his life, which lasted almost a century, in exile or prison under great oppression and challenges. Despite these harsh conditions, he never once swerved from his faith, determination and resolution. In his work titled, Booklet of Fruits, he stated that he considered prison as a madrasa thusly:
"...Although I cannot bear the slightest betrayal and domination from of old; I oathfully reassure you that, the light and strength of my faith in the Hereafter has granted me such patience, perseverance, consolation and resolution, and it has granted me such a zeal to earn a greater reward in this profitable trial that, as I said earlier in this booklet, I see myself in a fine and good madrasa (school) deserving the title of Madrasa al-Yusufiya.” (Risale-i Nur Collection, 11th Beam of Light, Booklet of Fruit, p.226)
I take refuge in Allah from the accursed Satan
Those who do good will have the best and more! Neither dust nor debasement will darken their faces. They are the Companions of the Garden, remaining in it timelessly, for ever. (SurahYunus, 26)2011-07-03 15:26:11
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The world's first cancer sniffing dog is set to save more lives. The black Labrador known as Marine is to be cloned in South Korea at the end of this month.
Marine was first trained to sniff human cancer cells in the St. Sugar Cancer Sniffing Dog Training Centre, Japan. Unfortunately, Marine couldn't reproduce herself as disease resulted in the removal of her womb.
If all goes well, early detection of cancer will take a whole new turn...
Cloning Cancer Sniffing Dogs
More Stats +/-
Olympic Edition Smartphones
Squared-Shaped Electric Skateboards
Canine-Centered Kid's Books
Smart Restaurant Platforms
Bacteria-Ridden Probiotic Ads
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EDGU1001 Creativity, Youth Culture and the Arts
Credit points: 6 Teacher/Coordinator: Prof Michael Anderson Session: Semester 1 Classes: 1x2-hr lecture or performance/wk for 10 wks, 1x1-hr online task/wk for 10 wks, 1x2-hr seminar/wk for 6 wks Assessment: online discussion (20%) and case study analysis (30%) and creative work (50%) Mode of delivery: Normal (lecture/lab/tutorial) day
This unit explores the place of creativity and the arts in youth culture and society more broadly. Throughout this unit students will be given the opportunity to engage with ideas of creativity through performances and interactive tutorials and workshops. Students will also explore theoretical, sociological, psychological and political constructs of, and approaches to creativity and how they apply to their own developing creative capacities. This unit engages arts and artmakers by exploring performances and the creative processes behind those performances. The assessment tasks also allow students to make their own creative pieces.
EDGU1002 Youth and Digital Culture
Credit points: 6 Teacher/Coordinator: Dr Jon Callow Session: Semester 2 Classes: 1x2-hr lecture/wk for 10 wks,2x2-hr media workshops, 7x2-hr tutorials, 7-hrs online learning Assessment: online posts (25%), 1250wd event reflection (25%), multimedia project (50%) Mode of delivery: Normal (lecture/lab/tutorial) day
What role does digital media play in society and culture? How does it shape young people's experiences, values, and learning opportunities? This unit examines the ways in which the lives of children and young adults are shaped by digital culture. By examining this process in historical and contemporary contexts, students will gain insight into how identity is shaped by practices such as social networking, videogame playing, and digital authoring.
EDGU1003 Diet and Nutrition for Health and Sport
Credit points: 6 Teacher/Coordinator: Dr Wayne Cotton Session: Semester 1,Semester 2,Summer Main Classes: 1x2-hr lecture/wk for 12 wks, 1x1-hr tutorial/wk for 12 wks Assessment: multiple choice quizzes (4x15%) and 2000wd dietary analysis assignment (40%) Mode of delivery: Normal (lecture/lab/tutorial) day
Nutrition is important for physical growth and health throughout the human lifespan, during pregnancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and the senior years. Nutrition is a crucial factor in sports performance and athletic endeavours, because food is used as fuel for physical activity. Diet and nutrition affect body composition, the day to day functioning of the human body and nutrition also affects the brain and cognitive performance. Students in this unit of study will be able to analyse the content and quality of their own diet and make informed decisions concerning foods, nutrients and supplements to optimise their daily nutrient intake and physical performance.
EDGU1004 Young People, Sex and Sexual Health
Credit points: 6 Teacher/Coordinator: Dr Wayne Cotton Session: Semester 1 Classes: 1x2-hr lecture/wk, 1x1-hr tutorial/wk Assessment: online tasks (10%, 20%), essay (30%) and examination (40%) Mode of delivery: Normal (lecture/lab/tutorial) day
Sex and sexuality are concepts that generate much debate across educational, health and other institutional settings. These debates are mediated by historical perceptions of sex, sexuality, childhood and youth, and by complex social and cultural factors that shape contemporary living. Constructions of childhood, youth and sexuality shape approaches and pedagogies of sexual health in schools and other educational settings. This unit will critically consider sex, sexuality and understandings of sexual health from a range of historical, sociological, psychological, educational and public health perspectives. Students will explore how these varied approaches construct and constrain young people's sexual identities and shape approaches to sexual health education. Throughout the unit students examine the complex intersections between sex and sexuality and issues of gender, race, ethnicity, socio-economic status, social class, religion, geographic locatedness, asking how these relationships limit or enable young people's access to knowledge and their citizenship rights.
EDGU1005 Sports Coaching: Theory and Practice
Credit points: 6 Teacher/Coordinator: Assoc Prof Donna O'Connor Session: Semester 1,Semester 2 Classes: 1x2-hr lecture/wk for 6 wks, 1x1-hr tutorial/wk for 6 wks, 1x1-hr lecture/wk for 6 wks, 1x2-hr tutorial/wk for 6 wks Assessment: online quizzes (25%), 1000wd coaching plan (10%), practical coaching session (35%), 1750wd coaching reflection, evaluation report (30%), Community Coaching General Principles online course (Pass/Fail) Mode of delivery: Normal (lecture/lab/tutorial) day
This course introduces students to the theoretical and practical aspects of sport and exercise coaching. Through active participation in lectures, tutorials and practical workshops, students will learn how to create a positive sporting environment by utilizing athlete centred coaching strategies. Students will also learn how to evaluate and improve their own coaching performance by applying reflective and evaluative skills. Topics covered include coaching, training and management principles, coaching pedagogy, planning, skill learning and sports psychology. Students will also complete the beginning coaching general principles course. At the completion of this unit it is hoped that students are more confident and knowledgeable in their coaching practice.
Martens, R. (2012). Successful Coaching. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
EDGU1006 Texts and Expectations
Credit points: 6 Teacher/Coordinator: Dr Marie Stevenson Session: Semester 2 Classes: 1 x 1 hour lecture for 12 weeks, 1 x 2 hour seminar or equivalent in blended learning for 12 weeks. Assessment: 2000wd Reading task (50%), 2500wd Writing task (50%) Mode of delivery: Normal (lecture/lab/tutorial) day
What does the university expect of students in relation to texts? When students start university they are often confronted with reading requirements and written assessment tasks that are quite different from the ones they encountered in high school or other contexts This unit is designed to support students in developing literacy practices that are expected in the university context. The unit has three main objectives. Firstly, it provides students with strategies to understand the academic context within which they are reading and writing. Secondly, it develops students? awareness of the structure and language features of different kinds of academic texts. Thirdly, it provides students with strategies to read and write academic texts more effectively. The unit provides a solid foundation that students can use to further develop effective academic literacy practices during the course of their studies.
EDGU2000 Teaching English Internationally 1
Credit points: 6 Teacher/Coordinator: Katherine Olston Session: Semester 1,Semester 2,Summer Main Classes: 1x3-hr seminar/wk for 12 wks Prerequisites: 48 credit points of units Prohibitions: EDSE5014 Assessment: Micro-teaching (35%), Language Analysis (5%), contributions to online discussion (10%), Reflective Lesson Observation Report (20%) and Portfolio of Activities (30%) Mode of delivery: Normal (lecture/lab/tutorial) day
The rapid expansion of English as a global language has led to a demand for graduates across a range of disciplines to have skills and expertise in English language teaching. This unit aims to introduce the theory and practice of teaching English both in Australia to international students and overseas in a range of primary, secondary and tertiary contexts. The unit is run in conjunction with the Centre for English Teaching and involves lectures by CET staff and lesson observations.
Harmer, J. (2007) The practice of English language teaching (With DVD). Pearson Longman, UK.
EDGU3000 Teaching English Internationally 2
Credit points: 6 Teacher/Coordinator: Daniel Bruce Session: Semester 1,Semester 2,Summer Late Classes: 1x3-hr seminar/wk for 12 wks Prerequisites: 48 credit points of units, including EDGU2000 Prohibitions: EDSE5014 Assessment: Mirco-teaching (40%), contributions to online discussion (10%), reflective lesson observation report (20%) and Portfolio of activities (30%) Mode of delivery: Normal (lecture/lab/tutorial) day
This unit aims to introduce the theory and practice of teaching English both in Australia to international students and overseas in a range of primary, secondary and tertiary contexts. The unit is run in conjunction with the Centre for English Teaching and involves lectures by CET staff and lesson observations. The focus is on developing participants' ability to plan and program teaching in a range of macro-skills, to undertake testing and needs analysis and to develop intercultural skills and understandings.
Harmer, J. (2007) The practice of English language teaching (With DVD). Pearson Longman, UK.
EDUF1018 Education, Teachers and Teaching
Credit points: 6 Teacher/Coordinator: Dr Remy Low Session: Semester 1 Classes: 2x1-hr lectures/wk for 12wks, 1x1-hr tutorial/wk for 12 wks, 1x1-hr mentoring seminar/wk for 7 wks Prohibitions: EDUF1011 Assessment: 2000wd essay (35%), 2000wd essay (35%), seminar presentation (30%) Mode of delivery: Normal (lecture/lab/tutorial) day
This unit of study is the first part of Education I and provides a general introduction to education and teaching. The unit integrates the following themes: knowledge, culture and the curriculum; teaching as a process and way of life; and, teachers as life-long learners and researchers. Within this unit, students are also mentored by more experienced students during their first semester transition to the university. At the conclusion of the unit students should have developed and demonstrated an understanding of the complex character of teachers' work.
EDUF1019 Human Development and Education
Credit points: 6 Teacher/Coordinator: Dr Minkang Kim Session: Semester 2 Classes: 2x1-hr lectures/wk for 12 wks, 1x1-hr tutorial/wk for 12 wks Prohibitions: EDUF1012 Assessment: (all parts compulsory) 30min seminar presentation (30%) and 2000wd reflective report (30%) and 2400wd essay (40%) Mode of delivery: Normal (lecture/lab/tutorial) day
This unit, which is the second part of Education I introduces students to the study of human development, with a particular emphasis on the development of early childhood through to adolescence. The unit addresses one of the major goals of Education I, II and III: the learning of a body of knowledge on 'human development (child and adolescent in particular)'. It is premised on the view that development is a complex and dynamic process and that teaching from this developmental perspective inevitably transforms teachers into problem solvers who adapt and modify their teaching and learning approaches, based on knowledge of factors that promote each child's optimal development. The unit will also consider the impact of history, culture, and social context on learning and development. A core assumption of the unit is that the study of human development is cross disciplinary; involving in particular psychology, philosophy of science and neurobiology, and that existing developmental theories are open to question and continuing debate. Students are therefore encouraged to engage in this study with critical and creative minds. The unit focuses on the processes and products of human development, related to cognitive, emotional, social, moral and spiritual, motor, and language development. The classical theories will be considered in some detail and examined in the light of contemporary theory and research, drawing in particular on Dynamic Systems Theory and the neurobiology of the brain.
EDUF2006 Educational Psychology
Credit points: 6 Teacher/Coordinator: Dr Paul Ginns Session: Semester 1 Classes: 1x2-hr lecture/wk for 12 wks, 1x1-hr tutorial/wk for 12 wks Prerequisites: (EDUF1018 and EDUF1019) or 30 junior credit points Assessment: 3 concept map quizzes (20%), 2000wd essay (40%), 1500wd per member group report (30%) with peer evaluations (10%) Mode of delivery: Normal (lecture/lab/tutorial) day
This unit of study is the first part of Education II. Its aim is to provide a general introduction to educational psychology. The important issues of the unit include constructivist and other approaches to learning, critical thinking skills, problem solving, technologically supported learning and motivation. This unit plays an important role in supporting later teaching and curriculum studies in the Bachelor of Education degree. At the end of this unit of study, students will have made substantial progress towards understanding the utility of research in psychology for educators. They will have the capacity to describe learning and teaching activities in terms of their psychological efficacy, especially as it relates to young people. Similarly they will have been introduced to the theory and practice of assessment and evaluation in educational settings, and the impact of assessment on learning and motivation. They will have had training in two Department of Education and Community policies, Good Discipline and Effective Learning, and Student Welfare.
EDUF2007 Social Perspectives on Education
Credit points: 6 Teacher/Coordinator: Assoc Prof Debra Hayes Session: Semester 2 Classes: 1x1-hr lecture/wk for 12wks, 1x2-hr workshop/wk for 12wks Prerequisites: (EDUF1018 and EDUF1019) or 30 junior credit points Assessment: workshop presentation (25%), 1500wd critical policy analysis (25%), 6000wd joint research project (50%) Mode of delivery: Normal (lecture/lab/tutorial) day
This unit is part of the Education I-IV program which provides students with a foundation in the social scientific study of education. The aim of this unit is to critically examine the social, political and economic contexts of education. Key issues concerning difference and inequality in education are explored through sociological and historical approaches. These include social class, gender and cultural diversity in education, as well as the schooling market, school systems, and globalisation. At the end of this unit of study, students should have the capacity to discuss the impact of a range of educational practices and policies on schools, students and families. Similarly, students will be familiar with broad movements in contemporary educational reform and their association with national and global economic change. As a result of working collaboratively on a substantial project students will develop a range of research skills. Through policy analysis tasks and workshop activities, students will be familiar with NSW Department of Education and Communities policies and procedures relating to gender, Indigenous education, and cultural diversity.
EDUF3023 Sport: Contemporary Educational Issues
Credit points: 6 Teacher/Coordinator: Dr Steve Georgakis Session: Semester 1 Classes: 1x1-hr lecture/wk for 12 wks, 1x2-hr seminar/wk for 12 wks Prerequisites: 42 credit points of units Assessment: research seminar presentation (30%) and 10x500wd weekly responses (70%) Mode of delivery: Normal (lecture/lab/tutorial) day
This unit of study dissects the role played by youth sport and sport in Australian society from an historical and socio-cultural perspective. Youth sport in this unit encompasses physical education, school sport, organised community sport as well as any organised youth physical activity. This unit endeavours to place greater emphasis on theories that have emerged regarding youth sport and sport issues. These include how youth sport and sport in general have been constructed over time and how each relates to themes such as class, gender, age, ethnicity, sexuality, social identity, policy, politics commercialism, nationalism and racism. This unit will encourage students to critically analyse how sport is both constructed and is produced in the context of particular social values and beliefs. The unit is structured in a way to encourage the development of arguments and ideas through tutorial presentations, research projects and a portfolio which relate to these topic areas. This unit of study is designed to encourage student-based multi-disciplinary inquiry as laid out by the Education III design. It is designed also to encourage students to become informed citizens and life-long learners.
EDUF3026 Global Poverty and Education
Credit points: 6 Teacher/Coordinator: Dr Alexandra McCormick Session: Semester 2 Classes: 1x1-hr lecture/wk for 9 wks, 1x1-hr tutorial/wk for 9 wks, 1x2 hour workshop for 9 wks Prerequisites: 42 credit points of units Assessment: 3x 500wd critical reviews (30%); 2000wd essay (20%), 2500wd critical project review (25%), workshop group presentation (25%) Mode of delivery: Normal (lecture/lab/tutorial) day
This unit of study explores relationships between education, poverty and development in international contexts, particularly in what is increasingly referred to as the ?global South?. It acknowledges the importance of a broad-ranging view of international development, including its economic, political, and cultural dimensions. The unit examines key indicators related to poverty and education, and explores the educational implications of global social policies like the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). We investigate the roles of multilateral, bilateral and non-state agencies in educational development to discuss the multiple actors in global development and the politics of aid. Using case studies of educational development processes in specific countries, we contextualise the key issues explored in the unit and provide students with an understanding of how international development reforms are experienced and contested at local, regional, and national levels. The unit is especially designed for those who have an interest in international and global dynamics, particularly those identified as ?developing? countries, and who may be teaching or writing about international development issues, or who may be interested in careers in international and development education, whether in Australia or overseas.
McCowan, T. and E. Unterhalter (2014) Education and International Development: An Introduction, Bloomsbury (available as an ebook)
EDUF3027 International Education
Credit points: 6 Teacher/Coordinator: Assoc Prof Nigel Bagnall Session: Semester 1 Classes: 1x1-hr lecture/wk for 12 wks, 1x2-hr workshop/wk for 12 wks Prerequisites: 42 credit points of units Assessment: 1x 600wd workshop paper (10%), workshop presentation (20%), 1-hr take home exam (30%), 2400wd essay (40%) Mode of delivery: Normal (lecture/lab/tutorial) day
The unit emphasis is on the underpinning global education trends of the developed world. A number of themes are dealt with in this global context, in, Indigenous education issues in Australia, the USA and New Zealand, the emergence of international curriculum and assessment and a number of education system case studies. These case studies will include the education systems of France, Great Britain, Brazil, Sri Lanka and India. The unit will appeal to students who are likely to work in the increasingly global world of teaching and may be involved in latter years in working in organizations such as UNESCO, the OECD or the World Bank.
EDUF3028 Mentoring in Educational Contexts
Credit points: 6 Teacher/Coordinator: Shirley Koch Session: Semester 2 Classes: 1x1-hr lecture/wk for 9wks, 1x2-hr seminar/wk for 9wks Prerequisites: 42 credit points of units Assessment: 2500wd group assignment (40%), 3000wd group presentation and written assignment (50%), 1000wd individual written reflection assignment (10%) Mode of delivery: Normal (lecture/lab/tutorial) day
Mentoring is increasingly used to assist in transitional educational situations such as the transition to teaching, transition from primary to high school and transition from junior to senior school. Mentoring provides the mentee with the opportunity to make meaning of their experiences and to share these experiences with the mentor. Mentoring also ensures that the mentee has support, guidance and challenge within the unfamiliar community of practice they are entering. In educational contexts mentoring as theory and practice has assumed critical importance in introducing pre-service teachers to the professional practice of teaching. Seminars use an inquiry based pedagogy which emphasises collaborative learning. Students examine mentoring in schools and universities and other organisational structures. Students use a range of sociological theories and constructs and engage in intensive reading of research in order to develop a critical understanding of mentoring as professional practice and to devise a mentor programme suitable for implementation in an educational setting of their own choosing.
EDUF3029 Psychology of Learning and Teaching
Credit points: 6 Teacher/Coordinator: Dr Paul Ginns Session: Semester 2 Classes: 2x1-hr lectures/wk for 9wks, 1x1-hr tutorial/wk for 9wks Prerequisites: 42 credit points of units, and EDUF2006 Assessment: take home exam (30%) and 2000wd essay (40%) and group essay (15%) and group presentation (15%) Mode of delivery: Normal (lecture/lab/tutorial) day
This unit of study examines four themes from current research on learning and teaching which have significant implications for enhancing learning outcomes in educational settings: (1) the self-system, learning and achievement; (2) collaborative learning: cognitive and motivational factors; (3) information processing and the design of instruction; and (4) learning from text, illustrations and multimedia. Each of these themes is defined by a central question (e.g. how is the self-system organised and what is its relationship to student achievement?) which is examined through several bodies of related recent research. In addition to lectures on each theme, students present the results of their collaborative self-directed research on one of the themes in a series of presentations held in the last five weeks of the unit of study. At the completion of the unit students should be able to analyse, synthesise, and draw conclusions from theory and research in each of the four themes considered, derive educational implications and applications for an educational level (e.g. primary, secondary), demonstrate the skills involved in collaborative and self-directed learning, and demonstrate competence in oral and written communication skills.
EDUF3032 Curriculum and Evaluation
Credit points: 6 Teacher/Coordinator: Prof Murray Print Session: Semester 1 Classes: 1x1-hr lecture/wk for 12 wks, 1x2-hr tutorial/wk for 12 wks Prerequisites: 42 credit points of units Assessment: 1000wd analysis of curriculum document (20%) and 500wd seminar presentation (40%) and 2500wd related paper on a curriculum phenomenon (40%) Mode of delivery: Normal (lecture/lab/tutorial) day
Curriculum is an essential component to all schools and all education systems. Understanding what, why and how curricula are constructed is an important skill for all teachers. The unit also examines controversial issues in curriculum including the teaching of values in schools and the role of values education documents for NSW schools. Many recent developments in curriculum are reviewed including NAPLAN, national assessment and MySchool. Evaluation and assessment are often misunderstood concepts. Cultural, social and political influences drive decisions about who, what and how will be evaluated. Evaluation and assessment are often conflated with large scale testing regimes because they can lead to easily quantifiable results. A broader and more accurate understanding of these terms is important for all educators.
EDUF3034 Australian Theatre, Film and Learning
Credit points: 6 Teacher/Coordinator: Dr Wayne Cotton Session: Semester 1,Semester 2 Classes: 1x2-hr lecture/wk for 9 wks, 1x1-hr tutorial/wk for 9 wks, 3x field trips Prerequisites: 42 credit points of units Assessment: 1000wd media review (20%) and 2000wd essay (40%) and a 20min presentation and reflection report (40%) Mode of delivery: Normal (lecture/lab/tutorial) day
This unit of study examines the nature of theatre and film in Australian cultural and educational settings. A particular focus will be placed on theatre and film for and by young people, and the range of learning that takes place through young people's engagement in, and appreciation of, theatre and film. In addition, the role and nature of Australian film and theatre will be placed within an international context so that students can examine the international forces influencing Australian culture. Indigenous issues in Australian Film and Theatre will be examined. Australian Theatre, Film and Learning will provide first hand experiences of Australian films and theatre performances through field trips to significant theatre performances and festivals, Australian school performances and the viewing of Australian films. Students enrolled in this unit will incur a levy to cover any additional costs.
EDUF3037 Creativity, Learning and Teacher Artistry
Credit points: 6 Teacher/Coordinator: Prof Michael Anderson Session: Intensive June,Semester 2 Classes: 8x2-hr seminar and 4 x 7 hour site-based taught workshops Prerequisites: 42 credit points of units Assessment: i) 2000 word Critical analysis of Creativity and Teacher Artistry (30%), ii) (equivalent 1000 words) Tutorial discussion presentation on key readings (20%), iii) 3000 word Critical Analysis Creativity and Learning Experiences (50%) Mode of delivery: Normal (lecture/lab/tutorial) day
This unit explores the place of creativity and teacher artistry in learning, curriculum and schools. Throughout this unit students will be given the opportunity to practically engage with ideas of creativity, learning and teacher artistry to develop theory and practice for 21st century schooling. Through seminars, international case studies and intensive site based workshops students will have the opportunity to develop their own practices in creativity and teacher artistry to support student learning and knowledge creation across the curriculum.
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ABOUT THIS PUBLICATION
S1 PRODUCTION OF MAJOR CROPS, AUSTRALIA: 2000-01 AND 2001-02
The total area of wheat planted fell by 5% to 11.5 million hectares, with plantings down in all states except South Australia. Improved conditions saw production increase by 10% to 24.3 million tonnes, after a fall in the previous year. The main increase in production was recorded in Western Australia (up 33% to 7.8 million tonnes), which had recorded more favourable conditions after drought in the previous season. Increases were also recorded in the other main growing states of New South Wales and South Australia (where production exceeded that state's previous year's record crop).
The area of barley planted increased by 7% to 3.7 million hectares as farmers responded to the late break in the season and higher barley prices. Plantings were up in all areas except for Queensland and Tasmania, with the largest increases being recorded in South Australia (up 11% to 1.2 million hectares) and Western Australia (up 11% to 1.1 million hectares). Increased plantings and improved conditions saw Australian production increase by 23% to 8.3 million tonnes. The main increases were in Western Australia and South Australia, which had recorded very dry conditions in the previous year.
The area of oats planted increased by 21% to 784,000 hectares and was the first substantial increase in plantings for several years. Plantings were up in all states except for Queensland and Tasmania, which were both small growers. Australian production was up by 37% to 1.4 million tonnes. This was mainly due to increased production in Western Australia, which had increased plantings and improved average yields, as it recovered from the previous year's drought.
The area of rice planted fell by 18% to 144,000 hectares. This offset the increase seen in the previous year, with reduced water availability and lower price expectations for rice identified as reasons for the fall. Total production was down by 27% to 1.2 million tonnes as a result of reduced plantings and lower average yields, which occurred after a cold start to the growing season.
The area planted to canola decreased by 9% to 1.3 million hectares, with decreases recorded in Western Australia and Victoria. This was the second successive drop after 10 years of ongoing expansion following the establishment of the crop as a major commodity. The previous year's fall was largely due to drought conditions in Western Australia and a response to falling prices for canola. Canola production for 2001-02 was down by 1% to 1.8 million tonnes. This was a result of reduced plantings in Western Australia, due to dry conditions at the start of the season, and lower yields in New South Wales, due to the onset of dry conditions in some of the main growing areas.
The area of sugar cane cut for crushing increased by 6% to 426,000 hectares, after falling the previous year. Production of sugar cane increased by 12% to 31.4 million tonnes as growers again faced difficult growing conditions, with dry rather than wet conditions (as in the previous season) returning lower than average yields.
The total area planted to cotton decreased by 15%, to 458,000 hectares, with the main fall being in the area of non-irrigated cotton planted. This offset the increase recorded in the previous year, with lower prices and concerns about availability of water identified as reasons for the fall. However, improved average yields from irrigated crops saw total cotton lint production increase by 1% to 675,000 tonnes.
Total citrus fruit production was down, although tree numbers were up slightly. This was a result of orange production falling by 18% to 451,000 tonnes, with poor conditions reported in the main growing states of New South Wales and South Australia. Mandarin production was little changed, with an increase in Queensland (after a fall in the previous year) being offset by decreases in the other growing states. Production of lemons and limes was up slightly with increases in Queensland and Victoria being mostly offset by a fall in South Australia.
Pome fruit production fell slightly, with apple production down by 1% to 321,000 tonnes and pear production down by 14% to 145,000 tonnes. A change in definition of bearing apple trees from those six years and over to those four years and over was responsible for an increase in apple tree numbers. The number of pear trees fell by 14% as a result of a drop in Victoria, the main growing state.
The grape industry continued the strong growth of recent years, once again setting new records for areas planted and grapes harvested. The total area of vines increased by 7% to a record 159,000 hectares at 30 June 2002, with increases in all states except Queensland. The biggest increases were reported in South Australia (up 8% to 67,000 hectares), New South Wales (up 8% to 37,400 hectares) and Victoria (up 5% to 38,700 hectares). The total production of grapes increased by 13% to 1.8 million tonnes. The main increases were in New South Wales (up 30% to 452,000 tonnes), Victoria (up 17% to 514,000 tonnes) and South Australia (up 3% to 698,000 tonnes). Improved yields were reported for New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland.
S2 PRODUCTION OF MAJOR FRUIT CROPS, AUSTRALIA: 2000-01 AND 2001-02
The total area planted to potatoes fell by 4% (or 1,700 hectares) to 37,900 hectares in 2001-02. Reduced plantings were recorded for all states except New South Wales. The largest falls were recorded in Victoria (down 9% to 8,700 hectares) and South Australia (down 6% to 8,600 hectares). Total potato production for the year increased by 2% to 1.3 million tonnes, with all potato producing states, other than New South Wales, achieving improved yields over the previous year. The largest increases in production were recorded in Tasmania (up 6% to 350,000 tonnes) and South Australia (up 4% to 335,000 tonnes), the two main potato producing states.
The area planted to onions increased by 10% to 5,500 hectares in 2001-02, reversing the trend of recent years. While area planted fell slightly in the main growing state of South Australia (down 1% to 1,700 hectares) and in New South Wales (down 1% to 960 hectares), this was more than offset by increased plantings in Queensland (up 59% to 910 hectares), Tasmania (up 13% to 1,100 hectares) and Victoria (up 16% to 540 hectares). Marked improvements in yield saw total production increase by 27% to 283,000 tonnes. The largest increases were recorded in South Australia (up 27% to 106,000 tonnes), Tasmania (up 49% to 63,000 tonnes) and Queensland (up 62% to 31,700 tonnes). New South Wales was the only state to record a decrease in production, down by 1% to 39,300 tonnes.
The total area planted to tomatoes fell by 12% to 8,500 hectares in 2001-02, after an increase in the previous season. Plantings fell in the three main tomato growing states, Victoria (down 10% to 4,100 hectares), Queensland (down 5% to 2,700 hectares) and New South Wales (down 33% to 1,100 hectares). Total production for the season fell by 24% to 425,000 tonnes. Significant falls in production in New South Wales (down 66% to 34,800 tonnes) and Victoria (down 20% to 262,000 tonnes) were only slightly offset by an increase in production in Queensland (up 2% to 109,000 tonnes).
S3 PRODUCTION OF MAJOR VEGETABLE CROPS, AUSTRALIA: 2000-01 AND 2001-02
Increases in meat cattle and pig numbers were offset by falls in numbers of milk cattle, sheep and lambs (which reached a 54 year low) and chickens.
S4 NUMBERS OF LIVESTOCK, AUSTRALIA: 2000-01 AND 2001-02
Milk cattle numbers fell by 3% to 3.1 million at 30 June 2002, reversing the 2% increase of the previous year. All states recorded decreases in milk cattle numbers. The most significant fall in herd size was recorded in Queensland, where the estimate fell by 10% (or 28,100 head) to 260,000. In Victoria, the dominant milk-producing state, the dairy herd fell by 1% (21,300 head) to 1.9 million. The decrease in Victorian numbers was mainly due to a fall in the number of 'cows in milk and dry', down by 20,000 head to 1.4 million.
The number of establishments reporting milk cattle continued to fall, down by 14% to 11,900 farms at 30 June 2002. The impact of dry conditions in some areas, combined with the decline in dairy farm numbers following deregulation of the industry in 2000, saw numbers fall across all states. The largest falls were in Victoria (down 11% to 7,000 farms), New South Wales (down 19% to 1,800 farms) and Queensland (down 20% to 1,400 farms).
The number of meat cattle and calves increased slightly to 24.7 million head at 30 June 2002. Increases in Queensland (up 2% to 11.3 million), South Australia (up 14% to 1.2 million), Victoria (up 1% to 2.5 million) and the Northern Territory (up 4% to 1.8 million) were partly offset by falls in New South Wales and Western Australia which experienced dry conditions in some areas. The number of establishments reporting meat cattle fell by 3% to 69,700 (the lowest level since 1993), with decreases reported in all states.
Sheep and lambs
Sheep and lamb numbers fell by 4% (or 4.8 million head) to 106 million head at 30 June 2002. This was the lowest national flock size since 1948, with decreases recorded in all states except South Australia and Tasmania. New South Wales and Queensland recorded the biggest decreases, with their flocks down by 2.4 million head and 1.9 million head respectively. Numbers were affected by dry conditions in some areas and continuing low returns for wool. The number of establishments reporting sheep and lambs fell by 3% to 48,100 at 30 June 2002, with decreases recorded in all states.
Australian pig numbers increased by 7% to 2.9 million at 30 June 2002. Increases recorded in Victoria (up 21% to 673,000 head), Queensland (up 8% to 643,000 head) and Western Australia (up 26% to 361,000 head), were only slightly offset by decreases in New South Wales (down 1% to 833,000 head) and South Australia (down 6% to 410,000 head). The number of establishments reporting pigs fell by 7% to 3,200 at 30 June 2002, with a decline in numbers in all states except Victoria.
The number of chickens for meat production fell by 6% to 72.1 million birds at 30 June 2002. Decreases in South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales were only partly offset by increases in Queensland and Western Australia. The number of chickens for egg production also decreased, down by 10% to 12.9 million birds. The largest changes were recorded in Victoria (down 25% to 3.0 million) and New South Wales (down 6% to 3.6 million). Egg production was estimated to have decreased by 8% to 187 million dozen in 2001-02.
Complete list of data items
The following files contain agricultural data items (see details tab) available for client dissemination; please ring Gordon Cameron on (03) 6222 5939 or Jackie Saarinen on (03) 6222 5948 for further information:
Agricultural Census and supplementary information, 2000-2001
Agricultural Commodity Survey and supplementary information, 1999-2000
Agricultural Finance Survey, 1999-2000
Value of Agricultural Commodities Produced, 1999-2000
Livestock and livestock Products
These documents will be presented in a new window.
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Auto Systems and Repair: Heating and Air Conditioning
There are two parts to this system, one for heating and one for cooling. A variable speed fan is used to circulate the temperature-controlled air into the passenger compartment. The knobs and vents on your dashboard help you determine how much air is released into the cabin and where you want it directed.
Your engine generates heat during the internal combustion process. Most of this heat is removed by the cooling system, but some of the excess heat can be harnessed and transferred to the compartment in order to keep passengers warm.
The AC system operates much like the heating system. Air is blown through a cold radiator behind the dashboard (the evaporator) and is cooled instead of heated. The cold air then blows into the passenger compartment through the vents on your dashboard.
The main component of a vehicle's heating system is the heater core. Located behind the dashboard, the heater core is actually a small radiator. When you turn on the heater, a fan blows the air through the heater core where it is warmed. More >>
The air conditioning compressor pumps in refrigerant gas from the receiver/drier, compresses it, and sends it to the condenser. More >>
Related System — Engine Cooling System
If the engine is too hot, it can overheat. If it’s too cold, the engine emits more pollutants and engine components prematurely wear out. If the cooling system fails to keep the engine at the right temperature, it can suffer significant damage and, in some cases, fail entirely. More >>
Additional Key Parts
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Companion web site http://micro.stanford.edu ISBN:0-19-852614-8, Hard cover, 304 pages, Nov. 2006, US $74.50.
This book presents a broad collection of models and computational methods - from atomistic to continuum - applied to crystal dislocations. Its purpose is to help students and researchers in computational materials sciences to acquire practical knowledge of relevant simulation methods. Because their behavior spans multiple length and time scales, crystal dislocations present a common ground for an in-depth discussion of a variety of computational approaches, including their relative strengths, weaknesses and inter-connections. The details of the covered methods are presented in the form of "numerical recipes" and illustrated by case studies. A suite of simulation codes and data files is made available on the book's website to help the reader "to learn-by-doing" through solving the exercise problems offered in the book. This book is part of an Oxford Series on Materials Modelling.
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A new Canadian study has found alarmingly low levels of the important vitamin D in young children. While newborns tend to be OK if they are fed formula, which is usually fortified with vitamin D, as they grow into eating solid foods, that’s where the problems begin.
“Vitamin D deficiency is associated with a number of chronic medical conditions,” says Jonathon Maguire, a researcher at Toronto’s Hospital for Sick Children and lead author of the study.
Research has linked vitamin D deficiencies to many cancers, heart disease, multiple sclerosis, and diabetes.
Of the 92 children in the Canadian study, the researchers found that the children who drank less milk, watched TV while snacking, or were “hefty” tended to have the worst vitamin D levels.
While milk is fortified with vitamin D, it alone will not provide sufficient levels. Oily fish is a good source of the vitamin, but since young children don’t often eat fish, supplementation may be needed.
Moderate sun exposure is a good way to increase levels of vitamin D. This too is difficult for the children in the study as they reside in Canada where, due to the high latitude, there is not sufficient sun throughout the year.
(via: The Globe and Mail)
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Why The Blood Covenant Has Lost Its Meaning
Rock of Offence Commentary
FACTS ABOUT THE BLOOD COVENANT
The two participants in the cutting of the covenant are called "covenant heads." The covenant remains in effect until both covenant heads die. If one covenant head dies, the other will extend the benefits and blessings of the covenant to the family of the deceased covenant head. In essence, a blood covenant not only joins the two covenant heads together but also joins the families as well. These facts should be kept firmly in mind as we explore the reality of our redemption in the new covenant in Christ’s blood.
At the conclusion of the ceremony, the two covenant heads are called "friends." The word "friend" is a covenant term that has completely lost its meaning in today's English language. We say, "I think I'll have a friend over for dinner tonight," or "I want you to meet a good friend of mine." The original meaning of "friend" carried with it the union of a blood covenant. It means very little in our culture. The same thing is true of the handshake. This blood covenant act has lost its true meaning. In our culture, it has become nothing more than a gesture that communicates courtesy or greeting. If we took seriously the true meaning behind the handshake, we would be very careful in using it.
With these facts in mind, we can better understand what Jesus was saying in John 15:13-15...
"Greater love has no one than this, than to lay down one's life for his friends. You are My friends if you do whatever I command you. No longer do I call you servants, for a servant does not know what his master is doing; but I have called you friends, for all things that I heard from My Father I have made known to you."The disciples were excited about the words Jesus used here. In that part of the world and at that time, the blood covenant was a respected institution. When Jesus used the word "friend" to define his relationship with these men, it had a tremendous impact on their lives. The word "friend" as Jesus used it did not mean some kind of "Jesus is my buddy, my pal" mentality—that is found in some parts of the church today. The word "friend" as used in this verse meant "covenant friend" or "blood brother." It implied the union of two people in a blood covenant. Religious teaching and the erosion of the true meaning of covenant terms like "friend" by our modern culture causes us to gloss over the importance of this section of scripture. The "friendship" Jesus was talking about in this scripture was not limited to the disciples but to all those who receive salvation through their testimony—this includes us.
REVIVAL AMONG THE AFRICAN ZULUS
Recently, I was listening to a seminar given by Malcolm Smith, author of the book, "Blood Brothers in Christ." This seminar was being offered at the fellowship I attended. At that time my wife and I were working with the youth group of the church. After the youth service, I had to go through the main auditorium where Malcolm was speaking. I recognized that he was speaking on the subject of the blood covenant and decided to stop and listen. Malcolm told of an experience he had while in Africa. He had traveled to Africa to do some evangelistic work. Apparently, someone ask him to speak to a tribe of Zulus, but time would not allow him to do so. Instead of speaking to the Zulus directly, Malcolm made a cassette tape on the subject of the gospel of Jesus Christ, teaching it within the framework of the blood covenant. Being an African tribe, the Zulus were very familiar with the blood covenant since it was part of their culture. When these tribes got hold of the Gospel and understood it as a blood covenant, revival began to break out. On a return trip at a later date, much to his surprise, Malcolm learned that as a result of this cassette tape, whole Zulu tribes in some areas had received the gospel and accepted Jesus Christ. What made the difference in this situation? Other missionaries had preached the Gospel to the Zulus with little success. Conveying the Gospel in the framework of the blood covenant was the reason Malcolm had been successful when other missionaries before him had failed. It made all the difference. The Gospel of Christ cannot be fully understood apart from a blood covenant mentality. The whole message of the Gospel is firmly grounded in blood covenant terminology. In this area, the Zulus have a big advantage over the church in modern America.
WHY THE BLOOD COVENANT HAS LOST ITS MEANING
In the modern Church, two understandings of the blood covenant are taught. The understanding we’ve looked at so far comes from the Middle Eastern culture and is consistent with the teachings of the Bible. In most of our seminaries, however, another mentality is taught. I refer to it as the "Western" mentality. In the western understanding, the aspect of two people becoming one (or union) and the common holdings of all assets and liabilities have been de-emphasized or removed altogether. Most modern seminaries teach that the blood covenant is nothing more than a contract or an agreement between two people. When you apply this definition to the story of the Bible, you get a totally different concept of God. This re-defining of the blood covenant is done for a specific reason. Most of our seminaries and Bible schools teach a "liberal" theology that denies or minimizes God’s miracle working power today. Some go as far as to call authentic miracles “works of Satan”. In an effort to provide a more believable explanation as to why God does not act today the way He did in Bible times, some things are re-defined to take the pressure off Church leadership to explain why God has somehow "changed." You see, if the conditions are the same for us today as they were in the early Church (and they are), then we have to take a closer look at what is being taught and eventually conclude that we are being taught wrong. Experience shows us that admitting to error is not a character trait of most religious leaders. The Pharisees of Jesus' day would not admit wrong beliefs even when confronted face to face with the evidence! The same spiritual arrogance is still with us today—little has changed except the names.
Our faith is the unfortunate victim of the "western" interpretation of covenant. Faith is one of the most crucial areas in the believer's life. The Bible says that without faith it is impossible to please God (Hebrews 11:6). The Bible states three times that “the just shall live by faith” (Romans 1:17, Galatians 3:11, Hebrews 10:38). No one can be saved without faith and no one can receive anything from God unless they ask in faith (James 1:6-8). Don't let anyone tell you that the subject of personal faith is not important. It’s the deciding factor of heaven or hell, life and death for the Christian. It is no small wonder that Satan has targeted this all-important subject for some of the most convincing deceptions that can be found in religious teachings.
A correct understanding of covenant is crucial because our faith is directly tied to it. Our conception of God and our faith in what He will do for us is related directly to our understanding of the blood covenant. As we saw earlier, Abram's faith was based upon a blood covenant that God initiated and bound Himself to. In the book of Romans, Abraham is called "the father of all them that believe" (Romans 4:11). If you do an in-depth study on the life of Abraham, you will find that his strong faith was firmly rooted in this blood covenant that God initiated. Our faith as Christians should also be rooted in covenant, the blood covenant of Jesus Christ (Luke 22:20). If our understanding of covenant basics is incorrect then we will possess a "counterfeit" faith when dealing with our Father on certain issues. This kind of faith looks good and tends to be socially acceptable, but it is weak and ineffective when relating with our Father in heaven.
Because of this "western" mentality of the blood covenant, we find two types of faith in the Church today. One type of faith is based on the ancient Middle Eastern understanding of the blood covenant, and the other type of faith is based on the "western" understanding. The western interpretation says that the blood covenant in the Bible is just an agreement or contract. It re-defines the "sovereignty of God" by declaring that God freely does whatever He wants and has not bound Himself to any kind of "covenant." Those who hold to the western viewpoint never deny the existence of God's covenant, yet they declare that God is not under any special obligation to it—which is nothing but spiritual nonsense. They say that for God to be bound to such an agreement is a violation of His sovereignty. Often you hear the term "sovereignty of God" used in the defense of the western interpretation of covenant. The word "sovereignty" means absolute in power and authority. Many Christians interpret this to mean that God does whatever He wants and is not subject to anyone or anything because He is "sovereign." God can either make you sick or heal you depending on what He wants to do. Since God is not bound to a "covenant," He can afflict you with cancer to teach you piety, holiness or some hidden purpose. This actually reflects the belief of a majority of professing Christians. To them, to take any other position on God's sovereignty is to call His authority into question, but does it really? Did you know that the United States is called a "sovereign nation?" This "sovereignty" also means absolute in power and authority. It means that the United States has absolute power and authority over its own borders. Does this mean that the United States government does whatever it wants to those within its borders? No it does not. America has a document called the Constitution. This document establishes certain limitations on government and guarantees certain rights and privileges to U.S. citizens. These rights are designed to protect the people from abuse that might come from their own government. The Constitution does not, however, make the United States any less a "sovereign" nation.
The Word of God tells us there is a blood covenant which God initiated and to which He bound Himself. Because it was God who initiated and established the provisions of this covenant, God's sovereignty is not affected. It was His “sovereign” choice to provide us these rights. This blood covenant guarantees certain rights and privileges to believers in Jesus Christ and is the basis for our faith toward God. Because of the existence of this covenant, we can "have faith" that God will do certain things because it is a "blood oath" forever established on the blood of Jesus Christ. The blood of God Himself sealed this covenant and it is that blood which becomes the surety of the promises (Hebrews 7:22). For this reason, our job is to learn what our responsibilities are and how to receive what is promised by the covenant. True Bible faith is always evidenced by receiving the answer when you pray and before you actually get what you requested. You can better understand the words of Jesus in Mark 11:24 when He said...
"Therefore I say to you, whatever things you ask when you pray, believe that you receive them, and you will have them."The western understanding of covenant, however, says something different. It says that God does whatever He wants and that there is no covenant to which He is bound. This understanding produces what I call "passive faith." This type of faith is a counterfeit, which means it may look “spiritual” and pious but it isn't the real thing. Someone who prays with this type of faith might say something like..."it might not be God's will to heal me. God might want me sick so that He can make me more dependent on Him," or "It might not be in God's wisdom for Him to give me what I ask for," or "God, please heal me if it be Thy will." These kinds of prayer are caused by a lack of knowledge about our covenant with God.
Recently I heard a well known Bible teacher sharing his "concern" for Christians who believed that God would give them that for which they prayed. This man's books are very popular and can easily be found in most Christian bookstores. He went on to say that he believed if God were to give us what we ask for it would be one of the worst things that could happen to us. He said that instead of asking God to give us what we wanted or needed, we should ask God to "do the right thing." Now that kind of thinking may sound like a good, humble religious practice; but does it agree with what the Bible teaches? In Mark 11:24, did Jesus say ...whatever things you ask when you pray, believe that God will do the right thing, and you will get the right thing? No He didn’t. If we read what Jesus said in John 14:13-14, we see that this teacher is saying something that directly contradicts scripture. This type of teaching causes Christians to have impotent faith.
"And whatever ye shall ask in my name, that will I do, that the Father may be glorified in the Son. If ye shall ask anything in My name, I will do it."Again in John 15:7 Jesus says...
"If you abide in Me, and My words abide in you, you will ask what you desire, and it shall be done for you."God wants us to be in a position of "knowing" when it comes to getting our prayers answered. You will find that a good deal of modern "Christian" teaching is specifically designed to destroy the Bible kind of faith, a faith which is based on blood covenant, and to replace it with a counterfeit (passive) faith which is based on "theology" and human reason.
In Numbers chapter 13, God instructed Moses to send out twelve men, one from each tribe of Israel, to search out the promised land (the land God promised to Abraham through a blood covenant). These men were sent out to gather information concerning the strength of the inhabitants of the land and of its abundance. When they returned, ten of the spies stirred up the entire congregation of Israel with what the Bible called "an evil report." These ten men told everyone that because of the strong, fortified cities, it was impossible for Israel to conquer this land. They proceeded to say that the inhabitants of the land were exceedingly great and appeared as "giants" compared to Israel. In the natural realm, everything they said appeared to be correct. Only two men, Joshua and Caleb, tried to convince the people that they were well able to take the land. They based their conclusion not on the outward appearance of the situation but on what God had promised. The people chose to listen to the "majority" who said it was impossible.
The conflict illustrated here is one of a blood covenant vs. human reason. Joshua and Caleb were blood covenant men. They knew that God had given Israel this land and swore it in a blood oath to Abraham. Joshua and Caleb knew it could not fail to come to pass. The other ten spies did not respect the fact that God had committed Himself to this covenant. They based their success or failure on the "circumstances" and on Israel's military ability to take the land. They did not consider God’s part in the matter. The ten spies persuaded all the congregation of Israel to side with them. God said that these ten spies made an "evil" report (Numbers 13:32). My concern over the modern institutional church is that the majority is rarely right. In this case, only two men out of twelve were right, but not listened to. As a result of following the majority, God judged the entire nation of Israel. He made them wander in the wilderness until that generation died off. When God finally allowed Israel to go in and possess the land, some 40 years later, only Joshua and Caleb were still alive and had the joy of seeing God's covenant promise to Abraham come to pass! It is interesting to note that the difference between an evil report and a right report was Joshua and Caleb's understanding of blood covenant principles. It is also interesting that the Bible describes Joshua and Caleb as great men of faith. It is my observation that the faith of these men came from the same place where Abraham's faith came from—the blood covenant. God settled Abraham's doubts about inheriting the land by making a covenant with him—and this same covenant was the anchor and the foundation for the faith of Joshua and Caleb. They knew they could take the land.
From this example, I have come up with what I call the "20/80 rule." From watching the actions of the modern institutional church, I have found that more than 80 per cent of professing Christians reject the Bible position on covenant and embrace human reason and "theology" as their guiding principles. Most of what is taught today concerning faith is a "passive" counterfeit faith based on the "Western" understanding of covenant. The word "passive" describes the spiritual condition in which it puts a believer. A person with passive faith fails to take personal responsibility when making prayer petitions. This attitude subtly places all the blame for unanswered prayer on God. If their prayers aren't answered they say, "It must not have been God's will." They never stop to consider that maybe they didn't meet the Biblical conditions required to get an answer in the first place—like praying the way Jesus said to pray in Mark 11:24. The western understanding of covenant is a popular doctrine and is easily found on Christian radio and in Christian bookstores. Some of the churches’ most trusted, well-known preachers teach it as truth. Some Christians are confused by what they see going on in the church today. Many secretly want to know why God seems different now than He is in the Bible. The answer is no mystery. God is still the same as He was. He hasn't changed. We are the ones who have changed. By allowing religious thinking to change the definition of covenant, we have lost the very foundation for our faith. The book of James says that without the true Bible kind of faith, "...let not that man think that he shall receive any thing of the Lord" (James 1:6-7). The problem lies with the kind of faith we have and where our faith is founded. Change the meaning of our blood covenant with God and you destroy the Biblical kind of faith.
In Matthew chapter 14, we see another example of Bible faith in action. Starting in verse 22, we see Jesus send his disciples across the sea by ship while he sent the multitude away after He fed the five thousand. In the fourth watch of the night, the boat was tossed about by the waves in a storm and Jesus came walking toward them on the sea. You can read the entire account yourself, but we need to focus on what Peter did in this situation. Peter saw Jesus walking on the water and said, "Lord, if it is You, command me to come to You on the water." Jesus said one word to Peter, "Come." Peter got out of the boat in the middle of the storm and walked on the water. But, almost immediately something happened. Peter started out in success by receiving the word of Jesus to "come." As long as Peter's faith remained on what Jesus said, he could do the same thing that Jesus did—walk on water. Peter's faith, however, was pulled off what Jesus said and became focused on the "boisterous wind." Human reason took over at that point and Peter began to sink. Human reason said to Peter, "look at the wind—look at the storm—look where you are standing—this is impossible!" The Bible says that Jesus had to catch him before he went under. Jesus rebuked Peter by saying to him "O you of little faith, why did you doubt?" Jesus said that Peter had "little faith." I don't know of anyone in the modern Church that could take even one step onto water yet Peter (as a mortal man) did—and this is the real miracle in the story. If Peter had "little faith," where are we at in the church today? Most of the time, preachers focus our attention on Peter's words, "Lord save me!" They turn this incident into something that illustrates our need of salvation. Although this is not necessarily bad, we also need to see that this miracle gives one of the clearest pictures about the nature of real Biblical faith. It is also important to see that Peter was the only one to get out of the boat. The other eleven disciples were afraid to try! What would you do if you were there?
There is another important lesson to be learned from this example. Notice very carefully that Jesus stated it was His will for Peter to walk on the water by saying the word "come." Jesus wanted Peter to succeed. If this is so, why did Peter sink? The majority of the Church has the wrong notion that if something is God's will then it automatically happens! Nothing could be further from the truth. Jesus said that Peter's failure was due to "little faith." How could this be since God always does whatever He wants and is limited by no one or no thing? Jesus clearly wanted Peter to walk on the water. The argument that God does whatever He wants doesn't hold up in this example and clearly doesn't remain true in other examples in the Bible, such as when the woman with an issue of blood was healed by touching the border of Jesus' garment. Jesus said, "Daughter, be of good cheer; your faith has made you well." (Luke 8:43-48) If these things are true then God demands an active faith from us, not a passive one. A believer with active faith recognizes that they have a responsibility in the prayer process. They understand that spiritual success or failure has a lot to do with the condition of their faith. It is not that we tell God how to answer our prayers as some have asserted. Rather, it is our being obedient to God's ways.
When you look at Peter's example of walking on the water, along with the example of the twelve spies, you see that true faith filled covenant people are few in number and are usually persecuted by the religious community as being fanatics or heretics. Since Jesus was also branded as a heretic by the religious leaders of His day, I think being a heretic in this area can be viewed as something positive. I would rather be in the same group as Jesus any day.
I cite these scriptural examples to illustrate a point. First of all, Bible faith is demonstrated by receiving. Faith is a right response to God's Word and this right response is one of receiving. Joshua and Caleb received the taking of the promised land before they had it. Their faith was based on God's promise given through a blood covenant. Peter received Jesus' word to "come." He accepted Jesus' word as true and demonstrated that he had received His word by stepping out of the boat in them middle of the sea—in the middle of a violent storm. It is this kind of Bible faith that God is looking for. As we study more about our covenant with God in the pages ahead, we need to keep in mind that faith in the blood of God’s Son is the only way it operates. Without this kind of faith, the new covenant in Christ’s blood will not benefit you. Hebrews 4:1-2 tells us...
"Therefore, since a promise remains of entering His rest, let us fear lest any of you seem to have come short of it. For indeed the gospel was preached to us as well as to them; but the word which they heard did not profit them, not being mixed with faith in those who heard it."
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Although flat roofs are in constant demand in residential and commercial construction, they are not as practical as sloped roofs.
A flat roof allows water and snow to settle what is a great inconvenience and can cause leaks over time, due to breakage of the seams.
And then, we wonder why these types of roofs are so popular and sought after, when from engineering standpoint are inferior to sloped roofs.
There are two main reasons why these flat roofs are so popular.
1. Flat roofs are not as expensive as sloped roofs. In fact, they are the most cost effective type of roof.
2. They have a modern and contemporary look reflecting through their lines the horizontal lines of the surrounding landscape.
However, we meet these horizontal lines not only to the new housing construction but also in many traditional houses or commercial buildings. It is a feature of Western architecture and many old buildings have horizontal structural elements such as flat roofs above porches, garages, shed dormers or balconies. These horizontal straight lines are more common in urban than rural area.
Flat Roof Systems
1. Metal Roofing
– It is a energy efficient roof reflecting the heat;
– It requires low maintenance;
– It has a long life span;
– It is resistant to fire;
– It is waterproof;
– It is safe and durable.
We can find different types of metal roofs that can include corrugated (ribbed) panels and roofs made of aluminum.
Truly, flat roofs are the best choice for roof construction. However, they have a major disadvantage. They are expensive but in essence they worth their price. They are extremely durable, long lasting and they requires practically no maintenance.
2. Built-Up Roofs (B.U.R.) / Tar and Gravel/ Torch Down
This kind of flat roof is formed from several (three or more) layers of waterproof materials. Each of these ply of materials is soaked in tar and is applied with a hot-mopped or with a torch. In top comes a layer of gravel or tiny river stones.
Lately, there were major advances in roofing technology. We can find today, new technologies and modern materials with much higher qualities than this classic asphalt B.U.R.
However, B.U.R. still stand on the roofing construction market because is one of the cheapest flat roof systems. All materials part of this roof system are low cost, but the process of installation is quite messy.
– A layer of Bitumen Saturated Felt
– A layer of Coated Felt
– A layer of Polyester Felt or other kind of material
– A surfacing made of gravel, emulsion, asphalt or granule-surfaced sheet.
I can say that Build-Up Roof is the oldest system of flat roofs. At the same time we have to recognize the main quality of this system. It is a reliable roofing system. In fact, it is the perfect way of installing a new flat roof.
Generally, this roofing system consists of three parts such as:
1. Waterproofing Component;
2. Reinforcing Component;
3. Surfacing Component.
3. Modified Bitumen
Modified bitumen is a flat roof system that is applied with a torch as B.U.R. What sets it apart from B.U.R. are the materials that compose it, such as elastomers and rubber. These materials make it more flexible and stronger than B.U.R. They have modifiers added namely:
– SBS ( Styrene Butadiene Styrene)
– APP (Atactic Polpropylene)
SBS and APP give this roofing system the qualities of rubber, strength and flexibility.
A Modified Bitumen roll can cover between 100 and 112 sq feet.
The top surface of Modified Bitumen is a smooth surface and it has included gravel, slag, mineral granules, aluminum or copper that it is set in the hot asphalt.
Usually modified bitumen is applied in two or three ply system according to the type of substrate. Often this system is applied in conjunction with Built-Up roof materials. This creates a great roofing system very popular in industrial, commercial and residential applications.
Asphalt Roll system consists:
- – Plies of roof felt and cold asphalt cement
- – An asphalt-saturated felt layer(or fiberglass felt layer)
- – Mineral and granular layer
The main advantage of this roofing system is the inexpensive and easy installation. However, it is not really, a suitable flat roofing system.
You should inspect periodically the roof. It may be affected by the vicissitudes of weather such as ice, snow, water pounding and ultraviolet light.
However, it is a very inexpensive option and could be installed even, by an amateur.
5. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Roofing
PVC roofing consists of thermoplastic membrane between two plies. This type of roofing system has 25 years life expectancy.
It is used for decades in North America and Europe and it is ENERGY STAR rated. A PVC roofing system can decrease your home cooling bills.
In addition, this kind of flat roof is extremely resistant to chemicals such as greases, acids or oils.
It is very popular in warehouses, markets or other commercial applications.
6. Rubber Membrane:
– Durability and Strength
– Thermal Insulation
– Easy Installation
– Easy Reparation of any leaks
However, rubber membrane has two main disadvantages. It is vulnerable to accidental punctures and it is an expensive type of flat roof.
The EPDM rubber membrane is relatively a new system in the roof construction. It requires an easy installation and any handy homeowner can install this kind of flat roof.
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Sequoias are members of the cypress family. The trees can live over 2,000 years, reaching 379 feet tall with a base of 23 feet. The trees are conifers and are the tallest trees in the world. They are almost completely confined to the California Coast and parts of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Cultivation has been successful in Scotland and other European countries. The plants have been around since the Jurassic period and are one of the oldest species on earth.
There are three types of sequoia. The Dawn Redwood or Metasequoia, is a deciduous conifer that grows very quickly. The California or Coastal Redwood is confined to the northern part of California. The Giant Sequoia can grow 1 to 2 feet per year until it reaches a couple of hundred feet and then slows down. It also has bark 4 feet thick.
The needles of a Sequoia are similar to leaves. They are formed like a double-edged sword and occur in a flat plane. The needles are bluish-green in mature trees, but stay greener in younger saplings.
The cones are made up of thick, wrinkled scales and can be up to 3 inches long. A mature tree can have 11,000 cones on it, each one carrying 300,000 to 400,000 seeds. Fires are very important to the distribution of the seeds, as they cause the cones to open up and clean out competing vegetation on the forest floor,leaving a rich humus for the seed to sprout.
The trunk of a sequoia is much like any tree trunk. It has an outer bark, an inner bark called the phloem, the cambium, the sapwood and then the heartwood. It has roots at the base of the tree to intake nutrition and water, and a vascular system that moves the food up to the very highest point of the tree. Sequoia bark is fire retardant and has pest- and fungus-resistant properties.
Heavy logging in the Gold Rush era and subsequent building of cities caused many of the redwood forests to die out. This is why they are confined to such a small area. The trees are a national symbol in the U.S. and are protected by the federal government. It is against the law to cut down or damage a sequoia.
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Mateusz Ruszkowski is a theoretical and computational astrophysicist who works to explain observed phenomena through simulations that both quantify and factor in multiple physical processes. He is well-known for his work describing how black holes at the center of galaxy clusters transfer energy to the diffuse gas in the intracluster medium (see below). He was among the first to move beyond purely hydrodynamical simulations of this process to incorporate magnetic fields, cosmic ray pressure, thermal conduction, and viscosity, resulting in more sophisticated models of the physics at play.
Provided the first numerical simulations explaining how sound waves produced by black hole outflows could resolve the so-called “cooling flow problem” in galaxy clusters. For many years, astronomers believed that because the diffuse gas within clusters was emitting radiation, it should cool and be drawn gravitationally to the cluster’s center, where it would collapse and result in bursts of star formation. When Chandra X-ray observations failed to detect this, astronomers deduced that outbursts from black holes, or feedback, was providing the energy needed to offset this effect. Ruszkowski was the first to show in detail how this might happen. His simulations show a process in which collimated jets from supermassive black holes plow through the intracluster medium, then slow and morph into buoyant bubbles that hold their shape with the help of rubber band-like magnetic fields. The inflating bubble generates sound waves, which heat the intracluster medium at a level that compensates for the energy lost through radiation.
Ram pressure stripping; Fermi bubbles; N-body cosmological simulations of cluster formation.
MA, University of Warsaw/Poland; PhD, University of Cambridge/England; Postdocs at University of Colorado at Boulder (Chandra Fellow) and Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics in Garching/Germany.
For articles that include this author, use this ADS search.
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Today, we take a look at what SQL is and describe its major features and benefits. This is chapter one of McGraw-Hill/Osborne's SQL: The Complete Reference (ISBN 0-07-222559-9, 2004) by James R. Groff and Paul N. Weinberg.
The SQL language and relational database systems based on it are one of the most important foundation technologies in the computer industry. Over the last two decades, SQL has grown from its first commercial use into a computer product and services market segment worth tens of billions of dollars per year, and SQL stands today as the standard computer database language. Literally hundreds of database products now support SQL, running on computer systems from mainframes to personal computers and even handheld devices. An official international SQL standard has been adopted and expanded twice. Virtually every major enterprise software product relies on SQL for its data management, and SQL is at the core of the database products from Microsoft, Oracle, and IBM, the three largest software companies in the world. SQL is also at the heart of open-source database products that are helping to fuel the popularity of Linux and the open-source movement. From its obscure beginnings as an IBM research project, SQL has leaped to prominence as both an important computer technology and a powerful market force.
What, exactly, is SQL? Why is it important? What can it do, and how does it work? If SQL is really a standard, why are there so many different versions and dialects? How do popular SQL products like SQL Server, Oracle, Informix, Sybase, and DB2 compare? How does SQL relate to Microsoft standards, such as ODBC and COM? How does JDBC link SQL to the world of Java and object technology? What role does it play in the emerging “web services” architecture and the competing web services architectures from the Microsoft and Java-based camps? Does SQL really scale from mainframes to handheld devices? Has it really delivered the performance needed for high-volume transaction processing? How will SQL impact the way you use computers, and how can you get the most out of this important data management tool?
Remember: this is chapter one of SQL: The Complete Reference, by Groff and Weinberg (McGraw-Hill/Osborne, ISBN 0-07-222559-9, 2004). You can find this and many other fine McGraw-Hill Osborne books at your favorite bookstores. Buy this book now.
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Finding and using influential people is a myth says social behavior researcher Paul Adams, author of Grouped: How small groups of friends are the key to influence on the social web.
According to Adams, the focus on influentials is based on the view of how we want the world to work versus how it actually works.
The Law Of The Few
Malcolm Gladwell first described The Law of the Few in his 2002 book The Tipping Point. It states that if you reach and persuade the minority of influential people in society, they will in turn influence hundreds, thousands and even millions of others.
Much of the marketing for the past several years has focused on finding and winning over influencers who then spread the message to their followers.
The Influential Facts
The 2011 research Everyone’s an Influencer: Quantifying Influence on Twitter concluded that it’s rare for one person to influence many other people. Instead, word-of-mouth information spreads via small waves triggered by ordinary individuals.
The Keller Fay Group has conducted several studies on how people communicate. They concluded that about 15 percent of the population are considered influencers and generate 30 percent of the conversations about brands. People not recognized as influencers still generate 70 percent of the conversations. That 70 percent happens when you and I share information and content with our friends over lunch, having coffee, on our Facebook page or around the water cooler at work.
Research by BuzzFeed and StumbleUpon found that there is little data to support so-called influencer behavior. Instead, stories go viral when large numbers of people share content with small groups. The best way to go viral is to engage thousands who share in small networks.
The Shift To Marketing To Small Networks
Adams says that we are at the beginning of a cycle where organizations will shift from focusing on influencers and instead focus on marketing to small connected groups of close friends. He identifies three primary factors causing this shift.
1. Our online world is catching up with our offline world.
The web is undergoing a major shift in its architecture. It’s shifting from being built around content to being built around people. People are increasingly seeking information from others, instead of sourcing it directly from organizations. This is not new. People have always asked others for opinions, feedback and information. Up until now, online information came to us from an organization, not people.
2. People already live in networks.
For years we have considered people as isolated, independent creatures. Most of our consumer models are grounded in the belief that people act independently, moving through a decision funnel while making objective choices. Recent research in psychology and neuroscience shows that’s not how people make decisions. A person’s network influences almost every aspect of their life. We turn to others to help us make our decisions.
3. The shift toward small connected networks.
Today, for the first time in history, we can accurately map and measure person-to-person interaction. Our online social networks connect millions of people and support communication between these people. We can measure who is connected to whom, who talks to whom and who share ideas with whom.
This shift will eventually move organizations away from interruption marketing towards permission marketing. Successful organizations of the future will move toward an understanding of how groups of friends talk about their brand, products and services.
What will organizations need in order to shift from interruption marketing towards permission marketing and connecting with small groups of friends? What steps should organizations undertake to understand basic social human behavior and social patterns?
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By Terry Ryan
Like every state, Ohio has been hard hit by the Great Recession. The state's current $50.5 billion biennial budget was made whole in 2009 by one-time federal stimulus dollars, billions in budget cuts and clever accounting maneuvers. It is estimated that the state will face at least an $8 billion deficit in its next two-year budget.
As kindergarten-through-12th-grade education spending represents about 40 percent of the state's budget, a sizeable portion of these funding cuts will likely need to come out of allocations for schools. Schools are already starting to feel budget woes. Teachers are being let go. More classes are being taught by those teachers who have been in schools the longest, regardless of effectiveness, because of "last in, first out" rules. Class sizes are expanding. Extracurricular activities are being eliminated. School libraries are closing. And some schools are pondering a move to a four-day school week.
Is there any way out of this seemingly irreversible downward spiral?
Many states are turning to computer-based technologies as a way to ensure the delivery of high-quality instruction to students even during times of funding cuts. This idea is not foreign to the Buckeye State where there are currently 29 virtual schools (or e-schools) serving about 25,000 students. Yet, this is but a drop in the bucket in terms of what is possible for the state's 1.8 million K-12 public school students.
Further, there is little happening as it relates to the creation of "hybrid" or "blended" models of instruction that marry computer-based instruction with targeted face-to-face instruction with teachers. In fact, Ohio's current school funding system can't fund such models. It's structured to fund only classroom-based instruction or full-time, online learning. This must change.
An important place to start is by removing Ohio's current moratorium on new e-schools. This moratorium does nothing to hold accountable the state's existing virtual schools. It punishes new providers (many of whom have a proven track record of success in other states) for the misdeeds of an earlier generation of schools, and locks in mediocrity. It restricts new opportunities for school districts and charter schools to come up with alternative and cost-effective methods of instruction. And it limits learning opportunities for families and their children.
We can look to Georgia for guidance on the smart way to open the Buckeye State up to new virtual school providers. Unlike Ohio, Georgia is committed to helping new high-quality virtual schools open. The state realizes this sector is evolving rapidly and new great school models are being developed continuously. Georgia is open to new e-school models and even to hybrid models, but vets them based on their quality and performance potential.
For example, five e-schools applied to open in the Peach State for 2010-11,but only two were selected. The Georgia Charter Schools Commission -- that state's statewide charter school authorizer -- agreed to authorize the two new virtual schools through a rigorous process that demonstrates Georgia's commitment to smart accountability, even while venturing into new territory.
In explaining why applicants were rejected, the commission made clear they rejected applicants because they did not believe the proposed models could deliver high-quality instruction to the targeted students. In one case, the commission wrote that it "was concerned about a proposal that subjects an extraordinary number of students to unacceptable academic standards."
In contrast, one of the schools approved -- Provost Academy Georgia -- presented an academic plan that went above and beyond what's required by state and federal standards, delineating specific benchmark goals for graduation rates, SAT and ACT performance, and state assessments.
Georgia has other provisions that help ensure smart accountability among e-schools and possible hybrid models. For one, it's indisputable that the nonprofit governing board owns the school. Law stipulates that schools are allowed to contract for services from a for-profit operator. But, it requires charter schools to be organized and operated by a Georgia nonprofit corporation. The law requires that "substantial independence" be demonstrated between the nonprofit corporation and the for-profit entity so as to "preserve the public interest and avoid conflicts of interest."
Ohio can learn from Georgia. It should strengthen charter accountability by clearly defining the roles and responsibilities of school operators (for-profit and otherwise) and their nonprofit charter school boards. As it implements more rigorous accountability measures it should lift the ironclad moratorium on e-schools.
As Georgia illustrates, the state can expand innovative programming for its students while also maintaining smart accountability. Done well, this can improve instruction while reducing costs.
Terry Ryan is vice president for Ohio Programs and Policy of the Thomas B. Fordham Institute.
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By William Fisher
In the Middle East, television media channels are becoming as ubiquitous as hubbly-bubblies. Once populated only by government-owned and controlled outlets, the Middle East landscape is now crowded with 24-hour satellite channels like Al Jazeera, Al Aribiya, Al Hurra, CNN, the BBC, and various country-specific satellite stations (many still controlled by governments). The area’s hunger for news is also beginning to be fed by online news via the Internet, where most of the world’s newspapers – and an exponentially growing number of ‘blogs’, or web logs – are available.
And so it is in the United States. In America, which has more than 1,500 daily newspapers as well as countless weeklies and radio stations, television is still the public’s prime source of news. The architecture of the US television news business, however, is in at least two respects, different from that of the Middle East. First, there are no government-controlled stations. A US Government agency, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), regulates the airwaves, but does not own any of them. Second, America has the phenomenon of ‘local stations’, unknown in most of the Middle East. Most local stations are affiliated with one of the big US networks, like CBS, NBC, or ABC, and use the major networks for their national and international content.
But their uniqueness is that they broadcast content specific to a city or town or region. The analog in the Middle East would be a TV station located in, and dedicated to, broadcasting information from and about, say, Cairo, or Beirut, or Jeddah. Local television in the US broadcasts music, entertainment, calendars of events, talk shows, news, and advertising, relating exclusively to the community in which they’re located.
Broadcast TV stations in the US, including local stations, don’t pay the government for use of the airwaves; the airwaves belong to ‘the public’. But in exchange for this highly profitable access to viewers – and their advertisers’ access to customers – the FCC is mandated to demand full, fair and responsible coverage of local news.
Local news becomes particularly important in elections years, and not only Presidential elections years. On an American election day in any year, voters in thousands of communities cast ballots for town councils, county commissioners, school board members, judges, sheriffs, state legislators, US congress, and much more.
Local television stations are supposed to present the issues and the candidates as part of their public responsibility. But there is mounting evidence that they are failing to live up to that responsibility, and increasing criticism of the FCC for not monitoring these stations and what they’re broadcasting.
In this US election year, much is being written and spoken about how poorly informed the US electorate is. If that’s true, one reason is ‘local TV news’. Viewers are unlikely to become political pundits by watching it.
Here are some of the findings of a local TV news study of the 2002 election reported last month by the Norman Lear Center, a research and public policy center at the Annenberg School for Communication at the University of Southern California:
Almost six out of ten top-rated local news broadcasts contained no campaign coverage whatsoever.
Most of the local campaign stories that did air were broadcast during the last two weeks of the campaign.
Nearly half the local political stories were about horserace or strategy, and not about issues.
The average local campaign story lasted less than 90 seconds.
Fewer than three out of ten local campaign stories that aired included candidates speaking, and when they did speak, the average candidate sound bite was 12 seconds long.
Campaign ads outnumbered campaign stories by nearly four to one.
The Lear Center collected top-rated early- and late-evening half-hours of news from a scientific sample of 122 stations in the top 50 U.S. markets. It analyzed more than 10,000 news broadcasts that aired during the last seven weeks of the 2002 campaign.
These findings are supported by many others, including a five-year study of local television by the Project for Excellence in Journalism. That study found:
The No. 1 topic on local television news is crime. Over the study’s five years, 24 percent of all stories were about crime - ranging from a high of 26 percent in 2002 to a low of 19 percent in 2000. Crime stories led the local newscasts. The 2,400 newscasts studied found that 39 percent were crime stories, while 13 percent were about disasters or severe weather, and 9 percent were about a fairly routine fire or accident, for a total of 61 percent.
The No. 2 top stories are about accidents, bizarre events, fires and catastrophes, accounting for 12 percent. Taken together, crime, fire accidents and disasters made up 36 percent of all stories.
The next most popular topics are human-interest stories and politics, which each accounted for 10 percent of stories. But of the political stories, most dealt with state races and relatively few were about local politics.
The tragedy of 9/11 did force local TV stations to become more international – but just a bit. Over the first four years of the study, foreign affairs and defense amounted to just four percent of stories. This year, coverage of those topics rose to nine percent – during the heaviest fighting of the Afghanistan war. Reporting on politics, government and public policy (nine percent) did not increase, despite the political dimension of the war on terrorism.
Nor did homeland security get much attention either. Issues such as airport baggage checks and the threat of bioterrorism accounted for just one percent of the stories. There was as much coverage of missing children as there was of local homeland defense.
According to Martin Kaplan, director of the Lear Center, back in 1998, the Gore Commission proposed voluntary standards for local TV news. “After years of deliberation, it urged stations to air at least five minutes of candidate-centered discourse a night on each night in the month before the election. How well did it work? In the 2000 election, we studied 74 stations in 58 markets. Rather than five minutes of candidate discourse a night, the average station ran 74 seconds.”
Kaplan urged the FCC to adopt “explicit standards of performance” for local news stations, which “promise to fulfill a public interest obligation in order to get their license”. Then, he said, “we need a way to know if stations actually meet those obligations, and a way to link stations’ performance on the public interest obligation with the renewal of their licenses.”
Industry sources report that more and more people who are watching television are now watching things other than local news. Yet even with a declining audience and a sluggish economy, local television remains consistently profitable. And news is responsible for a disproportionate amount of a station's income -- 16 percent of a typical station's programming each day, but roughly 40 percent of its revenue.
The ‘why’ of this sorry state of affairs is long and complicated -- certainly media consolidation is one factor, but only one of many.
Len Downie Jr. and Bob Kaiser of The Washington Post are among many others examining this issue. Their view: “If most newspapers have done poorly, local television stations have been worse. Typically, local stations provide little real news, no matter how many hours they devote to "news" programs. Their reporting staffs are dramatically smaller than even the staffs of shrunken newspapers in the same cities. The television stations have attracted viewers-and the advertising that rewards their owners with extraordinary profits-with the melodrama, violence and entertainment of "action news" formulas, the frivolity of "happy talk" among their anchors and the technological gimmicks of computer graphics and "live" remote broadcasting.”
And broadcasting analyst John McManus, in an article entitled “Do Television and Politics Mix?” writes: “To be fair, stations under economic pressures to maximize profit can make more money doing stories other than politics, even at this time of year. Despite the hoopla of a presidential election, roughly half of eligible Americans don’t bother to vote and presumably aren’t interested in political stories. Because you can’t ignore a long political story in favor of something you find more interesting—as you can in a newspaper—those bored by politics switch channels, thus penalizing the station.
“Stories the stations emphasized — the flaming crash of an airliner in Taiwan, the cute little feature about the Lawrence Livermore Labs doing research on something so prosaic as grilling burgers, Channel 7’s “x-ray” camera looking through the skirts of young women — all have a powerful human-interest appeal, through life and death drama, oddity, or titillation. In other words, they “sell” well.
“Television clearly pays a greater price in profits than newspapers for coverage that doesn’t turn the heads of as many as possible. But the role of news isn’t to rubber neck for as big an audience as possible. It’s to help as many as possible understand the world around them.
“Just before an election the public need is greatest for intense, independent reporting on how billions of dollars of our money shall be spent and who shall lead our nation, our state, county, city, even police departments and schools. Political coverage is a litmus test of the civic responsibility of our news media. Given the extraordinary profits local stations earn—the industry average for large market affiliate stations is about four times that of the average U.S.
firm—and the bonanza that political advertising represents, one might expect at least a tie between journalism ethics and the demands of Wall Street.”
What is important in terms of the upcoming election is for Americans to remember that local television stations operate on airwaves given to them by the US taxpayers. With that gift goes a responsibility to inform the public. The Federal Communications Commission and the Congress need to take whatever steps are required to insure that this responsibility is taken seriously, and that owners of local TV stations are held accountable.
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January 13, 2012
You May Be Drinking Wastewater Without Knowing It
According to a report by the National Research Council (NRC), more Americans are drinking recycled wastewater, whether they are aware of it or not.
The report said that treated wastewater poses no greater health risks than existing water supplies and in some instances may be even safer to drink.Jorg Drewes, an engineering professor at the Colorado School of Mines who contributed to the report, said it is a waste not to reuse the nation's wastewater since almost all of it is treated before discharge.
He said this method can be done without putting the public at risk, and can help combat growing water scarcity as the U.S. population begins to grow.
According to the NRC report, 12 billion gallons of the 32 billion gallons of wastewater discharged every day in the U.S. goes into an ocean or estuary, becoming permanently lost.
Some communities reuse the water for irrigation and industrial purposes, while others may actually use it for drinking water.
The report said the public does not realize that it is drinking water that was treated after being discharged as wastewater somewhere upstream.
"For example, wastewater discharged into the Trinity River from Dallas/Fort Worth flows south into Lake Livingston, the source for Houston's drinking water," USA Today reported.
The report said there has been no systemic analysis of its extent nationwide since a 1980 study by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
It said water reuse projects tend to cost more than most water conservation options, but less than seawater desalination and other supply alternatives.
On the Net:
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The Afghan city of Jalalabad has a high-speed Internet network whose main components are built out of trash found locally. Aid workers, mostly from the United States, are using the provincial city in Afghanistan's far east as a pilot site for a project called FabFi.
It's a broadband apart from the covert, subversive "Internet in a suitcase" and stealth broadband networks being sponspored by the U.S., aimed at empowering dissidents, but the goal isn't so different: bringing high-speed onilne access to the world's most remote places.
Residents can build a FabFi node out of approximately $60 worth of everyday items such as boards, wires, plastic tubs, and cans that will serve a whole community at once. While it sounds like science fiction, FabFi could have important ramifications for entire swaths of the world that lack conventional broadband.
FabFi is an open source project that maintains close ties to MIT's Fab Lab and the university's Center for Bits and Atoms. At the moment, FabFi products are up and running in both Jalalabad and at three sites in Kenya, which collectively operate as an Internet service provider called JoinAfrica. Inside Afghanistan, FabFi networks are used to aid local businesses and to prop up community infrastructure such as hospitals and clinics.
FabFi is funded primarily by the personal savings of group members and a grant from the National Science Foundation.
The technology used to create FabFi networks seems like it leaped out of an episode of MacGyver. Commercial wireless routers are mounted on homemade RF reflectors covered with a metallic mesh surface. Another router-on-a-reflector is set up at a distance; the two routers then create an ad-hoc network that provides Internet access to a whole network of reflectors. The number of reflectors which can be integrated into the network is theoretically endless; FabFi's network covers most of Jalalabad.
The reflectors can be built out of wood, metal, plastics, stone, clay, or any other locally available product that the metallic mesh can be attached to. FabFi also designed their devices to run on power generated by an automobile battery, which means the networks an also go "off-the-grid" if necessary.
Afghanistan is also a focal point for One Laptop Per Child (OLPC), which is currently working in Jalalabad, Kabul, Herat and Kandahar. OLPC's Samuel Klein noted that locals are being introduced to Wikipedia for the first time, which resulted in an amazing image of an Afghan family viewing Wikipedia on OLPC laptops (right). Wikipedia has a robust Pashto-language version.
The director of the Jalalabad FabFi project, Amy Sun, says that Internet access is just one piece of the puzzle for Afghanistan:
Fab Lab/Fi doesn’t solve everything. It’s only one piece: the rest have to develop at the same time. Infrastructure like roads, power, water, schools, teachers, and systems maintenance as well as the user terminals (laptops and computers), people who use them, and the content they'll consume. It’s crazy to think that there was no cell phone service in the country in 2002 and now it’s pretty solidly working in every major population center (at least when the tower isn’t turned off or bombed). From roads to power to water, the task at hand (officially U.S. or not) was to set off a program that could go from zero to servicing 30 million people in a few years. Imagine deciding to colonize Mars and sending 30 million people first, ahead of the infrastructure.
However, FabFi has brought a scaleable model of low-cost broadband Internet access to one of the most war-torn regions of the world. Networks of the type created by FabFi operate independently of government control and can be deployed by anyone anywhere where local infrastructure will not permit a conventional network. What works in Afghanistan can also work elsewhere.
[Images: Courtesy FabFi]
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The vast majority of groups visiting a memorial site have time for no more than the basic tour of the site. This means that they will not make use of any additional activity the site has to offer, interesting as they may be. This reality leads to the conclusion that resources need to be invested mainly in developing an appropriate site tour. Sites invest a great deal in developing exhibitions, but hardly in developing pedagogical methods for the basic tour of the sites' topography and human rights education. But it is this topography and learning universal lessons for the future, which draws people to these places. Viewing of exhibitions and monuments need appropriate methods, aiming at moral reflection, historical understanding and learning about human rights.
Joint FRA and Mauthausen Memorial Workshop “Training of guides”
The Project Holocaust and Human Rights Education (2006-2012), implemented by the Agency, will facilitate training of guides at the Memorial Mauthausen. The training will bring together lessons learned from research, stakeholder engagement and other activities of the project. This is the final activity of the project.
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common name: lesser canna leafroller
scientific name: Geshna cannalis (Quaintance) (Insecta: Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)
Introduction - Distribution - Description and Life History - Hosts and Damage - Management - Selected References
The lesser canna leafroller, Geshna cannalis (Quaintance), can be a serious pest of ornamental canna, Canna spp., in Florida. It is one of two leaf-rolling lepidopteran species found infesting canna, the other one being the larger and more voracious larger canna leafroller, Calpodes ethlius (Stoll). Cannas may be infested with both species simultaneously.
Figure 1. Adult lesser canna leafroller, Geshna cannalis (Quaintance). Photograph by Paul M. Choate, University of Florida.
Very little is known about the distribution of G. cannalis but it appears to be distributed throughout the southeastern United States. It has been recorded as a pest of canna in Florida (Kimball 1965), Mississippi, and North Carolina (see North Carolina Pest News). Since G. cannalis is a specialized pest of canna, which originated in the American tropics, it is likely that this insect species is also present in the neotropics.
Adult G. cannalis are nondescript, small, light-brown pyralid moths which may be found resting in the shade of a canna plant during the day. The female wing span averages 25 mm (Quaintance 1898). There are two brownish black lines across the fore- and hindwings, and a small angular white patch near the distal portion of the discal cell of the forewing. Females lay eggs in groups of six to 15 on the upper surface of a canna leaf (Quaintance 1898). Eggs are flat, clear whitish yellow in color, and average 0.9 mm in size.
The first instars hatch and feed as leaf miners, tunneling between the upper and lower epidermis and excreting much frass into the tunnel. This first larval instar measures 1.4 mm in length and has a yellowish, somewhat transparent body, and a yellow head. After larvae become too large for their leaf mines, they feed gregariously on the upper leaf surface. When larvae are approximately one week old, they initiate leaf rolling behavior. Five or six larvae may be found within a leaf roll, but usually only one or two coexist.
Figure 2. Rolled canna leaf showing feeding injury typical of the lesser canna leafroller, Geshna cannalis (Quaintance). Photograph by Paul M. Choate, University of Florida.
The last instar larva is about 23 mm in length and is yellowish white. Its body is transparent and the green color of its food is plainly visible through the integument. The head is yellow, with the clypeus yellowish brown and the tips of the mandibles brownish-black. The last instar larva spins a silken shelter within its leaf roll and pupates within the shelter. The pupa is 11.5 mm in length and is chocolate brown in color. There are eight stout dark brown hairs shaped into hooks on the caudal end of the pupa which hold the pupa in the silken shelter.
Figure 3. Late instar larva of the lesser canna leafroller, Geshna cannalis (Quaintance). Photograph by Paul M. Choate, University of Florida.
The pupal stage of the final generation of the year overwinters in dead canna leaves. Adult moths are usually first seen in late February and early March in Florida (Quaintance 1898). The first generation lasts 35 days while later generations during the summer are probably as short as 28 or 30 days. During the summer, the generations overlap and insects at all developmental stages can be found in the same canna planting.
Geshna cannalis appears to be restricted to feeding on various species of canna. Its feeding damage can be readily distinguished from that of C. ethlius, the larger canna leafroller. Calpodes ethlius rolls up the edge of a fully expanded leaf and uses silk to hold the edges closed. Geshna cannalis may also feed this way, but it more frequently feeds within leaves that have not yet expanded (Quaintance 1898). It ties the unfurled leaf together with silk, preventing further expansion. Calpodes ethlius eats through the entire leaf surface whereas G. cannalis eats only the upper epidermis and parenchyma (the inner surface of the leaf roll), leaving the lower epidermis intact (Quaintance 1898). Finally, C. ethlius flicks away its frass so that the leaf roll is frass-free, whereas the feeding shelter of G. cannalis contains much dark brown frass.
Figure 4. Frass-filled canna leaf roll containing larvae of the lesser canna leafroller, Geshna cannalis (Quaintance). Photograph by Paul M. Choate, University of Florida.
Cutting dead canna plants to the ground in the late winter is a good way to reduce populations of G. cannalis. Disposing of the cut material with the overwintering pupae will reduce initial
population levels of this insect in the spring. During larval infestation in the summer,
insecticides can be sprayed into the leaf roll, however, stickers must be added because the very
waxy canna leaf surface repels water. Products that contain Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are least
toxic to beneficial organisms. Other more toxic chemical alternatives are discussed in:
Commercial Foliage and Woody Ornamental Arthropod Pest Management
- Baker JR. Insect and related pests of flowers and foliage plants: some important, common, and potential pests in the southeastern United States. North Carolina State University. http://ipmwww.ncsu.edu/INSECT_ID/AG136/ncstate.html (20 May 2000).
- Kimball CP. 1965. The Lepidoptera of Florida: An annotated checklist. Division of Plant Industry, State of Florida Department of Agriculture, Gainesville, Florida.
- Quaintance AL. 1898. Three injurious insects: bean leaf-roller, corn delphax, canna leaf-roller. Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 45: 53-74.
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You are not currently logged in.
Access your personal account or get JSTOR access through your library or other institution:
If You Use a Screen ReaderThis content is available through Read Online (Free) program, which relies on page scans. Since scans are not currently available to screen readers, please contact JSTOR User Support for access. We'll provide a PDF copy for your screen reader.
Gesture Reflects Language Development: Evidence from Bilingual Children
Rachel I. Mayberry and Elena Nicoladis
Current Directions in Psychological Science
Vol. 9, No. 6 (Dec., 2000), pp. 192-196
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20182668
Page Count: 5
Since scans are not currently available to screen readers, please contact JSTOR User Support for access. We'll provide a PDF copy for your screen reader.
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There is a growing awareness that language and gesture are deeply intertwined in the spontaneous expression of adults. Although some research suggests that children use gesture independently of speech, there is scant research on how language and gesture develop in children older than 2 years. We report here on a longitudinal investigation of the relation between gesture and language development in French-English bilingual children from 2 to 3 1/2 years old. The specific gesture types of iconics and beats correlated with the development of the children's two languages, whereas pointing types of gestures generally did not. The onset of iconic and beat gestures coincided with the onset of sentencelike utterances separately in each of the children's two languages. The findings show that gesture is related to language development rather than being independent from it. Contrasting theories about how gesture is related to language development are discussed.
Current Directions in Psychological Science © 2000 Association for Psychological Science
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A ball moving
The following video shows how our our perception of object movements is manipulated by two types of prior knowledge: the fact that light sources usually are stationary and that there are only certain kinds of cast shadows objects normally create. The first part of the video shows a blue ball floating from the upper right corner to the lower left corner (and back). The following part apparently shows the ball rolling back and forth. Importantly, the ball moved in exactly the same way on the screen in these two parts; the only thing that changed was how the shadow moved on the ground. Accordingly, by removing the shadow, as shown in the next sequence, the movement of the ball becomes ambiguous: it could either be floating or rolling. Zigzagging shadow motion in the two following parts induces apparent zigzagging motion of an object. We do not see the correct linear trajectory of the blue ball although changes in shadowing on the ball and on the checker board indicate that the light source is moving (in the last sequence of the video). The yellow line allows us to verify that the path of the ball is indeed linear.
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A new report issued today by USDA should help farmers and ranchers make informed decisions resulting in better soil and ultimately reduce greenhouse emissions.
For the past 3 years, I have worked with a team of experts and scores of reviewers on a report published today, Quantifying Greenhouse Gas Fluxes in Agriculture and Forestry: Methods for Entity-Scale Inventory.
If you are a landowner, scientist, or conservationist looking for new tools to estimate carbon storage and greenhouse gas (GHG) fluxes, you will want to take a look at this report. It provides the scientific basis and methodology to assess the GHG benefits of conservation practices and farm, ranch and forest management. This information will help producers gauge progress in building healthy, carbon-rich soils and, ultimately, more resilient production of food, fiber and fuel. Read more »
Who knew The Big Apple was surrounded by billions of dollars of milk? Check back next Thursday for more fun facts from another state and the 2012 Census of Agriculture.
The Census of Agriculture is the most complete account of U.S. farms and ranches and the people who operate them. Every Thursday USDA’s National Agricultural Statistics Service will highlight new Census data and the power of the information to shape the future of American agriculture.
According to the 2012 Census of Agriculture, the value of New York’s number one commodity is nearly half the value of all our agricultural products. The value of milk sales, at $2.42 billion, ranks third among all states. This milk is used in the production of many dairy products, with New York ranking number one among states in the production of yogurt, cottage cheese, and sour cream and also ranking high in the production of cheese.
However, because of New York’s varied geography and large size, New York is agriculturally diverse, with many commodities ranking in the top ten nationally. For example, 2,598 New York farms produce fruit on 93,304 acres. New York traditionally ranks second in the nation in apple production with apples grown on 47,148 acres. New York also produces 39,216 acres of grapes, mostly along the moderating climates on the shores of the Great Lakes, Finger Lakes, and Long Island. New York grows grapes both for juice and for wine, and typically ranks third in total grape production. Read more »
Mary Louise Reynnells (right) and Shellie Wallace-Polin in their FFA jackets, 1977.
Earlier this year, in preparation for the 2015 opening of a new business history exhibition, American Enterprise, the Smithsonian’s National Museum of American History put out a call for current and past members of the National FFA Organization to submit their FFA jackets accompanied with their own personal agricultural history. The jackets and stories, to be featured in the agricultural portion of the exhibition, will examine the significance that agricultural education continues to play to our national identity.
At a ceremony last week, five jackets and their stories were selected; among them, a jacket from President Jimmy Carter and a jacket from USDA’s Agricultural Research Service employee Mary “Louise” Reynnells. USDA employees work every day to ensure that American farmers have access to the opportunities they need, and many of their ties to agriculture extend well beyond their time at USDA. Here is Mary “Louise” Reynnells’s story, and with it, her contribution to our agricultural heritage. Read more »
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Scientists at Wake Forest University School of Medicine report that they have cloned the gene responsible for an inherited form of kidney stone disease, which may open the way to new treatments.
The disease, called primary hyperoxaluria type II, "often results in the formation of kidney stones at a very young age," said Ross P. Holmes, Ph.D., associate professor of surgical sciences (urology), one of the authors of the study, published in the current issue of Human Molecular Genetics.
"In severe forms of the disease, kidney failure may occur, and other organs may fail, leading to early death," he said.
Scott D. Cramer, Ph.D.,assistant professor of cancer biology and surgical sciences (urology) and lead author, said patients with the disease have an alternate or mutated form of the gene, which ordinarily directs creation of a critical enzyme.
In these patients, the absence of the enzyme results in too much oxalic acid or oxalates, which in turn leads to formation of calcium oxalate stones, the most common form of kidney stones.
Cramer and Holmes said, "The discovery of this gene may lead to a better understanding of the way that oxalate is synthesized in the body."
That in turn may benefit not only patients with this disease, but also people with calcium oxalate kidney stones from other causes.
Primary hyperoxaluria type II ordinarily is detected because of excessive oxalate in the urine. The missing enzyme is hydroxypyruvate reducatase, and it is the body''s primary process for breaking down the oxalates.
With the discovery of the gene, Cramer and Holmes expect to develop an animal model for kidney stone disease. They plan to create a group of mice that are lacking a functioning gene, so they will be missing the hydroxypyruvate reductase enzyme.
Cramer said, "We will use the mice as a model to test new therapeutic treatments not only for this disease, but calcium oxalate stones in general."
Holmes said white men have the highest incidence of kidney stone disease, with 12-15 percent of the men in this group likely to have kidney stones sometime in their lifetimes. The peak in occurrence is in people during their 40s and 50s.
The research was funded by the National Institutes of Health and the Oxalosis and Hyperoxaluria Foundation.
Media Contact: Robert Conn, Jim Steele or Mark Wright at (336) 716-4587
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http://www.wakehealth.edu/News-Releases/1999/Wake_Forest_Scientists_Clone_Gene_for_Inherited_Kidney_Stone_Disease.htm
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International wrangling over ways to control the greenhouse gases that drive global warming is the prelude to a larger debate. Scientists now find that the dust, soot, and other microscopic particles we kick into the atmosphere are also potent climate changers. Nations will have to find ways to reduce this dirty, airborne - or aerosol - pollution, as well as curb carbon dioxide emissions, to avoid possibly unpleasant environmental changes.
It won't be easy. Cleaner, more efficient energy use and production can cut back both carbon dioxide emissions, the chief man-made greenhouse gas, and some aerosol pollution. But that would only begin to solve the aerosol problem. A recent expedition studying the man-made haze over the Indian Ocean found this problem to be far larger and more complex than scientists have realized.
Scientists had thought the main climate effect of aerosols would be regional cooling as the particles scattered sunlight back into space. Instead, the Indian Ocean researchers found a thick pall over an area as large as the continental United States. It absorbed sunlight and warmed up. Black soot and other heat-absorbing particles offset the cooling effect. Moreover, they reduced the sunshine reaching the surface enough to cut back growth of the microscopic algae that underlie marine food chains.
The researchers concluded that aerosol palls can effect climate in ways they don't fully understand. Aerosols may offset or enhance global warming. They may affect cloud cover and reduce precipitation significantly. They can affect marine food chains.
What happened over the Indian Ocean raises a global concern. Pollution from China, India, and other parts of southeast Asia had spread over a vast area. Research elsewhere has traced Asian particle plumes across the pacific. North American plumes reach far over the Atlantic. Some of these plumes contain more soot and other dark matter than others. But all are becoming extensive enough to have far-reaching environmental effects.
These aerosol palls arise from a variety of sources which, in the aggregate, will be hard to control. In southeast Asia, coal-burning industry and millions of wood-burning and dung-burning homes contribute dirty particles. Elsewhere, slash-and-burn farming on a massive scale is at fault. In regions like North America, aerosols come from trucks, leaf blowers, and other such dispersed sources, as well as from industry.
Controlling this kind of pollution would mean fundamental changes in long-established lifestyles in many parts of the world. Curbing carbon dioxide emissions seems simple by comparison. As population grows, aerosol pollution will worsen. Nations cannot continue to ignore it. Building global consensus to deal with greenhouse gases is a tough diplomatic exercise. It's only a warm-up for the coming aerosol challenge.
(c) Copyright 1999. The Christian Science Publishing Society
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http://www.csmonitor.com/2000/0105/p8s1.html
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