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Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) techniques have been shown in numerous clinical trials to help overcome even long term insomnia. Here Professor Colin Espie explains CBT for insomnia and how the science behind it inspired the Sleepio online sleep improvement program.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, or 'CBTi' for short, trains people to use techniques that address the mental (or cognitive) factors associated with insomnia, such as the 'racing mind', and to overcome the worry and other negative emotions that accompany the experience of being unable to sleep.
In addition, CBT helps people with poor sleep establish a healthy sleep pattern. This behavioral element supports people to develop a 'pro-sleep' routine and to achieve strong connection between bed and successful sleep, meaning that falling asleep and staying asleep in bed becomes more automatic and natural.
CBT for insomnia is usually delivered over the course of 6 to 8 weekly face-to-face sessions with a trained therapist, who teaches the person techniques that they can use at home to help themselves improve their sleep. Now online programs such as Sleepio allow people to access these proven, tailored techniques and receive continuous support, all via the web.
Cognitive behavioral therapy also teaches people how to get a more reliable sleep from night to night. Most poor sleepers have a very unpredictable sleep pattern. They live with uncertainty of what the night will hold for them, compared with good sleepers, who can rely on their sleep being stable and satisfying.
The consequences of improved sleep and less sleep-related worry are that most people who follow a CBT program for insomnia feel much better during the daytime too. Indeed, many of the techniques that people learn are helpful for the stresses and strains of daily living because they help people feel more organized and more in control in general.
CBT is what we call an 'evidence-based therapy', meaning that it has been shown to be effective in controlled scientific clinical studies. The earliest research in fact goes back more than 30 years, so several decades of evidence has accumulated to show that CBT can teach people how to fall asleep faster, stay asleep and feel better during the day.
'Randomized Controlled Trials' (or RCTs) are the gold standard method for evaluating whether a treatment is effective. Participants are randomly allocated to receive the treatment in question, no treatment or, in some cases, a placebo (ie. false but convincing) treatment. By comparing differences between groups we can confidently assess whether the real treatment truly works, and confirm that any improvements are not down to chance, some other external factor such as changes in the weather, or to people just believing they will get better. CBT for insomnia has been assessed in over 100 RCTs, and the results show that on average 70% of people with even very long term poor sleep obtain lasting benefit from the treatment.
Scientific studies have also shown that poor sleepers generally would prefer a practical approach based on CBT compared with taking sleeping pills. Indeed, the evidence is that CBT helps most people achieve sustained long-term improvements in their sleep, whereas the effects of sleeping pills are mostly short-term. On the basis of such findings, advisory bodies in the UK, USA and elsewhere advocate CBT as the preferred option for persistent poor sleep problems.
The Sleepio team is committed to an evidence-based model, so that the course can be as effective and as up-to-date as possible. This means that we have an ongoing program of research to test the effectiveness of what we are offering.
We have recently completed our very first randomized controlled trial (RCT) employing the most rigorous scientific standards. In our study we conducted what is known as a placebo-controlled RCT. That is, we compared CBT not only to a control group who had no treatment, but also to a placebo condition. Since this type of trial tests whether improvements are due to chance or a 'placebo effect' (ie. people feeling better simply because they are being helped in some way or expect to improve) we can be fairly confident of our findings. In addition our trial is the first of its kind in the world to evaluate online CBT for poor sleep in a placebo controlled design.
A total of 164 people with persistent insomnia (ie. lasting 3 months or longer) took part in the study and were randomly allocated to one of three groups: those given the CBT-based Sleepio course, another given a placebo course using the same online system, and finally a group that received no course at all over the same period. Our online system gathered evaluation data from them all before they started the course (a baseline measure), after completing the course and at a follow-up point eight weeks later. Our results were then analyzed so that we could test the effectiveness of the Sleepio course when compared to the placebo group and to the untreated group.
Our results show that the Sleepio course helped around 75% of people with persistent sleep problems to improve their sleep to healthy levels, compared with the placebo and no treatment conditions which had relatively little impact. In research trials it is usual to report average scores, and these averages of course include those who benefitted least as well as those who saw great improvements. Nonetheless we found an average reduction in time taken to fall asleep of 50% and in time spent awake during the night of 60% within the Sleepio group. We also found that people using Sleepio rated their quality of sleep as having more than doubled (a 115% increase) and their energy and daytime wellbeing levels increased by 58% during the daytime. Importantly, these improvements with Sleepio were found to be lasting because effects were maintained at our two month follow up point.
We will continue to evaluate Sleepio as time goes on, but we are very pleased that the results from this first study confirm what is reported in the wider scientific literature, that CBT techniques are effective in addressing poor and disrupted sleep. But remember, Sleepio is not intended to address any medical problem. If you have any reason to believe you are suffering from a pre-existing medical condition, or if you frequently struggle to stay awake during the day or fall asleep during the daytime without intending to, then please consult your doctor before starting the Sleepio course.
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Beneath the bustle of Antwerp, Belgium, empty tunnels lie still and silent, forgotten by most of the inhabitants above. Meant for a metro system, the tunnels have been abandoned since they were built in the 1970s, but American-based designer Jon Martin imagines a novel use for them: housing an archaeological museum that doubles as an underground network connecting various buildings throughout the city. The melancholy mood of the project was inspired by W.G. Sebald’s novel, ‘Austerlitz.’
Starting at Antwerp Central Station, the tunnels would transform from disused concrete remains into a sort of artificial archaeological site housing a massive skeleton that twists and turns throughout the subterranean system. Visitors would descend down a staircase into a sort of daylight-illuminated lobby that is open to the sky above, and from there, wind their way through the tunnels to various exhibits.
Keeping the tunnels largely untouched would preserve the gritty, eerie atmosphere that urban explorers currently see first-hand when they surreptitiously infiltrate the system to take photographs. The project would add staircases, walkways and sculptural skeletal installations, with a main gallery housing architectural artifacts and revealing historic and foundational walls of the city.
‘The Descent’ into the museum entrance at Antwerp Central Station is “a stylistic plunge into the melancholy of a forgotten past,” and the first gallery consists of three tunnels that start and end at the same place, leading into the main gallery which is near the Flanders Opera. From there, visitors proceed on a diagonal into the Diamond District to see ‘Cinematic History’ in the form of films projected on the walls of the underground spaces. As they reach the end, the tunnels narrow – “The closer one gets to secrets of the past, the narrower and more isolated one becomes.”
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The National Museum of Australia seeks to build and care for a broad-based collection that provides a material record of Australian history. The National Historical Collection is the Museum's core collection, and consists of the most historically and culturally significant objects acquired by the Museum. There are more than 200,000 items in this collection. The Museum's other collections include the Archive Collection, comprising documents, photographs, and sound and vision recordings associated with material in the National Historical Collection, and the Education Collection, comprising materials to support Museum programs and activities.
As has been the case each year since its opening in 2001, the Museum met or exceeded Output group 1.1 measures this year.
Performance summary, measured against PBS
100% of National Historical Collection acquisitions are consistent with acquisitions policy
|75% of the National Historical Collection stored in accordance with appropriate museum standards||ACTUAL: 75%|
1000 conservation treatments undertaken to maintain appropriate condition of items
|ACTUAL: 2138 conservation treatments|
|7500 National Historical Collection items accessible via the Museum's website||ACTUAL: 10,742
National Historical Collection items made accessible on the Museum's website
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In the fall, the village packs up to go off for fall hunting. White Fang decides to stay behind and, quite deliberately, hides in the forest. That night he is cold, lonely, and afraid. In the morning, he goes and looks at the abandoned village and howls mournfully. He runs alongside the river, looking for his people. The second day, White Fang finds his people camped along the river, and White Fang surrenders himself to Gray Beaver. He is now, by his own choice, a dog.
In December, Gray Beaver travels up the Mackenzie by sled. Mit-sah and Kloo-kooch go with him, and White Fang is fastened to Mit-sah's sled. The dogs are tied in fan formation, with each a whole body's length ahead of the next, but so that all of the dogs pursue the one in the front. Mit-sah puts Lip-lip at the front of the rope, so all the dogs pursue him and grow to hate him. Then Mit-sah favors Lip-lip the most of the dogs, in order to make all the dogs hate him. But even with their shared hatred of Lip-lip, White Fang and the other dogs still do not get along. White Fang could have become the leader, but he is too solitary, a tyrant rather than a leader.
White Fang, while he knows that Gray Beaver is his master, has little affection for him. White Fang attacks a boy who attacks him for no reason, yet Gray Beaver is not angry. Then he attacks boys who are attacking Mit-sah, and he still is not angry. White Fang thus learns to defend property against other humans.
In the spring, the three people and the dogs return to the village. White Fang is a year old now and already has reached the height of other dogs, although he hasn't compacted yet. He meets the dogs of the village with new confidence, and they respect him.
In the summer, White Fang meets up with his mother again, but she has a new litter of puppies and drives him away with growls and bites. White Fang is confused, but leaves.
As the days go on, White Fang is molded into a rather wolfish dog. He is full of strength with his one weakness being that he cannot stand hearing people laugh at him. In the third year of his life, another famine comes upon the people, and White Fang leaves to live in the woods. He meets his mother, then meets Lip-lip and kills him. After some time, he returns to the village and the famine is over.
6 out of 15 people found this helpful
mkay jack london mkay
2 out of 3 people found this helpful
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Y-chromosome Adam and the Cambrian explosion
Published: 22 January 2011(GMT+10)
I have question relating to human Y–DNA haplogroups. It is claimed that Y–DNA haplogroups allegedly “disprove” the Creationist “Out-Of-Ararat” model of human migrations and “prove” the Darwinist “Out-Of-Africa” model. The claim is that “Y Chromosome Adam” gave rise to two major sub-clades–A and BT. All living human Y-DNA haplogroups, except for A, are supposedly descended from Y-DNA haplogroup BT by way of two other major sub-clades–B and CT. The first carrier of Haplogroup CT (a.k.a. “Eurasian Adam”) is said to have lived in Africa and his descendants supposedly later migrated out of Africa to the Middle East becoming ancestral to all modern human male lines except for A and B which are both found almost entirely in Africa. Because of this, many Darwinists allege that this proves that humanity originated or “evolved” in Africa and migrated to other parts of the world from there rather than migrating from Babel in the Middle East following the flood to other parts of the world.
How do human Y-DNA haplogroups fit with the biblical model of human migrations and with the Table of Nations in Genesis 10?
Thanks in advance.
Dr Carter responds:
1) All human males share a very similar Y chromosome. This means we have a recent common ancestor. With the publication of the chimp Y chromosome last spring (only ~70% identical to human1), evolutionary theorists are being forced to decide between two uncomfortable choices. Either our common ancestor with chimps is much further removed than 6.5 million years or Y–chromosome Adam is much younger than 90,000 years. The timing of Y–chromosome Adam is not as friendly to evolutionary theory as was once assumed.
The fact that some Africans are very different from other people in the world (including other Africans) indicates to me that they probably had different demographic history than other world populations and this led to extreme genetic divergence.
2) To draw a tree of Y chromosomes that traces back to a single individual, the assumption of a molecular clock is always (I have yet to see an exception) employed by evolutionary theorists. They assume that mutation rates are constant among all populations throughout our entire history. Corollary to this, they assume generation times have remained constant and that sub-population sizes, growth rates, and other demographic factors have been equivalent throughout time.
My arguments in the article above are mainly for Mitochondrial Eve, but they apply just as well for Y-chromosome Adam. If the molecular clock is not valid, the root cannot be placed anywhere on the tree with confidence. This is a critical point and should answer your question.
The fact that some Africans (not all!) are very different from other people in the world (including other Africans) indicates to me that, rather than being part of the most ancient human population, they probably had different demographic history than other world populations (a population broken up into many small tribal groups is but one possible factor) and this led to extreme genetic divergence.
Dear CMI: I have just read an amazing article about a manned submersible that reached the ocean floor (6 miles down!) back in the 1960s. What is even more amazing is that they discovered life down there! There is no doubt that life that could survive such an extreme environment must be wonderfully and fearfully made, and would have a very special design. Could it be that the strange creatures found in the so-called “Cambrian explosion” and the creatures that live at the bottom of the ocean are one and the same? Does CMI have a view on this?
Stephen & Ruth.
The deep ocean floors are full of weird and unexpected creatures. Species diversity is incredibly high, with more new species per square area than most other environments on earth, which is strange if you consider that environmental differences across the ocean floors of the world are almost non-existent.
Dr Carter responds:
Dear Stephen and Ruth,
The deep ocean floors are full of weird and unexpected creatures. Species diversity is incredibly high, with more new species per square area than most other environments on earth, which is strange if you consider that environmental differences across the ocean floors of the world are almost non-existent (dark, high pressure, no light, extreme cold, and mud everywhere). The deep ocean has also been a source of speculation throughout the centuries. There was one ill-fated but popular idea that the ocean floor was covered in a proto-life ooze that was constantly giving rise to new life forms (see Bathybius haeckelii and a ‘reign of terror’).
Most of the creatures that live in the abyss, however, are versions of familiar critters from shallower waters (starfish, worms, etc.). All of these phyla appeared suddenly in the “Cambrian explosion”, but so did all of the extant phyla on earth (for more information, see The Greatest Hoax on Earth, ch. 7). Sadly, we cannot correlate the ocean bottoms with the Cambrian explosion.
Thanks for the intriguing question and thank you for showing interest in our ministry.
- Hughes, J.F., et al., Chimpanzee and human Y chromosomes are remarkably divergent in structure and gene content, Nature 463:536–539, 2010. Return to text.
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Did you know? The heat in the upper six miles of the earth’s crust contains 50,000 times much as energy as found in all the world’s oil and gas reserves combined. Despite this abundance, only 10,500 megawatts of geothermal generating capacity have been harnessed worldwide. For more information view the text and data in Chapter 5 of Plan B 4.0: Mobilizing to Save Civilization.
After decades of growth, the reported global wild fish catch peaked in 2000 at 96 million tons and fell to 90 million tons in 2003, the last year for which worldwide data are available.* The catch per person dropped from an average of 17 kilograms in the late 1980s to 14 kilograms in 2003—the lowest figure since 1965. (See data.)
As fishing fleets expanded through the late 1980s and as fish-finding and harvesting technologies became more efficient, the world’s fishers have systematically gone after their catch at greater depths and in more remote waters. Over the past 50 years, the number of large predatory fish in the oceans has dropped by a startling 90 percent. Catches of many popular food fish such as cod, tuna, flounder, and hake have been cut in half despite a tripling in fishing effort. According to the U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization, the 4 million vessels scouring the world’s waters are at or exceeding the sustainable yields of three quarters of all oceanic fisheries.
The 10 most-fished species constitute 30 percent of the world’s catch. Seven of these have reached their limits and are classified as fully exploited or overexploited throughout their entire ranges, meaning that we cannot expect to increase their harvests. Included in this group are two types of Peruvian anchoveta, Alaska pollock, Japanese anchovy, blue whiting in the northeast Atlantic, capelin in the North Atlantic, and Atlantic herring. The other three species—chub mackerel, skipjack tuna, and largehead hairtail—are overfished in parts of their ranges.
Interestingly, several of these species became fishing targets only after the stocks of more desirable fish were overharvested. After the collapse of the 500-year-old Canadian cod fishery in the early 1990s, blue whiting catches increased. In the northwest Pacific, the overfishing of Alaska pollock and Japanese sardine led fishers to focus on Japanese anchovy, largehead hairtail, and squid. Some scientists warn that continuing to “fish down the food web” will lead to harvests almost exclusively of bait fish and jellyfish.
The tendency to catch larger and older fish first, leaving those small enough to escape from nets to breed, has over time reduced the average size of those caught. The effect on large predators is striking: for example, in the 1950s an average blue shark weighed 52 kilograms; in the 1990s, the average was 22 kilograms. In addition, fish that breed late in life are sometimes pulled out of the water before they can reproduce. When fish respond to overharvesting by reproducing at earlier ages, recent research shows that their populations are still hit hard because, for some species, the offspring of older fish have a better chance of survival than the offspring of younger fish.
Although fishers generally target specific kinds of fish, they often bring in more than just the intended catch. Some 8 percent of global landings are discarded, returned to the sea dead or dying. Shrimp trawlers, which drag enormous nets over the seafloor and destroy delicate ecosystems, are the most indiscriminate; some 62 percent of their catch is thrown back in the water. And these tallies underestimate the true losses as they only include reported bycatch and do not consider any of the marine mammals or birds that become entangled in fishing gear. Longliners with thousands of hooks on central fishing lines of up to 100 kilometers (60 miles) are estimated to kill some 4.4 million sharks, sea turtles, seabirds, billfish, and marine mammals in the Pacific each year.
Overall, 1 billion people around the world rely on fish as their primary source of protein. While annual fish consumption per person in the industrial countries (at 29 kilograms) is more than twice that of developing countries, three quarters of the fish caught in the wild (by weight) come from developing countries, which also supply 9 out of 10 farmed fish.
Thus fish are one of the most widely traded commodities. Seventy-five percent of the total marine harvest is sold on international markets each year, accounting for some $58 billion in exports in 2002. Japan, the United States, and the European Union are the top importers, bringing in fish caught in foreign seas or farmed in other regions and also sending industrial fishing fleets to empty the waters near developing countries. Off the west coast of Africa, for instance, large European and Japanese ships have displaced smaller boats, leaving little of the catch to feed local people.
The irony is that governments subsidize the destruction of oceanic resources to the tune of $15-30 billion each year. In 2001, subsidies paid to the fishing industry in Japan reached $2.5 billion, equal in value to a quarter of the catch. U.S. fishing subsidies totaled $1.2 billion, exceeding the worth of 30 percent of the U.S. catch. Removing these subsidies could go a long way toward relieving pressure on fish stocks.
While fish stocks historically have been managed on a species-by-species basis, scientists now recognize the need for management of whole ecosystems. This includes setting aside marine reserves where fishing is prohibited altogether. There is no guarantee that a collapsed fishery can recover, but studies of protected areas around the world have shown that some exploited fish populations rebound faster and that individual fish grow larger in and around marine reserves than in unprotected areas. A global network of marine reserves protecting up to 30 percent of the world’s oceans would cost around $13 billion—far less than the subsidies that currently promote overfishing. Such a network would also create some 1 million new jobs and bolster the number of fish that can be caught in nearby waters.
Creating sustainable fisheries also depends on strict fishing quotas and better enforcement to quash illegal fishing. Restricting the most damaging and indiscriminate types of fishing gear and adopting new bycatch-reducing technologies can stop the killing of incidental catch. For example, by modifying the shape of their hooks and switching to a different type of bait, fishers in the Western North Atlantic were able to reduce turtle bycatch by 92 percent and increase the catch of their target species. On the other side of the globe, Australian prawn trawlers have used devices to cut bycatch by more than 60 percent without adversely affecting their catch.
Such measures that boost the resiliency of aquatic populations and ecosystems should work in tandem with broader policies to protect our waters from looming threats like climate change and pollution. Coral reefs, kelp forests, and estuaries—the nurseries of the sea, where young fish develop and biodiversity thrives—are particularly vulnerable. Water temperatures just 1 degree Celsius above the norm can decimate coral reefs, leading to the loss of fish and other animals that depend on them. Global warming is already altering fish habitats, distribution, and migration patterns.
With oceanic ecosystems hitting their limits and demand for fish climbing, the farming of fish in pens and ponds supplies a growing share of the world’s food fish. From less than 1 million tons in 1950, global aquacultural production hit a new high of 42 million tons in 2003, making it the fastest-growing food production sector in the world. Farmed fish production, growing 9 percent a year over the last decade, is offsetting the decline in wild catch, sustaining the total availability of fish at 21 kilograms per person. (See data.)
Nonetheless, aquaculture will alleviate pressure on wild fish only if it is done wisely. The construction of near-shore fish farms frequently requires the razing of sensitive wetlands. These farms also harbor diseases and concentrate fish wastes that can lead to harmful algal blooms and low-oxygen dead zones. Making matters worse, farmed carnivorous fish can eat several times their weight in wild fish, which only adds to pressure on such resources. Though salmon, trout, shrimp, and prawns currently account for just 9 percent of world aquacultural output, production of these carnivorous fish is doubling almost every eight years, rapidly increasing demand on wild stocks.
Better methods of fish farming include onshore mixed-species production of herbivorous fish, like carp. China, which accounts for some 68 percent of world aquacultural production, has developed an efficient carp polyculture using freshwater ponds. Fish farmers in several countries, particularly in Asia and Africa, have even had success growing fish within rice paddies, where the fish need limited or no added feed and their wastes fertilize the grain crop.Modeling future aquacultural endeavors on such lower-impact systems would be an important step toward a more sustainable fish harvest.
Informing consumers about the environmental effects of the fish they eat—whether from the sea or a farm—allows them to vote with their wallets for sustainable food choices. The Marine Stewardship Council, an independent global certification agency, has thus far certified 12 fisheries as sustainably managed, and 263 MSC-certified products are now available in 24 countries. In addition, a number of other organizations, including the Monterey Bay Aquarium and the National Audubon Society in the United States, provide information for the public and restaurateurs on the status of a variety of food fish.
Without careful management, the limits of the world’s fish supply—a resource once thought to be boundless—will become all too clear. Sustaining global fisheries and sound aquacultural practices are in the best interest of fishers and consumers today as well as for the generations to come.
Copyright © 2005 Earth Policy Institute
* Note: Taking into account probable overreporting by China, the world’s largest fisher, as well as climate-related fluctuations in the large catch of Peruvian anchoveta, the global wild catch has actually been falling for longer than the official records reveal—dropping 660,000 tons per year since 1988. For more information see Reg Watson and Daniel Pauly, “Systematic Distortions in World Fisheries Catch Trends,” Nature, vol. 414 (29 November 2001), pp. 534-36.
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Lucy's Family is Complete: Hominid Trio Offer Insight Into Human Evolution
June 22, 2010 10:38 AM
comment(s) - last by
An artist's scupting of A. afarensis, based on the earlier Lucy skeleton.
(Source: Educa Madrid)
The bones of "Big Man"
(Source: Y. Haile Selassie et al./PNAS 2010)
"Whatever we’ve been saying about afarensis based on Lucy was mostly wrong."
Much like the revolution of modern astronomy in the late 1400s and early 1500s dissolved the notion that the Sun revolved around the Earth, a renaissance in paleontology is dissolving virtually any doubt that remained about man's origins. Another new discovery has just been completed, the latest of several high profile publications over only the last year.
is a male
, which has been discovered in Ethiopia’s Afar region. The skeleton joins the celebrated "Lucy" skeleton, unearthed by paleoanthropologists in 1974, and a child skeleton unearthed last year.
The ancient male, an ancestor of modern man, lived approximately 3.6 million years ago in the plains of Eastern Africa, according to several dating techniques. Yohannes Haile-Selassie of the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, who led the team, says the skeleton offers some major new insights into the species.
The skeleton has been nicknamed "Big Man" as it towers at 5 to 5½ feet tall over the much shorter 3½-foot-tall Lucy, who lived 3.2 million years ago. That large height deviation raises questions over which of the specimen is the norm in terms of height. The new skeleton was unearthed between 2005 and 2008 at a dig site only 48 km from where Lucy was found.
The skeleton also reveals new insights into the bone structure of the species. Big Man's 32 discovered bones reveal long legs, a narrow chest, and a inwardly curving back. All of these indicate that he walked much like a human and enjoyed a ground-based lifestyle. This is very different from the awkward gait that Lucy was thought to have. Lucy also had been thought to climb trees a great deal.
The shoulder blade of Big Man is quite different from chimpanzees or gorillas. And the ribs also appear human-like. All of these factors indicate a far different chest shape than the chimplike, funnel-shaped chest that reconstructions of the Lucy skeleton indicated.
While confusing perhaps in context with Lucy, the conclusion that ancient hominids were
chimplike is consistent with the analysis of the
that was conducted last year.
Professor Haile-Selassie states, "Whatever we’ve been saying about
based on Lucy was mostly wrong. The skeletal framework to enable efficient two-legged walking was established by the time her species had evolved."
Carol Ward of the University of Missouri in Columbia seems to agree with these conclusions, stating, "This beautiful
specimen confirms the unique skeletal shape of this species at a larger size than Lucy, in what appears to be a male."
While the discovery may have cleared up debate about whether Lucy was more chimplike or humanlike, the debate about gait is sure to continue. Harvard University anthropologist Daniel Lieberman states, "There’s nothing special I can see on this new find that will change anyone’s opinion."
Anthropologist Owen Lovejoy of Kent State University, however, believes that the discovery shows Big Man to be a good runner, which could have made the 3.6-million-year-old footprints found more than 30 years ago at Laetoli, Tanzania. Among the evidence supporting this hypothesis are Big Man's pelvis supported humanlike hamstring muscles and human-like arched feet.
The full study on the Big Man discovery is published
in the journal
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
A separate 3.3 million year old skeleton of a 3-year-old baby female
was presented four years ago. Nicknamed "Selam" (the word for "peace" in several African languages), the near-complete skeleton was found in 2000 south of the Awash river by a team led by Zeresenay Alemseged of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany.
The paper on that discovery was published in a 2006 edition of
and can be found
These discoveries add to the aforementioned recent discovery of "Ardi", the
, and the completion of an early
draft of the Neanderthal genome
. All of these wonderful discoveries have helped to blow away the fog of uncertainty surrounding human evolution and offered a much clearer picture of how man arrived at its current form after a slow process of evolution that took millions of years.
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RE: how's your egocentrism now?
6/22/2010 3:18:40 PM
Guys, I don't get the emphasis on distinction between law and religion. Religion is full of rules which I believe do play a great role in keeping society in order. Whether it's the very oppressive versions of Islam you see in some nations that people have to follow strictly, or the 10 commandments. Those are pretty "in your face" laws. If you're trying to use the obvious surface distinctions, then I can't seem to see the purpose of that. What I mean is that basically they are all rules to bring order.
As a side, it also seems to me that alot of "laws" may have origins in religion, or are at least further emphasized or strengthened by religion.
Also, regarding all the talk about society going into chaos without religion or law, it's not that if u take away religion or law that the floodgates will suddenly be open. It's the fact that our morality, what we learn and see growing up are due to those rules. We are shaped by it whether directly or indirectly as a mass societal effect and passed through generations. Hypothetically, if we were to stop teaching it to our children and also somehow isolate them from society's effect, i believe it would be a different society than if we didn't have the rules. I don't know how much, but i believe it would be significant enough to recognize the need for rules.
Humans do act very differently in different cultures and religions. I think it would be easier for people to accept if you didn't use the word "evil". Some South American civilizations were brutal. Tons of cultures have or had polygamy. In the past, there were many cultures in which there was a narrower definition of murder than we have now. So humans are animals and our natural instincts are our natural instincts. Laws and religions provide the rules to help shape macro and micro level morality. And so in that sense, if taken away, should have a big negative impact on how people conduct themselves.
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Millbury is a town in Worcester County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 13,261 at the 2010 census. The town is part of the Blackstone River Valley National Heritage Corridor.
Millbury was first settled by white Europeans in 1716 and was officially incorporated in 1813.
Millbury has a long history as a New England mill town, from which the town's name is derived. The Blackstone River flows through the town which during the Industrial Revolution provided much of the water power to the town's many textile mills and factories.
Millbury was originally the Second or North Parish of Sutton. Because traveling from one part of Sutton to the other for town meetings, etc. was difficult and time-consuming, the inhabitants of the Northern Parish petitioned the Massachusetts General Court to split the town of Sutton into two separate towns. The North Parish became the town of Millbury on June 11, 1813 by way of an act of incorporation.
Millbury's industrial history can be traced to the early 18th century, not long after the area's settlement. In 1735, John Singletary began operating a mill on Singletary Brook, a stream flowing out of Singletary Lake. Around 1753, John Singletary built the S & D Spinning mill, which is still in operation, making it one of the oldest continuously operating mills in the United States. The mill is featured on the Town Seal. The mill also makes the red stitching that is on major league baseballs.
President William Howard Taft spent many summer vacations in Millbury as a young boy, attending the public schools for a season. When he grew older, he visited his grandparents most summers. He visited his aunt, Delia C. Torrey, during his presidency for the occasion of Millbury's 100th birthday. The Torrey House, where President Taft stayed during his visit, is commonly called the Taft House today.
In the early 1970s, Millbury experienced a number of large fires. The town hall burned down, followed by the Union School. Local realtor Manual Gonzalez-Rios donated profits from his towing company to assist in rebuilding the town hall. A propane plant near Route 146 exploded spectacularly, with tanks blown 100 feet or more into the air, making nationwide news. Millbury celebrated its Bicentennial in 2013 with many town events. A proposal for a casino was made in 2013, but the company pulled out before the referendum.
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NASA’s Galileo spacecraft flew by Ganymede in the 1990s and confirmed the presence of an interior ocean. It also found evidence for salty water which may be from salt known as magnesium sulfate.
A team of scientists performed computer modeling of Ganymede’s ocean, taking into account, for the first time, how salt increases the density of liquids under the type of extreme conditions present inside Ganymede. Earlier research suggested just a regular “sandwich” set-up in which there is ice at the surface, a layer of liquid water in the middle, and another layer of ice on the bottom. This new study, however, suggests there may be more than these three layers.
An astrobiologist at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California, Steve Vann, said the new study reveals the arrangement may be more like the following:
- a layer of ice on the moon’s surface (on the top);
- a layer of water beneath that;
- a second layer of ice;
- another layer of water underneath that;
- a third layer of ice; and
- a final layer of water at the bottom – above the rocky seafloor.
“That would make it the largest club sandwich in the solar system,” Vann said in a telephone interview. “I suppose I’m also a fan of club sandwiches. My fiancée points out that I order them every time we go out to eat.”
Ganymede boasts a lot of water, perhaps 25 times the volume of the Earth’s oceans. Its oceans are estimated to be about 500 miles (800 km) deep.
With sufficient salt, Ganymede’s liquid water could become so dense that it sinks to the very bottom, according to researchers. That means water could be lapping on top of rock, a situation that may foster conditions suitable for the development of microbial life.
Some scientists think life first formed on Earth in building thermal vents on the ocean floor.
“Our understanding of how life came about on Earth involves the interaction between water and rock. This (research) provides a strong possibility for those kinds of interactions to take place on Ganymede,” added Vance, whose study was published in the journal Planetary and Space Science.
“We’re providing a more realistic view into ocean structure in Ganymede’s interior. We’re showing that the salinity has a tangible effect on the ocean,” Vance said.
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Split the class into groups and assign each group a different setting from the book- i.e., Jane's house, the school, the dojo, the cave, etc. Have each group create a diorama of this setting along with a description of how this setting affected the plot of the book. Arrange these dioramas in chronological order.
Have the students each create one page of a children's picture book version of this book. Assign each student a specific scene, and compile all the pages together.
Create a dust jacket for this book. Have the students all cover their copy of the book with this dust jacket. Have them draw appropriate images or quotes from the book on the cover. Tell them they will be graded on it.
Charlie's Lost Memory
Have the students write about what they think happened during the year of Charlie's life...
This section contains 621 words
(approx. 3 pages at 300 words per page)
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On Sept. 1, 1950, the 45th “Thunderbird” Infantry Division was called to service in the Korean War. It consisted of the 179th, 180th and 279th Infantry regiments as well as many other combat components that arrived in Japan in April 1951 for intensive training.
In December, the 45th replaced the First Cavalry Division on the Korean War front. By war’s end the division suffered 4,038 casualties including 834 killed in action.
With the 179th regiment was Hot Springs Village resident Frank Taylor who served with a service company.
Taylor, born in Roswell, N.M., grew up in Mountain Pine, Ark., and was drafted in February 1951 shortly after graduating from the University of Arkansas and beginning work with Goodyear Tire and Rubber Co.
After basic training at Camp Chaffee he attended an artillery leadership class for eight weeks. After this he was offered a chance to attend Officer Training School (OCS) but declined.
He was then sent to San Francisco for a trip to Camp Drake in Japan. Once there he was soon put with the 45th Infantry Division, 179th Infantry Regiment in a service company which provided support to the men at the front.
Later, his unit came ashore at Inchon, South Korea. Invaded by U.S. forces just months earlier, Taylor said the city was still torn up. From there he was taken to Yong Dong Po.
There, in a compound, Taylor shared a tent with 10 other GIs for the next 13 months.
“The living conditions were not bad. We had a building that housed the mess hall. Although it had been severely damaged at least it was out of the wind,” said Taylor. “We worked in a nearby building that had been converted to office space.”
Of his work Taylor said, “I was classified as a casualty reporter. It was my job to follow all the men of the 179th through their hospitalization if they were wounded or worse. I checked with the battalion aid stations and evacuation hospitals to notify their units of where their personnel were and when they might be able to return to their units.”
Most of the communication was by telephone and daily reports. Taylor said the casualty report numbers each day would vary, but during times of an offensive “we would be swamped, 18 hours a day.” After receiving the reports Taylor would keep up with a person’s progress and notify the next of kin, including condolence letters of those who were killed.
He also had a few chances to see the South Korean capital of Seoul which he described as devastated. He saw people living in deep poverty, damaged buildings and kids. At an orphanage he and others would stop by and give the children candy.
“Some of the children had been wounded and had legs amputated, but they were glad to see us and we enjoyed them a lot,” Taylor said.
Of some Koreans Taylor said, “They’d sell brass objects made out of artillery shell casings. They made some beautiful pieces. I still have a teapot and some trays.”
And hunger was everywhere. “Hunger was evident. We would see people outside the fence of the compound begging for food,” Taylor remembers.
Speaking of food, Taylor said they had a nice Thanksgiving Day dinner shortly after landing at Inchon. “And we got a bonus of two free beers. Everybody got two beers for Thanksgiving, cold beer,” Taylor said. “It was unexpected to be served warm food and was a nice experience.”
This Thunderbird told me the U.S. had air superiority with the exception of a lone North Korean pilot who would occasionally fly over around midnight. “We named him Midnight Charlie. He flew a single engine loudspeaker-equipped plane and would come over late at night and throw out propaganda material. It would read something like why are you here in this useless war while draft dodgers are at home playing with your wives and sweethearts. You should desert your post. Take this pass to pass into the North Korean lines and you’ll be returned home safely,” said Taylor.
He also got two R&R trips to Japan, getting there aboard a C-47 out of Kimpo Airfield. There the men could relax, get a hot shower, clean clothes, a steak and three days to themselves, quite a vacation is how Taylor put it.
After a 13-month tour in Korea he headed home on a troopship out of Japan and landed approximately two weeks later in San Francisco. From there a troop train took him to Camp Chaffee for discharge on Feb. 4, 1953.
Following his Army service Taylor went back to work for Goodyear Tire, totaling 38 years with the company, ending up as a sales manager.
He retired in 1989 and moved with wife Shirley to the Village from Monroe, La., in 2001.
They have two children: Wendell and Suzanne.
Looking back at his time in service Taylor told me he went back to Korea in 1993 as a guest of the government with a group from the Korean War Veteran Association. Back in Korea they attended 40th year anniversary celebrations and a dinner as well as a tour of his old stomping grounds – Yong Dong Po.
“Within two miles of where my tent had been was a 35-story skyscraper. That’s how much the Korean economy improved,” Taylor noted.
As buses took the 100 guests, two from each state, around the country, they saw banners of appreciation and people bowing as they passed by.
Taylor also attended the dedication of the Korean War Memorial in Washington, D.C., which he said was a touching experience.
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1. OVERVIEW OF ECONOMIC
In mid-1991 the previous military regime ended, and a new government
was installed. At that time, the economy was to a large extent
under the dominance of the state which controlled both product
and factor markets, and owned a large part of the modern sector
of the economy. There were severe price distortions of foreign
exchange and interest rates as well as of goods and services.
Since then, the focus of economic policy has been to switch from
a command to a market economy and progressively integrate Ethiopia
into the world market.
The first task was to dismantle the legal restrictions on private
investment and withdraw the state from controlling prices and
markets. To this end, domestic and external trade were liberalized,
state monopolies were abolished, and, at the same time, public
enterprises were made autonomous in terms of management and finance,
cut off from budgetary support, and made subject to eventual divestiture.
Simultaneously, integration with the global market was initiated
through reduction of import tariffs and devaluation of the Birr
(Ethiopia's currency). The maximum
tariff rate was reduced from 230 to 80 per cent, while the Birr
was devalued by 142 per cent against the US dollar. These measures
changed the course of the economy within a relatively short period
of about two years, between mid-1991 and 1993, bringing into operation
market forces and removing substantially price distortions.
In subsequent years, the establishment of a market economy and
integration with the world market was further reinforced. The
foreign exchange auction market for import of goods was fully
deregulated, and the auction itself was held more frequently,
changing from biweekly to weekly. Availability of foreign exchange
for payments of invisibles, such as business travel and medical
treatment abroad, was also increased. Import tariffs were further
reduced from a maximum of 80 to 50 per cent; the average rate
being presently 24.5 per cent. Price controls which remained on
a few essential goods were lifted, thereby virtually completing
the deregulation of prices of goods and services. In addition,
petroleum prices were made periodically adjustable to reflect
changes in world price. Pan-territorial pricing of fertilizer
was terminated as was fertilizer subsidy. Tariffs of electricity
and water were adjusted upwards, the former being scheduled to
cover costs fully and allow a profit margin in the coming few
years. Telecommunications, on the other hand, continues to be
operated on profit basis.
Privatization gathered momentum after
an initial phase of preparation. Given the underdevelopment of
the economy, there are only about 200 state-owned enterprises
to be privatized including factories, state farms, hotels, construction
firms, transport corporations, wholesale marketing firms, and
small retail outlets and restaurants. State-owned marketing enterprises
lost their monopoly with the removal of entry barriers for private
firms, and shrank due to both deliberate down-sizing and competition,
while insolvent enterprises that could not be resuscitated were
allowed to go bankrupt. Retail shops, restaurants, a few factories
and hotels have been privatized. Several other enterprises have
also been offered for sale.
Currently, the main focus of the
on-going economic reform is the widening of the scope of foreign
investment to include telecommunications and electricity generation,
complete the liberalization of the current account, and the deregulation
of interest rates side by side with the creation of securities
market. In keeping with the objective of progressively liberalizing
the foreign trade regime for goods and services, payments on invisible
trade are expected to be deregulated fully by the end of 1990s.
This will enable Ethiopia to attain current account convertibility.
At the same time, the maximum tariff on imports will be reduced
and the average rate lowered to 19.5 per cent.
To summarize, a transition from a command to a market economy has been made. There remain, of course, several scores of enterprises in the hands of the state, but essentially due to the process of undertaking privatization itself, rather than lack of readiness to privatize. Perhaps more challenging is the elimination of price controls, removal of subsidies, commercialization of telecommunications and electricity, and convertibility on the current account. In all these areas, the achievement in policy reforms has been remarkable, as Ethiopia has succeeded to establish a market economy, with minimal price distortions and successively decreasing tariff rates, on a sustainable footing.
2. BACKGROUND TO THE
2.1 Tourist Arrivals
Ethiopia's tourism industry had suffered
from the adverse effects of a prolonged civil war, recurrent drought
and famine, strained government relations with tourist-generating
countries, and restrictions on entry and movements of tourists
during the years of the Dergue government from 1974 to 1991.
With the culmination of the civil
war and the introduction of new economic policies by the new government,
tourism is experiencing a more conducive climate for growth and
development as evidenced by statistics compiled by the Ethiopian
International tourist arrivals in
the year 1997 were 115,000 as compared to 79,000 in 1990, representing
a 46% increase since the last full year of the Dergue. In terms
of origin, the 1997 figures showed that 36% came from Europe,
33% from Africa, 14% from the Americas and 12% from the Middle
East. Analysis of the figures also showed that holiday makers,
business travelers and conference participants made up about 60%
of all arrivals. The age profiles of arrivals indicate that the
economically active age groups of 25 to 44 and 45 to 59, together
representing about 76% of total arrivals, are interested in visiting
The total number of international tourist arrivals in Ethiopia, although growing, is by no means commensurate with the potentials of the country's attractions. The present constraints to growth are identified largely as shortage of tourist facilities and limited promotion.
The main tourist destination at the
moment is the northern historic route encompassing Bahir Dar,
Gondar, Axum, Makalle and Lalibela. Addis Ababa, the principal
gateway to Ethiopia being a business centre and a conference venue
as well, is in its own right a major destination.
The other destinations chiefly include
the wildlife centres along the Great Rift Valley and the south-west,
and the eastern historic area of Harrar.
2.2 Tourist Facilities And
The stock of hotel rooms in the country
has sharply increased over the last few years, with impetus coming
from the market-led economic policies and the liberalized investment
policy of the present government, which encourage private foreign
and domestic entrepreneurial effort. Reasonable tourist accommodation
services are already available at all the major attractions, but
improvements as well as new constructions are taking place currently
in accordance with a newly promulgated classification and standardization
system. There are attempts to attract major international hotel
chains to the country in addition to the Hilton and the Sheraton
that are already in.
The total number of rooms of acceptable
standards to international tourists at present is about 3,500,
out of which more than 1,300 are owned by the private sector.
Virtually all the private sector rooms are results of the new
economic policy which put an end to what one might call a state
monopoly. Government owned and operated hotels, a legacy of the
socialist past, are, under the new government, all slated for
privatization, and already quite a number have changed hands.
b) Tour and Travel Operation
Tour operation and travel agency
has shown a dramatic growth in the last six years, reaching a
record number of 160 firms in 1997. This line of business had
been a state monopoly during the previous regime.
The chief mode of travel to Ethiopia
for tourists is by air, and the main carrier is the Ethiopian
Airlines, which deservedly has a fine reputation for service.
Major international carriers such as the Lufthansa, Alitalia and
Saudia also land at Addis Ababa, the principal gateway to Ethiopia.
Several other airlines are at various degrees of negotiation to
fly to Ethiopia.
Domestic air travel service is rendered
mainly by the Ethiopian Airlines using Boeing and Fokker jets
as well as smaller aircrafts. Competition in domestic service
has been ushered in recently with the commencement of operation
of a private firm. Land transport is generally used for short
haul in the locality of the tourist attractions.
d) Tourism Facilitation Measures
Having identified major constraints
relating to visa and customs regulations and banking services,
the Federal Government has taken liberalizing steps which will
help facilitate tourism trade. One would also note that the regional
tourism bureaux set up in all the nine regions of the country
would in no small measure facilitate tourism in the coming years.
The Ethiopian Tourism Commission,
which closely works with the regional bureaux, tour operators'
association, and hotel association has a pivotal role in bringing
together the private sector and government regulatory authorities
in the service of tourism.
Ethiopia's tourism sector is poised
to benefit from a programme of upgrading, expansion and new construction
of airports, road and communication networks, electric power generation,
and water works, the implementation of which is currently underway
in various parts of the country. The airport improvements at Lalibela,
Axum, Gondar, Bahir Dar, Makalle, Arba Minich and Dire Dawa are
soon to be followed by a major expansion and modernization of
the international airport at Addis Ababa. Road rehabilitation,
upgrading and new construction is an area of infrastructural development
vigorously embarked upon, involving in its present phase 6,000
Km. of trunk roads. These and other infrastructural improvements
are financed from internal sources and external sources including
the World Bank.
The country has a thin layer of professional
and skilled manpower and a large pool of trainable manpower with
a strong cultural disposition for warm hospitality to guests.
But in the competitive world of tourism, manpower training has
become extremely important. The Ethiopian Tourism Commission has
therefore completed the preparation of a plan to double the intake
capacity of its training institute, and integrate with the institute
a model hotel granted by the government in order to facilitate
3. ETHIOPIA'S TOURISM
As a land of multiple tourist attractions
and a visitor friendly people which is conscious of its historical
heritage, Ethiopia is truly a country of great tourism potential.
It was this recognition of a great potential that encouraged Ethiopia
in the ninteen- sixties to start a tourism industry. After an
initial period of rapid growth, the industry underwent a fast
decline and virtual stagnation for many years due to the revolution
that brought the military to power in 1974, the consequent turmoil,
and recurrent drought and famines.
During the last six years, however,
tourism has once again emerged as a growth industry taking advantage
of the current peace and stability in the country and the liberalized
economic policy of the new government. Ethiopia can now look forward
to increasing its share of the world's tourism market which is
registering a faster world-wide growth than most other industries.
Ethiopia's nearly ideal location on the African continent and
its relative proximity to the Middle East and Europe can add to
the comparative advantage which its numerous and varied attractions
bestow on it.
3.2 Tourist Attractions
In its considerably vast area (1,112,000
sq.Km.), Ethiopia possesses numerous tourist attractions varied
in type and appealing to a wide range of interests. The attractions
include historical, cultural, archaeological, anthropological,
scenic, climatic, therapeutic, and wildlife resources. Such a
unique combination of attractions within a single country has
no match on the African continent, or rarely any where else.
The ancient city of Axum once the
centre of a powerful empire, is still graced with magnificent
obelisks that are millenia old but seem to anticipate modern sky
scrapers in design. Other monuments and ruins of ancient palaces
and temples abound in the city and its vicinity. In addition to
being perhaps the most important spiritual centre of Orthodox
Christianity in Ethiopia, Axum has the distinction of being the
last repository of the much reverred Biblical ARK of The covenant.
The medieval city of Lalibela, a
holy city to Ethiopian Christians, is to the traveler an architectural
marvel. Here stand some of the World's most wonderful churches
hand-carved out of monolithic rocks and mountain sides, complete
with columns, arches, inner sanctums, niches, windows, passages
and drainages. Rock churches also abound in other parts of Ethiopia's
north, particularly in the Lasta and Tigrai regions.
The Islamic world credits Ethiopia
as being the land of sanctuary for the prophet Mohammed's first
Arab followers, who had to flee from their country due to persecution.
The Al Negashi Mosque at Wukro is today a reminder of that Mohammedan
sojourn and religious tolerance in Ethiopia.
Ethiopia's 17th century
capital city, Gondar, with its imposing castles; the island monasteries
of Lake Tana and their centuries-old mural paintings; and the
mysterious carved stone monuments of Tia in the central region
form some of the historic attractions of the country. The walled
city of Harar in the east with its numerous mosques and shrines
of venerable age, narrow winding streets, traditional architecture
and interior decoration, and a glorious past as an important centre
of caravan trade and Islamic culture in Ethiopia is yet another
Anthropological finds such as the
3.5 million-year-old skeleton of "Lucy" or Austrolopithecus
Afarensis at Hadar, the 4.4 million-year-old remains of Homo Ramides
Afarensis which is considered to be man's anthropoid ancestor,
and the earliest hand tools of humans unearthed in the Omo valley
attest to the fact that Ethiopia was a cradle of mankind. These
discoveries appeal not only to the specialists, but also to all
those interested in the early beginnings of humans and their civilization.
Ethiopia is sometimes referred to
as a mosaic of peoples and cultures due to its ethnic diversity.
More than 80 languages are spoken and two of the world's major
religions (Christianity and Islam) plus a number of some other
less-known faiths are followed, resulting in rich and varied cultures.
Religious and other cultural festivals, with roots in the distant
past, are very colorful and still continue to form an important
part of communal life.
The physical features of the country
are very remarkable for they incorporate high plateaux, long mountain
ranges, lofty peaks, deep gorges, the largest cave in Africa (Sof
Omar), the lowest depression on Earth (Dallol), the Great Rift
Valley, savannah land, tropical forests, deserts, beautiful lakes,
including Lake Tana - the source of the Blue Nile, spectacular
waterfalls, and volcanic hot springs.
Though situated not far from the
equator, much of the land has a climate tempered by high altitude.
Ethiopia's tourism slogan "Thirteen Months of Sunshine"
partly arises from the idyllic year-round, spring-like climate
of most regions of the country.
The wildlife resources of Ethiopia
entitle it to a share in Africa's reputation in that regard. Virtually
all types of Africa's big game can be found in Ethiopia in their
natural states and habitats. Out of the 845 species of birds and
260 species of mammals registered in Ethiopia, as high as 49 are
endemic animals. Ten national parks, 13 wildlife reserves and
sanctuaries, and 18 controlled hunting areas have been established
in order to protect these resources of the country.
Not all of Ethiopia's attractions
are very widely known, but some are quite famous. Indeed, eight
national attractions have been recognized by UNESCO as world heritage:
Axum's obelisks, Gondar's castles, the island monasteries on Lake
Tana, Hadar (where Lucy was discovered), Tia's carved standing
stones, the walls of Harar, and the Semien National Park.
3.3 Type of Tourism offered by Ethiopia
Ethiopia's wealth of varied attractions gives it a great potential
for cultural and educational tourism, photo safaris, hunting safaris,
bird watching, water sports including river rafting, desert trekking,
mountain camping and other forms of eco-tourism. Health tourism,
on account of the cool climate of most regions of the country
and the numerous hot springs in many volcanic areas, is an additional
type of tourism with great potential.
Conference tourism, long aided by
the presence of a number of international organizations in Addis
Ababa including the headquarters of the Organization for African
Unity and the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), is poised
to gain greater significance as a consequence of the newly built
ultra-modern facilities at the ECA and the Sheraton Addis.
3.4 Types of Tourists Encouraged
policy welcomes all tourists, without regard as to national origin,
creed, colour or economic standing. However, in light of the tourist
facilities available at present and the probable carrying capacities
of some of the well known attractions, much promotion is aimed
at the moment at the rather affluent market. Future developments
and promotions will include a wider spectrum of the international
4. POTENTIAL AREAS OF
Quite a number of studies have been
conducted on tourism development, the latest of which is The
National Tourism Development Plan conducted in two phases
by Tourconsult International S.A of Italy. The first phase of
the study was conducted in 1990 dealing with the southern region
of Ethiopia and the second phase, which was completed in 1995,
dominantly dealt with western, eastern and northern regions, thus
complementing the 1990 National Tourism Development Plan. As reconfirmed
in this study, the country possesses a variety of tourist attractions
and offers numerous sites for the development of tourism.
The northern tourist circuit known
as the "Historic Route" comprises the most important
tourist sites such as Bahir Dar, the Blue Nile Falls, Lake Tana
and its island monasteries, Gondar, the Simien National Park,
Axum, Yeha, Debre Damo, Adigrat, Makalle, Lake Hayk, Lalibela,
Dessie and Bati Market. The tourist attractions in these sites
have been relatively well promoted since the 1960s, and many tour
operators in Europe and North America have included them in their
offers. However, shortage of adequate accommodation establishments
and related facilities for sports, recreation and entertainment
have seriously affected the growth of tourism in the area.
The southern, eastern and south western
parts of the country are also endowed with natural and cultural
attractions. The Great Rift Valley with its seven beautiful lakes,
numerous hot springs and a variety of wildlife, offers great potentials
for the development of tourism. But inadequacy of accommodation
and other related facilities have become serious obstacles to
the growth of tourism in the areas . The National Tourism Development
Plan has, therefore, identified various sites for short and long
term development. Of these, the following sites have been identified
as potentially attractive to foreign investors.
The objective of the Project is to diversify the tourist supply
base of the country by developing natural tourist sites, up to
now dominated by historic tourist attractions. The Project foresees
to establish the necessary infrastructure including a hotel, camping
sites, and thermal and mud baths.
Awash National Park is some 225 kms
due east of Addis Ababa and is located in the northern edges of
the Great Rift Valley. The Park encompasses 46 types of mammals
such as lions, cheetah and leopard as well as aquatic animals
such as hippopotamus and crocodiles. Also over 400 different species
of birds have been recorded in the Park.
The proposed lodge will afford facilities
for tourists interested in observing or hunting wild life, and
in enjoying the spa water found in the Park.
The Semien Mountains National Park
is a sanctuary of the rarest animals and plants and is a centre
for observation and trekking. The proposed Lodge which will be
located close to the foot of the Mountains is meant to ease the
burden of tourists visiting the Park.
The Sof-Omar Cave is a complex system
of large and small passages, halls and grottoes, formed by Web
river, one of the main tributaries of Wabe Shebelle river. Despite
its immense touristic value, the Cave has so far remained inaccessible
to tourists due to lack of roads and electrification both inside
and outside the Cave. The objective of the Project is to develop
tourist infrastructure at the Cave to make it a regular tourist
destination. The infrastructure will include a road inside and
outside the Cave, electric lighting of the underground tourist
path having a length of around 1.2 kms, and a tourist facility
centre comprising a lodge and a restaurant.
Route" has always been
on the top of the list of tourist destinations in Ethiopia. However,
shortage of adequate accommodation, recreation and entertainment
facilities has seriously affected the growth of tourism in the
area. Three hotels are proposed to be set up at Bahir Dar, Lalibela
and Makalle, respectively, where the problem is more acutely felt.
|1. Overview of Economic Policy|
|2. Background to the Tourism Sector|
|2.1 Tourist Arrivals|
|2.2 Tourist Facilities and Services|
|3. Ethiopia's Tourism Potential|
|3.2 Tourist Attractions|
|3.3 Type of Tourism Offered by Ethiopia|
|3.4 Types of Tourists Encouraged|
|4. Potential Areas of Investment|
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Mental Health and Rumination Disorder
How Is Rumination Disorder Diagnosed?
If symptoms of rumination are present, the doctor will begin an evaluation by performing a complete medical history and physical exam. The doctor may use certain tests -- such as imaging studies and blood tests -- to look for and rule out possible physical causes for the vomiting, such as a gastrointestinal condition. Testing can also help the doctor evaluate how the behavior has affected the body by looking for signs of problems such as dehydration and malnutrition. However, the diagnosis is mainly established by the clinical description of signs and symptoms, and invasive or costly tests (such as examining the stomach by endoscopy) are generally not necessary or helpful in making an accurate diagnosis.
To help in the diagnosis of rumination disorder, a review of the child's eating habits may be conducted. It often is necessary for the doctor to observe an infant during and after feeding.
How Is Rumination Disorder Treated?
Treatment of rumination disorder mainly focuses on changing the child's behavior. Several approaches may be used, including:
- Changing the child's posture during and right after eating
- Encouraging more interaction between mother and child during feeding; giving the child more attention
- Reducing distractions during feeding
- Making feeding a more relaxing and pleasurable experience
- Distracting the child when he or she begins the rumination behavior
- Aversive conditioning, which involves placing something sour or bad-tasting on the child's tongue when he or she begins to regurgitate food
Psychotherapy (a type of counseling) for the mother and/or family may be helpful to improve communication and address any negative feelings toward the child due to the behavior.
There are no medications used to treat rumination disorder.
What Complications Are Associated With Rumination Disorder?
Among the many potential complications associated with untreated rumination disorder are:
- Lowered resistance to infections and diseases
- Failure to grow and thrive
- Weight loss
- Stomach diseases such as ulcers
Bad breath and tooth decay
- Aspiration pneumonia and other respiratory problems (from vomit that is breathed into the lungs)
What Is the Outlook for People With Rumination Disorder?
In most cases, infants and young children with rumination disorder will outgrow the behavior and return to eating normally. For older children, this disorder can continue for months.
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Drone mania is starting to grip the area.
New Jersey’s selection as one of six national testing sites for drone technology will allow a local college to capitalize on what is expected to be the next big step in the evolution of aviation.
Atlantic Cape Community College, based in Mays Landing, plans to offer a new course in the spring on drone technology called “Introduction to Unmanned Aerial Systems.” The course is part of the college’s aviation studies program.
Atlantic Cape spokeswoman Stacey Clapp said the college anticipated growing interest in the field of unmanned aircraft and began planning for the course well in advance of the Federal Aviation Administration’s announcement Dec. 30 that New Jersey would be a drone-testing site.
Although usually associated with the military, drones also are used for civilian purposes in border patrol, law enforcement, farming and academic research. Amazon.com is testing delivering packages using drones.
Atlantic Cape sees the emerging industry of unmanned aerial systems, or UAS, as a career opportunity for the college’s graduates.
“Interest in UAS technology is expanding, and it is expected UAS operations and analytics personnel will be required by law enforcement, homeland security, fire safety, etc., in the future,” Clapp said.
New Jersey and Virginia submitted a joint application that will combine the resources of Virginia Tech and Rutgers University as research centers for drone testing. The William J. Hughes Technical Center, the FAA’s national scientific facility in Egg Harbor Township, also will provide research support for the New Jersey-Virginia partnership.
Atlantic Cape’s new course includes tie-ins with the tech center, including taking students for visits to the FAA facility’s research and development laboratories. The course will be taught by two of the tech center’s experts: Adam Greco, an air traffic domain director in the Technical Strategies and Integration Division, and Michael Konyak, an aeronautical engineer in the Laboratory Services Division.
Dennis Filler, the tech center’s director, predicted that unmanned aerial vehicles, or UAVs, may revolutionize transportation much like trains, automobiles and airplanes did after their invention.
“I can imagine UAV systems being used in agriculture, search and rescue, shore monitoring, lifesaving, firefighting and other constructive uses,” Filler said in a Facebook posting. “America’s willingness to embrace change, seizing the opportunity to improve our quality of life, has what has in the past propelled this nation to its leadership status in the world. We need to continue to manage the risks, explore this technology and continue to adopt new technologies and their peaceful applications.”
Since 2007, the tech center has had a team of aerospace engineers, computer technicians and other researchers working on how to safely integrate unmanned aircraft into the national airspace system. Data collected from the national drone-testing sites will be fed to the tech center to support its UAS research, the agency said.
Other states that were selected by the FAA for drone testing include Alaska, Nevada, New York, North Dakota and Texas.
As many as 70,000 jobs and $13.6 billion in economic activity nationwide could be created by drone technology between 2015 and 2018, according to a study published in March by the Association for Unmanned Vehicle Systems. The study also predicts 1,353 jobs added in New Jersey by 2017, with $263 million in economic impact.
New Jersey’s selection as a drone-testing site also is expected to provide a local boost for the Stockton Aviation Research and Technology Park, formerly known as the NextGen Aviation Research and Technology Park.
The park is designed to capitalize on the FAA’s national NextGen program — which hopes to modernize the air traffic control system by using satellites instead of a radar-based network — by providing locally based research, jobs and consulting contracts.
Richard Stockton College of New Jersey took over the aviation park in September to give it financial stability following a series of management troubles that delayed construction on the proposed seven-building complex.
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Wear Valley was a local government district in County Durham, England, for over thirty years. Its council and district capital was Crook.
The district encompassed much of the Weardale area. In the west it was parished and rural, whereas in the east it was more urban.
The district was formed in April 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972, by the merger of the Bishop Auckland, Crook and Willington and Tow Law urban districts, along with Weardale Rural District.
The district stopped being a district as part of the 2009 structural changes to government in England, becoming part of the Durham County Council unitary authority.
After deciding on a new waste collection policy involving fortnightly collections under a Labour government in 2007, the local elections in 2008 turned the council over to Liberal Democrat control, who promptly reversed the policy – meaning that 15,000 of the £560,000 order for new tweenie waste bins sitting in a local farmers field at a cost of one grand per week.
Wear Valley had a population of roughly 65,000 in 2001.
Durham was founded by monks. A man named Cuthbert was once Bishop of Lindisfarne. After he passed away in 687 people claimed that miracles took place by his grave (people believed that dead bodies could work miracles). In 698 his body was exhumed and they discovered that it had not decomposed. Afterwards many people came to visit the body.
However in the 10th century the Vikings raided the coast of England. So in 985 the monks who kept Cuthbert's body decided to move from Lindisfarne to a safer location. For 10 years they wandered from place to place but eventually they settled at Durham.
The name Durham means hill on an island. It's derived from the words dun meaning hill and holmr meaning island. The body of Cuthbert still attracted visitors and a town grew up around it. It was a good location for a town as it was easy to defend. It also had an important attraction for visitors. The Scots attacked Durham twice, in 1006 and 1038 but both times they were driven away.
Of the three Durham Dales (Teesdale, Weardale and Derwentdale) Weardale, at the centre of the county is historically most closely associated with the Prince Bishops. Eastgate and Westgate, two small areas in the upper part of this valley once marked the edge of Stanhope Park, the Prince Bishop's hunting ground and it was here that the famous `Great Chases' were held. The Great Chases were the hunting expeditions, led by the Prince Bishops and were by all accounts grand occasions, celebrated with much pomp and pageantry. Such was the scale of the Great Chases that all the folk of Weardale were needed to provide hounds for the hunt, along with large quantities of food, wine and beer for the hunters.
The Weardale population was also required to help with building a large temporary hunting lodge, a chapel, a kitchen and a larder, which were all deliberately built for the `Great Chase'. Bishop Pudsey's Boldon Buke of 1183, (Durham's equivalent of the Domesday Book), gives a good insight into the preparation for a Great Chase, most significantly under entries for West Auckland and Stanhope. The following passages from the Boldon Buke mention the Great Chases and have been translated from the original text which was in Latin. The first relates to West Auckland;
"All the villeins of Aucklandshire, that is North Auckland and West Auckland and Escomb and Newton, provide 1 rope at the Great Chases of the Bishop for each bovate and make the hall of the Bishop in the forest 60 feet in length and in breadth within the posts 16 feet, with a butchery and a store house and chamber and a privy. Moreover they make a chapel 40 feet in length and 15feet in breadth, and they have 2s as a favour and they make their part of the enclosure around the lodges and on the Bishop's departure a full barrel of ale or half if he should remain away. And they look after the hawk eyries in the bailiwick of Ralph the Crafty and they make 18 booths at St Cuthbert's fair. More overall the villeins and leaseholders go on the roe hunt on the summons of the Bishop"
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The worldwide community of museums will celebrate International Museum Day on and around 18 May, 2015.Download
This year’s theme for the event will be Museums for a sustainable society. It highlights the role of museums in raising public awareness about the need for a society that is less wasteful, more cooperative and that uses resources in a way that respects living systems.
ICOM President, Prof. Dr Hans‐Martin Hinz, adds: “Museums, as educators and cultural mediators, are adopting an increasingly vital role in contributing to the definition and implementation of sustainable development and practices. Museums must be able to guarantee their role in safeguarding cultural heritage, given the increasing precariousness of ecosystems, situations of political instability, and the associated natural and man‐made challenges that may arise. Museum work, through education and exhibitions for example, should strive to create a sustainable society.
We must do everything we can to ensure that museums are part of the cultural driving force for the sustainable development of the world.”
The International Council of Museums (ICOM) established International Museum Day in 1977 to increase public awareness of the role of museums in the development of society, and it has been steadily gaining momentum ever since. In 2014, International Museum Day garnered record‐breaking participation with more than 35,000 museums hosting events in some 145 countries.
Visit the International Museum Day official website: http://imd.icom.museum
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The R Programming wikibook is not just another one of the many free books about statistics/R, it is a community project which aims to create a cross-disciplinary practical guide to the R programming language. Here is how you can join:
It appears that just days ago, Google Tech Talk released a new, one hour long, video of a presentation (from June 6, 2011) made by one of R’s community more influential contributors, Hadley Wickham.
This seems to be one of the better talks to send a programmer friend who is interested in getting into R.
Data analysis, the process of converting data into knowledge, insight and understanding, is a critical part of statistics, but there’s surprisingly little research on it. In this talk I’ll introduce some of my recent work, including a model of data analysis. I’m a passionate advocate of programming that data analysis should be carried out using a programming language, and I’ll justify this by discussing some of the requirement of good data analysis (reproducibility, automation and communication). With these in mind, I’ll introduce you to a powerful set of tools for better understanding data: the statistical programming language R, and the ggplot2 domain specific language (DSL) for visualisation.
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First, is a short video looking at the universe and its numbers found at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WbSqI7Aker0.
Next, is A Brief History of the Universe:
Below is a history of the universe written by Karl Tate I found at http://www.space.com/13336-universe-history-structure-evolution-infographic.html. I am presenting an abridged version here (both in terms of image and text). For the full, detailed version please go to http://www.space.com/13336-universe-history-structure-evolution-infographic.html for a beautifully presented story of the history and structure of universe - as told in image and text. Here are some of the images and summaries, but you'll want to read the text as well.
|Illustration: Karl Tate, based on a photo of Galaxy M74 (NASA, ESA, and Hubble Heritage Collaboration) and the engraving "Awakening of the Pilgrim" from "The Atmosphere: Popular Meteorology" by Camille Flammarion, 1888. Image found at http://www.space.com/13336-universe-history-structure-evolution-infographic.html|
Our fascination and initial study of the universe began with careful observation about 2,300 years ago. Approximately 1,900 years later, when Galileo Galilei invented the astronomical telescope we were able to more precisely observe and note the planets and stars, and the science of the universe began.
|Credit: Hubble Space Telescope Science Institut. Image found at http://www.space.com/13336-universe-history-structure-evolution-infographic.html|
|Credit: Karl Tate, SPACE.com; Galileo Galilei: portrait by Ottavio Leoni. Image found at http://www.space.com/13336-universe-history-structure-evolution-infographic.html|
|Credit: Diagram of local stars: Karl Tate, based on public domain data plot; Friedrich Bessel portrait: Christian Albrecht Jensen. Found at http://www.space.com/13336-universe-history-structure-evolution-infographic.html|
As telescopes advanced in form and technology, so did our concept and understanding of the universe advanced as well. In the nineteenth century, scientists figured out how to measure the distances to the stars. German mathematician and astronomer Friedrich Bessel was among them.
|Credit: Milky Way Galaxy map: Robert Hurt; Fritz Zwicky photo via University of Virginia Dept. of Astronomy Found at http://www.space.com/13336-universe-history-structure-evolution-infographic.html|
Today we know that our solar system is a tine part of our Milky Way galaxy, and that the galaxy is held together by what scientists call "dark matter."
|Credit: Diagram: Karl Tate based on NASA illustration; Brent Tully photo via Institute for Astronomy, University of Hawaii Found at http://www.space.com/13336-universe-history-structure-evolution-infographic.html|
Towards the latter half of the twentieth century, astronomers speculated that there ours was just one of a cluster of galaxies. n 1982 astronomer R. Brent Tully published an analysis of the distances to the supercluster member galaxies.
|Credit: Simulation of observable universe: Karl Tate, SPACE.com; Alan Guth photo via Brookhaven National Laboratory. Found at http://www.space.com/13336-universe-history-structure-evolution-infographic.html|
Finally, Magnifying the Universe:
I tried, but could not imbed an awesome (albeit dizzying ) and humbling experience to help us more fully comprehend the vastness, beauty, and size of the universe. It illustrates he scale of over 100 items within the observable universe ranging from galaxies to insects, nebulae and stars to molecules and atoms
I HIGHLY RECOMMEND you go to please go to:Magnifying the Universe produced for Number Sleuth by Science is Beautiful in coordination with Mandril Design and Killer Infographics. at http://www.numbersleuth.org/universe/
I am just sorry I couldn't post it here myself. Numbersleuth, does, however, have a non-interactive infographic that I will leave in closing.
That's it for this week.
Thanks, as always for your visit, and please leave your reactions and thoughts in the comments below.
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The use of the cloud as an abstraction is quite common for the distributed system that is the Internet, but the past few years have seen this abstraction expanded to incorporate highly virtualized and scalable infrastructures that are easily provisioned as a service (locally, remotely, or a combination of local and remote resources). This article forgoes an in-depth definition of cloud architecture and its benefits, and instead refers to worthwhile reading in the Resources section.
Cloud computing anatomy
This article begins with an exploration of the core abstractions of cloud architectures (from Infrastructure as a Service [IaaS]), then moves beyond the building blocks to the more highly integrated solutions.
Although not a requirement, virtualization provides unique benefits for building dynamically scalable architectures. In addition to resource sharing and scalability, virtualization introduces the ability to migrate virtual machines (VMs) between physical servers for the purposes of load balancing. Figure 1 shows that the virtualization component is provided by a layer of software called a hypervisor (sometimes called a virtual machine monitor [VMM]). This layer provides the ability to execute multiple operating systems (and their applications) simultaneously on a single physical machine. Each operating system views a logical machine that is mapped by the hypervisor to the physical machine. On the hypervisor is an object called a virtual machine that encapsulates the operating system, applications, and configuration. Optionally, device emulation can be provided in the hypervisor or as a VM. Finally, given the new dynamic nature of virtualization and the new capabilities it provides, new management schemes are needed. This management is best done in layers, considering local management at the server, as well as higher-level infrastructure management, providing the overall orchestration of the virtual environment.
Figure 1. Core elements of a node in the cloud
If you take those nodes from Figure 1 and multiply them on a physical network with shared storage, orchestrating management over the entire infrastructure, then provide front-end load balancing of incoming connections (whether in a private or a public setting) with caching and filtering, you have a virtual infrastructure called a cloud. This new construction is shown in Figure 2. Dormant servers can be powered down until needed for additional compute capacity (providing better power efficiency), with VMs balanced (even dynamically) across the nodes depending upon their collective loads.
Figure 2. Cloud computing infrastructure
With the basic architecture of a cloud defined, let's now explore where open source is being applied to build out a dynamic cloud infrastructure.
Core open source technologies
The Linux landscape is seeing a wave of development focused on virtualized infrastructures for virtualization, management, and larger-scale integration of cloud software packages. Let's start with a view of open source at the individual node level, then step up to the infrastructure to see what's happening there.
The base of the cloud at the node level is the hypervisor. Although virtualization is not a requirement, it provides undisputed capabilities for scalable and power-efficient architectures. There exist a number of open source virtualization solutions, but two key solutions are those that transform the Linux operating system into a hypervisor: the Linux Kernel Virtual Machine (KVM) and Lguest. KVM is the official hypervisor solution, being deployed into production environments. Lguest is a Linux-focused solution that runs only Linux VMs, but is integrated into the kernel and finding wider use. The Xen hypervisor is also widely used within public and private IaaS solutions due to its performance advantages.
Outside of converting Linux to a hypervisor, there are other solutions that take a guest VM-focused approach. User-Mode Linux (UML) is another approach that modifies a guest Linux kernel to run on top of another Linux operating system (without hypervisor extensions). Because many users want to run an unmodified kernel, full virtualization solutions (such as KVM) are preferred.
This UML approach is also popular, but requires virtualized hardware (such as a console, virtual disk, and networking).
The hypervisor provides the means to share the CPU with multiple operating systems (CPU virtualization), but to provide full virtualization, the entire environment must be virtualized for the VMs. Machine—or platform—emulation can be performed in a number of ways, but a popular open source package that supports a number of hypervisors is called QEMU. QEMU is a complete emulator and hypervisor. But KVM makes use of QEMU for device emulation as a separate process in the user space (see Figure 1). One interesting feature of QEMU is that because it provides disk emulation (through the QCOW format), QEMU provides other advanced features such as snapshots and live VM migration.
KVM, since kernel 2.6.25, uses virtio as a means of optimizing I/O virtualization performance. It does this by introducing paravirtualized drivers into the hypervisor with hooks from the guest to bring performance to near-native levels. This works only when the operating system can be modified for this purpose, but finds use in Linux guest on Linux hypervisor scenarios.
Today, virtio and QEMU work together so emulated device transactions can be optimized between the Linux guest and QEMU emulator in the user space.
As VMs consolidate onto physical servers, the networking needs of the platform intensify. But rather than force all of the VM's networking to the physical layer of the platform, local communication could instead be virtualized itself. To optimize network communication among VMs, there is the introduction of the virtual switch. The vSwitch behaves like a physical switch, but is virtualized into the platform (see Figure 3). In this figure, virtualized interfaces (VIFs) associated with the VMs communicate through the virtual switch to the physical interfaces (PIFs).
Figure 3. High-level view of Open vSwitch with virtual and physical interfaces
Open source is addressing this problem as well, with one very interesting solution called the Open vSwitch. In addition to providing a virtual switch for virtual environments, the vSwitch can also integrate across physical platforms and provide enterprise-level features like virtual local area networks (VLANs), priority-based Quality of Service (QoS), trunking, and support for hardware acceleration (such as single-root I/O virtualization [IOV] network adapters). The Open vSwitch is currently available for 2.6.15 kernels and supports the range of Linux-based virtualization solutions (Xen, KVM, VirtualBox) and management standards (Remote Switched Port Analyzer [RSPAN], NetFlow, etc.).
VM tools and technologies
As VMs are an aggregation of operating system, root file system, and configuration, the space is ripe for tool development. But to realize the full potential of VMs and tools, there must be a portable way to assemble them. The current approach, called the Open Virtualization Format (OVF) is a VM construction that is flexible, efficient, and portable. OVF wraps a virtual disk image in an XML wrapper that defines the configuration of the VM, including networking configuration, processor and memory requirements, and a variety of extensible metadata to further define the image and its platform needs. The key capability provided by OVF is the portability to distribute VMs in a hypervisor-agnostic manner.
A number of
utilities exist to manage VM images (VMIs) as well as convert them to and
from other formats. The
ovftool from VMware is
a useful tool that you can use for VMI conversion (for example, to convert
from the VMware Virtual Disk Development Kit [VMDK] format into OVF). This
tool and others are useful once you have a VMI, but what if you have a
physical server you'd like to convert into a VMI? You can employ a
useful tool called Clonezilla for this purpose. Although it was
originally developed as a disk-cloning tool for disaster recovery, you can
use it to convert a physical server instance into a VM for easy deployment
into a virtualized infrastructure. Numerous other tools exist (such as
utilities built upon libvirt) or are in development for conversion and
management as the OVF format gains adoption.
This article explores management from two perspectives. This section discusses platform management; a later section expands to infrastructure management at the higher level.
Red Hat introduced the libvirt library as
an API for managing platform virtualization (hypervisors and VMs). What
makes libvirt interesting is that it supports a number of hypervisor
solutions (KVM and Xen being two) and provides API bindings for a number
of languages (such as C, Python, and Ruby).
It provides the "last mile" of management, interfacing directly with
the platform hypervisor and extending APIs out to larger
infrastructure-management solutions. With libvirt, it's simple to start
and stop VMs, and it provides APIs for more advanced operations, such as
migration of VMs between platforms. Using libvirt, it's also possible to
use its shell (built on top of libvirt), called
Infrastructure open source technologies
Now that you've seen some of the open source solutions at the virtualized node level, look at some other open source applications that support this infrastructure. This article explores three categories. The first two are infrastructure-level technologies that complement the solutions previously discussed. The third category consists of integrated solutions that bring all of the pieces together for simpler deployment.
Building a scalable and balanced web architecture depends upon the ability to balance web traffic across the servers that implement the back-end functionality. A number of load-balancing solutions exist, but recently, Yahoo! open sourced a solution called Traffic Server. Traffic Server is interesting, because it encapsulates a large number of capabilities in one package for cloud infrastructures, including session management, authentication, filtering, load balancing, and routing. Yahoo! initially acquired this product from Inktomi, but has now extended and introduced the product into open source.
Larger-scale infrastructure management (managing many hypervisors and even more VMs) can be accomplished in a number of ways. Two of the more common solutions are each built from the same platform (libvirt). The oVirt package is an open VM management tool that scales from a small number of VMs to thousands of VMs running on hundreds of hosts. The oVirt package, developed by Red Hat, is a web-based management console that, in addition to traditional management, supports the automation of clustering and load balancing. The oVirt tool is written in the Python language. VirtManager, also based on libvirt and developed by Red Hat, is an application with a GTK+ UI (instead of being web-based like oVirt). VirtManager presents a much more graphically rich display (for live performance and resource utilization) and includes a VNC client viewer for a full graphical console to remote VMs.
And Puppet is another open source package designed for data center infrastructure (a cloud). Although not designed solely for virtualized infrastructures, it simplifies the management of large infrastructures by abstracting the details of the peer operating system. It does this through the use of the Puppet language. Puppet is ideal for automating administrative tasks over large numbers of servers and is widely used today.
Integrated IaaS solutions
The following open source packages take a more holistic approach by integrating all of the necessary functionality into a single package (including virtualization, management, interfaces, and security). When added to a network of servers and storage, these packages produce flexible cloud computing and storage infrastructures (IaaS). For details about these platforms, see Resources.
One of the most popular open source packages for building cloud computing infrastructures is Eucalyptus (for Elastic Utility Computing Architecture for Linking Your Programs to Useful Systems). What makes it unique is that its interface is compatible with Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (Amazon EC2—Amazon's cloud computing interface). Additionally, Eucalyptus includes Walrus, which is a cloud storage application compatible with Amazon Simple Storage Service (Amazon S3—Amazon's cloud storage interface).
Eucalyptus supports KVM/Linux and Xen for hypervisors and includes the Rocks cluster distribution for cluster management.
OpenNebula is another interesting open source application (under the Apache license) developed at the Universidad Complutense de Madrid. In addition to supporting private cloud construction, OpenNebula supports the idea of hybrid clouds. A hybrid cloud permits combining a private cloud infrastructure with a public cloud infrastructure (such as Amazon) to enable even higher degrees of scaling.
OpenNebula supports Xen, KVM/Linux, and VMware and relies on elements like libvirt for management and introspection.
Nimbus is another IaaS solution focused on scientific computing. With Nimbus, you can lease remote resources (such as those provided by Amazon EC2) and manage them locally (configure, deploy VMs, monitor, etc.). Nimbus morphed from the Workspace Service project (part of Globus.org). Being dependent on Amazon EC2, Nimbus supports Xen and KVM/Linux.
Xen Cloud Platform
Citrix has integrated Xen into an IaaS platform, using Xen as the hypervisor while incorporating other open source capabilities such as the Open vSwitch. An interesting advantage to the Xen solution is the focus on standards-based management (including OVF, Distributed Management Task Force [DTMF], the Common Information Model [CIM], and Virtualization Management Initiative [VMAN]) from the project Kensho. The Xen management stack supports SLA guarantees, along with detailed metrics for charge-back.
Our penultimate solution is OpenQRM, which is categorized as a data center management platform. OpenQRM provides a single console to manage an entire virtualized data center that is architecturally pluggable to permit integration of third-party tools. OpenQRM integrates support for high availability (through redundancy) and supports a variety of hypervisors, including KVM/Linux, Xen, VMware, and Linux VServer.
Today, the leading IaaS solution is called OpenStack. OpenStack was released in July 2010, and has quickly become the standard open-source IaaS solution. OpenStack is a combination of two cloud initiatives from RackSpace Hosting (Cloud Files) and NASA's Nebula platform. OpenStack is being developed in the Python language, and is under active development under the Apache license.
Figure 4 shows OpenStack as a modular architecture for managing a set of servers for compute and storage. OpenStack is defined by three major components, consisting of Nova (representing the compute side), Swift (representing object storage), and Glance (implementing the image service). OpenStack supports a wide range of hypervisors, including KVM, Linux Containers (LXC), QEMU, UML, Xen, and XenServer. OpenStack is now driving open standards for cloud infrastructures, and as a result is growing rapidly in use.
Figure 4. The OpenStack modular architecture
One of the most interesting advancements occurring within virtualization and open source is the ability to host a hypervisor on top of another hypervisor (using a concept called nesting). Recall from Figure 1 that the typical usage model is the hypervisor as an abstraction of the physical platform to guest virtual machines. With nesting, the host hypervisor provides the base level abstraction for either a virtual machine (as the typical case) in addition to a guest hypervisor (see Figure 4).
Figure 5. Nesting hypervisors as a useful abstraction
While nesting might seem to be a odd usage model, consider its application to cloud computing. Clouds commonly require virtual machines to conform to their hypervisor of choice. But if that hypervisor supported nesting, then the user could provide not only their virtual machines, but also the guest hypervisor of their choice. This also provides an extra abstraction for the user, adding portability to clouds (the ability to easily switch between cloud providers).
You can find support for nested virtualization today in the KVM hypervisor. Check out Resources to find out how to demonstrate this on an AMD server.
Volumes could be written about the leadership role that open source is playing in the cloud and virtualization domain, but this article provided a short introduction to some of the popular and visible solutions available today. Whether you're looking to build a cloud based on your own requirements from individual pieces or simply want a cohesive solution that works out of the box, open source has you covered. See Resources for more details on the solutions discussed here and others.
- OpenStack is the latest IaaS solution, released into open source from NASA and Rackspace. OpenStack implements a cloud operating system for compute and storage, as well as providing an image service for virtual machines.
- "The Turtles Project: Design and Implementation of Nested Virtualization," a paper authored by IBM Research Haifa and IBM Linux Technology Center, details the Turtles project for nested virtualization and introduces the idea of nesting a guest hypervisor on a host hypervisor to create another useful level of abstraction.
- Nested Virtualization with KVM and AMD provides a useful demonstration of nesting using KVM and an AMD server. It's certainly work in progress, but a useful technology that's advancing.
- Michael Galpin provides a great introduction to cloud computing, its benefits and challenges, and a review of some of the basic and specialized platforms available in "Realities of open source cloud computing, Part 1: Not all clouds are equal."
- Learn more about Linux as a hypervisor in "Anatomy of a Linux hypervisor" and learn more about virtual appliances and the use of OVF in "Virtual appliances and the Open Virtualization Format."
- Kernel Virtual Machine was the first Linux-based hypervisor. Lguest entered the kernel shortly thereafter and took a more lightweight approach (5,000 additional lines of source code). User-mode Linux was discussed as another alternative, which instead of a hypervisor is a modified guest running on a standard kernel. And Xen is a popular hypervisor used in some of the largest cloud infrastructures (Amazon's Elastic Compute Cloud, for example); it supports full virtualization and para-virtualization.
- Additional resources for device emulation and virtual I/O include "Linux virtualization and PCI passthrough" and "Virtio: An I/O virtualization framework for Linux."
- The Open vSwitch can be used by all of the major hypervisors (KVM, Xen, VirtualBox); learn more about its design and motivation in the Hot Topics in Networks paper "Extending Networking into the Virtualization Layer (PDF)."
- Yahoo! open sourced its Traffic Server software under the Apache Software Foundation. Yahoo! uses this software internally, and it provides the front end for cloud computing infrastructures. Traffic Server aggregates load balancing, session management, authentication, configuration management, and routing for large-scale Web 2.0 infrastructures. Learn more in the company's announcement.
- For detailed instructions on the creation of a KVM-based VM, check out "Create a KVM-based virtual server."
- VM tools are growing, but a good start is available today. "Migrate to a virtual Linux environment with Clonezilla" explores Clonezilla, which can be used to build a VM from a physical instance. There's also ovftool from VMware, which is useful for VM conversion.
- This article explored a few different virtual infrastructure management applications, two of which were built on the libvirt virtualization API. Read more about libvirt in "Anatomy of the libvirt virtualization library." To learn more about the higher-level management solutions, check out oVirt and Virtual Machine Manager (virt-manager).
- To listen to interesting interviews and discussions for software developers, check out developerWorks podcasts.
- Stay current with developerWorks' Technical events and webcasts.
- Follow developerWorks on Twitter.
- Check out upcoming conferences, trade shows, webcasts, and other Events around the world that are of interest to IBM open source developers.
- Visit the developerWorks Open source zone for extensive how-to information, tools, and project updates to help you develop with open source technologies and use them with IBM's products.
- The My developerWorks community is an example of a successful general community that covers a wide variety of topics.
- Watch and learn about IBM and open source technologies and product functions with the no-cost developerWorks On demand demos.
Get products and technologies
- The development of open source IaaS is exploding today with a large number of very useful collections. Examples include Eucalyptus, OpenNebula, Nimbus, Xen Cloud Platform (with Project Kensho), and openQRM.
- Innovate your next open source development project with IBM trial software, available for download or on DVD.
- Download IBM product evaluation versions and get your hands on application development tools and middleware products from DB2®, Lotus®, Rational®, Tivoli®, and WebSphere®.
- Participate in developerWorks blogs and get involved in the developerWorks community.
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The Picket Fleet was part of the Corporate Sector's Security Division, and as such, its primary role was policing against non-military opponents. It was organized to take on smugglers and pirates, and to support the suppression of planetary unrest, and the ships it used reflected this mission.
The Corporate Sector devoted no significant resources to the construction of large warships, preferring instead to acquire them from abroad.
Before the Clone Wars, the Picket Fleet had equipped itself with new Dreadnaught Cruisers from Rendili StarDrive, but in the long term, their usual procurement policy was to acquire large, old ships that were being discarded by other navies. These were almost always slow and obsolescent, but the sheer quantity of firepower they could carry would overpower most of the Picket Fleet's paramilitary opponents. As Palpatine consolidated and modernized his military forces, whole fleets of older warships became available, ranging from ancient heavy cruisers that had served the Old Republic centuries earlier, through veteran Star Destroyers from the Clone Wars, to former Seperatist warships.
For many years, the core of the Picket Fleet was a force of 520 Victory I-class Star Destroyers purchased from the Imperial Navy. Other veteran warships from the Clone Wars were added as available, such as a force of six Recusant-class light destroyers. A number of Lucrehulk-class battleships and Core Ships were also acquired at this time by the Corporate Sector.
Perhaps the most distinctive warships in the Picket Fleet were a number of large, ancient Invincible-class Dreadnaught Heavy Cruisers, originally built for the Old Republic. These were already around three thousand years old at the time of their acquisition, but their large hulls could carry many weapons and troops, and their simple systems made them easy for Espo crews to operate. By the time of the Yuuzhan Vong War, however, only a few of these old ships remained.
After the end of the Galactic Civil War, many warships were once again surplus to the needs of other naval forces, and the Picket Fleet acquired a large number of these, notably including one Star Destroyer. In the years, after the Battle of Endor, the Picket Fleet also made use of an Escort Carrier design, which may have been the 500-meter Kuat Drive Yards design.
The smaller ships used by the Picket Fleet, built in the Corporate Sector's own yards, were typically no larger than corvettes, although they were often referred to as cruisers. Other designations for smaller Picket Fleet vessels are known, however, including sloop and gunboat.
The standard design for many years was the Marauder-class corvette. Originally developed by Republic Sienar Systems, the rights to the design were acquired by the Corporate Sector after it failed to make an impact in other markets. Alongside this, the Picket Fleet also used a militarized version of the Corporate Sector's locally-developed Etti-class light transport. Both these types were capable of carrying out the role for which they were built, but both were developed by the Corporate Sector without designing a warship class from the keel up.
Throughout the Galactic Civil War, surplus Picket Fleet corvettes were sold to other fleets, in a reversal of the Corporate Sector's acquisition policy for larger warships. Also, vessels were sometimes built for export. By the time of the Second Galactic Civil War, the Corporate Sector's shipyards were building a new type of corvette-sized "cruiser", Cutlass-class, which was used by the Imperial Remnant and probably also by the Picket Fleet itself.
Some smaller Picket Fleet ships were acquired from outside in the same way as the larger warships. After the end of the Galactic Civil War, for example, a small number of military-surplus EF76 Nebulon-B escort frigates were purchased from other navies.
The Picket Fleet also made use of starfighters. Like the corvettes, these were usually built locally, but sometimes using foreign designs. The standard Picket Fleet starfighter was the home-grown IRD, but other types were produced as well, such as the Mankvim-814 light interceptor, a Techno Union design acquired after the Clone Wars, and constructed in limited numbers.
Recruitment patterns for the Picket Fleet paralleled the origins of its ships: the bulk of enlisted personnel were Corporate Sector citizens, but many of the Picket Fleet's senior and mid-level officers were recruited from other military forces, and particularly from the Imperial Navy, such as Baruche Sloane, Jona Grumby and Milo Phineas.
Typically, Corporate Sector warships operated individually. Sometimes, however, the Picket Fleet could deploy a sizable task force to seize control of a star system from a foreign fleet. One example of larger-scale operations of this sort occurred after the Battle of Endor, when a powerful Picket Fleet task force, led by the Victory-class Star Destroyer Enforce, intervened at Kirima.
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Educational Primer: Degrees of Roast
by Mauro Cipolla
Today's specialty coffee choices, made available by the many different roasting companies,
are vast both in types of blends and in degrees of roast. This presents an opportunity for
retailers to educate their customers on the different roasts and brewing requirements of
the whole-bean coffees they offer. The retail shop-owner and every one of his or her
employees selling whole-bean coffees must be knowledgeable about each offering and happy
to pass this information on to customers. In order to properly guide consumers in their
choices, retailers must address three very basic issues. The following information can
help consumers make educated choices when purchasing coffees for particular home-brewing
1. Whenever purchasing choices must be made among light-, medium- and dark-roasted
coffees, one must consider that the degree of roast by itself does not constitute a
standardized answer about the coffees flavor profile.
Thus, when comparing similar roasting degrees, consider that any individual coffees flavor
profile will be dictated by a myriad of factors. These factors include the botanical
species used by the roasting company, the type and quality of heat used in the roasting
process, the speed and timing of the roast and the final blend (if any) employed by the
2. A retailer must also advise the consumer on certain general flavor profiles found in a
particular roast, and should explain some of the basic reasons behind the expected flavor
profiles. Here are some ideas:
Darker roasts generally equate to:
- Less fiber content of the bean and thus less viscosity and body in the cup.
- Less caffeine in the cup, resulting in slightly less bitterness and slightly less
- More organic losses and, therefore, a loss in complexity of flavors and density of the
- More sucrose will be lost, but more caramelization will be present, resulting in a more
liqueur-like and sugary, caramelized flavor.
- Less volatile aromas, less acidity and less aroma will be present, thus the loss of
aromatic and acidic flavor components.
- Less chlorogenic acids resulting in a silkier, smoother texture.
- More dissolving properties of the beans, thus more extractability of flavors from the
- More oils on the outside of the beans, causing more problems with oxidation and/or
concerns associated with extra smoke created in the roasting process. These elements could
contribute to faster staling of the coffee and/or a more pungent flavor profile.
3. Coffee (and espresso) extraction takes water-soluble substances from the coffee beans,
and emulsifies insoluble oils present in the roasted coffee. Because each degree of roast
(light, medium, dark and everything in between) and individual roasting styles create
different and unique coffees, one must marry the set up of the brewing and grinding
equipment to the general taste expected from any coffee.
Most consumers will be limited by the type of adjustments that will be possible on
non-professional home brewing equipment. Therefore, retailers should focus on four,
easy-to-understand elements of fine-tuning for taste: Water, temperature, grind setting
and amount of coffee used, and storage and purchasing patterns.
For example, taking points a through h above, one can say that, generally, the darker the
roast the more pungent the coffee. One can try to minimize this pungency by fine-tuning
the temperature in the brewing equipment to a few degrees lower than where it would be set
for a less pungent coffee.
Another example may be the darker the roast, the more brittle the beans, the less moisture
content and the less density in the bean itself. This requires a slightly coarser grind
setting and possibly the use of more ground coffee per brew cycle. Finally, changes may
also be advisable in the frequency of purchasing, since darker roasted coffees will tend
to oxidize faster and thus have a shorter life cycle of freshness.
In any case, the whole-bean retailer must ensure the product delivered to the consumer is
of the standard he or she would expect when serving a coffee beverage in his or her shop.
Quality, in every aspect of this business, is what the specialty coffee consumer expects
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MacLeod Clan Crest: A bull's head between two flags.
MacLeod Clan Motto: Hold Fast.
History of Clan MacLeod:
Olaf the Black was the Norse King of Man and the Isles who lived in the early 13th century. Leod was his younger son who, around 1220, married the daughter and heiress of MacRaild on Skye. She brought him Dunvegan Castle, and, when his father died, he inherited the islands of Lewis and Harris. Following the defeat of King Haakon of Norway at the Battle of Largs in 1263, Leod found himself virtually in control of the Hebrides.
Leod had four sons. Tormod, the eldest, inherited Dunvegan and Harris, becoming Chief of these lands and adopting the name MacLeod of Dunvegan (“Siol Tormod”). Torquil, Leod's second son, (“Siol Torquil”) inherited Lewis and Raasay, and in due course came into possession of Assynt, Cogeach and Gareloch on the mainland.
The MacLeods of Dunvegan supported Robert the Bruce during the Wars of Independence and followed the Lords of the Isles at the Battle of Harlaw in 1411. Fortunately, MacLeod managed to remain in favour throughout the Crown's attempts to subdue the Highland Chiefs, largely through the efforts of Alasdair Crotach who, in 1542, after a long dispute with the MacDonalds of Sleat, secured the title to Trotternish in the north of Skye.
After Alasdair's death, the Chiefship passed to his daughter and, after an interlude when it was seized by a kinsman, to Alasdair's brother Norman, whose son Ruaridh Mor became 15th Chief in 1595.
The MacLeods of Dunvegan fought for the Royalist Cause at the Battle of Worcester in 1651 and over 500 MacLeod Clansmen were killed making it impossible for them to participate affectively in either the 1715 or 1745 Jacobite Uprisings. When Prince Charles Edward Stuart arrived in Scotland, the Dunvegan MacLeods, convinced that he was lacking the necessary resources and men to succeed, refused to join him.
Hugh Magnus MacLeod, 30th Chief of the Clan MacLeod, succeeded his father who died in February 2007.
John MacLeod of MacLeod, 29th Chief, succeeded his grandmother Dame Flora MacLeod of MacLeod in 1976. The 29th chief caused outrage when he put the Black Cuillins in Skye up for sale to pay for repairs to Dunvegan Castle.
Dame Flora was born at 10 Downing Street, London, in 1878, when it was the home of her grandfather, Lord Northcote, who was Chancellor of the Chequer. It was Dame Flora who first opened up the castle to the general public. The Clan MacLeod Society of Scotland was founded in 1891.
Mary Macleod (1615-1705), born at Rodel, on Harris, was a celebrated poetess. John MacLeod (1757-1841) helped in the publication of The Gaelic Bible and Dictionary. Norman Macleod (1783-1862) was the son of the Minister of Morvern and wrote religious books in Gaelic and English. John MacLeod (1876-1935) was educated at Aberdeen, Leipzig and Cambridge and became Professor of Physiology at Cleveland, Ohio. In 1922, he was one of the discoverers of insulin. Baron MacLeod of Fuinary, second son of Sir John MacLeod Bt, a Glasgow Member of Parliament, founded the Iona Community.
Surname distribution in Scotland: The MacLeod name is most common in The Western Isles (the main islands include Lewis and Harris, North Uist, South Uist, Benbecula and Barra), Aberdeenshire, Aberdeen City, Highland (an amalgamation of the historic counties of Caithness, Inverness-shire, Nairnshire, Ross and Cromarty and Sutherland), Shetland, Edinburgh and the Lothians, Perth and Kinross, Glasgow City, Dumbartonshire, Argyllshire and the Borders.
Places of Interest:
Dunvegan Castle, Isle of Skye. Ancestral home of the MacLeod Chiefs. A major restoration was carried out by the 25th Chief between 1840 and 1850. The castle is open daily during the Summer months.
Kilmuir Church, Dunvegan, Isle of Skye. Burial place of the last five Chiefs of MacLeod.
St Andrews, Fife. The tomb of the 22nd Chief of MacLeod is situated against the west wall of St Andrews Cathedral.
The MacCrimmon Cairn, Boreraig, Isle of Skye. The MacCrimmons were Hereditary Pipers to the MacLeod Chiefs.
St Cuthbert's Church, Edinburgh. The tomb of the 23rd Chief of MacLeod is facing the apse.
Isle of Iona. Leod and the following six Chiefs of MacLeod are buried here.
St Clement's Church, Rodel, Isle of Harris. Built by Alasdair Crotach (hump-back). The 8th and 9th Chiefs of Dunvegan are buried here.
The Rodel Hotel, Rodel, Isle of Harris. Built in 1871, this was the home of Alexander Macleod of Dunvegan and Harris.
Associated family names (Septs): Beaton, Bethune, Beton, Grimmond, Harold, Harold, MacAndie, MacCaig, MacClure, MacCrimmon, MacCuaig, MacHarold, MacLure, MacRaild, MacWilliam, Norman, Normand, Williamson.
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The Physics Factbook
Edited by Glenn Elert -- Written by his students
An educational, Fair Use website
|Lutgens, Frederick K., & Edward J. Tarbuck. The Atmosphere. 6th ed., 1995: 397.||"Elsmitte, at the center of the Greenland ice cap, rests an elevation of almost 3,000 meters, and much of Antarctica is even higher."||> 3,000 m|
|"Ice Cap." World Book. Chicago: World Book, 2000: 19.||"The ice cap has an average thickness of about 7,000 feet (2,100 m)."||2,100 m
|"Fuchs and Hillary." The Grolier Student Library of Explorers and Exploration. Grolier, 1998: 71.||"Throughout their trek, they took soundings which showed that the ice cap was up to 9,000 feet (2,700 m) thick, and that entire mountain ranges lay buried beneath the ice cap."||2,700 m|
|Bramwell, Martyn. Glaciers and Ice Caps. Belgium: Franklin Watts, 1986: 19.||"The average thickness of the Antarctic ice is 2,000 m (6,500 feet), and the greatest measured thickness is more than 4,770 m (15,650 feet)."||4,470 m
|Simon, Seymour. Icebergs and Glaciers. New York: Mulberry, 1987.||"In some places, the Antarctic ice sheet is more than fifteen thousand feet thick."||4,500 m|
The polar regions are boundless wilderness areas of bare rock and biting winds, of snowstorms, ice caps, and glaciers. Antarctica is a continent twice the size of Australia and covered by the world's largest ice sheet. The Arctic is a complete contrast; most of it is ocean, almost completely surrounded by land and covered for most of the year by thick floating ice. Nearly 85% of the world's permanent ice is contained in the great ice sheet of Antarctica.
When ice builds up over a mountain region, it fills the valleys. The ice forms a huge dome, parted only by uneven peaks of the highest mountains. About 15 million square kilometers (5.8 million square miles) of the dome is known as the ice cap. The greatest ever measured thickness of the Antarctic ice is more than 4,770 meters thick!
Because of human activities, the earth is in danger of global warming. Even a small-scale melting of the polar ice cap would cause flooding in the Netherlands, Northern Germany, parts of the Middle East, the Southern US and parts of lowland China. If more than three-quarters of the polar ice were to melt, the result would be disastrous! The world's coastlines would be entirely wiped out. Most of the world's ports and major cities would be drowned, and an extensive part of the world's productive farmland would be immersed.
May Sy -- 2000
Author, Illustrator, Webmaster
Chaos, E-World, Facts, Get Bent, Physics
No condition is permanent.
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Aspects of Camera Lenses: Anterior Pole
Camera lenses are complex pieces of machinery that employ the science of optics to project an image. In the case of photography, they project an image onto a photographic medium like film or an image sensor. But, the same principals of optics are employed with telescopes and microscopes as well.
What is the Anterior Pole?
Anterior pole is actually a medical term that can be used to describe the aspects of your photographic lenses. Anterior surface refers to a surface that is facing outwards. The pole refers to the center of the surface. In biology, the term anterior pole specifically refers to the center of the cornea of the eye. The light from images that you see passes through here to the retina, where it is then sent to the brain where it's translated into sight.
Anterior Pole and Your Lenses
The lens on your camera is similar to your eyes. Camera lenses are composed of a few lenses which makes it a compound lens. The outer most piece of glass in the lens that is most susceptible to scratches and other damages is the anterior surface. The very center of that piece of glass is the anterior pole. This part of the lenses is farthest away from the photographic medium.
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| 0.9308
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Infosphere:Types of plots
The types of plots is a way to index episodes/films and comics in what their plot focuses on. These are made with the following syntax: "Category:<type> plots focusing on <character>", e.g. "Category:A plots focusing on Fry", where an A type plot is having focus on Fry.
There are two types of plots, namely A and B. A is a major focus, such as the main storyline, while a B plot is a side plot. Some episodes like "The Cryonic Woman" may not have B plots, while episodes like "Three Hundred Big Boys" may only have B plots.
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<urn:uuid:2e4e4a7a-69c5-4e8e-b2d5-4efe5876c229>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://theinfosphere.org/Infosphere:Types_of_plots
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en
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Pronunciation: (lok), [key]
1. a device for securing a door, gate, lid, drawer, or the like in position when closed, consisting of a bolt or system of bolts propelled and withdrawn by a mechanism operated by a key, dial, etc.
2. a contrivance for fastening or securing something.
3. (in a firearm)
a. the mechanism that explodes the charge; gunlock.
b. safety (def. 4).
4. any device or part for stopping temporarily the motion of a mechanism.
5. an enclosed chamber in a canal, dam, etc., with gates at each end, for raising or lowering vessels from one level to another by admitting or releasing water.
6. an air lock or decompression chamber.
7. complete and unchallenged control; an unbreakable hold: The congresswoman has a lock on the senatorial nomination.
8. Slang.someone or something certain of success; sure thing: He's a lock to win the championship.
9. Wrestling.any of various holds, esp. a hold secured on the arm, leg, or head: leg lock.
10. Horol.(in an escapement) the overlap between a tooth of an escape wheel and the surface of the pallet locking it.
11. Metalworking.a projection or recession in the mating face of a forging die.
12. lock, stock, and barrel, completely; entirely; including every part, item, or facet, no matter how small or insignificant: We bought the whole business, lock, stock, and barrel.
13. under lock and key, securely locked up: The documents were under lock and key.
1. to fasten or secure (a door, window, building, etc.) by the operation of a lock or locks.
2. to shut in a place fastened by a lock or locks, as for security or restraint.
3. to make fast or immovable by or as if by a lock: He locked the steering wheel on his car.
4. to make fast or immovable, as by engaging parts: to lock the wheels of a wagon.
5. to join or unite firmly by interlinking or intertwining: to lock arms.
6. to hold fast in an embrace: She was locked in his arms.
7. to move (a ship) by means of a lock or locks, as in a canal (often fol. by through, in, out, down, or up).
8. to furnish with locks, as a canal.
1. to become locked: This door locks with a key.
2. to become fastened, fixed, or interlocked: gears that lock into place.
3. to go or pass by means of a lock or locks, as a vessel.
4. to construct locks in waterways.
5. lock horns, to come into conflict; clash: to lock horns with a political opponent.
6. lock in,
a. to commit unalterably: to lock in the nomination of the party's candidates.
b. (of an investor) to be unable or unwilling to sell or shift securities.
7. lock off, to enclose (a waterway) with a lock.
8. lock on, to track or follow a target or object automatically by radar or other electronic means.
9. lock out,
a. to keep out by or as if by a lock.
b. to subject (employees) to a lockout.
10. lock up,
a. to imprison for a crime.
b. Print.to make (type) immovable in a chase by securing the quoins.
c. to fasten or secure with a lock or locks.
d. to lock the doors of a house, automobile, etc.
e. to fasten or fix firmly, as by engaging parts.
Pronunciation: (lok), [key]
1. a tress, curl, or ringlet of hair.
a. the hair of the head.
b. short wool of inferior quality, as that obtained in small clumps from the legs.
3. a small tuft or portion of wool, cotton, flax, etc.
Random House Unabridged Dictionary, Copyright © 1997, by Random House, Inc., on Infoplease.
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://dictionary.infoplease.com/lock
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en
| 0.937538
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| 2.703125
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THE latest heatwave has already claimed its first victims and the hottest days are yet to come.
Summer Street Veterinary Clinic was unable to save two guinea pigs that were brought in last week suffering dehydration and heat exhaustion.
The mercury is expected to reach 35 degrees today and vets are calling on the community to be mindful of pets during the hot weather.
Summer Street vet Christine Healey stressed pets kept in cages should be moved under the shade. She said pet owners needed to be aware that the cage might have been in the shade when they left for work, but by the afternoon the hot sun could cause irreversible damage.
“It’s also really important to be mindful of dogs on the back of utes,” she said.
“The tray can get very hot and it’s reflective so people need to make sure their dog has enough water and you need to park it in the shade.”
Miss Healey said the clinic treated at least four or five animals for heat stroke during summer. The pets most susceptible are those in cages.
“You need to be aware that if you cover the cage up it can get quite humid in there during the day, it needs to be partially covered,” she said.
One of the biggest concerns for Miss Healey was people leaving pets in cars despite warnings every year that animals could die within minutes.
“By the time we get them they are usually quite sick and don’t make it,” she said.
“It can only take five minutes.”
Taking the heat off animals:
l Multiple bowls of water.
l Move cages several times during the day.
l Keep stock in a paddock with plenty of shade.
Signs of dehydration:
Birds: puffing feathers out, hiding in a corner and being generally lethargic, open beak and a collapsed comb for chickens.
Dogs and cats: not eating, dark or bright red tongue and gums, sticky or dry tongue and gums, staggering, seizures, bloody diarrhoea or vomiting.
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<urn:uuid:d84c898c-f7a0-457a-8ae1-362acb8e34ae>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.centralwesterndaily.com.au/story/1217604/hot-stuff-for-animals-too/?cs=103
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en
| 0.960073
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In a discovery that may prove important for cognitive science, our understanding of nature and applications for robot vision, researchers at the Univ. of Adelaide have found evidence that the dragonfly is capable of higher-level thought processes when hunting its prey.
The discovery, published online in the journal Current Biology, is the first evidence that an invertebrate animal has brain cells for selective attention, which has so far only been demonstrated in primates.
Steven Wiederman and Associate Prof. David O'Carroll from the Univ. of Adelaide's Center for Neuroscience Research have been studying insect vision for many years.
Using a tiny glass probe with a tip that is only 60 nanometres wide- 1500 times smaller than the width of a human hair- the researchers have discovered neuron activity in the dragonfly's brain that enables this selective attention.
They found that when presented with more than one visual target, the dragonfly brain cell "locks on" to one target and behaves as if the other targets don't exist.
"Selective attention is fundamental to humans' ability to select and respond to one sensory stimulus in the presence of distractions," Wiederman says.
"Imagine a tennis player having to pick out a small ball from the crowd when it's traveling at almost 200kms an hour- you need selective attention in order to hit that ball back into play.
"Precisely how this works in biological brains remains poorly understood, and this has been a hot topic in neuroscience in recent years," he says.
"The dragonfly hunts for other insects, and these might be part of a swarm- they're all tiny moving objects. Once the dragonfly has selected a target, its neuron activity filters out all other potential prey. The dragonfly then swoops in on its prey- they get it right 97% of the time."
O'Carroll says this brain activity makes the dragonfly a more efficient and effective predator.
"What's exciting for us is that this is the first direct demonstration of something akin to selective attention in humans shown at the single neuron level in an invertebrate," O'Carroll says.
"Recent studies reveal similar mechanisms at work in the primate brain, but you might expect it there. We weren't expecting to find something so sophisticated in lowly insects from a group that's been around for 325 million years.
"We believe our work will appeal to neuroscientists and engineers alike. For example, it could be used as a model system for robotic vision. Because the insect brain is simple and accessible, future work may allow us to fully understand the underlying network of neurons and copy it into intelligent robots," he says.
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<urn:uuid:8a7b64d4-2031-40cf-a647-fe113ea7228e>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.laboratoryequipment.com/videos/2012/12/dragonflies-capable-higher-level-thought-processes
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en
| 0.94767
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Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Program - Geography Department
Ohlone's GIS program provides students with a conceptual base and technical skills in using a desktop GIS, one of the fastest growing high tech fields. Students enrolled in the program are expected to apply GIS in several areas to solve real-world problems.
The job market for GIS professional has really expanded. This is still a new field and limited experience yields competitive pay. It is used by a variety of private companies, government agencies, and scientists.
Certificate of Accomplishment
Review a sample listing of Courses in this area of study. Review academic requirements in the Catalog and in the Curriculum Guides. All students are encouraged to meet with a counselor to review academic program requirements and discuss their long-range academic plan.
Apply for a Degree or Certificates
Are you finishing your associate degree or certificate? Please review How to Apply for a Degree or Certificate.
GIS is a computerized database management system for capture, storage, retrieval, analysis, and display of spatial (locationally defined) data and information system. It can be used in any profession where analysis of spatial referenced data is needed.
What Can You Do With Desktop GIS?
GIS applications are unlimited, and increase day-by-day. GIS is a vital tool to query, analyze, and map data needed for decision making in business, environmental protection, risk assessment, utility planning and management, emergency response, land use planning, transportation planning, delivery route planning, real estate, crime prevention, and so on.
With GIS you can:
- Locate sites for new facilities
- Determine areas that will be prone to natural disasters
- Find areas that are affected by changes in zoning
- Analyze market areas for businesses
- Deploy emergency response personnel to the correct address
- Find the shortest routes for delivery services
- Analyze environmental impact of newprojects
- Monitor the use of natural resources such as forests & mineral fuels
- Manage utility lines
- Map monthly utility meter readings
Candidates for the Certificate of Accomplishment in GIS must take and pass a set of core courses plus earn additional units from a list of elective courses in various fields. The training program is designed to meet various needs and goals including: transfer, certificate, course completion, workforce development and basic skills.
GIS training is ongoing and some courses are repeatable. Students completing all required core and elective courses will receive a certificate. Individual courses may be taken outside of the Certificate Program.
Who Uses GIS?
Public and private sector administrators, managers, technical professionals, decision-makers and others involved in spatial information systems will benefit from the training.
Related Information at Ohlone
DivisionSkip plugin notice.
Adobe Reader (free) or other browser plug-in/add-on for opening PDF documents is required to open files on this page marked "PDF".
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.ohlone.edu/instr/gis/
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en
| 0.919438
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This analysis of world-dominant powers from ancient Persia to the modern United States yields an intriguing set of common traits and progressions.
Chua’s bestselling World on Fire: How Exporting Free Market Democracy Breeds Ethnic Hatred and Global Instability (2002) led the pack in sizing up the backlash against global free-marketers. Now she examines hegemony and the handful of entities worthy of the title “hyperpower,” which extends to the earliest civilizations: Persia, at its peak under Darius, the Macedonia of Alexander the Great and, of course, imperial Rome. There are also some surprises: Ghenghis Khan’s 13th-century Mongolian domain, for instance, eventually extended from Vienna to the Sea of Japan, far exceeding any before or since in contiguous territory. And the Mongols did it without original technology or literacy, absorbing both from cultures that came under their dominion. Likewise, the Dutch Republic of the late 17th century, a midget among Europe’s giants, became so dominant in world commerce that it eventually exported a king, William of Orange, to England. The commonality among these empires, says Chua, was tolerance. They were diverse societies, harboring—and exploiting—a wide range of ethnicities and unrestricted religions. The enduring model is Rome, which handed its adversaries a bloody defeat and proffered full citizenship the next day. The author notes that even China in its day of empire, the eighth-century Tang Dynasty, was a far more open society than it would be 1,000 years later. Tolerance alone won’t create a hyperpower, though, says the author; the United States needed the collapse of the Soviet Union to achieve its status. Chua concludes that hyperpowers ultimately tend to come “unglued” as a result of resistance to their own diversity. She cautions that the global rise of anti-Americanism today, which stems from attempts to export democracy in the service of self-interest, could be a negative sign.
The author gives short shrift to forces introduced by petro-politics or the nuclear threat, but still an illuminating exploration of what makes a superpower.
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<urn:uuid:fcadbc4f-b016-47fa-8b94-a7325e958cd8>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/amy-chua/day-of-empire/
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en
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HMS Victory - the galley
The crew ate in groups of 8 to 12 men known as a 'mess'. These groups remained together throughout a voyage so the men became 'mess-mates'. Each day one man would take his turn as 'duty cook'. It was his responsibility to fetch the day's rations from the hold and to prepare the food for cooking. The prepared food was then taken along to the galley to be cooked (each mess marked its food with a metal tag). The galley cook was often a naval pensioner or wounded sailor - unable to perform the normal heavy shipboard tasks, he cooked the food for all the crew - a cook's pay substantially supplemented the poor pension given to a man wounded in battle. The duty 'mess cook' would then collect the food for his mess and carry it back to his mess-mates.
Food and drink was stored in the hold in large barrels or casks. To prevent the casks from rolling around, they were set down into a bed of shingle. Casks were lifted out of the hold to provide the daily ration and then broken down to save storage space.
Storage of food was a major problem - there were no refrigerators and canned meat did not appear until 1816. At the time of St. Vincent, the only means of preserving meat was to store it in salt. This made the meat very hard and dry - and if there had not been enough salt added to the barrel when the meat was packed, it was probable that the meat would have rotted. Bread did not keep so flour was baked into hard biscuit. These became soft in storage and tasted unpleasant by the time they were issued. Weevils and maggots infested the biscuit - men were advised to eat biscuit with their eyes closed so that they did not see the soft bits!
Water rapidly became green, brackish and stagnant. Admiralty orders were given that Captains should replenish their fresh water stocks at every opportunity - and that casks should be used in rotation, oldest first. Because water kept for such short time, beer was provided at a rate of 1 gallon per man per day. If beer was not available, then wine could be substituted. Each man was also entitled to a ration of 2 gills (½ pint) of rum per day. The rum was issued at morning and evening meal times - at a rate of 1 gill (¼ pint) of neat rum mixed with 3 parts of water (the mixture is known as grog. Grog made the water drinkable and the food taste better!
How to get maggots and weevils out of a barrel of biscuits!
Place a piece of meat or fish on a plate and put the plate across the top of the barrel. Wait until the meat/fish is covered in maggots then throw away the bait and the maggots. Replace and continue until no further maggots are collected
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<urn:uuid:92c92f93-e1a8-47f3-90ce-62d1ec092c47>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.stvincent.ac.uk/Heritage/1797/Victory/food.html
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en
| 0.989193
| 604
| 3.59375
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Trees are incredible. They can live for thousands of years and grow hundreds of metres tall. There is not a species on the planet that doesn’t owe its existence to them. So here are some amazing facts about trees and forests for International Day of Forests.
1. The Boreal forest (aka Taiga) is the largest land habitat on the planet
It runs across northern USA and Canada, southern Iceland, across Norway, Finland, Sweden, through Russia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia and northern Japan. This region is one of the most threatened by climate change and has experienced some of the most dramatic temperature increases anywhere on Earth. Not to mention the threat from clearcutting for toilet paper, timber logging and, in Canada, tar sands oil extraction which now covers an area larger than England.
2. More species of plant and animal live in the rainforest than any other land habitat
The Indonesian rainforest alone is home to one fifth of all plant and animal life yet it is disappearing at a faster rate than at any other time. There are now fewer than 400 Sumatran tigers left in the wild as their habitat is destroyed to make way for palm oil plantations.
3. Not all rainforests are tropical
The Great Bear rainforest in western Canada is home to the extremely rare Kermode “spirit” bear. A subspecies of black bears, their white coat is caused by a recessive gene, but it makes them expert fishers as they are harder to see. Whilst most of the Great Bear rainforest is protected, parts of it are still under threat from logging for timber. The sitka spruce that grows there is particularly prized for making guitars, violins and mandolins.
4. More than 25% of the medicines we use originate in rainforest plants
Yet only 1% of rainforest plants have been studied for medicinal properties. Every second an area of rainforest the size of a football pitch is cut down meaning every day we might lose a potential cure.
5. The forests are the lungs of our planet
They play a crucial role in stabilising global climate by converting CO2 into oxygen. As we pump more and more CO2 into the atmosphere the forest’s ability to regulate the global climate is increasingly diminished.
6. Orangutans are the largest tree-dwelling mammal
Unlike most other primates, they spend more time in the trees than on the ground. Their tools use is incredibly advanced; they build tree nests to sleep in, use sticks to probe logs for honey and one was even observed trying to spear fish after observing locals doing the same. Their rainforest home is being cut down to make paper and to create space for palm oil plantations.
7. The tallest tree in the world is called Hyperion
It's a coast redwood from California that measures an incredible 115.61m tall. The largest tree in the world by volume is a giant sequoia called General Sherman which has a trunk 10m round and contains an estimated 1486 cubic metres of wood.
8. The world’s oldest non-clonal tree is a recently-discovered and as yet unnamed Great Basin bristlecone pine tree from the White Mountains in California
It's still living at an incredible 5063 years old. Old Tjikko is the oldest single-clonal tree (meaning a new trunk is grown from original roots) at an astonishing 9,550 years old. But if you thought it ended there, then you’ve never heard of Pando…
9. Pando, also know as The Trembling Giant, is a colony of quaking aspen trees
Testing has shown this group of trees to be a single organism and is assumed to be connected by a single massive roots system. So here it is, the age: Pando is thought to be around 80,000 years old making it the oldest living organism on the planet (except the immortal jellyfish which technically never dies of old age).
Trees are amongst the most incredible organisms on the planet. Despite the vital role they play every day in the life of every living thing on the planet, they are under constant threat. But together we can stand up to protect the forests. Join us.
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<urn:uuid:5c2c1651-023a-4a84-8d8f-7dbbcbf553ca>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/blog/forests/9-awesome-facts-about-forests-20140321
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en
| 0.947672
| 870
| 3.515625
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Thomas and the Big, Big Bridge is a book.
Sir Topham Hatt is going to open a new line going to the mountains. A bridge on the line is so high that it reaches the clouds. Henry is afraid of the wind because he thinks it might derail him. Thomas tries to comfort him without success. On the big day Gordon, Henry, and Thomas are ready to make their journey to the mountains with some tourists. When Henry gets to the foot of the mountain, he starts to back down, but Thomas pushes him up the mountain. They get to the side of the mountain and Henry becomes scared again because the line was too steep. Gordon has already gone through the fog and is far away leaving Henry and Thomas. At last they make it to the bridge. Thomas tells Henry that he would go first but suddenly a strong wind blows, and Thomas derails. Soon Gordon returns, he sees Thomas and calls to Henry to help. Soon Thomas hears a buzzing noise. It is Harold, and he helps lift Thomas back onto the rails. Soon Thomas is on the rails again and he calls to Henry that the bridge is safe. Both engines then cross the bridge and make it to the station.
- Annie and Clarabel
- Sir Topham Hatt
- James (does not speak)
- Percy (does not speak)
- Harold (does not speak)
- In one illustration, Henry's tender wheels are missing.
- James' splasher is not coloured red.
- Percy's tail lamp is black.
- Thomas' side rods keep changing in colour from grey to black throughout the book.
- Harold's name is missing in one illustration.
- Clarabel seems to be uncoupled from Annie in one illustration.
- Annie is oversized in one illustration, as she looks more wider and slightly taller than Thomas, and her body is too low.
- Thomas keeps varying in height and length throughout the book.
- Thomas loses his lamp in one illustration.
- Thomas' yellow lining is sometimes not coloured in.
- The bolts on Thomas' middle wheel rods are sometimes missing.
- Thomas' whistle is too tall and thin in one illustration.
- When Thomas and Henry get to the bridge, Henry's tender is missing.
- In one illustration, Henry's boiler is too short and in the same illustration, Henry is missing his axles.
- Thomas, Henry, and Gordon's wheels seem undersized in some illustrations.
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<urn:uuid:5aeba9b3-7c21-41fe-bcf7-a0939d767816>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://ttte.wikia.com/wiki/Thomas_and_the_Big,_Big_Bridge
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en
| 0.958791
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Marijuana has an active ingredient known as Tetrahydrocannabinol, or THC. This is the chemical compound that is responsible for the “high” that individual experiences after smoking or ingesting marijuana. These effects usually fade quite fast, but marijuana can be present in the body for extended periods. Sometimes, days or even weeks after it used. This has led researchers to wonder how Marijuana is stored in the body.
There are two major ways through which marijuana is consumed. One of the common ways is through smoking it. The second way is through ingesting it orally or by mixing it in food. After marijuana is consumed, the THC is absorbed in the bloodstream then it is distributed throughout the entire body. People who smoke marijuana will feel its effects faster than those who ingest it orally. The THC will attach itself to two different receptors in body cells. THC will attach itself to the CB1 receptor which is mostly found in the brain. This receptor is responsible for memory, body movement and vomiting. This explains why marijuana affects short term memory, and why it is used to reduce nausea. THC also attaches itself to the CB2 receptor. This receptor is found in small numbers throughout the human body, mostly in the immune system tissues. This explains why marijuana use can suppress the body’s immune system.
However, marijuana is not present in the bloodstream for a long time. The half-life of THC in blood is about twenty hours. This is because the THC in the user’s bloodstream is metabolised into molecules known as metabolites. THC and metabolites are highly soluble in lipids. They are “therefore” selectively absorbed by fat tissues in various parts of the body. The metabolites that are stored in body fat have a half-life of several days. The amount of time that THC stays in the body depends on how often the individual uses marijuana, how long they have been using it, and the amount of marijuana that they usually use. For people who use marijuana regularly, THC can be detected in a drug test for up to forty-five days. People who used marijuana heavily before quitting can test positively for the drug ninety days after they stopped using it. Since THC and metabolites are stored in fat, a user’s weight will also affect the amount stored in the body. The metabolites are slowly eliminated from the body through the urine and feces.
How marijuana is stored in the body affects drug tests that are used to detect its use. Saliva and blood tests can only be used to show that a user is currently intoxicated. Unfortunately, they cannot show the extent of intoxication or the level of impairment. Because of the time marijuana takes to be eliminated from the body through urine after consumption, urine tests can only be used to show marijuana use, but not intoxication. Urine tests are preferred in workplaces that have a zero tolerance to drug use. There is a hair test that is used to show if a person has ever taken marijuana. THC is very sticky, and it attaches itself t hair follicles. This test is rarely used, but it can detect regular marijuana use for up to three years after the person stopped using the drug.
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<urn:uuid:90bde843-b0c0-4da7-a468-76eea7290b85>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://thcclear.com/marijuana-how-it-is-stored-in-the-body/
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| 3.546875
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Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2013.05.19
Christoph Helmig, Forms and Concepts: Concept Formation in the Platonic Tradition. Commentaria in Aristotelem Graeca et Byzantina, Bd 5. Berlin; Boston: De Gruyter, 2012. Pp. xii, 395. ISBN 9783110266313. $154.00.
Reviewed by Lloyd Gerson, University of Toronto (email@example.com)
Plato in his Parmenides has Parmenides himself reject rather emphatically the ingenuous suggestion of the young Socrates that Forms are concepts (noēmata) in souls (132B3-C11). But neither in this dialogue nor anywhere else does Plato say clearly what exactly he thinks concepts actually are. And yet some presumed account of concepts and concept formation is clearly just offstage in numerous places. For example, in Timaeus the Demiurge looks to the 'Living Animal' and fashions a cosmos according to it out of the pre-cosmic receptacle of becoming (30C2-31A1). One naturally surmises that the Demiurge is intended to provide a 'conceptualizing link' between Forms and their sensible images. How are we to understand the thoughts in the intellect of the Demiurge? Or again, Socrates is famously dedicated to attaining true logoi of Forms and relentlessly skewers his interlocutors both for their inability to express such logoi and for their willingness to make momentous moral decisions without them. Presumably, these logoi are or include concepts. What, after all, would an accurate or true concept of a Form amount to whether this is expressed in ordinary Attic Greek or in some rather more exotic 'mentalese'? Consider the various accounts of recollection we find in the dialogues. Should we not expect that some sort of theory of concepts will be deployed to explain the process of recollecting the innate knowledge in us? Finally, the so-called method of collection and division found in Phaedrus, Sophist, and Statesman seems to at least involve something like what we typically call 'conceptual analysis'. But how exactly are these putative concepts related to eternal Forms? This list of issues crying out for clarification could easily be greatly extended. The more one thinks about it, the more one is inclined to the view that a theory of concepts and of concept formation should have been thematized explicitly by Plato. But, alas, it is apparently not so.
Christoph Helmig in this learned, original, and wide-ranging work, sets out to survey and analyze the contributions of the entire ancient Platonic tradition to the formulation of a theory of concepts and of concept formation. In the first chapter (13-37), he attempts to answer the question 'what is a concept in ancient Greek philosophy generally?' The question is not obviously answerable, for as Helmig notes, the various terms that are most frequently used for what we sometimes translate by the single English word 'concept'—ennoia, logos, noēma, katholou—are not obviously synonymous. Helmig argues, though, that these terms are sufficiently alike in their meaning that general criteria for their use can be set forth covering them all (16-23). These are: (1) concepts are (fairly) stable mental entities; (2) concepts are universal and shareable; (3) concepts must link up with reality; (4) concepts can be incomplete and possess more idiosyncratic than objective features; (5) there are degrees of the mastery of concepts, measurable by their proximity to the grasp of essences; (6) concept formation is susceptible to error; (7) concepts can be classified according to their origin (whether empirical or innate) but also according to their content and function. Focusing just on the first criterion, one can see, as does Helmig, the looming complexities within complexities facing the exegete and the philosopher. What, after all, is a mental entity, especially for a Platonist? Is it individuated by its content? But if that is the case, how does it differ from the extramental entity that is a Form? If, on the other hand, it is individuated by its having a relational property to a subject, for example, as an intentional object, then how is the concept's shareability accounted for? Is it by there being an identical content, which, once again, would need to be distinguished from the Form? These puzzles are really only the tip of the iceberg, and then when one adds the remaining criteria, things go from bad to worse. As I say, Helmig is very much aware of these puzzles. In the remainder of the book, he assembles almost all the central texts from Plato to Proclus relevant to his theme, trying to interpret them in a way that leads to a coherent picture. In my view, he does not completely succeed primarily because there is not a coherent picture to be found. I will return to this point toward the end of this review.
The second chapter (39-86) is devoted to Plato, specifically those passages in Parmenides, Meno, Phaedo, Phaedrus, Timaeus, Theaetetus, and Sophist wherein Plato seems to be assuming an account of concepts and concept formation in his arguments about knowledge (epistēmē), belief (doxa, recollection, and language. Somewhat surprisingly, Republic is barely touched on and Cratylus is not mentioned at all. The main conclusion that emerges from this chapter is that for Plato the process or activity of concept attainment is always to be understood in relation to eternal Forms and to the innate knowledge of these. Thus, concepts come from—ek would be the correct Greek word here—the pathos in the soul that is the knowledge of Forms. They are always images of the content of each Form, although the different ways in which words and concepts are images is never clearly stated. Nor is there a clear distinction between images and symbols. The primacy of innatism for Plato does not, of course, preclude what we would naturally call concept formation from empirical experience. But this innatism provides the authoritative justification for criticism of empirically derived concepts, whatever these may be.
The third chapter (87-140), titled 'Aristotle's Reaction to Plato' is aimed at setting forth what Helmig takes to be the fundamental differences between Aristotle and Plato in the matter of concept formation and the acquisition of knowledge. Helmig focuses on Posterior Analytics II 19 and the account of induction and then, somewhat more surprisingly, on Aristotle's account of mathematical abstraction. He argues that the key to understanding Aristotle's view of concepts is his rejection of innatism. Indeed, insofar as empirical concept formation is concerned, this would seem to be obviously true, though one wonders if it could have possibly been otherwise for Plato. And yet, as Helmig mentions only in passing (34), later Aristotelian commentators, both Peripatetic and Platonist, thought that this could hardly be the whole story, given what Aristotle says about the active intellect in De Anima III 5 and elsewhere. If the active intellect, when separated from the embodied person 'is what it is', that is, manifests its true nature by, presumably, thinking all that is thinkable, then it is not at all absurd to insist that there is a sort of innatism underlying our capacity for empirical concept formation, much as Plato himself was interpreted to hold. As much can be said for Helmig's lucid discussion of mathematical abstraction, where the central issue is how 'perfect' mathematical figures and numbers can be abstracted from natural bodies. Helmig's view is that for Aristotle, mathematicals inhere in bodies without qualification (107). But he adds, 'it is undecided whether or not mathematicals are perfectly instantiated (his emphasis).' I am not quite sure I understand what imperfect instantiation would be in this case, but if it is imperfect in any sense, then the same considerations that led Aristotle to posit an active intellect would seem to come into play in the transition from sense-perception to mathematical conceptualization.
The fourth chapter (141-204) addresses three 'case studies' in the later tradition's reflection on Plato and Aristotle on concepts. The three cases are Alcinous, Alexander of Aphrodisias and Porphyry (treated as one on the topic of universals), and Plotinus. Alcinous, in his Didaskalikos produced the only extent handbook of Platonic philosophy in the period known as Middle Platonism. In chapter four, he tries to summarize his understanding of Plato's epistemology. The criterion of truth for sensibles is called doxastic logos, evidently a gloss on Sophist 263E-264A (not mentioned by Helmig) where doxa that arises from sense-perception is distinguished from doxa that arises from thought alone. As Helmig interprets Alcinous, doxastic logos is available to us owing to our innate knowledge. I find this interpretation persuasive in that it serves as a sort of systematization of the insight offered by Plato in the so-called recollection argument in Phaedo to the effect that our ability to judge (i.e., have doxa of) sensibles is dependent on our prior knowledge of Forms. The section on Alexander and Porphyry is full of interest but, alas, too brief, given the cascading confusions introduced the substantializing of the Greek adverb katholou and it apparent use as a synonym for concept. For this move invites us to think of Forms as universals as opposed to what I take to be the more accurate historical approach according to which Forms can be considered universally in thinking, but can also be particularized in individuals since Forms are in themselves neither universals nor particulars. The section on Plotinus is also too brief, as indicated by Helmig's treatment of Plotinus merely as 'Wegbereiter' of Syrianus and Proclus. Although Helmig has some useful things to say about recollection and its role in the formation of empirical concepts, there is almost no discussion of the extensive treatment of memory in Ennead IV 3, 24 - IV 4, 12, a treatise in itself, highly relevant, I would think, to Helmig's theme.
The fifth chapter is really an introduction to the sixth and seventh chapters, by far the longest section of the book (ch.5, 205-221; chs. 6-7, 223-333) on Syrianus, the teacher of Proclus, and on Proclus himself. The principal thesis advanced in these chapters is that Syrianus, followed by Proclus, have a theory of concept formation that is 'a systematization and elaboration of Plato's theory of recollection (208)'. On this theory, the acquisition of universal concepts through sense experience is not exactly rejected but definitely made subordinate to the reflection in the intellect or in some cases projection of innate Forms. What is especially interesting and original in the later Neoplatonic accounts of Platonic epistemology is the apparent shift—perhaps beginning in Iamblichus—from the Platonic insistence that epistēmē and doxa have distinct or discontinuous objects to the view that it is possible to have both modes of cognition of Forms, though it is not clear that these philosophers took it to be possible to have both modes of cognition of sensibles. Helmig's two chapters on Proclus serve as the first detailed study of doxa in Proclus and in other Neoplatonists, although Helmig generously acknowledges many previous studies of particular texts and problems. I cannot here in a limited space do justice to the detailed analysis Helmig provides of Proclus' account of the stages of concept formation, especially on how error arises and the delicate problem of how we acquire concepts of things of which there are no Forms. A brief concluding chapter argues that at least in the matter of concept formation, the Neoplatonic assumption of the harmony of Plato and Aristotle is to be resisted.
This book serves to open numerous channels for debate and further research. It is particularly successful in demonstrating the fruitfulness of the study of later Greek philosophy for better understanding both Plato and Aristotle. I would be pleased to have Helmig and Proclus persuade me that they have not just misunderstood Plato in supposing that it is possible to have doxa of Forms. From Alcinous to Proclus (and, I would add, even before the one and after the other), there is a wealth of material discussing in a way that is both sympathetic and critical the problems any careful reader of Plato will encounter. It is books like this one that are, in my opinion, revitalizing the study of the major works of the canon of ancient philosophy.
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U.S. JGOFS Southern Ocean Process Study Implementation Plan
Carbon fluxes in the Southern Ocean represent quantitatively significant components of the global carbon cycle; they are highly susceptible to perturbation; and they are less well understood than are fluxes in more readily accessible regions of the ocean. Individual subsystems within the Southern Ocean act both as sources of CO2 to the atmosphere and as sinks for atmospheric CO2 that, independently, represent quantitatively significant terms in the global budget for air-sea exchange of CO2. However, our observations in Southern Ocean waters are so restricted, both in space and in time, that we do not know whether the region as a whole acts as a net source or sink for atmospheric CO2.
Biological productivity, and the accompanying processes that transport fixed carbon and nutrients to the deep sea, are spatially and temporally variable in the Southern Ocean. Predictability of the rates of biological processes, and of the magnitude of biogenic fluxes, is low, largely because we still lack a fundamental understanding of the factors that limit biological productivity in waters that are replete with inorganic nutrients, of the coupling between grazers and primary producers, and of the efficiency of the microbial loop.
Air-sea exchange of CO2, biological productivity, the annual advance and retreat of sea ice, and ventilation of deep water masses are all influenced by the stability of the upper water column. Stratification of the upper water column is generally weak and is largely determined by salinity, which, in turn, could be upset by a reorganization of the freshwater balance of the region likely to be associated with global climate change. Our ability to predict the response of biological processes and of chemical fluxes to a perturbation of water column stability is hindered by our lack of a basic knowledge of the magnitude of the fluxes and of the factors which regulate biological processes. JGOFS-supported measurements will expand the data base describing the magnitude and variability of carbon fluxes in the Southern Ocean. Process studies, involving coordinated experimental, observational, and modeling efforts, will improve our ability to predict the response of these fluxes to perturbation by identifying the factors which regulate carbon fluxes and by gaining a mechanistic understanding of how these factors regulate carbon fluxes.
Broadly-defined objectives for JGOFS research in the Southern Ocean have been established following discussions at several planning meetings which have been held both at national and at international levels. These objectives support the overall goals of the JGOFS program, and include:
Siting the U.S. JGOFS Southern Ocean Process Study
The Southern Ocean is a large and heterogeneous system. Early in the planning of international JGOFS activities in the Southern Ocean, the decision was made to cover as much of the region as possible by various national JGOFS efforts to assess the magnitude and scales of spatial variability of carbon fluxes and of biogeochemical processes. Participants at a planning workshop (U.S. JGOFS Report No. 16) considered the relative merits of several options for siting a U.S. field program in the Southern Ocean. Consideration was given both to answering scientific questions that apply throughout the Southern Ocean (see Science Plan; Report No. 17) and toward providing as much coverage of the Southern Ocean as possible, through collaboration with other national JGOFS programs (Figure 1). The general undersampling of the Pacific sector of the Southern Ocean, combined with the opportunity to support cruise logistics out of New Zealand and McMurdo Station, along with the favorable feature that individual hydrographic and nutrient "fronts" of the region tend to be distinct and separated in space, contributed to the decision (U.S. JGOFS Report No. 16) to site the U.S. JGOFS Southern Ocean process study in the SW Pacific sector of the Southern Ocean (Figure 2). Portions of the field work will coincide with the NOAA repeat survey line at 170°W (see below), while the remainder will take place in the Ross Sea.
Spatial variability is most extreme in a meridional sense, whereas there is some degree of zonal regularity throughout the Southern Ocean, which can be divided into four principal zonal subsystems:
Continental shelves surrounding Antarctica contain some of the most highly productive (on a daily basis) waters of the world's oceans. Both the initiation and the termination of phytoplankton blooms in these regions are tied intimately to the seasonal advance and retreat of sea ice, although the detailed linkages between physical forcing and phytoplankton response remain largely undetermined. Species assemblages vary spatially, for phytoplankton (e.g., phaeocystis, diatoms) and for zooplankton (e.g., krill, copepods, salps). Physical conditions regulating spatial variability, that is, those factors favoring one assemblage over another, as well as the effect of each dominant assemblage on the fate of organic matter produced during intense blooms, represent important unknowns to be addressed by JGOFS. Furthermore, the susceptibility to perturbation by global change of the seasonal cycle of sea ice drives JGOFS to seek a better understanding of the linkages between physical forcing and biogeochemical response in developing reliable methods to monitor, and to predict, the response of the Southern Ocean to global change. Within the Ross Sea can be found regions of high, moderate, and low phytoplankton biomass and primary productivity, thereby enabling JGOFS to examine the factors regulating phytoplankton blooms, the fate of biogenic materials, and the scales of variability of these processes within a single study area of manageable scale.
Several features of the frontal systems of the Southern Ocean suggest that the APFZ would serve as a model system to assess the role of fronts in carbon dynamics. Recent studies by European JGOFS programs found high concentrations of biomass and high rates of primary production associated with frontal features, without fully characterizing the conditions responsible for the enhanced biomass and production. The APFZ is a region of active ventilation of intermediate and deep water. Fluxes of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) and of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) associated with this ventilation are likely to be large and, therefore, warrant quantitative evaluation. High accumulation rates of biogenic sediments in the APFZ seem to be decoupled from low annual-average rates of primary production, suggesting that remineralization processes are fundamentally different here compared to the rest of the ocean. Frontal systems are susceptible to perturbation by climate change. Paleoceanographic proxies suggest that the mean annual position of the APFZ migrated northward by roughly five degrees of latitude during glacial times, whereas physical principles suggest that such a large displacement of the fronts is unlikely. Glacial climate conditions induced either (a) a profound change in species assemblages and ecosystem structure of the APFZ, or (b) a radical reorganization of circumpolar circulation and, probably, of the ventilation of the deep sea. Studies of paleo indicators in the modern ocean are needed to better interpret the record of past responses of the frontal systems to forcing by climate change.
Regardless of whether past responses were primarily physical or ecological, we know that the APFZ experienced extensive changes in response to past climate forcing, from which knowledge we may infer that the APFZ is similarly susceptible to perturbations by future climate change. In light of these considerations, a study of the APFZ offers the opportunity to acquire new understandings of carbon fluxes, and of the susceptibility of biogeochemical cycles to perturbation by global change.
General- Shipboard experiments are required to evaluate carbon fluxes and to study most of the critical biological processes influencing the fluxes of carbon and related species, and to evaluate the rates of these processes. Similarly, shipboard studies are also required to assess standing stocks and compositions of communities, to measure the inventories and distributions of particulate phases and of dissolved organic matter, and to evaluate directly many of the biogeochemical fluxes of interest to JGOFS. Shipboard studies are, however, limited in space and time. Remote monitoring of key parameters, including wide-area coverage provided by satellites and time-series records provided by in situ sensors, will provide the larger context for evaluating carbon fluxes and the response of biogeochemical processes to physical forcing. Results of each type of measurement (process rates, time-series records, synoptic surveys) will, in turn, be used to test model algorithms, to improve the ability of models to predict the response of biogeochemical processes and fluxes to physical forcing, and, ultimately, to predict the sensitivity of these processes to global change.
The Southern Ocean field program will consist of a strategic balance of survey-mode and time-series shipboard observations. In previous JGOFS studies, time-series observations carried out over relevant scales of temporal variability have generated new understanding about the linkages between biological processes and physical forcing. In emphasizing a time-series approach for the U.S. JGOFS Southern Ocean process study, it is essential to consider the time scales of the dominant processes influencing primary production and carbon fluxes. While much remains to be learned about the processes and conditions influencing the magnitude and variability of primary production and of carbon fluxes in the Southern Ocean, some reasonable generalizations can be made. For example, within the seasonal ice zone, the dominant time scales are probably seasonal, reflecting ice melt and radiation balance, with secondary forcing on shorter time scales by ice movement and local weather. In contrast, whereas seasonal forcing by radiation balance is certainly important in the frontal zones, higher-frequency events (days to weeks) associated with meso scale circulation and the structure of the fronts may be the dominant feature forcing productivity and carbon fluxes.
Important features of the carbon cycle need to be addressed in all seasons. Spring cruises will examine the response of phytoplankton to increasing levels of light. Summer and fall cruises will test hypotheses about the delayed response of carbon consumption in the Southern Ocean. Cruises in all three seasons will examine the influence of water column stability on primary production, and will test hypotheses pertaining to the factors postulated to limit the utilization of nutrients in Southern Ocean surface waters. A winter cruise will examine biological processes which have, to date, been little studied, including ice-edge productivity under minimum-light conditions and carbon consumption under the ice. Air-sea exchange of CO2 and ventilation of deep water masses will be examined in all seasons, but particular emphasis will be given to a winter cruise when processes responsible for ventilating deep water masses may be most active. Collaboration with the NOAA CO2 program (see below) will produce a comprehensive time-series coverage of air-sea fluxes of CO2 within the frontal systems that will address variability on both seasonal and interannual time scales.
The frontal zone is a region of intense mesoscale variability, attributable both to the meandering of the frontal jets and to the generation of eddies from these jets. Such a complex physical oceanographic system will be difficult to characterize, and it will be impossible to employ a term-balance approach to evaluate carbon fluxes within this system. Nevertheless, it is precisely these complex physical conditions that influence nutrient transport and the ventilation of intermediate and deep waters, and which appear to provide the locus of enhanced biomass accumulation in surface waters as well as enhanced export of biogenic detritus to the deep sea. Study of this complex system requires a dual approach employing underway measurements (survey mode) to establish relationships between physical structure of the upper water column and the distributions of chemical (e.g., nutrients, CO2) and biological (e.g., biomass, pigments) parameters, combined with process-level studies at discrete stations where biological rates, relevant fluxes, and other parameters requiring on-station measurements will be evaluated. Used together, these approaches will resolve important scales of spatial and temporal variability while evaluating biological rates and chemical fluxes within the context of the physical and chemical conditions regulating these processes.
Two-Ship Field Program- Seagoing investigations will utilize two ships and two ports: a large UNOLS vessel working out of Lyttleton (the port of Christchurch, New Zealand) and the N.B. PALMER, working out of both McMurdo Station and Lyttleton. The Science Plan stresses the strong seasonal cycle expected in nearly all processes of interest. This means that the northern portions of the system should be studied from ships in all seasons, and the southern portions should be studied over the entire time that they are accessible to an ice breaker. This is not to imply that year-round data will be needed for every component study of the JGOFS program; for example, spring and summer data may be adequate for studies of primary production and closely related processes. To meet these needs, the UNOLS vessel must spend approximately one-half year in the study region, making a series of cruises that begin and end in Lyttleton. The PALMER will make a Lyttleton-McMurdo cruise as early in the spring as ice conditions permit (perhaps stopping along the way for an intensive study of the marginal ice zone in spring). It should end the season with a McMurdo-Lyttleton cruise late in autumn, and make a series of McMurdo-McMurdo cruises in between. Scheduling the cruises this way will make it possible to get several different science parties onto each ship by flying them commercially to Christchurch and using the U.S. Navy flights between Christchurch and McMurdo, as these typically begin in October and end in February. Thus the first PALMER cruise could leave Lyttleton in October with the last one returning in March or early April.
Beyond the general strategy described above, some special needs with respect to scheduling cruises have been identified.
Ross Sea- Continental shelf waters around Antarctica are among the most highly productive waters in the world ocean. Furthermore, because productivity is linked to the seasonal advance and retreat of sea ice, the productivity of these waters is also sensitive to perturbation by climate change. Whereas mid-bloom conditions have been studied extensively, little is known about the onset or the termination of blooms on the shelf, thereby limiting the ability to predict the sensitivity of shelf blooms to climate change.
Phytoplankton blooms on Antarctic shelves often begin as soon as ice concentrations are reduced in spring, which often results from local movement of ice by winds, rather than the surface heat budget. Open waters (or reduced ice concentrations) on the Ross Sea continental shelf appear first near the ice shelf. However, because of the logistical difficulty in moving a ship through the expansive sea ice remaining at this time, these early-season blooms have received relatively little study. Similarly, relatively little work has been done on the termination of blooms in Antarctic continental shelf waters. It has been postulated that the return of ice may terminate blooms before nutrients are exhausted, but this hypothesis has not been tested. The U.S. JGOFS Southern Ocean process study will examine seasonal processes on the Ross Sea shelf, including conditions associated with the initiation and the termination of phytoplankton blooms, as well as the factors controlling the succession of species (e.g., prymnesiophytes, diatoms) during the course of a bloom, the fate of biogenic materials produced during the bloom, and the scales of variability of these processes. These activities will require the presence of the Palmer in the Ross Sea, at least intermittently, from mid-October through March.
Frontal Systems- The JGOFS Southern Ocean study will take place in a region characterized by strong density fronts and intense winds. Productivity seems to be enhanced within the frontal systems (see Science Plan), but the factors leading to enhanced productivity remain poorly understood. Satellite infra-red images of sea surface temperature often show small (20-30 km) eddies forming along strong fronts. Transport of nutrients and of phytoplankton by mesoscale features within the frontal zones as well as uncoupling of phytoplankton-zooplankton processes is likely to be an important aspect of the physical forcing of biological processes.
A control volume experiment to evaluate carbon fluxes is not feasible in the complex and dynamic region of the Antarctic Polar Front Zone. Nevertheless, JGOFS will be required to carry out a more comprehensive characterization of physical oceanographic conditions than has been the case in earlier process studies. Objectives of this work will be the qualitative constraint of advective fluxes, and a detailed description of physical oceanographic features (e.g., structure and motion of the water column associated with fronts and eddies) and processes influencing concentrations and fluxes of carbon species, nutrient distributions, phytoplankton biomass, rates of primary production, and the fate of biogenic production. Intensive frontal surveys will need to be made using a towed undulating recorder to collect physical and biological data (salinity, temperature, density, fluorescence, irradiance, and an optical and/or acoustic zooplankton counter). Development of chemical sensors, as well as systems capable of pumping water samples to the ship, are encouraged. Shipboard ADCP data will be collected continuously and combined with data collected by current meters deployed on mooring arrays (see below) to describe the current field. Drifter clusters (with bio-optical instrumentation) will be used, as well, to study sub-meso scale processes in the frontal zone.
Models play important roles (see below) in interpreting the regulation by ocean physics of carbon fluxes and of biological processes. This strategy requires that coupled physical-biogeochemical regional models be developed which are capable of resolving mesoscale features while retaining adequate computational capabilities to simulate multiple classes of primary production, grazing, bacterial remineralization, and processes influencing the export of biogenic matter from the euphotic zone. Models will be initiated with boundary conditions established by physical measurements described in the paragraph above, and will incorporate rate parameters evaluated by shipboard experiments. Experimentalists are encouraged to design research programs to supply parameters required by the models. Improvement of model capabilities to simulate biogeochemical processes under conditions of intense mesoscale variability will be made, in turn, through data assimilation techniques, including the use of physical oceanographic information obtained from other programs and satellite images capable of defining scales of variability (e.g., altimeter data). Model performance will be assessed by the ability to reproduce detailed relationships between biogeochemical parameters and prevailing physical conditions.
Ocean Color- Field studies are required to support several aspects of algorithm development and calibration of SeaWiFS before ocean-color data from satellites can be used to quantitatively assess spatial and temporal variability of phytoplankton abundance and, eventually, primary productivity. At the beginning of the program, it will be necessary to develop accurate algorithms for quantitative work in the Southern Ocean. This is also the most critical need, in part because we suspect that the Southern Ocean requires bio-optical algorithms for pigment and productivity that are fundamentally different from those which will be applicable at lower latitudes. It will be necessary to continue field work throughout the program to ensure that sensor calibration is stable through time, or that changes which occur in the sensor's responses are quantified. Southern Ocean waters experience seasonal and, possibly, interannual variability of dominant phytoplankton assemblages (e.g., phaeocystis, diatoms). Algorithm development must address the effect of species succession on the signal recovered by ocean color sensors.
It would be best to carry out SeaWiFS-related studies during a time of the year when a large range of pigments/productivity might be expected and when ice concentrations are low. Limited work should also be considered, as well, for early and late in the season (i.e., spring and/or late autumn) to determine the capability of SeaWiFS to retrieve accurate water-leaving radiances when solar zenith angles are are large and when water-leaving radiances are relatively small.
Benthic Studies- The sea floor is the largest and the most important sediment trap of all. Closure of the organic carbon cycle cannot be obtained without an evaluation of sea bed fluxes. Furthermore, benthic studies provide prima facie evidence for a low efficiency of recycling of biogenic material within the Antarctic Polar Front Zone.
The Pacific sector of the Southern Ocean is a region of rugged sea floor topography, throughout which are vast areas without modern sediment accumulation. Sedimentary features of this region have not received a thorough survey, so we have little knowledge of those areas in which modern sediments are accumulating. Consequently, it will be necessary to conduct preliminary surveys of the region, prior to undertaking comprehensive benthic process study work. At a minimum, continuous seismic surveys and the collection of surface sediments should be made throughout each of the cruises early in the program (e.g., mooring deployments). Ideally, a dedicated benthic survey cruise would be carried out prior to the process study as was done, for example, in preparation for the U.S. JGOFS Equatorial Pacific process study. Should a pre-process study benthic survey cruise prove to be feasible, then the cruise should incorporate extensive coring and bottom photography in addition to seismic survey work.
Instrumentation and Sensors
Moorings- Even with cruises covering each season, abrupt changes in productivity and carbon fluxes will occur which will not be sampled by shipboard operations. Consequently, JGOFS must rely on moored instrumentation for the time-series measurement of key physical, chemical and biological variables. In addition to the physical (e.g., temperature, conductivity, currents), geochemical (e.g., sediment traps) and bio-optical (e.g., fluorometers, both, natural and stimulated fluorescence, PAR, beam transmissometer, surface and in situ downwelling irradiance, upwelling radiance) measurements which are now made routinely, there is a realistic expectation that nutrients and CO2 system parameters (e.g., PCO2, pH) can be monitored with moored instruments by the time the Southern Ocean moorings are deployed.
Taut moorings required for deployment of deep sediment traps are incompatible with surface moorings on which meteorological and bio-optical instruments will be placed. Consequently, separate moorings will be deployed for surface and for deep instruments. Deep moorings (e.g., sediment traps) will be deployed year-round. Considering weather and ice conditions, surface moorings (bio-optical instruments, etc.) will be deployed only during the spring-to-fall field season.
Compared to earlier studies, fundamentally-different strategies will be required for mooring-based observations in the Ross Sea and in the APFZ. For example, a single highly-instrumented mooring in the APFZ would be incapable of resolving time-varying processes under conditions of intense mesoscale variability. A preferred strategy to assess temporal and spatial variability of biogeochemical parameters will be to deploy an array of low-cost moorings with limited instrumentation and sensors.
Instrumented Drifters- Technological development of in situ sensors (e.g., spectroradiometers) has progressed to the point where expendable drifters can be used cost effectively, in certain circumstances. Drifters telemeter their position, along with data collected, via ARGOS. Furthermore, the use of instrumented drifters brings the added advantage of providing information about the physical circulation of the study area, which will be particularly useful in the study of mesoscale circulation in frontal zone. The optimum strategy for JGOFS work in the APFZ will be to combine the use of both moored instruments and multiple clusters of instrumented drifters.
Towed Instruments- Just as moored instruments offer the opportunity to assess the temporal variability of a number of parameters, underway measurements and towed-body instruments can be successfully employed to generate information about spatial variability. Towed instruments will form a centerpiece for mapping distributions of chemical and biological parameters in regions of fronts and eddies where strong spatial variability can be anticipated. Satellite data will be used to locate the ship and towed instrument with respect to frontal or eddy features. Towed instrument packages (e.g., SeaSoar) can be instrumented to carry a CTD, fluorometer, transmissometer, and radiometers. Measurements should include bio-optical parameters, spectral absorption of suspended particles, spectral irradiance that matches SeaWiFS sensors, natural fluorescence, strobe fluorescence, and beam transmission. Acoustic sampling systems can be added to assess distributions of fish and small zooplankton.
Satellites- The abundance and distribution of phytoplankton chlorophyll hopefully will be provided by SeaWiFS, an ocean color sensor that is planned to be launched in 1995. Sea surface temperature imagery will be collected by NOAA's AVHRR. Both sensors are restricted to cloud-free areas, thus severely limiting the amount of data available from the Southern Ocean. Measurements of sea surface topography made by TOPEX/Poseidon will be used to estimate ocean circulation. Scatterometer data can be used to estimate wind velocity over the ocean. The European Space Agency will continue such measurements in its ERS series of satellites. NASA plans to launch a scatterometer aboard the Japanese ADEOS satellite in 1996. Passive microwave data (from SSM/I) will be used to determine sea ice distributions as well as atmospheric water vapor. SSM/I can also be used to estimate wind speed. DMSP images will provide an independent view of ice distributions. Surface solar irradiance data, required for estimation of primary productivity, will be available from the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Program. JGOFS will support the collection and processing of high-resolution SeaWiFS data, as well as the assembly of processed data from other satellite sensors for near-real-time transmission to shipboard investigators during the field program.
The U.S. JGOFS Process Study in the Southern Ocean will take place over a period of approximately one and a half years (Figure 3), to encompass two Austral spring-summer periods of maximum biological productivity. Process study cruises will begin in Austral spring of 1996 (e.g., October), and terminate in late summer (e.g., March/ April) of 1998. Although work during the first field season will be concentrated on the Ross Sea continental shelf, and during the second year the focus will shift to the APFZ, the split field season design of the program will permit limited observations in both regions covering two years during periods of maximum anticipated biological productivity.
N. B. Palmer- Field work will commence aboard the N. B. Palmer with a short cruise that encompasses a survey of the sea bed, to assess regions of modern sediment accumulation, and the deployment of deep moored sediment traps in both the APFZ (five moorings) and in the Ross Sea (two moorings). This work must be completed, and personnel exchanged via air transport through McMurdo, in time to permit the Palmer to be on site when the spring bloom commences (approximately 15 October). Initial observations will concentrate on the conditions leading to the development of the spring bloom, to be followed by studies of carbon transfer, flux and remineralization of particulate and dissolved organic and inorganic phases mediated by the biological community.
Shipboard work during summer months will continue to examine species succession, scales of variability of bloom conditions, and the factors regulating these conditions. The scale of study will expand from the relatively confined examination of the spring bloom originating in the polynya to encompass a much larger region of the Ross Sea. Summer experiments will examine grazing, aggregation, and other processes controlling the remineralization and export of organic matter from the euphotic zone, as well as the fate of exported biogenic debris (e.g., remineralization at the sea bed; burial; and advective transport away from the region in which it was produced).
The Fall cruise in the Ross Sea will examine conditions of advancing sea ice under which shelf blooms appear to be terminated, and follow up on summer studies of grazing, remineralization, and other loss terms in the organic carbon budget of the shelf ecosystem. Sediment trap moorings will be recovered, refurbished, and redeployed from the Palmer as the ship leaves the Ross Sea at the end of the season.
A winter cruise is scheduled to coincide roughly with the period of maximum extent of sea ice. This cruise will examine biological processes which have, to date, been little studied, including ice-edge productivity under winter conditions and carbon turn over under the ice. Air-sea exchange of CO2 and ventilation of deep water masses will be examined in all seasons, but particular emphasis will be placed on the winter cruise when processes responsible for ventilating deep water masses should be most active. The winter JGOFS cruise compliments well cruises of the NOAA CO2 program, which will have been carried out under summer and fall conditions. Collaboration with the NOAA CO2 program (see below) will produce a comprehensive time-series coverage of air-sea fluxes of CO2 within the frontal systems, as well as fluxes of DIC and of DOC associated with deep ventilation in the frontal zone, that will address variability on both seasonal and interannual time scales.
A final cruise aboard the Palmer is scheduled for the 1997-98 field season. JGOFS work during the 1996-97 field season will have provided an opportunity to examine biological processes and carbon fluxes in the Ross Sea on an unprecedented scale. These studies will undoubtedly give birth to new paradigms and algorithms which will require further testing. Field testing of these algorithms, to ensure that they are reliably transposed into model code, will provide an important component of the Synthesis of JGOFS findings from the Southern Ocean process study (see below) which, in turn, will improve our ability to extrapolate JGOFS findings from the Ross Sea study to other shelf regions surrounding Antarctica.
UNOLS Vessel- Work aboard the UNOLS vessel will be carried out during a continuous block covering roughly six months, beginning in October, 1997. During each transit to and from the APFZ, underway measurements will be made of surface-water samples (CO2, nutrients, pigments), while a towed system will be used to map the hydrography and variability of phytoplankton biomass in the upper water column. While entailing a minor commitment of resources, these measurements will advance our understanding of the scales of variability of primary production in the vast region of nutrient-rich waters situated between the Subtropical Front and the Antarctic Polar Front Zone (Figure 2).
Five moorings instrumented with time-series sediment traps and current meters will be deployed at 2-degree intervals through the APFZ, from ~56°S to ~64°S (Figure 4). Note that the general features evident in the transect in Figure 4, showing data from 160°W, will be shifted slightly to the south in the JGOFS study region at 170°W. Furthermore, detailed hydrographic features shown in Figure 4 exhibit random temporal variability. This transect should be used only for general planning purposes. Final decisions about station locations will be made following a site survey.
The field program in the APFZ will be launched with a Spring survey cruise to map the detailed structure of the frontal systems, and to define initial relationships between biogeochemical parameters (e.g., pigments, nutrients, CO2-system, DOC) and the hydrographic structure of the water column. Near real-time satellite images (e.g., AVHRR, color, sea surface topography) will be beneficial in locating the ship with respect to fronts and eddies throughout the survey cruise. Because the entire APFZ encompasses an area too broad for detailed repeat surveys, following an initial pass through the region, and return to the northern boundary, survey work will be reduced in scope to focus on one of the three fronts typically occurring within the APFZ (the Subantarctic Front, the Antarctic Polar Front, the South Antarctic Circumpolar Current Front; Figures 2 and 4), specifically, on the front wherein pigment distributions and/or air-sea delta pCO2 are most clearly related to hydrographic features. Underway surveys will then be carried out covering a gridded box with dimensions between 100- and 200-km2. Clusters of drifters will be deployed during the high-resolution survey to resolve dynamic processes affecting distributions of biomass, nutrients, and air-sea delta-pCO2. Following each high-resolution survey, discrete stations will be occupied through the surveyed area to conduct process-oriented measurements.
The second cruise in the APFZ will begin, like the first, with a survey of underway measurements through the APFZ to define any changes that may have occurred since the initial survey cruise. Following the underway survey, the cruise will undertake process-oriented studies (e.g., primary production, grazing, bacterial production, and other loss terms) at discrete stations (of ~ 2-day duration each) corresponding to each of the sediment-trap moorings. These stations will be followed by a high-resolution survey of one of the fronts, like that described above, and this survey, in turn, followed by time-seies acquisition of process-level measurements within the survey box.
A summer survey cruise is prescribed to examine rates and variability of primary production under conditions of maximum thermal stratification and irradiance supply, with emphasis on the identification of factors and conditions limiting the efficiency of nutrient utilization by phytoplankton. Studies of chemical limitation by micro nutrients (e.g., iron) will be afforded high priority during this cruise.
A multipurpose cruise involving mooring recovery, benthic studies, and a detailed examination of paleoceanographic proxies within the context of a comprehensive biogeochemical study is planned for February, 1998. This time period is selected for this cruise as it offers the only opportunity for the UNOLS vessel to recover moorings deployed in the Ross Sea. Benthic flux studies in the Ross Sea will be carried out at this time as well. Advantage will be taken of having a ship in this remote area to collect piston cores during this cruise. Piston cores will be returned to a major U.S. core repository for description and archival. Although collection of piston cores, and detailed studies of paleoceanographic proxies are important components of the U.S. JGOFS Southern Ocean process study, JGOFS is not expected to support paleoceanographic studies of the long sediment records. Rather, these cores will be made available to studies supported by other sources of funding. Given the wealth of flux data and results from proxy studies to be derived from the JGOFS program, piston cores from this region are expected to yield valuable new insights into response of the Southern Ocean to forcing by past climate change.
The final cruise of the program, a Fall process-oriented cruise, will examine primary production under conditions of waning light, as well as the fate of organic carbon produced during spring blooms and summer conditions of maximum light. The strategy for this cruise will follow that of the Spring-early Summer process-oriented cruise.
Management and Cruise Services
Travel and Shipping- Following precedents of earlier U.S. JGOFS process studies, support for personnel traveling to and from the cruises, as well as the shipping of equipment and supplies to the ship, will be covered by a separate arrangement between the National Science Foundation, the U.S. JGOFS Planning Office, and Antarctic Support Associates.
Nutrients and Hydrography- Similarly, following precedents of earlier U.S. JGOFS process studies, basic data required by most investigators will by provided through subcontracts arranged under the program management. These common data include conductivity, bottle salinity, temperature, Winkler oxygen, nutrients (nitrate, nitrite, ammonia, phosphate and silica), and ship-based meteorology.
The U.S. JGOFS Southern Ocean program will include a strong and active modeling component that allows for the development and implementation of many levels of modeling effort. The development of small scale models (e.g., mixed layer-biological models) is encouraged in order to better define the local processes that limit primary production in the Southern Ocean. In particular, there is a need to develop bio-optical models for application to Southern Ocean environments that can be used with mixed layer models. Mixed-layer models, in turn, should incorporate fairly sophisticated parameterizations of turbulence and boundary-layer conditions. Along with the development of small scale models there is a need for the development of models that are focused on processes in defined regions (e.g. regional models). Regional models are likely the ones to which the data sets obtained in a Southern Ocean JGOFS field study will be most applicable. For example, high-resolution regional models are likely to be the most useful for looking at the coupling between biological and physical processes in the upper ocean associated with meso scale circulation fields. Biological response to eddy activity appears to be important and asymmetric (compared, for example, to mixing effects on a passive tracer). Information gained about non-linearities among relationships (e.g., involving primary or new production and ocean color or optical properties) gained from mixed-layer and regional models will lead to improved parameterization of these processes in models covering larger scales, which may not be capable of resolving eddies, but which are consistent with questions that relate to climate change. Associated with larger-scale modeling efforts, application of inverse models will provide an independent means of evaluating fluxes of DIC, DOC, and of related species. Furthermore, given the dependence of the Antarctic ecosystem on ice, there is a need to incorporate sea ice models, where appropriate, in conjunction with other modeling activities identified above.
Modeling efforts should be undertaken before the Southern Ocean JGOFS field studies to ensure collection of optimal data sets. This early modeling would incorporate existing historical data sets and scientific knowledge, and would be directed toward planning the field program. Early modeling efforts should address the critical elements of variability, including those parameters most in need of experimental study. Early modeling will help define the frequency, spacing, accuracy and precision required of critical measurements. This need pertains to the full suite of measurements to be undertaken during the process study, including: the production and remineralization of carbon and related biogenic phases; the production, transport and melting of sea ice; the physical structure of the water column; and, larger-scale circulation. Because JGOFS will not have sufficient resources to undertake a comprehensive physical oceanographic study of its own accord, it is particularly important that early modeling efforts define the minimum amount, frequency, spacing and type of physical measurements (e.g., hydrography, drifters, current meters) required to determine whether or not reasonable physical models are being used as the basis for interpreting and modeling biogeochemical processes.
New techniques must be developed as well, including the nesting of models having variable degrees of resolution. This might, for example, take the form of a mixed-layer bio-optical model embedded in a high-resolution eddy-resolving three-dimensional model which, in turn, is embedded in a general circulation model of the Southern Ocean. Such a hierarchy of models would enable investigators to examine the influence on carbon fluxes of a large range of factors, including weather conditions, the structure and depth of the mixed layer, upwelling and the supply of both macro- and micronutrients, and the advective loss of biogenic products from surface waters. At a minimum, regional eddy-resolving models may need to rely on GCM's to supply boundary conditions. New data generated by the field program will be used to test and improve existing models, while working toward the eventual goal of models which can rely on data acquired by remote sensing to monitor changes in the biogeochemistry of the Southern Ocean.
Collaboration with Other Programs
International JGOFS- Because the various national JGOFS programs are distributed throughout the Southern Ocean (Figure 1), international coordination and collaboration will, for the most part, take the form of data synthesis and modeling. Subsystem-specific coupled biogeochemical-physical models will be constructed for each regional study. During integration and synthesis of the results, the various model outputs will be compared, both as a measure of the spatial and temporal variability of carbon fluxes throughout the Southern Ocean and as a test of the models themselves.
Investigators in New Zealand, Australia and Italy have active JGOFS programs, and have expressed interest in collaborating with the U.S. in Southern Ocean work. The New Zealand JGOFS program presently involves approximately ten scientists studying fluxes of carbon in different water masses surrounding New Zealand, with a special emphasis on the region of the Subtropical Convergence. The New Zealand program aims to identify the relationships between physical and chemical variability and the marine food web, with the goal of developing a predictive understanding of the influence of the physical and chemical environment on the transfer of nutrients through the food web. A further goal of the program is to determine the importance of the Subtropical Convergence as a major Southern Hemisphere sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide. The New Zealand JGOFS program has completed two cruises in 1993. Forthcoming plans include a cruise (Feb 25 - March 10, 1995) off the east coast of the South Island in the STC region in the area 42-46°S, 174-177°E. The focus of this cruise will be to assess the scales of variability of primary production and ocean optics in the area. There are tentative plans for a cruise in February-March 1996 to assess carbon fluxes in the STC on both the east and west coast of New Zealand. This cruise would encompass most, if not all, JGOFS standard protocols and would complement the cruises to date. Collaboration with JGOFS investigators in New Zealand will greatly enhance our understanding of biogeochemical processes at the northern terminus of the U.S. JGOFS Southern Ocean study area.
The Australian Southern Ocean JGOFS program involves a mixture of survey cruises, process studies, remote sensing and modelling over a period from 1990 to 1998. A key part of the Australian program depends on piggyback JGOFS measurements on a series of repeat WOCE transects along SR3 which runs SW from Tasmania, then south to the Antarctic shelf. Aside from the standard WOCE data, including nutrients, JGOFS investigators are measuring carbon (CO2, HCO3- and CO32-) and carbon isotopes, HPLC pigments, and P vs. I parameters. There are plans to add DOC and optics. Additional underway PCO2 measurements are being made on Aurora Australis resupply voyages.
The Australian Antarctic Division is conducting a program of marine research in the shelf and sea ice zones, concentrated near Prydz Bay. The research involves plankton production and grazing and sediment trap studies in collaboration with Japanese researchers. There are plans to establish a limited JGOFS time series station off Prydz Bay in collaboration with Japanese and French researchers.
Additional Australian JGOFS-related research is being conducted in the Sub-tropical Convergence Zone (40°S-50°S). Four seasonal shelf/slope process cruises involving measurements of primary production parameters, nutrients, pigments, zooplankton, and sediment fluxes using free-floating and deep moored PARFLUX traps, have been completed in the 1991/93 time frame. An offshore process/optics cruise is planned for January 1995. There are preliminary plans to conduct additional process cruises in the Subantarctic/Antarctic Circumpolar Current zone, and the sea-ice zone, in 1996/98.
There are plans to receive AVHRR and SeaWiFS data at the CSIRO Marine Labs remote sensing facility, with coverage of the Southern Ocean between Western Australia and New Zealand. An X-band reception facility being completed in Hobart will allow collection of SAR and other remotely-sensed data sets over the Southern Ocean.
Investigators in Italy have proposed hydrographic, biogeochemical, sea-ice, and geological studies in the Ross Sea, operating out of the Italian research base at Terra Nova Bay. A sediment trap mooring was deployed early in 1994 at ~76° 30' S, ~169°E as one of the initial efforts of the Italian JGOFS program. Members of the U.S. JGOFS Southern Ocean process study planning group are in contact with Italian investigators, and some tentative proposals for collaboration have been initiated. While no specific details of the collaboration have been confirmed, as yet, it is hoped that collaboration with Italian investigators will enhance our opportunities for process study work near the southern terminus of the U.S. JGOFS Southern Ocean study area.
U. S. Programs Sharing Common Interests with JGOFS
The Global Ocean Ecosystems Dynamics program (GLOBEC) is undertaking a series of studies to understand the effects of physical processes on predator-prey interactions and population dynamics of zooplankton, and their relation to ocean ecosystems in the context of the global climate system and anthropogenic change. GLOBEC plans to carry out a Southern Ocean study near the Antarctic Peninsula. This region is thought to have substantially different food web structures compared to the JGOFS study area near 170°W, with krill being more predominant near the Antarctic Peninsula. One mutually-beneficial collaborative effort between JGOFS and GLOBEC would be to examine the influence of the different trophic structures of the two regions on the export and recycling of biogenic materials. Another area in which JGOFS and GLOBEC have common interests is in advancing the capability to model biological responses to physical forcing. JGOFS and GLOBEC are planning a jointly-supported modeling endeavor.
The International Global Atmospheric Chemistry Program is planning a Southern Hemisphere Marine Aerosol Characterization Experiment (ACE-I) to take place south of Australia in November-December, 1995. The experiment will define the role of chemical and physical processes controlling the evolution and properties of atmospheric aerosols relevant to radiative forcing and climate. JGOFS investigators should consider making use of IGAC aerosol data to evaluate the atmospheric supply of trace substances which may influence biological productivity (e.g., iron).
The Palmer Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) Project, which is based at the Palmer Station on Anvers Island on the western coast of the Antarctic Peninsula, aims to define ecological processes linking the extent of annual pack ice with the biological dynamics of different trophic levels within antarctic marine communities. Program objectives are: (1) to document interannual variability in annual pack ice, primary producers and populations of key species from different trophic levels in the antarctic marine food web; and (2) to quantify and understand the processes that underlie natural variation in these representative populations. To provide an observational basis for addressing the Palmer LTER research objectives, an intensive sampling program has been undertaken. This consists of a series of core measurements made every austral spring and summer in the near vicinity of Palmer Station at approximately weekly intervals. Additional information is obtained from an annual research cruise that covers an area about 400 km by 200 km around Palmer Station, and from occasional longer duration process cruises.
Many of the core measurements made as part of the Palmer LTER field program are the same as those made during JGOFS process cruises and at the existing JGOFS time series stations. The Palmer LTER program also includes a modeling effort designed to provide linkages on multiple spatial and temporal scales between biological and environmental components of the ecosystem. An additional goal of this program that is compatible with U.S. JGOFS is to gain a knowledge of the ecosystem adequate to detect the difference between short term variability and long-term trends on decadal time scales. Comparisons between measurements of carbon cycling in the Antarctic Peninsula with those from the Ross Sea will provide a basis for testing hypotheses of zonal regularity within the Southern Ocean.
Plans are well underway for a joint NOAA-WOCE cruise in the region of the proposed JGOFS transect. Investigators at NOAA-PMEL have been involved in a long-term program to document the entry of anthropogenic CFCs, carbon dioxide species, and other physical and biogeochemical tracers into the intermediate and deep waters of Pacific Ocean. As part of this program, plans have been made to re-occupy a series of hydrographic sections in the Pacific at intervals of 5-10 years. This includes a variety of physical and chemical measurements on these sections. One of the key NOAA-PMEL repeat meridional sections is along 170°W (from about 10°S to 67°S) in the southwest Pacific Ocean (WOCE line P15S). Reoccupation of this section is planned for January, 1996 (Austral summer), with station spacing and tracer measurements which meet WOCE Hydrographic Program guidelines. It is anticipated that that both NOAA and NSF supported investigators will be involved in this work, as well as Australian physical oceanographers interested in this region.
An additional request has been submitted to NOAA for ship time to do the work along P15S in November, 1996, to study gas exchange and ventilation at a time when residual winter water remains in the area. It may be some time before any final decisions are made on funding for this section, and on the availability of a suitable research vessel. If funded as planned, this NOAA cruise would coincide with the initial cruise of the JGOFS process study and would, therefore, offer opportunities for multi-ship coordinated research.
NOAA representatives regularly participate in U.S. JGOFS Steering Committee meetings. These meetings, and others as necessary, will be used to co-ordinate planning of NOAA and JGOFS work in this region. By collaborating with the NOAA program, it will be possible to obtain good seasonal coverage of upper-ocean physical, chemical and biological parameters during the 1996-1997 time period. Combining this information with data collected during earlier NOAA cruises, and during WOCE cruises, will further provide a good assessment of interannual variability of physical processes and of CO2 fluxes in the region.
Synthesis of JGOFS Findings
Process measurements are but the first step toward JGOFS goals defined at the beginning of this document. Individual findings must be interpreted in the context of complementary data sets. This will be achieved through a series of data and synthesis workshops. Initially, small groups of investigators working on related topics will gather to assemble composite features built from their individual results. Subsequently, the full contingent of investigators involved in the Southern Ocean process study will come together in a coordinated workshop format to assemble a complete picture of carbon fluxes, and of the biogeochemical cycling of carbon and related elements. Finally, a series of overview papers will be written to synthesize topical findings (e.g., gas exchange, primary production, new production, export flux, remineralization processes) in the context of a complete carbon balance of each region. Synthesis activities are not restricted to interpretation of results generated by the process study. Investigators will build upon observations made during the field program to create a more complete understanding of carbon fluxes and of biogeochemical cycles over broader areas of the Southern Ocean. Strategies to achieve this goal will include exploitation of historical data sets, ranging from archived oceanographic data to processed satellite images, and the use of data generated by contemporary programs, to establish the mean and variability of relevant parameter fields (e.g., pigments, ice, fronts, eddies). Regular interaction between experimentalists and modelers will be required, as well, to improve model capabilities to simulate carbon fluxes and biological processes. Travel support for participating in data workshops and for synthesis working groups will be provided through the U.S. JGOFS Planning Office and, therefore, need not be incorporated into the budgets of individual investigators.
U.S. JGOFS process studies are designed to produce an improved mechanistic understanding of the processes regulating fluxes of carbon within the ocean, as well as fluxes of carbon between the ocean and the atmosphere, and of the physical conditions that influence the temporal and spatial variability of these processes. Long-term goals of JGOFS include the assimilation of these findings into algorithms that incorporate mechanistic understanding and experimentally-constrained parameters from process studies, and assimilate remote data from satellites, moorings, etc. Applications of these algorithms will include:
Investigators supported to participate in U. S. JGOFS programs are obliged to comply with the program's policy of data submission to the U. S. JGOFS Data Management Office at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Specific requirements for data submission vary depending on the nature of the data. A detailed description of the data submission policy is available separately from the U.S. JGOFS Planning Office at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.
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general demographic information on migrant workers and agriculture
National Agricultural Workers Survey (NAWS) - The U.S. Department of Labor is the only national information source on the demographics and working and living conditions of U.S. farmworkers. Since the NAWS began surveying farmworkers in 1988, it has collected information from over 25,000 workers. The survey samples all crop farmworkers in three cycles each year in order to capture the seasonality of the work. The NAWS locates and samples workers at their work sites, avoiding the well-publicized undercount of this difficult-to-find population. During the initial contact, arrangements are made to interview the respondent at home or at another convenient location.
U.S.Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Survey (NASS), Census of Agriculture - The census of agriculture is a complete accounting of United States agricultural production. It is the only source of uniform, comprehensive agricultural data for every county in the Nation. The census includes as a farm every place from which $1,000 or more of agricultural products were produced and sold or normally would have been sold during the census year. The census of agriculture is taken every five years covering the years ending in "2"; and "7."
general education publications and products
The U.S. Department of Education publishes a wealth of information for teachers, administrators, policymakers, researchers, parents, students, and others with a stake in education. Learn more about publications available through the Department.
The Office of Migrant Education provides links to clearinghouses, technical assistance resources and related programs.
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Sorting out 'scare stories'
We in the media rarely lie to you. But that leaves plenty of room to take things wildly out of context.
That's where most big scare stories come from, such as recent headlines about GM foods. GM means “genetically modified,” which means scientists add genes, altering the plant's DNA, in this case to make the crop resistant to pests.
Last week, Poland joined seven other European countries in banning cultivation of GM foods. The politicians acted because headlines screamed about how GM foods caused huge tumors in rats.
What the headlines didn't tell you, though, is that the female Sprague-Dawley rats used in the test usually develop tumors — 87 to 96 percent of the time.
Reporters and environmental activists have incentives to leave out details that might make the story boring. It's useful if you think you're in danger.
“It's a great way to get attention,” says Bjorn Lomborg, statistician and author of “The Skeptical Environmentalist,” “but it focuses you on the wrong solutions.” Instead of doing something that really fights cancer, like quitting smoking, people devote their energy to banning things like GM foods.
Reporters sleep with clear consciences because we (usually) don't say anything completely false. We tell ourselves that we may save lives and draw attention to important issues — and so what if people err on the side of safety?
But the answer to “so what?” is that people waste time, money and emotional energy, and we are less safe because we worry about the wrong things.
Years ago, the Natural Resources Defense Council claimed the chemical Alar, which helps keep apples from rotting, killed kids. When “60 Minutes” ran the story, I believed it. So did lots of people.
But the scare was bunk. Apples, even apples with Alar, are good for you. Since banning Alar meant apples decay more quickly, apples became slightly more expensive, and that meant some kids ate less healthful food.
Today, we have new scares, like the one over plastic water bottles. Some contain a chemical called BPA, which activists say causes cancer, hyperactivity and all sorts of problems.
If these stories were true, who could blame parents for being frightened?
Julie Gunlock, from the Independent Women's Forum, blames the scaremongers. She points out that the activists scare mothers needlessly because “over 1,000 studies, independent studies, have said that BPA is perfectly safe.”
She knows how the scare stories work: “BPA is easily vilified. I mean, it's invisible. And people tend to say: ‘Chemicals, it's scary. I'll just trust what some activist organization or consumer rights organization says and avoid it.'” To keep scares in perspective, remember all the good news that gets less attention. Coverage of horrors like the massacre in Newtown, Conn., makes us think our kids are in more danger today, but school violence is actually down.
And despite all the chemicals — actually, because of them — we live longer than ever.
There is plenty of bad news that's real — like the national debt, and most of what politicians do. But in most ways, most of the time, the world slowly but surely gets better. To most of us, that's good news.
John Stossel is host of “Stossel” on the Fox Business Network. He's the author of “No They Can't: Why Government Fails, but Individuals Succeed.”
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Snake River Overview
Located in the southernmost reaches of Yellowstone National Park, the Snake River is often forgotten and overlooked as a destination for wade fishermen. The Snake inside the Park requires a little footwork to reach, but short hikes can land the angler in remote backcountry locations, with fantastic scenery and fly fishing. Another attraction of the Snake is the chance to catch yet another native Cutthroat of this region, the Snake River Finespot.
As far back as you have time and are willing to hike, the Snake River will continue to provide long boulder filled runs, deep glides, and sexy riffle corners that are all begging for a fly tiers gaudy, rubber-legged, foam, late night creation. Surrounded by dense stands of Lodge pole Pines and interspersed with grassy meadows, the Snake is framed by the Mountain ranges that dominate the southern portion of Yellowstone. A long delicate cast into the many fine runs of the Snake will garner the interest of its finny natives.
|Salmonflies||June 20th - July 15th|
|Goldenstone||July 1st - July 20th|
|Green Drakes||July 5th - July 25th|
|Hydropsyche Caddis||July 5th - August 10th|
|Terrestrials||July 15th - September 30th|
|Pale Morning Duns||June 20th - August 1st|
|Baetis Mayflies||September 1st - September 30th|
Not only is the Snake River home to Native Cutthroat, but a few Brown trout are also inhabitants of this fine trout river. The Snake, like many of the Park’s rivers, is a great dry fly stream. Searching the water, even when there are not any aquatic insects around, can provide an extremely action packed day. Keep an eye out for this river's namesake, although the cute little garter snakes are neither dangerous nor poisonous.
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The Book of Martyrs (Foxe)/Chapter VII
An Account of the Life and Persecutions of John Wickliffe
It will not be inappropriate to devote a few pages of this work to a brief detail of the lives of some of those men who first stepped forward, regardless of the bigoted power which opposed all reformation, to stem the time of papal corruption, and to seal the pure doctrines of the Gospel with their blood.
Among these, Great Britain has the honor of taking the lead, and first maintaining that freedom in religious controversy which astonished Europe, and demonstrated that political and religious liberty are equally the growth of that favored island. Among the earliest of these eminent persons was
John Wickliffe This celebrated reformer, denominated the "Morning Star of the Reformation," was born about the year 1324, in the reign of Edward II. Of his extraction we have no certain account. His parents designing him for the Church, sent him to Queen's College, Oxford, about that period founded by Robert Eaglesfield, confessor to Queen Philippi. But not meeting with the advantages for study in that newly established house which he expected, he removed to Merton College, which was then esteemed one of the most learned societies in Europe.
The first thing which drew him into public notice, was his defence of the university against the begging friars, who about this time, from their settlement in Oxford in 1230, had been troublesome neighbors to the university. Feuds were continually fomented; the friars appealing to the pope, the scholars to the civil power; and sometimes one party, and sometimes, the other, prevailed. The friars became very fond of a notion that Christ was a common beggar; that his disciples were beggars also; and that begging was of Gospel institution. This doctrine they urged from the pulpit and wherever they had access.
Wickliffe had long held these religious friars in contempt for the laziness of their lives, and had now a fair opportunity of exposing them. He published a treatise against able beggary, in which he lashed the friars, and proved that they were not only a reproach to religion, but also to human society. The university began to consider him one of their first champions, and he was soon promoted to the mastership of Baliol College.
About this time, Archbishop Islip founded Canterbury Hall, in Oxford, where he established a warden and eleven scholars. To this wardenship Wickliffe was elected by the archbishop, but upon his demise, he was displaced by his successor, Stephen Langham, bishop of Ely. As there was a degree of flagrant injustice in the affair, Wickliffe appealed to the pope, who subsequently gave it against him from the following cause: Edward III, then king of England, had withdrawn the tribune, which from the time of King John had been paid to the pope. The pope menaced; Edward called a parliament. The parliament resolved that King John had done an illegal thing, and given up the rights of the nation, and advised the king not to submit, whatever consequences might follow.
The clergy now began to write in favor of the pope, and a learned monk published a spirited and plausible treatise, which had many advocates. Wickliffe, irritated at seeing so bad a cause so well defended, opposed the monk, and did it in so masterly a way that he was considered no longer as unanswerable. His suit at Rome was immediately determined against him; and nobody doubted but his opposition to the pope, at so critical a period, was the true cause of his being non-suited at Rome.
Wickliffe was afterward elected to the chair of the divinity professor:
and now fully convinced of the errors of the Romish Church, and the vileness of its monastic agents, he determined to expose them. In public lectures he lashed their vices and opposed their follies. He unfolded a variety of abuses covered by the darkness of superstition. At first he began to loosen the prejudices of the vulgar, and proceeded by slow advances; with the metaphysical disquisitions of the age, he mingled opinions in divinity apparently novel. The usurpations of the court of Rome was a favorite topic. On these he expatiated with all the keenness of argument, joined to logical reasoning. This soon procured him the clamor of the clergy, who, with the archbishop of Canterbury, deprived him of his office.
At this time the administration of affairs was in the hands of the duke of Lancaster, well known by the name of John of Gaunt. This prince had very free notions of religion, and was at enmity with the clergy. The exactions of the court of Rome having become very burdensome, he determined to send the bishop of Bangor and Wickliffe to remonstrate against these abuses, and it was agreed that the pope should no longer dispose of any benefices belonging to the Church of England. In this embassy, Wickliffe's observant mind penetrated into the constitution and policy of Rome, and he returned more strongly than ever determined to expose its avarice and ambition.
Having recovered his former situation, he inveighed, in his lectures, against the pope-his usurpation-his infallibility-his pride-his avarice- and his tyranny. He was the first who termed the pope Antichrist. From the pope, he would turn to the pomp, the luxury, and trappings of the bishops, and compared them with the simplicity of primitive bishops. Their superstitions and deceptions were topics that he urged with energy of mind and logical precision.
From the patronage of the duke of Lancaster, Wickliffe received a good benefice; but he was no sooner settled in his parish, than his enemies and the bishops began to persecute him with renewed vigor. The duke of Lancaster was his friend in this persecution, and by his presence and that of Lord Percy, earl marshal of England, he so overawed the trial, that the whole ended in disorder.
After the death of Edward III his grandson Richard II succeeded, in the eleventh year of his age. The duke of Lancaster not obtaining to be the sole regent, as he expected, his power began to decline, and the enemies of Wickliffe, taking advantage of the circumstance, renewed their articles of accusation against him. Five bulls were despatched in consequence by the pope to the king and certain bishops, but the regency and the people manifested a spirit of contempt at the haughty proceedings of the pontiff, and the former at that time wanting money to oppose an expected invasion of the French, proposed to apply a large sum, collected for the use of the pope, to that purpose. The question was submitted to the decision of Wickliffe. The bishops, however, supported by the papal authority, insisted upon bringing Wickliffe to trial, and he was actually undergoing examination at Lambeth, when, from the riotous behavior of the populace without, and awed by the command of Sir Lewis Clifford, a gentleman of the court, that they should not proceed to any definitive sentence, they terminated the whole affair in a prohibition to Wickliffe, not to preach those doctrines which were obnoxious to the pope; but this was laughed at by our reformer, who, going about barefoot, and in a long frieze gown, preached more vehemently than before.
In the year 1378, a contest arose between two popes, Urban VI and Clement VII which was the lawful pope, and true vicegerent of God. This was a favorable period for the exertion of Wicliffe's talents: he soon produced a tract against popery, which was eagerly read by all sorts of people.
About the end of the year, Wickliffe was seized with a violent disorder, which it was feared might prove fatal. The begging friars, accompanied by four of the most eminent citizens of Oxford, gained admittance to his bed chamber, and begged of him to retract, for his soul's sake, the unjust things he had asserted of their order. Wickliffe, surprised at the solemn message, raised himself in his bed, and with a stern countenance replied, "I shall not die, but live to declare the evil deeds of the friars."
When Wickliffe recovered, he set about a most important work, the translation of the Bible into English. Before this work appeared, he published a tract, wherein he showed the necessity of it. The zeal of the bishops to suppress the Scriptures greatly promoted its sale, and they who were not able to purchase copies, procured transcripts of particular Gospels or Epistles. Afterward, when Lollardy increased, and the flames kindled, it was a common practice to fasten about the neck of the condemned heretic such of these scraps of Scripture as were found in his possession, which generally shared his fate.
Immediately after this transaction, Wickliffe ventured a step further, and affected the doctrine of transubstantiation. This strange opinion was invented by Paschade Radbert, and asserted with amazing boldness. Wickliffe, in his lecture before the University of Oxford, 1381, attacked this doctrine, and published a treatise on the subject. Dr. Barton, at this time vice-chancellor of Oxford, calling together the heads of the university, condemned Wickliffe's doctrines as heretical, and threatened their author with excommunication. Wickliffe could now derive no support from the duke of Lancaster, and being cited to appear before his former adversary, William Courteney, now made archbishop of Canterbury, he sheltered himself under the plea, that, as a member of the university, he was exempt from episcopal jurisdiction. This plea was admitted, as the university were determined to support their member.
The court met at the appointed time, determined, at least to sit in judgment upon his opinions, and some they condemned as erroneous, others as heretical. The publication on this subject was immediately answered by Wickliffe, who had become a subject of the archbishop's determined malice. The king, solicited by the archbishop, granted a license to imprison the teacher of heresy, but the commons made the king revoke this act as illegal. The primate, however, obtained letters from the king, directing the head of the University of Oxford to search for all heresies and books published by Wickliffe; in consequence of which order, the university became a scene of tumult. Wickliffe is supposed to have retired from the storm, into an obscure part of the kingdom. The seeds, however, were scattered, and Wickliffe's opinions were so prevalent that it was said if you met two persons upon the road, you might be sure that one was a Lollard. At this period, the disputes between the two popes continued. Urban published a bull, in which he earnestly called upon all who had any regard for religion, to exert themselves in its cause; and to take up arms against Clement and his adherents in defence of the holy see.
A war, in which the name of religion was so vilely prostituted, roused Wickliffe's inclination, even in his declining years. He took up his pen once more, and wrote against it with the greatest acrimony. He expostulated with the pope in a very free manner, and asks him boldly: 'How he durst make the token of Christ on the cross (which is the token of peace, mercy and charity) a banner to lead us to slay Christian men, for the love of two false priests, and to oppress Christiandom worse than Christ and his apostles were oppressed by the Jews? 'When,' said he, 'will the proud priest of Rome grant indulgences to mankind to live in peace and charity, as he now does to fight and slay one another?'
This severe piece drew upon him the resentment of Urban, and was likely to have involved him in greater troubles than he had before experienced, but providentially he was delivered out of their hands. He was struck with the palsy, and though he lived some time, yet it was in such a way that his enemies considered him as a person below their resentment.
Wickliffe returning within short space, either from his banishment, or from some other place where he was secretly kept, repaired to his parish of Lutterworth, where he was parson; and there, quietly departing this mortal life, slept in peace in the Lord, in the end of the year 1384, upon Silvester's day. It appeared that he was well aged before he departed, "and that the same thing pleased him in his old age, which did please him being young."
Wickliffe had some cause to give them thanks, that they would at least spare him until he was dead, and also give him so long respite after his death, forty-one years to rest in his sepulchre before they ungraved him, and turned him from earth to ashes; which ashes they also took and threw into the river. And so was he resolved into three elements, earth, fire, and water, thinking thereby utterly to extinguish and abolish both the name and doctrine of Wickliffe forever. Not much unlike the example of the old Pharisees and sepulchre knights, who, when they had brought the Lord unto the grave, thought to make him sure never to rise again. But these and all others must know that, as there is no counsel against the Lord, so there is no keeping down of verity, but it will spring up and come out of dust and ashes, as appeared right well in this man; for though they dug up his body, burned his bones, and drowned his ashes, yet the Word of God and the truth of his doctrine, with the fruit and success thereof, they could not burn.
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Specific kinds of educational experiences provided for children by both parents and teachers, from preschool through high school, can make a significant difference in their reading ability as young adults. Two national studies have recently confirmed the particular home, school, childcare jobs and extracurricular experiences that impact an individual’s reading achievement over the course of development. These studies analyzed comprehensive data gathered from 3,959 high school students in 24 school districts across the U.S. The first study, the Kindergarten Reading Follow-up (KRF) Study, examined the long-term effects on children of being taught to read in kindergarten (Hanson and Siegel, 1988; 1991.)
The second study, the Reading Development Follow-up (RDF) Study, analyzed the same data to identify the specific kinds of experience, from preschool through high school, that foster high levels of reading achievement in high school seniors (Siegel, 1987.) The results of these two policy studies provide parents, educators, and policy makers with some straightforward guidelines for cultivating literacy development. The implications are quite clear: students who are provided with more of these specific kinds of experiences across their development will have higher reading achievement levels as young adults than those who have less.
Early language and educational experiences for children were found to be particularly critical to adult literacy levels. Although early childhood experiences have long been known to be important in terms of general intellectual development, the RDF Study confirmed that the specific kinds of early educational experiences students have are highly predictive of later reading abilities as well. That is, those high school seniors who were provided with more reading, language, and other kinds of both direct and indirect educational experiences during their preschool years had higher overall levels of reading competency than those provided with less. Such preschool activities as learning nursery rhymes and stories, watching Sesame Street, playing word and number games, being read to, attending nursery/preschool, and participating in special lessons such as swimming, dance, or music were all positively related to students’ reading ability in high school. Finally, later “high stakes” schooling experiences, such as placement in remedial/developmental classes and/or a particular type of high school academic track, could be linked to the students’ level of involvement in early educational experiences.
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On April 1, the United States and Canada did something unprecedented, and it was not an April Fool’s joke: the two countries announced simultaneously a new set of vehicle emissions standards, coordinated to be identical in both countries.
The new standards mark a shift away from the prior model in the United States that required manufacturers to meet Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFÉ) standards, which were measured by taking the average of the fuel economy of the vehicle models in particular categories (e.g. compacts, light trucks and sport utility vehicles, etc.) on offer in a given year. CAFÉ standards were applied to the model offerings, and not weighted to sales. In a given year, the average fuel economy of all vehicles sold by a manufacturer might be higher, particularly in years when minivans and trucks were popular. The rationale behind this system was to place the burden on the manufacturer to design and offer more fuel efficient vehicles while still allowing consumers to purchase what they wanted.
Beginning in 2011, regulation will be based on the composition of the vehicles actually sold by a manufacturer in a given year. The average fuel economy of vehicles sold (separated into specific vehicle categories, as before) will be compared to the government’s standard. Manufacturers whose sold fleet exceeds the government’s target will be required to purchase off-sets to account for the carbon emissions for which the vehicles they have sold will produce above and beyond the government’s allowance.
If this sounds like cap-and-trade for cars, that is because it will be exactly that, and by design. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S. Department of Transportation collaborated to design a system for limiting motor vehicle emissions that would be consistent with the system for capping emissions in other sectors of the economy. Just as cap-and-trade systems for power plant emissions do not tax electricity consumers directly (unlike a carbon tax, which would be more direct and transparent), the new vehicle emissions regulations will affect consumers indirectly, in the form of higher prices.
The Obama administration estimates that the cost of compliance with the new regulation for manufacturers will be $52 billion, and will likely add $926 on average to the price of a new vehicle as manufacturers pass on the emissions tax to car and truck buyers. These are preliminary estimates for the United States alone, not accounting for the additional costs accrued by compliance in Canada.
One of the most positive aspects of the new regulation for auto makers is that the new vehicle emissions regime will be uniform across the United States and Canada as well. A number of U.S. states have moved to regulate motor vehicle emissions above and beyond U.S. federal standards, most notably California.
The promise of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) for companies in the United States, Canada and Mexico was the chance to profit from the economies of scale possible in a region with more than 450 million consumers. To obtain the maximum advantage from such a large market, products would ideally be as uniform as possible for consumers in all three countries.
For certain products, this only required trilingual packaging and instruction manuals. For others, the potential for scale economies was limited by federal, state/provincial and even local rules and regulations. In 2005, the federal governments of the three NAFTA countries established the Security and Prosperity Partnership (SPP) of North America to foster contact between the federal bureaucracies that they hoped would lead to streamlining of the regulation and inspection requirements imposed on people and goods crossing their shared borders.
The SPP became a lightning rod for critics of further North American economic integration, and in 2009 the three governments quietly abandoned the 20 SPP working groups. Yet contacts continued among counterpart officials in the three governments. For many, the SPP had led to a change in perspective and greater sensitivity to the effect that unilateral regulation had on trilateral trade, and the importance of that trade in a recessionary economy.
When the Obama administration reached agreement with California and other states that it would increase federal standards for vehicle emissions, it warned that it would block independent state regulation. The Canadian federal government, which together with Ontario had established automotive policy bona fides by investing billions of Canadian taxpayer dollars alongside the U.S. federal government’s own bailout investments to avert bankruptcy filings by General Motors and Chrysler, worked with the United States to understand the design and objectives of the new standards as they were being developed. The coordinated announcement by the two governments of identical standards was a demonstration that regulatory coordination had not ended with the termination of the SPP working groups.
There is already opposition to the announced standards in the U.S. Congress, where Senator Jay Rockefeller (D-WV) and Senator Lisa Murkowski (R-AK) have sought to block the U.S. EPA from regulating carbon, and see the new vehicle emission standards as part of a regulatory power-grab by the EPA.
And consumers may not like the higher vehicle prices that would result from the new standards beginning in 2011, despite the potential fuel savings over the life of the vehicle; the higher up-front cost will be a barrier to entry for low income prospective car buyers. Given that the beneficial reductions in overall carbon emissions that the new standard is intended to achieve will depend on how quickly new cars replace old ones in the fleet of vehicles on U.S. and Canadians streets, it is too soon to tell whether the costs of the new approach will be matched by significant benefits quickly enough to have an affect on climate change.
Canadians unhappy with the new vehicle emissions regulations will be tempted to blame the United States for imposing them—de facto if not de jure—on their smaller Canadian neighbors. Yet the highly-integrated automotive manufacturers operating in both countries, including General Motors, Ford, Toyota, Honda, Chrysler and others, could hardly compete if the approach to regulation by the two federal governments was radically different. The shift to a cap-and-trade for cars model by both countries will greatly simplify compliance costs for manufacturers.
However the overall costs of the new approach—which could exceed initial estimates depending on consumer reaction to them—and the question of tangible benefits for the atmosphere that result from the change will spark public debate in Canada. Unlike the United States, where the new standards have emerged from a period of comment and criticism over several months, in Canada the announcement of the new standards, which signals a 60-day notice and comment period following publication of the new rules in the Canada Gazette (Canada’s equivalent of the U.S. Federal Register) comes as a rather complex surprise.
Still, the adoption of tandem regulatory standards by the United States and Canada in the area of new vehicle emissions is itself a milestone on the road toward deeper North American economic integration. Regardless of the fate of the new standards in practice, the process of developing them in the absence of the SPP shows that the federal regulatory and enforcement networks the SPP fostered have continued to produce, albeit thus far without word to date of Mexican involvement, or reaction.
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During a recent rally at Capitol Square in Richmond, gun control advocates handed out fliers with a grisly statistic.
"Since John F. Kennedy was assassinated in 1963, more Americans have died by gunfire within our own country than American servicemen and women who were killed in all our wars," says the brochure, distributed on Jan. 18 by the Virginia Center for Public Safety.
The claim is familiar to PolitiFact; it’s been vetted by our colleagues in the national office twice over the years. We decided to take a new look through the lens of the latest available data.
The most comprehensive list we found on U.S. war dead was compiled in January 2015 by the Congressional Research Service. It included casualties from the Revolutionary War through Operation Inherent Resolve, which is targeting the Islamic State militant group in Iraq and Syria.
The number of U.S. dead in all those conflicts comes to nearly 1.2 million, according to the research service.
We should add a qualifier here: The research service says that during the Civil War, the nation’s deadliest conflict, Union and Confederate losses combined were 525,000 to 530,000. But a 2012 study by a Binghamton University historian estimated the combined toll was much higher -- about 750,000.
If we use that higher Civil War figure, it would bring the total U.S. deaths in military conflicts to about 1.4 million.
The federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention provides a series of hard figures and estimates of yearly gunfire deaths in the U.S. from 1968 to 2014. They add up to about 1.5 million fatalities.
The Virginia Center for Public Safety’s claim on gun deaths goes back a little bit further, to 1963. We couldn’t find figures going back to that year, since the oldest year for which data were available was 1968. A CDC chart shows 24,000 gun deaths occurred that year.
With that in mind, the figure of 1.5 million deaths since November 1963 surely is an underestimate of the level of gun violence since then, because it excludes four years. The actual number probably is close to 1.6 million.
A key thing to know about these figures: They include not just murders but all gun deaths. In 2013, according to CDC data, 63 percent of gun deaths were suicides; 33 percent were homicides; and the rest were from accidents, legal interventions and undetermined causes.
The Virginia Center for Public Safety says that since 1963, more Americans have been killed by gunfire than have been killed in all U.S. wars.
Figures going back to 1968 show about 1.5 million firearms deaths have occurred since then. That doesn’t include data from gun deaths from 1963 to 1967, years for which figures aren’t available, so this is a conservative estimate on firearms deaths since Kennedy was assassinated.
In contrast, a high-side figure for U.S. war deaths shows that about 1.4 million service members have been killed in conflicts.
So we rate the claim True.
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Basis is a mathematics term.
This usage of the term is similar to its common usage: a basis is the foundation for what is needed.
A basis B for a topology T on a set X is a collection of subsets of X (called basis elements) such that
- each x in X, is in at least one basis element.
- if x is in the intersection of 2 basis elements B1 and B2, then it is in some basis element B3, where B3 is a subset of B1 ∩ B2.
If B satisfy the above 2 conditions, then the topology T generated by B is the collection of subsets U of X such that for each x in U, there is a basis element V in B such that x is in V and V is a subset of U.
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June 2007 Cub Scout Roundtable Issue
| Volume 13, Issue 11
July 2007 Theme
Theme: Rockets Red Glare
Aquanaut & Geologist
Tiger Cub Activities
Alice, CS RT Commissioner
Pioneer District, Golden Empire Council
http://www.spaceplace.nasa.gov/cubscouts great website with specific ideas using the boy's scout books from Tiger Cubs to Webelos - click on the rank, then scroll down to find projects under achievements, electives and belt loops. All kinds of scientifc information is presented in a fun way, sometimes as online games, sometimes as printouts or projects - and they also have links to some great resources. For this theme, here are some of my favorites:
Scroll down to Games; check out "Launch a Rocket from a Spinning Planet" - activity using a bucket of balls and a playground push and ride "merry-go-round" to demonstrate some problems with launching a real rocket. Also, "How to get to space with no launch pad" and "A Gentle push all the way to the stars"
Scroll down to Projects; "Build a Bubble-Powered Rocket! - a version of the film canister/alkaselzer rocket - includes directions for using one piece of 8X11 paper to really make it look like a rocket. (Dave - I LOVE THIS ONE, because it explains the scientific reasons why this works and compares it to real rockets - also interactive and real videos of rockets)
Scroll down to Animations; "Make the shot heard 'round the world" (Dave, this seemed to just fit the theme) An interactive game that lets you try different loads of gunpowder to shoot your cannon and learn about orbits
http://www.spaceplace.nasa.gov/en/kids/museums/index.shtml Check out the "Community Partners" click on any state for a great listing, with contact information of every possible location where scouts could learn more about rockets and space.
www.ushistory.org/betsy Flag facts, a picture gallery of historical flags, biographical information about Betsy Ross, including a discussion about whether she was really the first maker of the Stars & Stripes; directions for making a five-point star with just one cut;
www.usflag.org Special links to the Constitution, Congress, the text of every Inaugural Address; how to get a flag that has flown over the Capitol; a special flag folding ceremony used at the Air Force Academy
http://www.allcrafts.net/patriotic.htm Check out Free Patriotic Craft Projects and Free Kids Patriotic Craft Projects
http://www.enchantedlearning.com American flags to print out in color of black and white; flags and facts about each state; symbols of the USA, such as the Great Seal, with historical info; information on symbolism of color and shape; flags from other countries; print out Patriotic Letterhead; info on elections, presidents and important people in American history; patriotic crafts
http://www.dltk-kids.com/usa/index.html coloring pages for Fourth of July and various holidays; various crafts
Theme Internet Resources
Great Salt Lake Area Council
Rock Around the World – Send a sample rock to NASA and have them analyze it!! http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/rockworld/
For information on our American flag –
World’s largest Flag -
Flag Pages And Vexillology
Betsy Ross and associated American Flag history
Here is a great site www.enchantedlearning.com that looks like it is set up for teachers but certainly can be used by us. You have the option of using it without joining with a membership fee. (From my friend Karen in Jersey Shore Council)
Do you know your birds??
Ruth wrote a few months ago to tell me about this great book for Bird Study with Kids. Well I missed it then, but you could certainly use it when you get you Cubs Outdoors this summer – She wrote, “I would like to share some information on a new book that fits in with April's Cub Scout theme, "Our Feathered Friends." It is a book-and-CD package, "Sing, Nightingale, Sing!", published by Kane-Miller ($13.95). The book lets readers learn about plumage, biology, behavior, and more. After reading about any of the 60 different birds in the book, you can then listen to its song on the enclosed CD. The author is Francoise de Guibert, and it is illustrated by Chiaki Miyamoto.
Materials found in Baloo's Bugle may be used by Scouters for Scouting activities provided that Baloo's Bugle and the original contributors are cited as the source of the material.
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Most sumptuary laws related to what you could or could not wear, but some determined what you could and could not eat. There are a number of reasons for the enactment of sumptuary laws. The moral, of course – to minimise the sins of pride, gluttony, or lust (the degree of neckline plunge has previously been legislated). The economic - to protect people from themselves by reducing the temptation to fall into debt; maybe also to provide jobs (enforcers) and raise revenue (fines)? And, perhaps most importantly - to reinforce the social structure in a very visible way, by ruling that only those of a certain rank could wear fur, or the colour scarlet for example, or have more than a couple of blackbirds in a dish.
In 1517, early in the reign of Henry VIII, to reduce the excessive fare at feasts (isn’t that the whole point of feasts?), it was proclaimed that the number of dishes served depended on the rank of the highest person present. A feast with a cardinal could have nine dishes, a parliamentary lord, lord mayor, or knight of the garter could have six, and (to prove that money also talks) anyone who could spend ₤40 a year or whose fortune was worth ₤500 could have three. The problem with enforcing laws of that kind is that the enforcers are from the same class who enjoy the feasting too, so it has rarely worked in practice.
In 1541, Archbishop Cranmer (the man who facilitated Henry VIII’s divorce so that he could marry Anne Boleyn, converted to Catholicism during the reign of Mary I, then recanted and was burned as a Protestant heretic) took his clergy to task on their indulgent lifestyles. His reforming regulations said that a meal for an Archbishop could include not more than six dishes of meat, and four of ‘second dishes’(what we would now call ‘dessert’ dishes), a bishop five of meat and three of second dishes, a dean or archdeacon four of meat and two of second dishes, and the ordinary clergy only two dishes of meat. The rule was honoured more in the breach than in the observance, and everyone gave up on it after a few months. The details are more interesting in their original language, so here they are, in the words of Henry VIII’s antiquary, John Leland (1506-1552)
“In the yeare of our Lord MDXLI it was agreed and condescended upon, as wel by the common consent of both tharchbishops and most part of the bishops within this realme of Englande, as also of divers grave men at that tyme, both deanes and archdeacons, the fare at their tables to be thus moderated.
“First, that tharchbishop should never exceede six divers kindes of fleshe, or six of fishe, on the fishe days; the bishop not to exceede five, the deane and archdeacon not above four, and al other under that degree not above three; provided also that tharchbishop myght have of second dishes four, the bishop three; and al others under the degree of a bishop but two. As custard, tart, fritter, cheese or apples, peares, or two of other kindes of fruites. Provided also, that if any of the inferior degree dyd receave at their table, any archbishop, bishop, deane, or archdeacon, or any of the laitie of lyke degree, viz. duke, marques, earle, viscount, baron, lorde, knyght, they myght have such provision as were mete and requisite for their degrees. Provided alway that no rate was limited in the receavying of any ambassadour. It was also provided that of the greater fyshes or fowles, there should be but one in a dishe, as crane, swan, turkey cocke, hadocke, pyke, tench; and of lesse sortes but two, viz. capons two, pheasantes two, conies two, and woodcockes two. Of lesse sortes, as of patriches, the archbishop three, the bishop and other degrees under hym two. Of blackburdes, the archbishop six, the bishop four, the other degrees three. Of larkes and snytes (snipes) and of that sort but twelve. It was also provided, that whatsoever is spared by the cutting of, of the olde superfluitie, shoulde yet be provided and spent in playne meates for the relievyng of the poore. Memorandum, that this order was kept for two or three monethes, tyll by the disusyng of certaine wylful persons it came to the olde excesse.”
To assist you to flout the old law, here are a couple of nice recipes from a cookbook of the time – A Proper newe Booke of Cokerye (about 1545)
To make a Custarde.
A Custarde the coffyn must be fyrste hardened in the oven, and then take a quart of creame and fyve or syxe yolkes of egges, and beate them well together, and put them into the creame, and put in Suger and small Raysyns and Dates sliced, and put into the coffyn butter or els marrowe, but on the fyshe dayes put in butter.
For to make wardens in Conserue. [Pears in Syrup]
Fyrste make the syrope in this wyse, take a quarte of good romney and putte a pynte of claryfyed honey, and a pounde or a halfe of suger, and myngle all those together over the fyre, till tyme they seeth, and then set it to cole. And thys is a good sirope for manye thinges, and wyll be kepte a yere or two. Then take thy warden and scrape cleane awaye the barke, but pare them not, and seeth them in good redde wyne so that they be wel soked and tender, that the wyne be nere hande soked into them, then take and strayne them throughe a cloth or through a strayner into a vessell, then put to them of this syrope aforesayde tyll it be almost fylled, and then caste in the pouders, as fyne canel, synamon, pouder of gynger and such other, and put it in a boxes and kepe it yf thou wylt and make thy syrope as thou wylt worke in quantyte, as if thou wylt worke twenty wardens or more or lesse as by experience.
Quotation for the Day …
If you are lucky enough to have lived in
as a young man, then wherever you go for the rest of your life it stays with you, for Paris is a moveable feast. Ernest Hemingway. Paris
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- Who's Who in Ancient Egypt
- Published by Routledge, 1999.
Electronic Resource from Credo reference.
Access this with your library card number and PIN, or at our libraries.
- Akhet Egyptology: the horizon to the past
- Extensive coverage of Egypt's past with many photographs and articles, including the clickable mummy.
- BBC History: Egyptians
- Around 5000 years ago the ancient Egyptians established an extraordinary and enduring civilisation. Enter their world.
- Discovering Egypt
- Kings and queens, plans and photographs of temples and hieroglyphs.
- Eternal Egypt
- Eternal Egypt tells you the living history of Egypt in images, animations, 3-D models and more.
- Explore the Pyramids
- Diagrams and histories of the great pyramids. Includes Quicktime tours inside the pyramids. From PBS
- Internet Ancient History Sourcebook.
- Full text primary sources from the ancient world.
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Participating in Clinical Trials
Participating in a Clinical Trial
Before a cancer patient enrolls in a clinical trial, both the patient and the physician conducting the trial must determine if the match is right. The investigator will decide whether the patient has the right characteristics for the study. The patient must find out all of the details about the treatment offered in the trial and then decide whether he or she wants to participate. In any clinical trial, the patient's participation is always voluntary.
It is the policy of the University of Maryland to respect and protect the rights and welfare of all individuals. We take very seriously the protection of all human subjects enrolled in clinical trials. The university's Institutional Review Board is a key component for ensuring that the rights and welfare of human subjects are protected.
When selecting patients for a clinical trial, the study investigators must carefully choose patients who are alike in key ways and who do not have health characteristics that would put them at increased risk in the study or that would confuse the study's results. Patients must have the exact condition targeted by the new therapy so that the investigators can measure the treatment's effectiveness. The written plan or protocol for each clinical trial must include a list of criteria that make patients eligible or ineligible for inclusion in the study. These criteria usually include aspects of a patient's disease and treatment history, their current condition, their prognosis (likelihood of recovery), and their age.
Deciding to Enroll
Participating in a trial may be one of a number of treatment options available to some cancer patients. For others it may be the best option when their cancer has not responded to other treatments. In either case, patients who take part in clinical trials may be the first to benefit from the discovery of successful new cancer treatments.
Participation in a clinical trial also contributes to the study and understanding of cancer and its treatment. Clinical trials are an essential part of medical discoveries and have resulted in new options for treating many of today's most common cancers. They help to bring scientists closer to finding a cure for cancer and to bring new hope to patients who are fighting cancer.
The decision to enroll in a trial is not always easy, however. There is always a degree of uncertainty involved in testing a new drug or therapy, and participating in a trial requires that you tolerate that uncertainty. If you are considering a clinical trial, you will want to discuss all of the advantages and possible drawbacks with your doctor and the people close to you.
What to Expect
As a participant in a clinical trial, you can and should have certain expectations about your care and treatment. You can expect that:
- Your participation is voluntary. You may leave the study at any time and for any reason. If you leave the study, you can choose another form of treatment.
- You will receive high-quality cancer care, whether you are given the new treatment being tested or the best standard treatment.
- Your response to the treatment will be closely monitored by doctors and nurses, and your health will be their foremost priority.
- If the new treatment harms you in any way, it will be stopped and you will be able to return to the care of your own doctor.
- You will be given all of the information about the study, including treatment details, risks, and benefits, before you decide to take part.
Find a Clinical Trial
To find a clinical trial, search our clinical trials database by study number, investigator or by topic (keyword).
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Subordinate Clause Types
| Subordinate clauses
may be finite or nonfinite. Within this broad classification, we can make
many further distinctions. We will begin by looking at subordinate clauses
which are distinguished by their formal characteristics.
Many subordinate clauses are named after the form of the verb which they contain:
For convenience, we sometimes name a clause after its first element:
As we'll see on the next page, if-clauses are sometimes called conditional clauses.
The that element is sometimes ellipted:
An important type of subordinate clause is the RELATIVE CLAUSE. Here are some examples:
Relative clauses are generally introduced by a relative pronoun, such as who, or which. However, the relative pronoun may be ellipted:
NOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSES (or independent relatives) function in some respects like noun phrases:
The similarity with NPs can be further seen in the fact that certain nominal relatives exhibit number contrast:
Notice the agreement here with is (singular) and are (plural).Singular: [What we need] is a plan
Finally, we will mention briefly an unusual type of clause, the verbless or SMALL CLAUSE. While clauses usually contain a verb, which is finite or nonfinite, small clauses lack an overt verb:
We analyse this as a unit because clearly its parts cannot be separated. What Susan found was not the job, but the job very difficult. And we analyse this unit specifically as a clause because we can posit an implicit verb, namely, a form of the verb be:
Here are some more examples of small clauses:
All of the clause types discussed here are distinguished by formal characteristics. On the next page, we will distinguish some more types, this time on the basis of their meaning.
copyright The Survey of English Usage 1996-1998
Supported by RingJohn
Online Marketing UK
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This website gives a short overview of electrical machines used as permanent magnet motors and generators, their advantages and some
application fields especially in the high speed domain. Here, a permanent magnet motor is supposed to be a synchronous machine with a
magnetic excitation on the rotor, also known as brushless dc motor, PMSM or BLDC. The difference is, that latter one is typically fed
with a rectangular current form whereas the first one is fed by a sinusoidal current form. The challenges of developing and manufacturing
permanent magnet motors and generators are explained. With e+a
located in Switzerland, there is a competent partner with more than 28 years
of experience in designing and producing customized permanent magnet motor elements for various application areas.
Rotor of a permanent magnet motor with CFRP sleeve
Various requirements are actually leading to a growing demand for high speed permanent magnet motors and generators. First of all, the
continuous need for an increased power density. Due to the quasi linear relation between rotational speed and shaft power of an electrical
machine, increasing the rated speed is an effective way to boost power density and efficiency. Hence this approach takes advantage of increasing
shaft power without changing the size of the machine. On the other hand, the same performance can be provided in a smaller volume. The latter
is paramount in the field of machine tool applications for example. Thus spindles or the machine tool in a whole become smaller, weight is
reduced and dynamical behavior is enhanced. Another point in this industry is the cycle time that a machine tool needs to complete a specific
operation. The faster a tool can be moved and rotated the faster it is able to complete its task, not taking into account that high speed cutting
operation rely on top speed to machine time efficiently respective parts.
Further interesting operation fields of high speed permanent magnet motors are applications where a standard gearbox is used to translate the
rotational speed of conventional power grid frequency (50/60 Hz) driven motors to higher speed levels. A replacement of this gearbox and the
related conventional motor with a speed controlled drive consisting of a high speed permanent magnet motor and a rectifier increases the overall
efficiency and reduces the maintenance significantly.
The compressor industry is an example, where high efficiency, oil-free operation and no emissions make electric high speed permanent magnet motors
the most environmental friendly compressor drives (For compressor applications, also asynchronous machines could be a good alternative due to its
robustness). In the context of emission free application energy storage systems with high speed flywheels not only take advantage of high speed
permanent magnet generators. Thus fossil generators with unwanted emissions can be avoided and maintenance costs can be reduced significantly.
Cryo applications actually experience a very similar revolution of its drive technology. Directly driven motor elements replace a set of a gear
box and a 50/60Hz standard motor. Efficiency can be increased, the needed space is by far downsized and maintenance costs are reduced. Hence
energy recovery systems e.g. become more and more interesting from a financial and an ecological point of view. Thus permanent magnet motor elements
contribute partly to the ongoing development of green energy applications.
The mentioned advantage of high speed permanent magnet motors and generators can only be achieved by using high quality motor elements. The reason
for that is that due to the high rotational speeds, the centrifugal forces on the rotating motor part (rotor) can be very high leading the materials
to the edge of mechanical stress resistivity. Failures in motor elements can result in crashes affecting the environment or at least damage the system,
where the generator or motor is built in. To prevent this, various physical aspects need to be calculated in a challenging development process, taking
electromagnetic, thermal, mechanical stress and structure dynamic aspects into account. The applied computational methods need to be combined with a
long experience, to extend actual operation limitations with keeping safety in mind as highest priority. Furthermore, the interaction of the rectifier
and the permanent magnet motor needs to be known, because the rectifier has a deep impact on heating, noise, clogging, and efficiency of the motor.
Especially the interaction of various converter systems with a high speed motor element demands very specific knowledge and experience. Hence tests of
above described applications are crucial to succeed. They require an intense relation between the power electronic and high speed permanent magnet
motor specialists. Furthermore the infrastructure enabling performance tests are highly complex and usually not available on the market. Very often
the related costs exceed by far the costs incurred during the whole development process of a new motor element product line.
Typical inverters are working on base of the pulse wide modulation method, where a continuous switching of voltage or current controls the output waveform.
Due to the need for faster high speed permanent magnet motors, the switching frequency increases as well (in modern inverters, IGBT's are used). Although
noise and efficiency improve as the number of pulses increase, the inverter leads also to a few drawbacks, especially because of fast switching transients
which can be understood as a significant source of stray losses. Additional time harmonics caused by a switching mode inverter has a negative impact on the
air gap flux distribution. These harmonics cause additional eddy current losses in the motor elements especially in the rotor, which lead to higher
temperatures and a possible degrade of the mechanical behavior. The switching frequency has another impact on the high speed permanent magnet motor, namely
on the insulation, which is severely stressed by the repetition and the steepness of the pulse wave front. When IGBTs are used, the high rate of voltage
rise of typically 0 - 650 V in less than 0.1 Ás leads to approximately 10,000 V/Ás. This fact results in adverse effects on the motor insulation. These steep
rising and falling pulses lead to an uneven distribution of voltages within the motor, especially during switching transitions. Without a deep knowledge of
the permanent magnet motor insulation system and the inverter itself an insulation deterioration and subsequent failure of the motor can occur. In this context
partial discharge effects and rotor over heating are well known failure sources. The latter can lead to an unwanted carbon fiber burst due to thermal or
mechanical stress in the respective resin carbon fiber compound (synchronous machines).
Permanent magnet motors and generators offer several advantages like decreased installation space for higher power and unnecessary gearboxes. These advantages
apply for several fields and are intensively used in the machine tool, compressor, cryo and energy generating industry for example. Designing and producing these
high speed permanent magnet motors and generators is an exciting task, where the usage of most modern computational methods for the development process is as
important as a wide range of experience and expertise to extend actual operation limitations in a safe way. Not only is the knowledge of high speed permanent
magnet motors necessary but also a deep inside in inverter technology, partial discharge phenomenon and so called stray or additional loss.
in Switzerland offers a wide product portfolio of high speed motors or generators respectively. With more than 28 years of experience and more than 150,000
different high speed induction machines and permanent magnet synchronous machines running, e+a
is one of the world leaders in developing and manufacturing highly
customized high speed motors. Furthermore, a professional equipped test bench with all the newest inverters and a partial discharge test system allows detailed
analysis and adaptation of rectifier and motor and a very well support for system integrators.
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Civil War Veterans in a graveyard - Local field trip
The cemetery in many locations across North Dakota will contain the tombstones of local residents. Some of those early residents were veterans of the Civil War. In addition, the cemetery is a park, and some cemeteries have a wide variety of plants and animals.
Scavenger Hunt – How Many Can You Find?
1. Civil War Veterans tombstone interpretation
a. Examine photographs of tombstones and read the interpretation notes
b. Discussion topics - roles in the military
1) Musician in the Army
2) Fireman in the Navy
3) Cavalry vs Infantry
4) Light Artillery vs Heavy Artillery
2. Field trip day
a) Find a Civil War veteran in a cemetery. What clues led you to this tombstone?
b) Research that individual
1) County - local history books at the local library
2) local cemetery records
3) obituary in newspapers
4) military service record
c) compose 300 word essay on the veteran you found.
Bring insect repellent, sun screen, water, and a picnic lunch!
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Deer 'raise the white flag' as a warning. Plywood cutouts of flagging deer were set on roadsides to scare away deer, to no avail. © Stephen J. Lang
Deer in the headlights
Split-second actions can help you avoid and survive highway collisions with deer.
David L. Sperling
On a crisp, blustery day just before Halloween last year, a small group gathered on a rise overlooking Governor Nelson State Park near the shores of Lake Mendota in Dane County. The commanding view of grasslands, the nearby County M highway, surrounding farm fields, open spaces and country homes was a pastoral scene for a get-together, but this was no picnic. Speakers dressed in warden gray, State Patrol blue and business suits held a press conference urging motorists to drive defensively, stay alert and watch out for deer as the fall rut and the annual peak in deer-vehicle crashes approached.
There was good reason for the warning. Last year proved the deadliest on record in Wisconsin with 13 fatalities, more than 800 injuries and almost 22,000 reported collisions between cars and deer. As both the deer herd and the number of miles driven in Wisconsin climb, the odds of seeing deer crossing roads also grows. Avoiding serious crashes means practicing better defensive driving skills.
"Deer are creatures of habit and they are driven by strong natural forces," said DNR Wildlife Biologist Michelle Windsor. "During the rut that starts in October and peaks out in the first two weeks of November, the deer are looking for mates, they are looking for food and they are much more active."
Statistics compiled by the Wisconsin Department of Transportation bear out those observations. Forty percent of the deer-vehicle crashes occur from mid-October through November. A surprising number of injuries also occur in May and June when pregnant does chase off their young from the previous year and start dropping spring fawns. Groups of wandering, inexperienced deer are more likely to feed and walk slowly along roadsides, oblivious to the dangers of oncoming vehicles.
On the human side of the equation, motorcyclists are especially vulnerable to serious injury in a deer collision. In 2002 only two percent of the cars and 1.3 percent of the utility trucks crashing into deer resulted in serious human injury or a fatality, but 75 percent of the motorcycle-deer crashes resulted in serious injury or death to the cyclist.
Drive to survive
Avoiding and surviving deer collisions is a mixture of luck, anticipation and preparation.
The State Patrol, insurance companies and the American Automobile Association (AAA) offered tips for minimizing the occurrence of collisions and the damage they cause:
- Stay aware and alert – That's the advice given by Dave Collins, Superintendent of the Wisconsin State Patrol. Deer are more active in fall. They move between resting and feeding areas at dawn and dusk when it is hard to see, and they blend into the landscape. Crash reports verify deer accidents are most likely to occur between 5-10 p.m. in fall and early winter; 8 p.m. to midnight in spring through summer.
- Slow down, heed road signs, and drive defensively – Roads that cut between forested patches, roadside brush, openings and valleys in farm fields form natural paths for deer. Road segments with histories of crashes are often marked with yellow deer crossing signs. Slow down to give yourself more time to react in these areas. Allow more space between vehicles. Wear safety belts and make sure all your passengers are buckled in.
- Watch for deer sign – Collins added that "reading" the landscape and using your peripheral vision to watch for reflections in deer's eyes or roadside movement can give you an early warning of nearby deer activity. If you have passengers, have them scan the road edge as well. If you see one deer, slow down. Deer often travel in groups: where one deer crosses the road, others will follow. Watch the deer and the roadside; slow down as best you can; and alert other vehicles with your lights and horn, which will also prompt the deer to keep moving or head back into the brush.
- Keep your car/truck in good repair – Check that your tires and brakes are in good condition and be sure headlights are properly aimed. Trucks and SUVs ride higher, so check that headlights hit the roadway evenly and don't shine in the eyes of oncoming traffic.
- Remain in your lane – "In an emergency situation, this can be the hardest piece of advice to practice, but it definitely saves lives," said Ted Gamble, president of AAA Wisconsin. Hit your brakes, hit your horn and hit the deer if you must, but don't swerve. The chances of serious injury are much greater when cars swerve to avoid a deer, Gamble said. Swerving into traffic and hitting an incoming vehicle, swerving to the side and hitting a fixed object, or leaving the road are all more dangerous than hitting a deer. Deer can accelerate from 0 to 30 mph in 1.5 seconds; if you continue in a straight line and brake, the deer may be gone before you reach the point of impact.
Collins observed that the driver's instinct is to avoid crashing into a deer. But to lessen the chance of serious injury, the driver needs to stay in control of the car or truck. Slipping into a ditch, swerving and causing the vehicle to roll, leaving the pavement, hitting a fixed object or crossing the center line and hitting another vehicle are all much more dangerous than the collisions people typically have with deer. As deer also scramble to avoid a collision the chance of a glancing blow is more common than a head-on, full body hit. Given the prevalence of large SUVs, trucks and minivans, it is also less likely a deer will come above the hood and crash into the windshield.
All the speakers agreed: The odds of surviving a crash and staying alive increase significantly when drivers keep their cool, don't swerve and stay in their lane.
Testing the deterrents
Given the growing nationwide deer herd and steady increase in vehicle traffic, "road ecology" is a serious consideration as highways, overpasses and ramps are designed and built. Across the nation, traffic engineers are experimenting with road designs and other features to make crossing safer for wildlife and people. Examining the effectiveness of those designs and sorting out manufacturers' claims to determine if deer deterrents are effective calls for analysis by a neutral source.
One reliable center for such information is the Deer-Vehicle Crash Information Clearinghouse (DVCIC) at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Funded by the Wisconsin Dept. of Transportation, the center compiles statistics about deer-vehicle crashes in Wisconsin, Minnesota, Michigan, Illinois and Iowa. DVCIC also evaluates the effectiveness of countermeasures designed to reduce such crashes. Center Director Keith Knapp of the UW-Madison Dept. of Civil Engineering and several graduate students recently completed a review of deterrents designed to reduce deer-car collisions. Here's what they said:
- In-vehicle technologies – Some new cars are being equipped with infrared or heat sensors that provide some night vision for drivers. Currently the technologies are costly (in excess of $2,500 as a vehicle option) and are largely untested.
- Deer whistles – Air-activated or electronic devices attached to the front vehicle bumper are supposed to emit sounds deer can hear from a distance, alerting them to an approaching car or truck. Research shows deer are sensitive to low sounds (2-6 kilohertz) below the range of human hearing. Only some of the deer whistles emit sounds in this range. The researchers did not find convincing evidence that deer hear and react to vehicle-mounted whistles, especially given other traffic noise. Such whistles may give drivers a false sense of security that deer will stay away from their moving vehicles.
- Roadside lighting – Additional lights do not appear to reduce deer accidents, change deer crossing patterns or reduce average vehicle speeds. The results are a bit surprising given that limited tests reported an 18 percent reduction in deer crashes per deer crossing on segments with additional lights. Adding and lighting a taxidermy mount of a full-size deer in the emergency lane did reduce car speeds by an average of eight mph, but more tests are needed.
- Speed limit reductions – This simple tactic hasn't been tested enough to reach conclusions. It appears drivers choose their operating speeds based on road conditions and roadway design more than posted speed limits in the absence of law enforcement.
- Road salt alternatives – Like people, animals are attracted to salt, and salt melts snow and ice, exposing vegetation that might attract deer. One study considered how salt concentrations attract moose to the roadside area. Whether road salt draws deer near road edges is largely unstudied.
- Artificial deer flagging – Whitetails raise their tails to expose the white underside as a warning. In one study wooden silhouettes of deer displaying this warning behavior were installed along a roadside. The field researchers concluded they had failed to demonstrate the models were effective in deterring deer from crossing roads or in reducing the number of deer along highway rights-of-way.
- Intercept feeding – Can an easy meal lure deer away from the roadside? "Intercept feeding" can reduce the likelihood of crashes for a short period of time, but long-term results are inconclusive. Several studies have shown the incidence of deer road kills is not proportional to the deer populations living near those roadsides. There is no research on whether deer become dependent on roadside feeding stations. If deer congregate at feeding stations, then this method would not be practical in regions affected by CWD (chronic wasting disease, which is spread by close contact between animals).
- Deer crossing signs and technologies – In a few places highway engineers have experimented with lighted signs warning of deer crossings or even radio collars on deer that trigger a lighted sign near the roadside warning drivers of deer activity. Researchers call for more testing or more designs before concluding if such approaches will slow down drivers and reduce the number of deer-vehicle collisions.
- Roadside reflectors and mirrors – If the bright light from headlights were reflected into the surrounding land, would deer freeze or change their behavior to avoid roads? Five of the 10 studies concluded reflectors don't reduce road kills or crashes; two concluded they did. The other three studies were inconclusive. In fact most of the studies evaluating deer reaction to reflected light were either inconclusive or suggested that deer did not appear to react to light quickly enough to change their habits and avoid the light patterns formed by oncoming vehicles. Researchers called for better designed, longer-term studies to evaluate this technique for dissuading deer from roadsides.
- Repellents – Repellents are "field tested" continually by homeowners, orchardists and others trying to keep deer away from their gardens, landscaping and livelihoods. There were no documented attempts to use repellents to deter deer from crossing or feeding by roadsides. Other repellent studies looked at kinds of repellents (predator, urine, odor, taste), how repellents were applied (sprays or pastes), concentrations, and effectiveness after rainfall. All repellents can reduce feeding somewhat, but studies haven't been repeated enough to make recommendations. Reviews of many kinds of repellents concluded that those leaving predator odors or putrescent odors like rotten eggs were more effective, but they haven't been tested to reduce roadside browsing. Further tests should be conducted at sites where deer-vehicle collisions frequently occur.
- Hunting and herd reduction – Reducing deer populations clearly reduces unwanted consequences like overbrowsing, but it is unknown if smaller herds proportionally reduce the number of crashes along roadsides.
- Driver information and education campaigns – The part of this equation most within human control is an attentive driver. Annual or more frequent reminders to motorists might change driving behavior during critical time periods. Awareness of the problem, suggestions to make motorists more attentive and strategies for minimizing damage all can help. Changing our driving habits to slow down in the seasons, times of day and locations when deer are especially active can save lives. Both deer and people need a little more reaction time to reduce the number of collisions.
- Curbing roadside vegetation – Some have speculated that natural vegetation or intentional plantings along roadsides may attract deer and increase the chance of a collision. Several studies have documented which plants deer prefer, and it is clear woody shrubs will encourage wildlife use. However, no study concludes that plantings increase the number of deer killed along roadways. Two studies showed cutting back vegetation at least 65 feet along railroad rights-of-way can reduce moose/train collisions but the costs, aesthetics and habitat loss of such programs need to be evaluated.
- Exclusionary fencing – Research shows erecting fences at least 8-10 feet high can reduce deer deaths by 60-97 percent. It is effective, but not a panacea. Fencing has consequences too. Quality fencing is expensive to install and maintain. It interrupts normal animal migrations for wildlife large and small. The restricted movement can isolate local populations of a species, which may create groups too small to survive or lead to inbreeding and a depletion of the gene pool. Fencing may not be attractive and must be designed with one-way gates to allow animals trapped in the road right-of-way to escape. Fencing is also impractical in very uneven terrain. All that being said, fencing will clearly continue as a strategy as roadways are built or expanded.
- Wildlife crossings – A newer strategy in road building and modification is to establish overpasses and underpasses where wildlife habitually cross roads along major transportation routes. These artificial structures should be located along natural paths commonly used by deer or other animals. Successful crossings aim to maintain natural vegetation at the entrances, natural ground cover within the structure, and minimize human contact with the wary wildlife. Research suggests underpasses must be at least seven-eight feet high and at least 20-25 feet wide. Overpasses that are square or hourglass shape and at least 100 feet wide at their narrowest point have been successful. Two current studies are evaluating crossing designs and sizes.
Improvements in road design and other safety features, while welcome, are not the sole solution to the problem of car-deer collisions. "No driver should rely on these countermeasures or get overly confident they will prevent an accident," Knapp said.
Alert drivers who proceed with caution at this time of year are still our best lines of defense to avoid collisions and increase the chances that both animal and people will survive the surprise encounter.
David L. Sperling edits Wisconsin Natural Resources magazine.
|How deer deterrents stack up|
Techniques with generally positive results
Techniques with conflicting results
Techniques used, but rarely studied
Speed limit reductions
Deer crossing signs and technology
Hunting and herd reduction
Roadside vegetation management
Techniques used and not studied
Salt de-icing alternatives
Public information/education campaigns
Techniques not generally used and rarely studied
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- pectoral (adj.)
- 1570s, "pertaining to the breast," from Latin pectoralis "of the breast," from pectus (genitive pectoris) "breast, chest," from PIE root *peg- "breast."
- pectoral (n.)
- early 15c., "ornament worn on the breast," from Middle French pectoral and directly from Latin pectorale "breastplate," noun use of neuter of adjective pectoralis (see pectoral (adj.)).
As a shortened form of pectoral muscle, attested from 1758. Slang shortening pec for this is first recorded 1966. Related: Pectorals; pecs.
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As The Indiana University – Bloomington Newsroom reports, “The Black Film Center/Archive will produce a new finding aid for the collection of Richard E. Norman, a pioneer in development of films for African-American audiences. Project staff, working in partnership with IU Libraries Digital Collections Services, will enhance this online resource with over 20,000 digitized items from the archive.
‘The Norman Collection constitutes a unique resource for the study of the formation of American cinema in general and the history of race films in particular,’ said Michael T. Martin, director of the Black Film Center/Archive and a professor of American studies and of communication and culture in The Media School. ‘Arguably, of no less importance to both histories as the Lincoln Motion Picture Co. and Micheaux Picture Corp. are, this grant ensures the preservation and access of our Norman holdings for current and future generations of researchers, film historians and the public, as it will be to the teaching mission of Indiana University.’
In the early 1900s, Norman, a southern-born white filmmaker, was among a small group of so-called race filmmakers who set out to produce black-oriented pictures to counteract the racist caricatures that had dominated cinema from its inception.
Norman began his filmmaking career in the Midwest before relocating his Norman Film Studios to Jacksonville, Fla., where from 1919 to 1928 he produced silent feature films featuring leading black actors and actresses. He cast his actors in positive roles such as a banker, businessman and cowboy, and not in demeaning roles often given to African Americans by Hollywood. In his 1926 feature, The Flying Ace, he notably depicted an African-American pilot in the U.S. Armed Forces — an impossible career in reality for a black man until 1940.
Apart from short fragments, all but one of Norman’s films are now lost, making the collection at IU even more important. His lone surviving film, “The Flying Ace,” was restored by the Library of Congress in 2010 and screened at IU in 2013 as part of the ‘Regeneration in Digital Contexts: Early Black Film’ conference.
Norman’s archive at IU — an extensive collection of his personal and professional correspondence, detailed theatrical distribution records, original shooting scripts and other records — is among the most important resources for the study of early African-American film and movie-going culture from 1912 to 1954. Norman ceased film production with the advent of the sound era, but he remained active in the motion picture industry as a distributor and owner of theaters.
‘Since the 2013 publication of Barbara Tepa Lupack’s scholarly biography on Norman, we’ve seen a surge of research interest in Norman’s collection from scholars internationally,’ said Brian Graney, archivist of the Black Film Center/Archive and principal investigator on the Norman project. ‘This support from NEH will greatly increase the discoverability of Norman’s records and make them readily available as digital resources for remote research and new forms of scholarship on African-American movie-going.’
The collection was donated by Norman’s son, Capt. Richard E. Norman Jr., to the Black Film Center/Archive under its founding director Phyllis Klotman, emeritus professor of African American and African diaspora studies, who died late last month.”
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The Zigong Salt History Museum is located on the middle of the Liberation Road, opposite from the Department of Cultural Affairs.
In 1959, at Deng Xiaoping’s suggestion, the Zigong Salt History Museum was built in the “Xiqing Assembly Hall” which was listed as an important cultural relic site under state-level protection by the Chinese Central Government. The Zigong Salt History Museum is the only salt history museum in China, and it is also one of the AAA state-level scenic spots.
Zigong Salt History Museum was built in 1959. This museum mainly collects and displays cultural relics and materials from Chinese salt history. It also does researches on them.
China has enormous experience in drilling wells, producing salt and using gas to make salt and has naturally achieved a high level in the salt industry. Exhibits in the museum cover the entire history of salt mining beginning from the Qin Dynasty. Here travelers can find many precious historical relics such as ancient drilling tools. The museum makes good use of advanced technology and uses various kinds of electronic displays to show the development history of the salt industry in Sichuan Province. There are also a large number of original tools and pictures.
Zigong Salt History Museum has made great achievements in Chinese salt history research. Many books have been published by the museum staff such as “The History of Chinese Well Salt Technology ”, “The History of Zigong Salt Industry”, “The History of Sichuan Salt Industry”,” The Study of Chinese Ancient Drilling Tools”. In addition, a journal , “The Study of Salt Industry”, has been issued by the museum staff throughout the country.
Because of the remarkable achievements in academic research and protection of historical relics, the Zigong Salt History Museum has been awarded successively the titles of “National Science Popularization Base” and “Sichuan Patriotic Education Base”.
There are two ancient buildings standing in the Zigong Salt History Museum. One is the “Xiqing Assembly Hall” which was built in the year of emperor Qianlong by the Shaanxi salt tradesmen, and the other is the “Wangye Miao Temple” which was built in the year of emperor Xianfeng also by the salt tradesmen. Both of the two buildings are appraised as important protected cultural relics of the province. The two buildings have a splendid exterior and exquisite internal structure and decoration. They represent the highest level of architectural technology of their age.
Travelers can take the city bus line 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 11, 31, 33, 34, 35 and 37 to get there.
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State House Democrats want to tighten regulations on 'fracking'
Eight Democrats in the Michigan House are introducing legislation to tighten regulations on a practice used by the oil and gas industry known as hydraulic fracturing, or "fracking."
The drilling technique is at the center of national environmental debates. It uses water and chemicals deep underground to harvest natural gas.
State Representative Jeff Irwin introduced one of the pieces of legislation. He says other states have had serious problems with fracking, like water pollution. He hopes the legislation will address two main concerns about fracking -- transparency and water use.
"We've seen problems with people's wells going dry because of the aggressive water use of these frackers," he said. "We've seen people's wells be poisoned because of the drilling involved in this fracking operation. Because of that, we felt we needed to protect the Great Lakes state, protect Great Lakes water and get the state of the art regulations for fracking here in Michigan."
The legislation would require companies to disclose the chemicals they use while drilling for natural gas. Iriwn says he wants the legislation to properly protect Michigan's water supply.
"We need to get the protection of our water quality right," he said. "The business of these companies is to make money, but the business of the state Legislature should be to make sure that when these companies are here in the state operating, that they do so in a way that's safe and that protects our water quality and that protects Great Lakes water from being taken out of the cycle forever."
Irwin says it can take up to 5 million gallons of water to frack a well once, and wells are often used ten to 20 times.
Industry groups say fracking is safe, and placing regulations on natural gas collection will restrict business.
Michigan Oil and Gas Association (MOGA) spokesperson Deb Muchmore responded to the legislation saying, "Michigan has been and continues to be a leader when it comes to producing clean natural gas from our state's own resources, while maintaining an outstanding track record of keeping the environment and communities clean and safe. At the same time, Michigan energy production is vital to our state's economy, supporting some 30,000 Michigan jobs and contributing about $3 billion to the state's economy."
"Importantly for Michigan, the package does not call for an all-out nonsensical, and job-killing ban, as some activists are advocating," Muchmore said, adding, "Michigan producers have used hydraulic fracturing for six decades."
That's only partly true. Vertical hydraulic fracturing has been used in Michigan for decades, but horizontal hydraulic fracturing is relatively new.
Horizontal hydraulic fracturing allows companies to drill down into the ground, and then turn the drillhead to fracture underground rock for miles. A much higher volume of water and chemicals is needed to drill these wells.
Here's a video on how this relatively new practice works:
- Sarah Kerson, Michigan Radio Newsroom & Jake Neher, MPRN
*This post has been updated
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What are the warning signs of a stroke?
Sudden weakness or numbness of the face, arm or leg, especially on one side of the body
Sudden confusion, trouble speaking or understanding
Sudden trouble seeing in one or both eyes
Sudden trouble walking, dizziness, loss of balance or coordination
Sudden, severe headaches with no known cause
Learn to recognize a stroke because time lost is brain lost. Today there are treatments that can reduce the risk of damage from the most common type of stroke, but only if you get help quickly — within 3 hours of your first symptoms.
Call 9-1-1 immediately if you experience these warning signs!
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the two main characters in the fairy tale Hansel and Gretel by the Brothers Grimm. Hansel and Gretel are a brother and sister who get lost in a forest. They find a house made of gingerbread, which is owned by an evil witch who likes to catch children and eat them. When the witch tries to cook Hansel, Gretel pushes her into the oven, and Hansel and Gretel escape with the witch's money and jewels.
Definition from the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Advanced Learner's Dictionary.
Dictionary pictures of the day
Do you know what each of these is called?
Click on any of the pictures above to find out what it is called.
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Loading, Please Wait...
Toronto: Have you heard of Chromosome 16? No, it is not an upcoming science-fiction film but stark reality where a missing copy of a region in Chromosome 16 in the human body can result in a 25-point intelligence quotient (IQ)-drop in the carrier, claim researchers.
Also, an addition of a copy in the same genomic region on chromosome 16 -- known to predispose to autistic spectrum disorders -- results in an approximate 16-point drop in IQ.
"Strangely enough, even if carriers show much differentiated sets of symptoms -- and sometimes no symptoms at all -- the specific effect of these two mutations seems to remain the same," said Dr Sebastien Jacquemont, a geneticist and clinical researcher at CHU Sainte-Justine health centre affiliated to University of Montreal.
According to him, to understand mental disorders, we must quantify the specific effect of each contributing gene mutation.
No autism is alike. This is also true of most mental disorders. "We now understand that each gene mutation has a specific effect which adds to other effects to draw a unique picture of the disease in each patient," Jacquemont noted in an article published in the renowned scientific journal JAMA Psychiatry.
To reach these conclusions, the team measured the intelligence of 700 family members who had at least one relative carrying the same genetic mutation on chromosome 16.
Even in the participants whose IQ was considered to be normal, the researchers found a substantial 25 points IQ drop induced by gene deletions.
"Indeed, it is quite common for mutation carriers to show no mental health problems," the study noted.
Each first-degree relative (parents, offspring and siblings) has 50 percent of their genetic code in common and, therefore, 50 percent of the genetic factors that partially determine cognition," Dr Jacquemont explained.
Further studies are needed to quantify the effect of all mutations associated with autism and characterise the additive effects that lead to this psychiatric disorder.
"No single mutation can cause the whole set of clinical signs shown by these patients," the scientist added. (IANS)
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Other Views: JFK’s legacy continues a half century later
Shortly after the assassination of President John F. Kennedy in Dallas on Nov. 22, 1963, CBS commentator Eric Sevareid noted his principal legacy might well be an “attitude,” a contagious spirit that all things are possible if only we have the vision and will. Kennedy had direct ties to Wisconsin: Victory in the 1960 primary was essential to his nomination.
In fact, JFK had important tangible accomplishments—as well as failures—during his brief tenure in office. Nonetheless, Sevareid was remarkably perceptive in emphasizing the emotional impacts of this president. His shocking, grotesque murder continues to reverberate in our collective lives.
The administration’s disastrous, failed invasion of Cuba at the Bay of Pigs dogged President Kennedy and provided Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev strong incentive to deploy offensive missiles on the island. Intense U.S. efforts to kill Fidel Castro, directly pressed by Attorney General Robert Kennedy, spurred Moscow.
This led to the Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962. In recent years, meetings between surviving officials from both sides in the confrontation have revealed that nuclear war was even closer than realized in that tense time.
The president resisted powerful pressures to attack Cuba. The missiles were forced out through a blockade, combined with a secret Cuba-Turkey missile trade.
In the aftermath of the missile crisis, Kennedy and Khrushchev achieved a treaty banning nuclear tests in the atmosphere. JFK had other successes with Congress, including international trade negotiation authority key to the 1967 Kennedy Round agreement.
Two domestic issues always on the front burner were civil rights and organized crime. JFK was careful on race relations, addressing the subject decisively only when pressed to do so by a massive public march on Washington. RFK was relentless in pursuit of the mafia, while simultaneously gangsters were recruited for the effort to kill Castro.
Sen. John Kennedy’s book “Profiles in Courage,” about U.S. senators who put principle above political expediency, received the Pulitzer Prize. Critics cracked unfairly that President Kennedy should show less profile and more courage. Professor Herbert Parmet has documented exceptionally serious health problems that plagued JFK from birth. Nonetheless, Kennedy enlisted in the U.S. Navy in World War II, then volunteered for hazardous PT boat duty.
Sevareid’s observation applies tangibly to the American space program. President Kennedy made a dramatic public commitment to a manned moon landing, including safe return to Earth.
Technological innovations resulted from the mammoth space effort, including extreme miniaturization of electronics. Every time you use a computer or cellphone, you’re saying hello to JFK.
Arthur I. Cyr is Clausen distinguished professor at Carthage College in Kenosha and author of the book “After the Cold War” (NYU Press). He can be reached at email@example.com.
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The importance of nutrition in the prevention of illness and disease has long been recognized. Now, attention has turned toward the healthcare professionals who serve a key role in promoting healthy eating.
Health professionals, including nutritionists and nurses, encounter nutrition issues every day. Nutrition is important in the care of obese people, critically ill patients, people with eating disorders, people with food allergies, and a wide range of other clinical problems.
“Many nutrition professionals are passionate about helping others with specific conditions; from diabetes to weight loss, anxiety and depression, to sports nutrition,” says Nicole Hodson, NC, executive director of the National Association of Nutrition Professionals (NANP). “The specializations within the field are broad and vast. While many nutrition professionals do focus on certain conditions, any nutrition professional is trained to assist with a multitude of health concerns.”
Value of Nutrition
In the past few decades, there has been increasing recognition of the value of prevention. Not only is public interest in nutrition on the rise, but soaring healthcare costs have many turning to healthy lifestyles as a solution.
According to the International Food Information Council’s 2011 Functional Foods/Foods for Health Consumer Trending Survey, a majority of Americans (87%) are interested in learning more about foods with benefits.
We have seen that even a basic education has done wonders in helping patients regain the ability to lose weight and have a better understanding on what it means to eat healthy.
With more people choosing to take charge of their health, there is a need for healthcare providers who can help guide them in meeting their nutrition goals. Health professionals are influential in motivating people to exercise and incorporate healthy foods into their diets.
A healthcare professional’s role in nutritional care varies depending on the job. Depending on the nature of the problem, a healthcare team might include physicians, nurses, nutritionists, dietitians, and others such as pharmacists, mental health counselors, and physical therapists.
Nutritionists are at the forefront of nutritional care. According to the NANP, a nutrition professional can advise, counsel, coordinate, educate, guide, inform, suggest, and support. A nutrition professional can develop a comprehensive nutrition program, including nutrition and lifestyle goals.
“Holistic nutrition professionals work with individuals to help them understand that good digestion and good health go hand-in-hand,” Hodson says. “Poor digestion is the precursor to countless illnesses, both directly and indirectly, and as such, can have a significant impact on body, mind, and spirit.”
Nurses and Nutrition
Meanwhile, nurses are becoming more involved in nutritional care, particularly health education.
“The nurse’s role in nutrition is two-fold and depends on the level of nurse,” says Dr. Cyndi Faudree, the lead faculty member for the Family Nurse Practitioner specialization in the Master of Science in Nursing program at South University. “The role of associate’s and bachelor’s level nurses (not advanced practice) is to assess and educate, not to treat. The advanced practitioner would develop a nutrition plan and tell the patient what to eat.”
Nurses are often the ones who spend the most time with the patient. Therefore, their understanding of nutrition is critical.
“[Nurses] make sure the gaps are filled for the patient,” Faudree says. “We make sure the patient truly understands what they should be doing.”
Nutritionists also work closely with patients. Like nurses and other healthcare providers, they must understand each patient’s unique needs.
“Nutritionists tend to work in a one-on-one environment, with a focus on the individual and a deep commitment to addressing each person’s biochemical individuality,” Hodson says. “Nutritionists operate with the understanding that what may be right for one individual may be completely inappropriate for another.”
In addition to physical diagnosis, condition, health history, and age, Faudree says practitioners should also consider a patient’s psychosocial status when developing a personalized nutrition plan.
“For example, I could tell a patient to eat more organic fruits and vegetables, however organic food is more expensive,” she says. “So, I must consider their psychosocial status or I am telling them to purchase products that are outside of their budget.”
Meeting people where they are has also sparked a growing effort toward community care. Community care focuses on individuals in their natural settings within their communities. Promoting nutrition and physical activity on the community level has proven effective. Health professionals in community-based settings are likely to have a major influence in the development of programs that promote nutrition.
Before coming to South University, Faudree was the program director for the AIM TO WINN program at Winn Army Community Hospital in Fort Stewart, Georgia. AIM TO WINN is a weight management program offering classes on nutrition, physical therapy, and behavioral health to men and women in the Winn military community. Faudree says active engagement between the public and healthcare professionals can make a positive impact.
“We have seen that even a basic education has done wonders in helping patients regain the ability to lose weight and have a better understanding on what it means to eat healthy,” she says.
Education is also essential in preparing healthcare professionals to provide nutritional care appropriately. An understanding of the basic principles of nutritional science is the foundation for which healthcare professionals can help improve patient health outcomes.
Author: Darice Britt
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New technology using rapid prototyping and development with 3D printing is giving visually impaired the ability to see objects and judge distance.
The design is not to give sight back, rather to take advantage of what sight the user has. It does this by sensing both depth and movement. Cameras and sensors pick up the objects in the room, they then display the objects in the room on a transparent OLED screen in a more basic colour and apply brightness to the objects that are closer and darken the objects that are further away, thus giving depth perception to the user that before would have been a blur. this greatly increases the users spacial awareness allowing them to navigate places like busy high streets with greater ease and awareness.
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Seizure Disorder, also known as epilepsy, can be a challenging and debilitating condition to live with. The condition only affects .05 percent of the population, but those who suffer from Seizure Disorder are often unable to work because of the affects the condition has on their physical capacity. The lack of an income due to this inability to work can result in serious financial devastation. Fortunately, Social Security Disability benefits are often able to alleviate some of the financial stress. If you suffer from Seizure Disorder and are wondering whether or not you might qualify for disability benefits from the Social Security Administration (SSA), the following information can help you understand the disability application process and how the SSA views Seizure Disorder in terms of disability.
Before applying for disability benefits with Seizure Disorder or epilepsy, be sure to have all the necessary medical documentation prepared for the SSA.
Seizure Disorder - Condition and Symptoms
In order for the brain to function properly, electrical impulses within the brain must be sequenced in an organized and coordinated manner. These electrical impulses allow the brain to send messages to the body's nerves, muscles and spinal cord. When a person suffers from a Seizure Disorder, the brains electrical impulses are disturbed, resulting in temporary brain dysfunction.
There are two common types of seizures including epileptic seizures and non-epileptic seizures. Epileptic seizures occur repeatedly and have no apparent trigger. When a person suffers from epileptic seizures it is referred to as Seizure Disorder. Non-epileptic seizures are triggered by an underlying condition, such as a fever or injury. These seizures are normally non-recurring and do not result in Seizure Disorder. Seizure Disorder can be caused by a variety of factors including genetics, birth defects, injury, medications, infections, low oxygen levels and low blood sugar.
The symptoms of Seizure Disorder vary from individual to individual. Many of the people who suffer from Seizure Disorder experience unusual sensations in the body before the seizure begins. Some experience uncontrollable shaking and a loss of consciousness. Others just stop moving, “blacking out” and becoming unaware of what is occurring around them.
When a doctor suspects that a patient is suffering from Seizure Disorder, he or she will take a variety of tests to diagnose the condition. Some of the tests performed may include brain imaging, blood tests and recording of the brain's electrical activity.
After a person has had a seizure they may experience a number of side effects including nausea, thirst, pain, headache and/or weakness. The seizures experienced by people who suffer from Seizure Disorder do not usually cause long-term damage. In some cases, however, severe seizures may cause brain damage and other complications.
While there is no cure for Seizure Disorder, treatment for Seizure Disorder is available. Medications can often be prescribed to help control the seizures, but not all patients will respond to treatment. Some cases of Seizure Disorder may be treated with restricted diet changes or, in severe cases, surgery.
Filing for Social Security Disability with Seizure Disorder
When applying for Social Security Disability benefits, the examiner reviewing your case refers to Social Security's “Blue Book” of qualifying disabilities. This listing of impairments includes a listing for Seizure Disorder under section 111.0. It is important to note that while this section of the Blue Book refers to Seizure Disorder in children, this does not mean that you will not be able to qualify for Social Security Disability benefits when applying as an adult.
When applying for Social Security Disability benefits based on a Seizure Disorder condition, you will need to prove to the SSA that your seizures are frequent enough and severe enough to prevent you from performing substantial gainful activity. This can be done by providing medical records documenting the dates of your seizures as well as any required medical treatment. Statements provided by your treating physicians may also assist you in your claim.
Seizure Disorder and Your Social Security Disability Case
If you are suffering from Seizure Disorder it may be difficult to obtain Social Security Disability benefits at the initial stage of the application process. If enough medical evidence isn't provided with your initial claim to prove the extent of your disabling condition, you will likely need to file an appeal in order to receive the disability benefits you are entitled to.
If you are filing and initial claim for Social Security Disability benefits or have already been denied, you should consider retaining the services of a qualified Social Security Disability attorney. Your attorney can assist you in obtaining the disability benefits you need. In fact, statistics show that applicants who have legal representation during any stage of the Social Security Disability claim process are more likely to be approved for benefits than those who do not have legal representation.
If you have been denied benefits and have not yet contacted a Social Security Disability attorney, do so as soon as possible. Remember, you only have 60 days to appeal the SSA's decision to deny your benefits and re-applying for benefits will only result in further delays.
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by Dr. Malachi York
The mission (Ninqi, Nergal, &
They are an elite race of beings who came from the 8th planet RIZQ in the 19th Galaxy ILLYUWN.
They travel through this galaxy by way of a planet ship named Nibiru: The Mother ship.
Nibiru was originally on a 25,920 year orbit called AAMS which was the distance from RIZQ to the planet Earth. Since the Anunnaki relocated to ORION it would now take them 3,600 years to travel to earth. This new orbit is called a SHAR.
And the rest, 300, the IGIGI stayed in and manned the craft MURDOQ or Nibiru also called MERKABAH. The Anunnaki were acting as intermediaries between earth and Nibiru. They stayed in Earth’s orbit because they were to deliver the process gold to the spaceships that would be stored on the dark side of Sheshqi (the moon) and Lahmu (mars).
This is where they constructed and loaded 30 mile long cylinder shaped crafts and transported gold and other resources back to their home planet RIZQ.
Frame 35ª72 showed what looked like a mile wide human face The “Face On Mars.” Nasa kept this quiet and wrote it off as “an oddity of light and shading.” Viking 2 landed September 3, 1976 A.D. 1,800 miles away from Viking 1. Space engineers Vincent Diperto and Greg Molenar, later checked into the Viking’s photo file, they discovered that 35 days later, on a different orbit and sun angle the Viking had caught the Martian “Sphinx” on Frame 70ª13.
The engineers enhanced the photo’s and came to the conclusion that the face was of artificial intelligence and that there was a huge 5 sided pyramid lying nearby. Richard C. Hoagland, a NASA scientist, made a claim that a place on Mars named Cydonia has the ruins of an entire Martian city full of pyramids, which are geometrically aligned with the face and the larger 5 sided pyramid.
These cities are remnants of an ancient “Egyptian” civilization.
They broke up into two groups of 300 each. 300 Anunnaki went north west and set up TILMUN : the city of ENLIL, also called NIPPUR, or KADESH - The holy pace, for they could not live with Enki and his disagreeable ways, so they stayed in touch with supreme beings: The Etherians.
The Other 300 Anunnaki broke up into 7 tribes and ENQI ruled them all from his kingdom called NOD (NUD). First the ship crashed down in the Arabian sea and moved to Iraq, and set up a home away from home in order to mine and they called that place ERIDU. ENQI was the ruler of QI (earth), that was a title belonging to NUDDIMUD. He, Enki named the city after his name; hence the city of NOD (NUD).
This city is the one that Cain of the bible went to. We asked the question : If Adam, Eve, and Cain were the only beings on the planet after Able’s death, then where the people of NOD come from?
Enki is the son of Anu and brother of ENLIL: Nunamnir which is his name.
These Anunnaki or Rizqians gave them advanced information on the creation of the solar system and all the planets in and out of this solar system. They also taught them how to build great cities, farming and how to build craft that fly in air. They had information about the solar system that scientist today are only now beginning to figure out.
The ancient Sumerians also had records of Primitive beings “lulu Amelu” who evoluted.
They spoke of conflicts between the Anunnaki about the mining, which led to the breeding or cloning from these evoluted beings on earth with the Shaggies also known as Enkiduites who were beings covered in fur from other galaxies (your “Big Foot”); and then even the splicing of genes of one of the Anunnaki called NINTI to put a divine intellect in the beings called Adamites.
And their capital was Nod. Remember that they original purpose here was to mine for gold.
The Anunnaki that were mining the gold consisted of two groups; 3 tribes making up the higher classes ruled by the Elohim NUSKU, who bore the title Gabriel and 4 tribes making up the lower classes ruled by the Elohim Anunnaki KALKAL also called the Angelic being ARIEL.
Instead they wanted to make a being to do their work for them. It was because of their royal birth and the laziness of these Anunnaki that the lower class, ruled by KALKAL, became dissatisfied and began to rebel against the higher class of Anunnaki, which in turn lead to a revolt led by KALKAL.
By this time Anu had given his son ENLIL orders to go to QI as a Yahuwa (YAHWEH), to see the works that his brother ENQI was doing; only to find QI (Earth) in chaos.
Enlil then sent war to his father Anu, by way of his messenger NUSKU, that there was a revolt and Anu sent word telling ENLIL to take over ruler-ship of QI. ENQI said “NO”: when asked to step down and bow to his brother and let his brother rule.
Enqi disagreed with his fathers wishes and said “I Am the oldest”. The Anunnaki feared there was going to be a war between the two brothers and their people, which would have destroyed the planet Earth. Enqi suggested that a being be created that would be the Abd meaning “servants” of the Anunnaki and work the mines for them . The other Anunnaki agreed.
And thus began the breeding of ADAM (Zakar) and HAWWAH (Nekaybaw), who were the first homo-sapiens.
Binding upon it the image - the inner genetic makeup - of the Anunnakqi themselves. They upgraded Genus Homo and “jumped the gun” on evolution and brought man - Homo Sapiens - into existence. This is why scientist can’t explain why homo sapiens has only been around for 49,000 years.
We, homo sapiens were not a process of evolution but a solution to a problem as mentioned in Genesis 2:5,
The word being used in hebrew for man is ADAM pronounced Aw-Dawm, this Adam was not a single person but rather what are called Adamah “Those who are of the ground” - a tribe of human beings called Adamites as found in Genesis 5:2
Thus this quote is referring to the primitive workers “Lulu Amelu” that were created to take over the mining on Qi.
This was done in a laboratory called SHIMTI meaning “House where the wind of life is breathed in”.
There was a conflict in Illyuwn between a Reptilian called Tarnush, also known as Zuen, and Murdow: son of Enqi and Ninqi, who is also the grandson of Anu who put him first in command. Zuen Or Humbaba ranked second after Murdoq, but didn’t agree with his being head of all the Eloheem (Rizqians) and felt it should have been him. This disagreement lead to a war involving the Planet Rizq.
Out of revenge, Tarnush attacked the planet Rizq with a shield depleter which was a bomb that caused the natural atmosphere to dwindle away.
He was successful and Tarnush and 1/3 of the planet that supported him were cast out from the planet Rizq never to return. They took residence in the planet Titan. Astronomers log Titan as a moon of Saturn however, this is incorrect. Titan is really a planet, a solid body, that is located near Saturn.
Bases were set up on the planet Lahmu (Mars) and on the dark side of the moon called Kingu. Once the gold was mined from the planet it was taken to the “dark-side” of the moon in cylindrical crafts and then the larger cylinder crafts built on the moon, transported the gold to the mother-plane Nibiru.
Nibiru is a planet ship now twice the size of the earth and was built by the Rizqians for this purpose.
For every Disagreeable Anunnaki there is an Agreeable counterpart and vice versa. They live together and overcome the disagreeable from outside. If 180 deg. of agreeable conquers the 180 deg. of disagreeable then they have 360 deg. of agreeable.
Then they will meet a counterpart that is 360 deg. of disagreeable and will have to conquer that and go on to become 720 degrees of agreeable and start their journey to become etherians who are pure Energy.
The “evolution” of the Anunnaki is different from humans. To go from the highest level, An Etherian to Anunnaki to Rizqiyian which is the lowest end. If The 360 deg. are conquered here, the Anunnaki becomes an Etherian again.
If the 360 deg of disagreeable conquers the being rules with the Luciferians.
Both cycles go full circle in which you either spiral up or down.
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MEDFORD/SOMERVILLE, Mass. - Colonoscopy is regarded as the most thorough way to screen for colon cancer but the potentially life-saving procedure can also be painful. Scientists and engineers are continually researching new methods of screening to reduce patient discomfort while also ensuring the accuracy of the exam. Researchers at Tufts University's School of Engineering led by Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering Caroline G.L. Cao, Ph.D., have developed a device that could potentially do both.
Tufts endoscopic fiber optic shape tracker (EFOST) technology is a possible solution to the problem that occurs when the endoscope is inserted into the colon during routine screening. As an endoscopist navigates the scope through the bends and turns in the colon, its tip can impinge against the colon wall.
When this happens, the tip becomes stationary and is unable to move forward. As the physician applies more pressure, a loop can form in the length of scope behind the tip. Because the traditional endoscope provides only a frontal view during the procedure, the doctor cannot see the loop, much less easily maneuver the scope to remove it. Not surprisingly, looping can be a major source of pain during a colonoscopy.
But by outfitting an endoscope with fiber optic bend sensors and digital electronics that display its position and shape on a video monitor, the Tufts engineers have built a system that could serve as a visual navigation tool, says Cao
"Doctors will have a way to see in real-time how the scope is moving inside the patient's body," says Cao. "If the scope begins to loop, they will see it instantaneously and then be able to make adjustments to straighten it out."
Bend Sensors to Create a Visual Image
Cao and Mechanical Engineering Research Associate Professor Peter Y. Wong, Ph.D, described their concept in a paper titled "Localized Active-Cladding Optical Fiber Bend Sensor" in June 2010 in the journal Optical Engineering.
Using a prototype, the Tufts engineers embedded quantum dots -- nano-sized crystals of semiconductor material -- circumferentially at intervals along the length of an optical fiber. The researchers stretched the fiber around a metal cylinder to create a bending effect. They then injected a laser light beam into the fiber's inner core from one end.
The fiber's core released light as it is bent. This activated the quantum dots. Instantly, the dots reemitted light signals of varying intensity to a spectrometer. With this data, the researchers were able to measure the degree of curvature in the fiber. From the position of the activated dots, the researchers were also able to calculate the direction of the bend. "The greater the bend, the more intense the light emissions," says Cao.
In a separate experiment, the team used an inanimate model colon made of polyurethane foam.. They inserted the modified fiber inside an endoscope and then threaded the device into the model. The researchers were able to produce a video image by sending the data through a digital processor which created a real-time image of the scope in the model colon.
Cao notes, "Physicians can use the image on the monitor to guide them. They'll know exactly where the end of the point is, as well as the shape of the scope inside the colon."
Colorectal cancer is the third leading cause of cancer-related deaths in the United States, with 102,900 new cases diagnosed in 2010, according to most recent estimates from the American Cancer Society.
Colon cancer has a high cure rate provided it is detected early. Most men and women are advised to undergo periodic colonoscopies beginning at age 50.
The commercialization of EFOST is being managed by Tufts University's Office for Technology Licensing and Industrial Collaboration. There are currently patents s pending in the USA, Canada, Europe, Japan and Australia. The next step, Cao says, is to acquire funding to launch a start-up company and then move on to further development of the technology, including eventual clinical trials.
This work was supported by a Broad Medical Research Grant from the Eli and Edythe L. Broad Foundation. The pending patents are jointly owned by Tufts University, University of Toronto and University Health Network Toronto.
Tufts University, located on three Massachusetts campuses in Boston, Medford/Somerville and Grafton, and in Talloires, France, is recognized among the premier research universities in the United States. Tufts enjoys a global reputation for academic excellence and for the preparation of students as leaders in a wide range of professions. A growing number of innovative teaching and research initiatives span all Tufts campuses, and collaboration among the faculty and students in the undergraduate, graduate and professional programs across the university's schools is widely encouraged.
Tufts University School of Engineering is dedicated to educating the technological leaders of tomorrow. Located on Tufts' Medford/Somerville campus, the School of Engineering offers a rigorous engineering education in an environment characterized by the best blending of a liberal arts college atmosphere with the intellectual and technological resources of a world-class research university. Close collaboration with the School of Arts and Sciences and the university's extraordinary collection of excellent professional schools creates a wealth of educational and research opportunities. The School of Engineering's primary goal is to educate engineers committed to the innovative and ethical application of technology in the solution of societal problems. It also seeks to be a leader among peer institutions in targeted areas of interdisciplinary research and education that impact the well-being and sustainability of society, including bioengineering, sustainability and innovation in engineering education.
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Here students used soft chalk pastels to draw a toucan from a photograph. Students learned about basic drawing skills, blending pastels and different transfer techniques. Students used a pastel paper for this piece. The finished projects turned out great, however I'm afraid my photography doesn't do them justice.
Friday, August 26, 2011
Friday, August 19, 2011
Have you tried printing in your classroom? I've done several variations of this lesson, and it's always a challenge, but we usually have nice results. I've always used a scratch foam sheet designed for kids. It has a soft surface, almost like that of a foam meat tray. A pencil, end of a paint brush, or stick can be used to "cut" your design. The problem I usually see is getting the students to hurry and make the print before the paint dries up on the foam. Also, there's the problem of the paint getting into the "grooves" resulting in poor image quality.
In this lesson, students created a mono-print self portrait, using Andy Warhol for inspiration. I introduced the color wheel; focusing on primary, secondary and complementary colors. Students drew their portraits on newsprint in pencil. I instructed students to place their drawing over the foam and secure with tape. Next, students traced their drawing, removed the paper and "deepened" their impression with a dull pencil or stick. A brayer was used to apply regular acrylic paint to the foam. Students then pressed the foam face down onto a thick quality paper, and then we mounted the printed squared onto sheet of paper. We also tried some prints on colored railroad board. This took one class period, and the foam can be reused several times-just clean off with a baby wipe. The prints above were created by a third grader and fourth grader.
Wednesday, August 17, 2011
Monday, August 15, 2011
This is a fun lesson that I did with one of my home school classes a couple years ago that I was reminded of after seeing a post over at Mary Making. Atlanta artist Kimmy Cantrell was our inspiration for these, along with various lessons I'd seen on other art lesson blogs. This lesson was completed over a two week time period because we had to have time for the clay to dry.
Materials we used:
8 x 10 canvas board
Acrylic paint and metallic paints
Texture tools and rubber stamps
Hardware like nails, screws, wire, etc.
First, have students create their design on paper. This is a great lesson to introduce clay, clay techniques, texture and abstract art. Roll out the clay and attach any pieces using proper clay techniques. Use texture tools and stamps on clay. Insert hardware and allow to dry for a couple days. After clay is dry paint the whole thing black and let dry completely. Paint over black with acrylic and metallic paints. We glued these to a canvas board painted black and then sealed it all with an acrylic.
Wednesday, August 10, 2011
I wrapped up my last two summer painting workshops this week with watermelon still life paintings in acrylic. I encouraged students to focus on the beautiful colors in our subject to inspire them in their paintings. Here's some highlights.
This group wanted to take a bite out of their watermelon before they painted it! Gotta love the creativity of a child! This was a younger group so we simplified and went for the whimsical look.
I always teach them to plan and practice before they start their paintings.
Sunday, August 7, 2011
I've seen the hope instilled in a child through art. I've seen their faces light up, their confidence grow, a dream set in their heart in an instant. I've heard story after story from parents about the impact that art has made in the lives of their children.
First and foremost, I always teach that God is the greatest Creator, and we are all created in His image! That is the hope I'm really trying to instill when I teach art classes.There are so many lessons you can teach about God while you're teaching art; how special He made us, how beautiful is His creation that inspires all art, and how God gives us each a gift and a purpose. The students I teach in my little world are blessed; they come from great families; go to top rated schools; and will probably never know what it's like to wake up hungry. But they still need this hope too, and I'm so blessed to be able to share it with them in my private art classes. Here is my dream..... I ran across this video on The Art Project Girl's post. It brought me to tears, and got me sooo excited at the same time! It gave me hope; sparked a dream. Just wanted to share it with you.
I'm praying that someday God will use me to impact those "at risk" children with no hope at all. Praying He will open the doors and light that path. I think there are so many people in the arts that would love to use their talents to bless children in this way!
I would love to hear how you bless others with your artistic abilities..
Monday, August 1, 2011
Here's a fun lesson to wrap up the summer-flip flops on a beach towel. My inspiration for this style of painting came from one of my favorite artists, Tricia Robinson, who I discovered at Seaside Beach in Florida. Her art is so fun and colorful!
This is a great lesson to teach texture, collage and color.
12 x 12 Canvas
I always have students plan and practice their design on paper first.
When design is ready, paint onto canvas in a light color.
I even let them trace their shoe if they wanted since this was not a "drawing" lesson.
I always try to keep it "fun" and not stressful
Outline all in black acrylic paint and let dry completely (doesn't take too long in this heat)
Using acrylic paint and gel medium, paint on a thick layer of paint
Tear paper and stick into paint or add texture or words with tools like fork, stamps, etc.
Possibilities are endless-add texture, add words, borders....
Don't forget to paint the edges and touch up your black lines at the end. These paintings took 2-1/2 hours to complete and the ages ranged from 7 to 12 years.
There are a lot of great books out there too for kids and art, and that introduce collage and papers into projects-I'd love to hear your favorites!
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Next Departure for Mars Stands Ready to Fly
CAPE CANAVERAL, Fla. -- A NASA robotic explorer equipped to dig up and analyze icy soil on Mars sits atop a 13-story tall stack of rocket engines prepared for liftoff before sunup on Saturday.
A Delta II launch vehicle will carry the Phoenix Mars Lander into Earth orbit and, about 90 minutes later, give it the push needed to send it to Mars. A three-week period when planetary positions are favorable for this launch begins with an opportunity at 2:26:34 a.m. PDT (5:26:34 a.m. EDT) on Aug. 4. A second opportunity the same day, if needed, will come at 3:02:59 a.m. PDT (6:02:59 a.m. EDT).
Image right: The planned landing site for NASA's Phoenix Mars Lander lies at a latitude on Mars equivalent to northern Alaska on Earth. Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Washington Univ. St. Louis/Univ. of Arizona
+ Full image and caption+ Podcast: Journey to the Martian North Pole
"We have worked for four years to get to this point, so we are all very excited," said Barry Goldstein, Phoenix project manager at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena. "Our attention after launch will be focused on flying the spacecraft to our selected landing site, preparing for surface operations, and continuing our relentless examination and testing for the all-important descent and landing on May 25 of next year."
Phoenix will travel 679 million kilometers (422 million miles) in an outward arc from Earth to Mars. It will determine whether icy soil on far northern Mars has conditions that have ever been suitable for life.
Studies of potential landing sites by spacecraft orbiting Mars led NASA to approve a site at 68.35 degrees north latitude -- the equivalent of northern Alaska -- and 233.0 degrees east longitude.
"Phoenix investigates the recent Odyssey discovery of near-surface ice in the northern plains on Mars," said Phoenix Principal Investigator Peter Smith of the University of Arizona, Tucson. "Our instruments are specially designed to find evidence for periodic melting of the ice and to assess whether this large region represents a habitable environment for Martian microbes."
The Phoenix mission was proposed in 2002 by an international team led by Smith. Twenty-four other teams also submitted proposals to be the first Mars Scout mission. NASA chose Phoenix in 2003. Phoenix uses a lander structure built for the 2001 Mars Surveyor mission, which was scaled down before launch to an orbiter-only mission.
"The spacecraft system and software development matured early in the program. This enabled us to thoroughly test a stable lander design over the entire integration and test schedule period," said Ed Sedivy, spacecraft program manager for Lockheed Martin Space Systems.
The Phoenix mission is led by Smith, with project management at the JPL and development partnership at Lockheed Martin Space Systems in Denver. The NASA Launch Services Program at Kennedy Space Center and the United Launch Alliance are responsible for the Delta II launch service. International contributions are provided by the Canadian Space Agency; the University of Neuchatel, Switzerland; the University of Copenhagen, Denmark; the Max Planck Institute, Germany; and the Finnish Meteorological Institute. JPL is a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena.
Additional information on Phoenix is available online at: http://www.nasa.gov/phoenix
. Additional information on NASA's Mars program is available online at: http://www.nasa.gov/mars
Dwayne Brown/Tabatha Thompson 202-358-1726/3895
NASA Headquarters, Washington
George Diller 321-867-2468
Kennedy Space Center, Fla.
Sara Hammond 520-419-8071
University of Arizona, Tucson
Guy Webster/D.C. Agle 818-354-6278/393-9011
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.
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Just 50 licences are issued each year to collect cockles on the Dee estuary
Warm weather, barnacles and algae are to blame for a spate of cockle deaths in the Dee Estuary, Environment Agency Wales (EAW) has said.
Officials said the they did not think the problems would prevent the fishery opening as normal on 1 July.
Warm weather has claimed the highest number of cockles, with up to 20% on the densest part of the beds suffering "post-spawning heat-related stress".
The EAW said it would do its "utmost" to protect the beds.
Investigations began following concerns by fishermen earlier this year.
The annual cockle season sees around 3,000 tonnes of the shellfish collected from the estuary, worth up to an estimated £1m a year to the fishing industry.
The EAW said the heat-related deaths were a natural occurrence, not uncommon, which started in Mid May.
Also, on about 1% of the beds "there is a very unusual infestation of barnacles which appears to have caused a high mortality (75%) of cockles".
On about 1% of the Thurstaton bed there is a "large quantity of algae which appears to have caused high cockle mortalities, more than 90%".
Alan Winstone, of EAW, said: "At the moment, we do not think that this will have an effect on the cockle fishery opening as normal on 1 July.
"We will keep a close eye on the situation but the recent cooler weather will mean that the deaths should decline in time.
"We believe this fishery plays an important part in the local economy and, as regulators of the beds, we will do our utmost to protect it."
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Scientists Have Created A Material So Dark, It Looks Like A Black HoleA team of scientists from the UK has developed a super-black material that absorbs all but 0.035% of visual light, setting a new world record for the darkest shade known to man. Christened "Vantablack," the "alien" material acts as a black hole for the eyes, going so far as to confuse the viewer and disorientate the brain, in some cases.
It's made from a coating of carbon nanotubes, each one 10,000 times thinner than a human hair, manufactured on top of a tinfoil surface. It's virtually impossible for light particles to penetrate it, so all shapes and contours are replaced by a gaping void wherever the material is placed. It's going to be particularly useful for calibrating high-end cameras where a deep black reference point is required.
The company behind Vantablack, Surrey NanoSystems, says it could be used for deep-space cameras and telescopes to more accurately capture the universe around us. As for a potentially mind-bending new version of the little black dress? The creators of the material say it would be very expensive and completely featureless: "It would just be something black passing through" says chief technical officer Ben Jensen.
Professor Stephen Westland of the University of Leeds told the Independent that the new materials "are pretty much as black as we can get, almost as close to a black hole as we could imagine."
The super-black material will be launched at the Farnborough International Air Show near London this week, and Surrey NanoSystems says it already has orders from firms in the defense and space sectors. In addition to its light-absorbing blackness, the Vantablack material has also been specially designed to be stronger, more durable and better at conducting heat than any other rival material.
"You expect to see the hills and all you can see... it's like black, like a hole, like there's nothing there. It just looks so strange," added Ben Jensen.
Have a question? Get it answered by AskMen's guyQ.
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was a pioneering reformer and founder of the adoptee support and
search network, Orphan Voyage, established in 1953. She was a talented
sculptor as well as a tireless activist trained in social
work. Born in Detroit in 1908, she had no difficulty obtaining
her own adoption records and original birth certificate, including
her birth parents’ names,
from the probate court in 1942. Several years later, she met her
birth mother, and the experience changed her forever. By the time
she began collecting the forty life stories that appeared in The
Adopted Break Silence, most states in the country had instituted
policies of confidentiality
and sealed records, making search
and reunion a virtual impossibility. Paton spent her adult life
seeking to overturn adoption secrecy and frequently took positions
well in advance of her contemporaries. She suggested the creation
of a mutual consent registry as early as 1949, for example, and
embraced the term “bastard” in the 1970s, declaring
“Bastards Are Beautiful” long before the era of Bastard
Nation. One of her most important arguments, evident in this
excerpt, was that forever considering adoptees as children made
the lifelong impact of adoption invisible. Hearing the voices of
adult adoptees, she believed, was essential to learning more about
the diversity of adoption experiences. Jean Paton died in 2002. For more on Paton, see Wayne Carp's blog, The Biography of Jean Paton.
Everyone except the adopted has been talking about adoption. About
certain parts of adoption, the parts that can be seen and the parts
that can be heard. The rest is silence—or was.
What other human institution has so little comment from those within
it? Of what other group is so much said from without and so little
from within? How has it been that the adopted seem to have had nothing
to say, whereas it is conspicuous herein that they have waited only
for an invitation, and that their thoughts have been long?
These questions put us to wondering if there is not some taboo
within the institution of adoption which serves to forbid or at
least to discourage speech. . . .
These obstacles to the understanding of adoption cannot be moved.
The adopted, and their natural and adopted parents, must themselves
come to a solution without benefit of a general understanding. Let
them look away from their paralyzing silences and their secrets
and see whether speech has something to offer them. . . .
In August of 1953, we decided to attempt to get in touch with other
adopted adults, and to obtain reports of the adoptions. We had no
knowledge that any similar effort had been attempted, but felt that
it was more than possible that many adults besides ourselves had
outspoken views on the subject of adoption, and that, if properly
approached, they would cooperate. In order to give some beginning
effect to our attempt we established, in informal fashion, the Life
History Study Center and assigned to it the task of gathering and
publishing such material. The Center’s name was selected in
order to give emphasis to the view that adoption—among other
human institutions—is a process which influences an individual
life for many years beyond its initiation.
For the first request, we selected a medium which was available
at moderate cost and one through which we hoped to reach a sufficient
number of responsive adopted people. The following notice was inserted,
for 7 weeks, between September 19 and November 14 in the Personals
Column of the classified advertising section of the Saturday
Review of Literature.
“Were you adopted before 1932? Your experience may assist
research in adoption from the point of view of experienced adult.
For details write: Life History Study Center, 222 N. Hicks St.,
Philadelphia 2, Penna.” . . .
It was our hope, by these procedures, to obtain source material;
to learn as directly as possible the nature of the elements in the
fringe around the group known as “the adopted”; and
to moderate all individual prejudice (including our own) while at
the same time emphasizing the fact that the adoptive status is properly
a matter of adult concern and should so be considered in all studies
and methods. Beyond this, it seemed good that the people most directly
involved with an institution should take voice concerning it. . . .
DID THESE ADOPTIONS “WORK”?
Group A (It worked) 5 men; 17 women
I was loved and treated as their own child.
It has always seemed logical, natural, and undoubtedly was beneficial.
The adopted parents were wise and loving people. Also I was 12
years old at the time of the adoption.
To me, my adopted parents are my real parents. . . .
Next, Advantages received:
Any alternative possible would have been institutional life. My
adopted parents were fine people. I was carefully brought up as
their own, given a university education.
I received opportunities (college education, travel, etc.) which
I’m sure I wouldn’t have received from my real parent.
Although I have no idea what my life would have been if my mother
had kept me, I have never doubted that I fared better by being adopted. . . .
Group B (It did and it didn’t) 5 men;
So hard to say—generally I would say it had its moments,
as a small child and before I really knew what things were all about.
Adolescence was awful, marriage. . .and then a return
and a fairly pleasant relationship until their death.
What shall be the criteria? A happy, wholesome relationship, or
the production of a useful, fairly well-adjusted individual? The
relationship was neither wholesome nor happy, but I have lived on,
finished college, married. . . We have two sons.
I was given a fine education, a most comfortable home and, in material
things, pretty much what I desired. And you might say it didn’t
work in that within a week after my 21st birthday, I had to leave
home. My foster parents and I have not seen each other since. . . .
Group C (It didn’t work) 4 men; 5
I didn’t like my foster parents, and it is my belief they
didn’t like me.
It seemed to me they took me as an obligation and only as a maid
in the home.
Foster parent inadequacy (illustrated in reports):
My foster parents separated when I was 12 years old after battling
for many years. I have supported myself from age 15.
My foster mother was and is a psychopath with whom I had and have
absolutely nothing in common. She is a brutal and domineering woman.
My foster mother was emotionally unfitted to rear a child. Left
me with a feeling of insecurity and an inferiority complex. Made
for an unhappy childhood.
It didn’t work for the reason that the people that adopted
me were emotionally immature.
Subjective elements and apparent misplacements:
Too pronounced a gap between intellectual level of foster-parents
and that of the child. Too much religious fanaticism on part of
foster-mother, with the inevitable concomitant of authoritarianism,
I am not secure. I know very little about my background.
My experience as an adopted person has seemed neither tragic nor
traumatic to me. In this regard I have been fortunate, more fortunate
than many adopted persons, and many persons who were [not] adopted
but born into families who did not truly want them. Living is a
series of circumstances.
My family position has always been secure; in the community, I
have never encountered any situation where my adoptive status has
made me feel insecure. Even as a child, I can recall no situation
where I was taunted for being adopted. . . . I think
that I became so well adjusted to the situation that I am unable
to answer your final questions. I suppose the important thing to
adopted people is that the adoption work out so well that you never
think of yourself as being adopted. . . .
It is very difficult to say which problems of one’s life
may be ascribed to being an adopted person. Some, I think, would
take the experience in stride; others would go to pieces. But then,
would these particular persons have been very different if they
had had “normal” lives?
On the whole I think it is certainly preferable for a deserted
or unwanted child to be given the advantages of a family rather
than an institutional life. At the time I was adopted I think that
there was probably little attention paid to “matching”
the parties involved. With the personality and other tests which
are available today they are probably doing a better job. . . .
I would have preferred to have had parents who really wanted a
child. My own parents never needed me, I was left in their hands.
I am now forced to be grateful for something I never asked for and
never wanted. I feel that children who are adopted should, since
early age, be told of their adoption. They should also be told that
they are wanted and loved. Affection makes a child feel secure.
I don’t think children should be adopted by wealthy people,
not unless in extraordinary cases. The wealthier the parents, the
more a child feels like a luxury toy, or the victim of people’s
wish to show off their 'kindness'. . . .
Adoption of a child is something that should be approached with
care. Only kind, intelligent people should adopt children. It is
quite a problem to cope with an adopted child because we are all
so different. What might hurt me, wouldn’t have hurt another,
and so on. . . .
I do not believe that I lived through the years of torment I have
described simply because I was an adopted child. The desire to belong
is universal and everyone, who, through any set of circumstances,
has lost his home moorings, or been deprived of them, has that longing.
One finds it just as tragically present in the thousands of past-middle-age
men and women who have lost their mates, whose children no longer
need them, as one does among children. The natural moorings are
gone and they can’t seem to realize, or haven’t made
the effort to establish them, that there are real substitutes. We
have compassion, sympathy, and understanding, usually, as experience
has taught us the need for such qualities. I don’t think the
adopted are a heterogeneous group. I think some have experiences
which they can share and find mutual help in the sharing. But they
are experiences which they might just as profitably share with others,
who, while not adopted, for one reason or another feel alone. I
think we can help children who are adopted, or have been, by helping
them to realize that their position is not un-natural and not unique.
Some are very happy, well adjusted and content—some are not,
but so, too, it is with children and adults everywhere. . . .
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What We Know
Research suggests that grouping students based on their academic and affective
needs can be a valuable tool for instruction. The arrangements of students
should be for short-term activities and students' progress must be monitored
to ensure that they are appropriately placed. More than grouping, however,
content has a greater effect on student achievement (Mosteller, Light, &
Sachs, 1996). The implication of the research is that quality instruction is
organized around essential concepts, principles and skills that are the goals
and focus for all learners (Tomlinson, 1999).
Assessment through different means, including journals, class discussions and
test scores, allows teachers to determine at the start of a unit or lesson an
appropriate entry point for each student. The need-based arrangements should
remain fluid, so that evidence of an individual student's progress or
difficulty results in a change in grouping for that student (Cotton, 1995;
Kame'enui & Simmons, 1998).
Research has shown that long-term ability grouping or tracking for struggling
learners yields inequity. Diminished expectations, simplified materials and
discussions and negative labeling curbs students' motivation and self-esteem,
resulting in performance that is lower than when students receive appropriate
support within heterogeneous groups. Yet a significant number of studies
indicate that advanced learners do benefit from homogeneous groups when a
combination of acceleration and enrichment is provided (e.g. Kulik & Kulik,
1997; Delacourt et al, 1994; Shore et al, 1991). However, Kulik and Kulik
(1997) also found that for students at all ability levels, curricular
differentiation for different groups--not ability grouping--has a positive
impact on student achievement. The best practice, then, is differentiated
instruction for all learners. A differentiated classroom shifts from class to
small group to individual work regularly. Need-based grouping arrangements are
used for practice and reinforcement. Other activities that tap a variety of
learning modalities and incorporate heterogeneous cooperative learning groups,
however, are equally important (Tomlinson, 1999).
It is important to note that learners benefit from an appropriately high level
of challenge and skill, particularly when the problems and concepts are
perceived by students to be interesting and necessary (Csikszentmihalyi,
Rathunde & Whalen, 1993).
Grouping is the practice of organizing students into small groups to
Differentiated Instruction describes instruction differentiated
according to learner needs.
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Queen Thurston remembers her 1940s childhood in West Oakland with fondness, and a little nostalgia. She'd come "home right after school, do her homework, then head out with a dozen or more friends and roller skate all over the neighborhood until it got dark, and sometimes later.
"The kids used to all get along," recalled Thurston, 79. "It's not like today. Families were intact back then."
The "back then" of Thurston's memory is just one thread in the fabric of African-American history that the nation began commemorating Tuesday as part of Black History Month. The United States and Canada made it official in 1976, when Negro History Week was expanded to a monthlong period of observation and remembrance of the struggles and achievements of African-Americans. Other calendar dates are set aside to celebrate Mexican, Filipino, Tibetan, Jewish and Irish histories.
Black History Month events are scheduled throughout the Bay Area over the next four weeks as churches, bookstores, museums and community centers such as the West Oakland Senior Center, where Thurston is a member, do their part to reactivate this chapter of the American story.
Perhaps never before has the Afri-
can-American story been so fraught with contradictions. President Barack Obama's election shattered a moral and racial barrier, and it crystallized centuries of African-American progress. Black history is now, more than ever before, American history. At the same time, however, black America is a fragmented notion. Disparities between the wealthy elite, the growing middle class and the disenfranchised urban poor are starker than ever.
Oakland, a bastion of proud black history, is also an epicenter of its fragmentation. According to a study released this week by the Violence Policy Center in Washington, D.C., Alameda County is the second-deadliest county in California per capita for youths ages 10 to 24, trailing only Monterey County. This is particularly true for young African-American men, who are 14 times as likely as their white counterparts to die violent deaths, most often by handgun.
Increasingly, experts say they think the best way to mitigate this violence is to emphasize to youths the importance of elders, mentors and a sense of place in a larger history. As Black History Month begins, elders in the community are speaking about what they have learned -- and what they can offer.
For Thurston and other members of the West Oakland Senior Center, some of whom grew up and spent most of their lives in West Oakland, their history has been too forgotten, and much too soon.
"The younger generation seems to be cut off from knowing all the contributions blacks have made," said Thurston, who studies African civilizations in a local group. She hopes to pass that knowledge on to her 16 grandchildren, five great-grandchildren and one great-great-granddaughter. "A lot of these children today have missed out on knowing that there was a lot of greatness that came out of the black community."
A common refrain among an older generation of African-Americans in Oakland has to do with the slow erosion of the social webbing that bound their communities together as children.
"We respected our parents to the utmost," said Sandra Johnson Simon, a 61-year old lifelong resident of West Oakland, "Nowadays, to me, it seems like a lot of these kids don't understand the definition of family."
Elizabeth Webb agreed, though she wondered whether her generation has played a role in mismanaging how the message of struggle and eventual liberation was conveyed to today's youths. "A lot of our young people don't seem to understand our struggle, which is sad, and I don't know whether we didn't do our jobs, but they're not aware of what we had to go through to get here."
Webb, who is 78, moved to Oakland in 1962 and became politically active in the civil rights movement. She marched.
She began to teach herself the African-American history that she had never been exposed to in Detroit, where she grew up. She belongs to the Black History Committee at her Berkeley church. In addition, she's in charge of tracing her family's genealogy.
"From the time my people came here as slaves, and we were separated with no identity, we had to adapt to a strange language, and to do that takes a lot of strength," she said.
"I'm proud of that, proud my people could withstand that."
Still, for many older Oakland residents, this month also represents a time to take stock of what has gone wrong, and how best to fix it.
James Brooks moved to Oakland in 1979, the year before the crack epidemic hit the city and catapulted thousands of African-American families into poverty and misery. By 1985, crack had already wreaked a heavy toll. Brooks was president of the black student union at Laney College that year.
"When drugs started, we became anesthetized as people," he said. "When you lose a sense of community, people can be killed all around you and it doesn't affect you as much."
Brooks and many of the other members of the West Oakland Senior Center say they think that this month is an opportunity to remember the past -- but also to remember how their childhood values are still applicable.
"These days, we'll see a child do something inappropriate and we won't take the time to reprimand that child," he lamented. "When that happens, a whole generation of youth comes up not knowing who elders are."
That's important, these elders say, because even in an era when Obama can be president and Oprah Winfrey a kingmaker, the role of all those old-fashioned institutions like family, school and neighborhood are critical.
At 72, Pauline Brooks is an elder, but she's a baby to Oakland. She moved here in 1993, after her Los Angeles business was destroyed in the Rodney King riots in 1991. She grew up in New Jersey and marched on Washington with Martin Luther King Jr. Her brother, Dr. Frank Napier, was the superintendent of schools in Patterson, N.J., and the man who hired Joe Louis Clark to save his school. The saga was chronicled in the film "Lean On Me," starring Morgan Freeman.
"The violence of today is just one side of things," Brooks said. "There are very many African-Americans who are very much on target."
Brooks says what's happening in the African-American community is just a mirror of what's happening across the broader society.
"We've come a long way, but we've still got a long way to go."
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© Gifu Prefecture Tourist FederationOgaki Castle (Ogaki-jo) came to be a full-scale defensive structure when the already existing fortress was expanded around the middle of the 16th century. In 1585, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who was ruling Japan, recognized the strategic importance of the site, and had the donjon built. Besides the four-tiered, four-storied donjon, there are many turrets and castle gates, and the donjon was designated a National Treasure in 1936. It was destroyed by fire, however, in the air raids of 1945 during WWII. The existing donjon was rebuilt in 1959. It houses a museum on the first to third floors, which exhibits various information on this region and has a space for children dedicated to the theme of science. The fourth floor is an observation level.</p>
Address: 2-52 Kuruwa-machi, Ogaki-shi, Gifu
Admission Fee: 100 yen
Closed: Tuesdays(If Tuesday is a national holiday,Wednesday)
Next days of national holidays
Dec. 29-Jan. 3
[Walk]JR Ogaki Station/On foot/10 min.
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Guest Author - Connie Krochmal
Melon cacti are among the most attractive species.
Also known as melon thistle, these are best known for their prominent cephalium. In these species, this assumes the form of a dense woolly cap at the top of the plant. This emerges when plants are mature. It can take several years, typically about five years, to begin to take form. Some species are slower than others. The cephalium can essentially be defined as the flower-bearing cap which arises from the apex of the plant where spines and hairs are particularly concentrated. New growth arises from this point. The cephalium is covered with either wool, hair, or bristles.
The melon cacti can range in color from deep green to blue green or even gray green. These vary somewhat in size according to the species up to three feet tall with a diameter of about half the height.
The spines occur in clusters along the ribs. These can vary in color from white or tan to reddish-brown or even black or yellow. ome species will have offsets.
The small bell-like flowers vary widely in color from pink or purple to red or orange. These open during the spring and summer months on short tubes. They appear in a ring around the cephalium. With a few exceptions, these plants can be challenging to grow. Use a shallow pot as they have short root systems. These cacti will need full sun.
This needs a very light, coarse, well drained soil. One rich in organic matter or humus is good. Fertilize about every three weeks or so during the summer. But, only use about ¼ the strength listed on the fertilizer label.
During the winter, keep the temperatures warm and the humidity high. These thrive under humid conditions. Reduce watering somewhat for the winter months.
Melocactus will not need repotting once they develop a cephalium and reach a mature size. Their roots are fragile. So, it is best to leave them undisturbed.
These are grown from seed as well as grafting.
Several species of melon cactus are in cultivation. These include
Turks cap cactus (Melocactus intortus) This can reach three feet in height. The cephalium is rather elongated. Its blooms are pink.
Another species is also known as Turk’s cap (Melocactus bahiensis). Native to Brazil, this is deep green. It has a rounded body that becomes more elongated in maturity. There are around a dozen widely spaced ribs. It can reach around six inches across and four inches or so in height. This species has a very large, pronounced cephalium that covers the entire upper portion of the plant. In older plants, this can actually divide into segments. The spines are white, tan, or brownish. The pink blooms are rather small. Later, these will produce little berries that ripen to red. This plant is very slow growing and needs a very quick draining soil. Don’t let the temperature fall below 60 to 65 degrees Fahrenheit.
Melocactus matanzanus is a very low growing miniature. This only reaches about four inches in height. It tends to have a faster growth rate than some and quicker to bloom—in about five years. This one is considered easier to grow than most of the others.
Melocactus concinnus is native to Brazil. This is a rounded plant with closely spaced ribs. It is rather small, only four inches tall with a slightly larger spread. Along the ribs are clusters of spines that are initially red and mature to white. The cephalium is short but very pronounced, covering the entire apex. This has reddish bristles and white woolly growth. The red blooms are large—nearly three inches across. The berry-like fruits ripen to blue-pinkish or red. This needs a dry soil. Propagate by seed. This can be grown in a small pot.
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Guide to forest reproductive material
Whatever your role or interest in forest reproductive material, you will need to have an understanding of how it "works" biologically. A basic knowledge may be adequate, but it may need to be advanced. The way trees and forests reproduce is, on the one hand, quite simple to understand - but the more you need to work in detail, the more complicated it becomes. The need for a scientific understanding to underpin your work is probably greatest in this branch of forestry than any other. The relevant sciences are biology, silviculture and genetics that are listed below with their main topics.
Knowledge of tree seed and vegetative reproductive biology is fundamental. Good techniques of selection, collection, testing, storage, etc. as well as the other applied sciences of silviculture and genetic improvement depend on a good understanding of their biological basis. The key topics are: basic cellular processes; taxonomy of the flowering plants; form and development of trees; vegetative growth; formation of flowers, flower structure and function (pollination and fertilisation), fruit development, seed development, fruit maturity and seed dispersal; conditions for seed germination, germination processes, and seedling growth and development. Most textbooks on plant propagation or seed handling will have sections on seed biology.
Silviculture applies biological knowledge so as to use and improve trees and forests for the goods and services they provide. Key topics are: climate environment; ecological systems - structure, functions and processes (especially natural regeneration); context and objectives of silviculture; silvicultural systems in natural forest (i.e.encouraging regeneration of selected species, improving growth, control of pests etc); afforestation methods (artificial regeneration); species and provenance selection; plant production including nursery techniques; plantation techniques (e.g. plant density, thinning, pruning, weeding, etc.); harvesting methods; and individual species ecology and silviculture. Silvicultural textbooks may have detailed notes about individual species, and their reproduction.
Genetics combines both biology and silviculture to understand and improve the quality and quantity of tree and forest goods and services that are under genetic control. Topics include: basic genetic principles and concepts; population genetics (selection, mutation, migration, isolation); controlled pollination; vegetative propagation; establishment and measurement of test plantations (species, provenance, clonal etc); breeding methods; seed orchards and management; species and provenance testing; hybridisation; advanced techniques, including genetic engineering. Genetics textbooks may include information on biology.
Of course, these are not the only sciences required for successful use of forest reproductive material - social, managerial, economic, and political sciences will also be essential - but they must be applied to a foundation of sound, applied, biological knowledge.SeeFinding out more - Selected references - Generalfor some helpful basic texts on the above sciences.
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From Hercles, Italic pronunciation of the name Heracles. His was perhaps the earliest foreign cult to be received in Rome, the Ara Maxima, which was his most ancient place of worship, being within the pomerium of the Palatine settlement. The probable intention was to put the commercial forum Boarium, in which it stood, under the protection of a god better known than the local deities. His cult had become very popular with merchants, no doubt because of his supposed ability to avert evil (see heracles) and the long journeys involved in his Labours and other exploits. It was common to pay him a tithe of the profits of an enterprise. In his worship at the Ara Maxima no other god was mentioned; women and dogs were excluded. The sacrificial meat had to be eaten or burnt daily: hence the popularity of the sanctuary.
Subjects: Classical Studies — Religion.
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Want a closer and more in-focus look at the red planet?
Now you can get one thanks to a billion-pixel view of Mars, thanks to NASA and Mars rover Curiosity.
This is the first NASA-produced view from the surface of Mars larger than one billion pixels stitches together nearly 900 exposures taken by cameras onboard Curiosity and shows details of the landscape along the rover's route.
The 1.3-billion-pixel image is available for perusal with pan and zoom tools at: http://mars.nasa.gov/bp1/ .
The full-circle scene surrounds the site where Curiosity collected its first scoops of dusty sand at a windblown patch called "Rocknest," and extends to Mount Sharp on the horizon.
"It gives a sense of place and really shows off the cameras' capabilities," said Bob Deen of the Multi-Mission Image Processing Laboratory at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif. "You can see the context and also zoom in to see very fine details."
Deen assembled the product using 850 frames from the telephoto camera of Curiosity's Mast Camera instrument, supplemented with 21 frames from the Mastcam's wider-angle camera and 25 black-and-white frames -- mostly of the rover itself -- from the Navigation Camera. The images were taken on several different Mars days between Oct. 5 and Nov. 16, 2012.
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Authors: Ranganath G Kulkarni
Equivalence of mass and energy relation can be proved by Newtonian mechanics. The law of conservation of energy necessitates to assume that when the body moves increase in mass of the body is real so total energy of the body measured by all observers is same irrespective of their state of motion. Second postulate of theory of relativity can be proved. But theory of relativity is not correct. Mass and time are absolute quantities. This also indicates that nature has upper limit for velocity and absolute frame of reference exists.
Comments: 16 Pages.
[v1] 2011-12-19 23:48:22
Unique-IP document downloads: 159 times
Add your own feedback and questions here:
You are equally welcome to be positive or negative about any paper but please be polite. If you are being critical you must mention at least one specific error, otherwise your comment will be deleted as unhelpful.
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Causes of Double Vision or Diplopia
There are two possible and different causes:
- The most common cause of double vision is misalignment of the two eyes due to functional problems in the visual system. This web page contains complete information on this type of double vision: binocular diplopia.
- A structural defect in the eye's optical system is a much less common cause of double vision. Cataracts, for example, might cause such a defect. In this case, diplopia can appear in only one eye; this is called monocular diplopia.
Double vision can be a symptom of many different
visual conditions that affect children and adults,
such as strabismus
(eye turns: exotropia,
insufficiency or visual
conditions related to head injuries.
What is Double Vision? (Binocular Diplopia)
If the two eyes are misaligned and aim at different targets, two non-matching images will be sent to the viewer's brain. When the brain accepts and uses two non-matching images at the same time, double vision results.
Double vision is dangerous to survival, so, the brain naturally guards against
its occurrence. In an attempt to avoid double
vision, the brain will eventually disregard one
of the mismatching images. That is, the brain
will ignore one eye (called suppression).
Due to the brain's ability to suppress one eye, a person's
double vision can appear to go away without medical
evaluation or treatment. Bear in mind that the
causes of the double vision are very likely still
present and that loss of vision in one eye has
probably occurred due to lack of treatment. When vision in one eye is lost, the person has also lost normal depth perception and stereo vision. However, the
loss of vision could be temporary and treatable.
Double vision is not a minor complaint! When double vision occurs, seek a complete visual evaluation from a specialist in binocular (two-eyed) vision.
Treatment of Double Vision.
Treatment options include:
Eye Muscle Surgery
Orthoptics -- Pre- and/or post-surgical
Vision Therapy -- Non-surgical or in conjunction with surgery, as appropriate (includes the use prism lenses).
Read parents' and patients' stories about getting rid of double vision with Vision Therapy at Double Vision Success Stories.
Double Vision and Head Injuries.
As mentioned above, double vision can occur as a result of an accident or head trauma. Double vision following a head trauma or brain injury can be cured. It is important to locate a specialist in binocular vision (two-eyed vision). Many eye doctors will offer only surgery. Be aware that effective non-surgical rehabilitation is available! Request a referral through Find a Doctor and ask specifically whether the doctor provides visual rehabilitation of brain injuries or neuro-optometric rehabilitation.
Double Vision and Lazy Eye (Amblyopia)
If an eye turn is constant in infants or children,
the suppressed eye can become amblyopic (lazy eye)
from non-use. Amblyopia causes more visual loss
in the under 40 group than all the injuries and
diseases combined in this age group. Amblyopia also
causes a loss of depth perception and stereo vision
Although suppression of double vision can cause lazy eye, it is very important to understand that there are various causes and treatments for double vision and that crossed eyes and lazy eye are not the same condition.
What is Constant or Intermittent?What is Convergence Insufficiency?
What is Lazy Eye?
What is Strabismus?
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Wednesday, October 31, 2007
I thought I'd start off my post with a descripting of a demo that I've just constructed.
A common textbook problem is the acceleration of two carts joined together with string to a mass hanging over a pull, and the tension in the connecting strings. Many students incorrectly assume the tension in the two strings is the same, which it isn't. It's pretty easy to show mathmatically that the tension differs, but it's always nice to be able to show physically that something is true. After a checking on the UMD demo room page and a couple other demo room sites I found that surprisingly, no one does this demo.
Here we use a system from Vernier, which has force sensors which can display their output on the computer screen, which is projected so the entire class can see it. To show the tensions, you want two sensors mounted on one cart since it's clearer that way that they're the same. Unfortunately, there's no standard mounting plate that allows you to do that. I ended up building a pair of 2"x5" plates with two 1/4" diameter posts sticking up from each one that the force sensors can clamp onto.
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October 18, 2012
A huge array of terrible effects have been attributed to Gardasil. They were predictable—and we’re likely to see many more over the next few years. Here’s why it could, and should, have been predicted.
by Heidi Stevenson
As noted in Gardasil Destroys Girl’s Ovaries: Research on Ovaries Never Considered, the BMJ has published the case report of a healthy 16-year-old Australian girl whose womanhood appears to have been stolen by Gardasil vaccinations. She became fully menopausal, her ovaries irrevocably shut down, without experiencing womanhood. That article focuses on the fact that Merck, Gardasil’s developer, had to be aware of potential harm to ovaries and either hid research documenting it or simply didn’t do it.
This article focuses on the how readily so many Gardasil disorders could—and should—have been predicted, simply by examining the known effects of two ingredients.
The article, Premature ovarian failure 3 years after menarche in a 16-year-old girl following human papillomavirus vaccination1, draws direct attention to three primary facts:
These three facts are chilling, but further examination has shown that there’s even worse. Adverse effects like premature menopause—and worse—could, and should, have been predicted.
Gardasil contains two ingredients that are known to cause some of the damage that is now being seen. They are polysorbate 80 (brand names Tween 80, Alkest, and Canarcel) and L-histidine. Polysorbate 80 has been shown in at least one study to do great harm to female reproductive organs. The risk from L-histidineis more subtle, as its absence is the issue, but it’s likely more pervasive. The mechanism that would cause a lack of L-histidine is explained.
Polysorbate 80 is known to cause damage to female rats’ reproductive system2, and there is no reason to believe that the human reproductive system is spared. Delayed effects of neonatal exposure to Tween 80 on female reproductive organs in rats states:
Treatment with Tween 80 accelerated maturation, prolonged the oestrus cycle, and induced persistent vaginal oestrus. The relative weight of the uterus and ovaries was decreased relative to the untreated controls. Squamous cell metaplasia of the epithelial lining of the uterus and cytological changes in the uterus were indicative of chronic oestrogenic stimulation. Ovaries were without corpora lutea, and had degenerative follicles.
Surely it should come as no surprise that at least one girl’s ovaries were lost after taking Gardasil vaccinations. It was predictable.
Polysorbate 80 can cause anaphylactic shock. A study in the Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology3 concluded:
Polysorbate 80 is a ubiquitously used solubilizing agent that can cause severe nonimmunologic anaphylactoid reactions.
The most frightening trait of polysorbate 80 may be that it crosses the blood-brain barrier and can take other substances with it. It is used for that purpose. The drugs loperamide4 and doxorubicin5 are coated with polysorbate for just this purpose—to drag them into the brain.
So what else can polysorbate 80 drag into the brain? Gardasil utilizes aluminum as an adjuvant, even though it’s a dangerous neurotoxin. Injection of aluminum is associated with several neurological disorders, as is reported in Gaia Health and Mechanisms of aluminum adjuvant toxicity and autoimmunity in pediatric populations6, rheumatoid arthritis, autoimmune thyroid disease, inflammatory bowel disease, multiple sclerosis, diabetes, and autism may all be associated with aluminum adjuvants in vaccines.
Can polysorbate open the blood-brain barrier to let aluminum in? No one really knows because no one has looked. There is, though, no legitimate reason to assume that it cannot.
Considering how significant the risks of polysorbate 80 are, surely the precautionary rule should be applied before mass vaccinations of girls. And then there’s L-Histidine …
L-histidine is a precursor of histamine, which triggers the inflammation response in allergic reactions. We may think of histamine as negative, but it is, in fact, crucial for health. Though it can be excessive in the inflammatory response it triggers in allergic reactions, we wouldn’t survive without the inflammation it triggers in general infections.
L-histidine is an essential amino acid with several other functions, including7:
Low levels of L-histidine have been associated with rheumatoid arthritis7. It’s required for processing and chelation of copper, zinc, cobalt, and iron8,9,10,11, all of which are classed as heavy metals and noted for causing a variety of severe disorders when held in the body in excessive amounts.
Excessive amounts of these heavy metals can result in a large array of symptoms and conditions, including the milder ones of:
All of these symptoms are frequently reported by girls who are given the Gardasil vaccine. The question is: How do these symptoms of heavy metal intoxication relate to L-histidine in Gardasil? L-histidine is a necessary amino acid. It’s normally found in the body. All of these symptoms are related to inadequate amounts of the substance, so how can injecting it result in less L-histidine?
It is the seemingly innocuous nature that’s at issue. L-histidine is an amino acid that naturally occurs in the body. So too does squalene occur in the body naturally. It’s one of a group of oils used as adjuvants. However, they are not used in vaccines for human beings, with the insane and devastating exception of squalene. They are used to induce autoimmune disorders in laboratory animals so that they can be studied for response to potential treatments for those disorders. That’s why squalene is so dangerous and is clearly what’s behind Gulf War Syndrome. You can read about the likely connection between squalene and Swedish and Finnish narcolepsy outbreaks in How the Flu Vaccine Causes Narcolepsy.
Unless otherwise demonstrated, it must be assumed that injecting L-histidine can result in an autoimmune disorder in which L-histidine is attacked by the immune system, resulting in a shortage of it and the substances requiring it for manufacture.
It was entirely predictable that any bodily function that relies on L-histidine or one of the substances for which it’s a precursor, including histamine, carnosine, and anserine, could be affected. It should come as no surprise that adverse effects of Gardasil include a wide range of disorders and deaths. It would have been surprising had Gardasil not produced them!
Gardasil may be the first vaccine to utilize L-histidine. The reason it’s included doesn’t seem to be explained anywhere. The adverse effects of polysorbate 80 are well known, especially when it’s injected. Polysorbate 80′s ability to bypass the blood-brain barrier is not new information; yet, it was included in this vaccine that utilizes a known neurotoxin, aluminum.
The question that must be asked is: Why? What reason could possibly exist for a vaccine that could predictably result in such incredible harm? Much of the potential damage will likely not be seen for years. Will be find that the already-high rate of infertility skyrockets? Will those who do manage to conceive suffer the anguish of miscarriages and babies with birth defects? How many will suffer from autoimmune disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis? How many will suffer from neurological disorders, such as the Tourette’s-like tics suffered by girls in New York?
Joel Lord refers to Gardasil, along with Cervarix, as A Legacy of Shame. We are now seeing only the beginning of the adverse effects that have likely been caused. Autoimmune disorders tend to take time to show up. It takes time before pubescent girls become sexually active. How many of them will never experience the potential of sexual intimacy because the vaccine’s L-histidine has stolen their ability of sexual arousal and orgasm?
The simplest reason of all is, of course, money. Merck and its minions simply value money over anything else, including the quality of countless young women’s lives. Nor do they appear to care how many will suffer early deaths. Are there other reasons? In my view, nothing could be more insidious than to willingly hide the terrible and predictable potential of a product simply to get rich. Others, though, see this as part of a conspiracy. What are your views?
Cynthia A. Janak investigated Gardasil ingredients polysorbate 80 and L-histidine with horror. Although I don’t share her suspicion that the problem is caused by a synergistic relationship between the two, her work has been indispensable. You can read about her findings in Polysorbate 80 and Histidine, a marriage of disaster. I have discussed this issue with Leslie Carol Botha of Holy Hormones!, who referred me to Cynthia Janak’s work. This article would not have been produced without the insights of both these women.
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In Tanzania, life with albinism is a near death sentence. Fifty-seven people with albinism have been murdered since 2007 -- their limbs hacked off and sold on the black market. Many locals believe there are magical properties in the blood, bones and skin of people with albinism.
Aside from gruesome attacks, Tanzanian albinos -- unprotected for a lifetime under the scorching African sun -- often die of painful skin cancer in their thirties.
The threat to albinos is spreading throughout the continent. Organizations are working in Tanzania to help protect children and adults with albinism.
How to Help
Under the Same Sun (UTSS): A Canadian charity founded in 2008, UTSS exists to provide life saving support to persons with albinism in Tanzania by focusing on the education and eradication of prejudice and life-threatening discrimination that has plagued albinos. They help schools that provide refuge for children living with albinism by providing student scholarships and supplies of books, paper, sunscreen and hats. UTSS is also working with Mariamu Staford and other individuals in crisis. 100 percent of donations will go directly and exclusively to these crucial programs.
Asante-Mariamu: A non-profit organization, based in Virginia, dedicated to ending the crisis in East Africa and to providing direct relief to improve the lives of people with albinism in that region. Named after Mariamu Staford, the Tanzanian woman with albinism who survived an attack and the loss of her arms in 2008, Asante Mariamu has launched a national campaign of "SunDrives" to raise funds for life-saving sun protection clothing, sunglasses and sunscreen that will benefit people with albinism in East Africa. The organization also continues to support Mariamu in her journey for independence, raise funds and donations for an ongoing dermatology clinic for people with albinism in Malawi. Since its inception in January 2010, Asante Mariamu staff has worked closely with members of Congress, the International Red Cross, and to bring attention to this issue and engage others in working towards ending the crisis. For more information, please go to www.asante-mariamu.org.
National Organization for Albinism & Hypopigmentation (NOAH): In America, people with albinism aren't facing the shocking attacks of those in Africa but they must deal with uncorrectable low vision and the stigma of looking different in a society that puts a high value on appearance. The NOAH, a US-based nonprofit organization dedicated to providing resources and support for people with albinism and their families, is the pre-eminent resource in promoting accurate information about this rare, and often misunderstood, condition. Through summer family camps, regional and national conferences, and online resources, NOAH touches hundreds of families who might otherwise never encounter people who share the albinism experience. Your donation can help NOAH break the barriers of isolation with connections to the albinism community and banish the darkness of ignorance with education. To learn more or to support NOAH, please go to www.albinism.org.
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Yet it's still classified as a "drug with no medicinal purposes"?
States in the US may be one step closer to legalizing the recreational use of marijuana, especially now that the National Cancer Institute (NCI) has updated its website FAQs to include studies proving cannabis as a natural remedy for cancer.
As InfoWars reports, NCI updated its page to include various studies revealing how cannabis “may inhibit tumor growth by causing cell death, blocking cell growth, and blocking the development of blood vessels needed by tumors to grow” while also protecting normal, healthy cells.
“A laboratory study of cannabidiol (CBD) in estrogen receptor positive and estrogen receptor negative breast cancer cells showed that it caused cancer cell death while having little effect on normal breast cells. Studies in mouse models of metastatic breast cancer showed that cannabinoids may lessen the growth, number, and spread of tumors.”
The full list provided by the National Cancer Institute follows:
- Cannabinoids may inhibit tumor growth by causing cell death, blocking cell growth, and blocking the development of blood vessels needed by tumors to grow. Laboratory and animal studies have shown that cannabinoids may be able to kill cancer cells while protecting normal cells.
- Cannabinoids may protect against inflammation of the colon and may have potential in reducing the risk of colon cancer, and possibly in its treatment.
- A laboratory study of delta -9-THC in hepatocellular carcinoma (liver cancer) cells showed it damaged or killed the cancer cells. The same study of delta-9-THC in models of liver cancer showed that it had anti-tumor effects. Delta-9-THC has been shown to cause these effects by acting on molecules that may also be found in non-small cell lung cancer cells and breast cancer cells.
- A laboratory study of cannabidiol (CBD) in estrogen receptor positive and estrogen receptor negative breast cancer cells showed that it caused cancer cell death while having little effect on normal breast cells. Studies of metastatic breast cancer showed that cannabinoids may lessen the growth, number, and spread of tumors.
- A laboratory study of cannabidiol in human glioma cells showed that when given along with chemotherapy, CBD may make chemotherapy more effective and increase cancer cell death without harming normal cells. Studies showed that CBD together with delta-9-THC may make chemotherapy such as temozolomide more effective.
These studies are considered by the NCI as preclinical. They were all done using animals. According to them, no clinical trials of cannabis use for the treatment of cancer in humans have been published.
- Delta-9-THC and other cannabinoids stimulate appetite and can increase food intake.
- Cannabinoid receptors have been studied in the brain, spinal cord, and nerve endings throughout the body to understand their roles in pain relief.
- Cannabinoids have been studied for anti-inflammatory effects that may play a role in pain relief.
That’s not all, in April, the NIDA stated:
“Evidence from one animal study suggests that extracts from whole-plant marijuana can shrink one of the most serious types of brain tumors. Research in mice showed that these extracts, when used with radiation, increased the cancer-killing effects of the radiation.”
How can government agencies conclude the above and the FDA still classify marijuana as a “drug with no medicinal purposes”? Perhaps this video will enlighten you on the reasons why.
What are your thoughts on this news? Share this article and comment your thoughts below.
This article (Marijuana Kills Cancer Cells, Admits US National Cancer Institute) is free and open source. You have permission to republish this article under a Creative Commons license with attribution to the author and TrueActivist.com
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In an effort to make plastics more environmentally friendly, a group of researchers at the University of Florida has found a way to make plastics from yard waste. Traditional plastics are made from oil and recently some companies have been making plastic out of food products — like cane sugar and corn starch. If this new yard waste plastic product were to become feasible on a large scale we could all see our grass clippings carted away by some company, only to return to us as the receptacle holding our organic yogurt. Oh the excitement of closed-loop systems!
To create this new natural plastic, researchers fermented the yard waste — and other discarded plant material — with a certain bacteria which created long strains of lactic acid. They then took those long strains of lactic acid, turned them into molecules and created plastic out of those. The particular bacteria used was collected from a geyser in Calistoga, California and was mixed with calcium carbonate. Previous teams of researchers have attempted to use discarded plant material to create plastic, but have been unsuccessful at making the process cost effective.
By adding calcium carbonate this team of researchers was able to turn the temperature on the process up, therefore making the fermenting process as efficient as those that create plastics from corn starch or sugar cane. Some critics of bioplastics have said that we shouldn’t cut into our food supply in order to make plastics. This team of researchers believes they’ve solved not only our plastic petroleum problem but also our plastic food problem. “As we start using more and more bioplastics, we are infringing upon the use of food material,” said Shanmugam. “We’d like to switch away from food-based carbohydrates to non-food-based carbohydrates for producing plastics.”
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Archive for the ‘Fire Safety Week’ Category
Back in October, during Fire Safety, week we did a unit all about fire safety and the letter F.
We used this book, No Dragons for Tea by Jean Pendziwol. I had never read this book before and we loved it! It was such a perfect story to teach about fire safety and what to do if there is a fire.
Hunter loves using these do-a-dot markers, so we usually do one of these letter worksheets with each letter.
Hunter glued red, yellow, and orange pieces of paper onto a letter F to look like fire.
Hunter colored firetrucks different colors, according to the color word.
Hunter worked in a Fireman counting book- he counted the different items and then circled the number that corresponded.
We learned about Stop, Drop, and Roll and then Hunter colored a paper about it.
I made some pretend flames and laminated them. I also wrote numbers on them to practice identifying numbers. Then I covered a spray bottle with red tape and made it look like a fire extinguisher. Hunter loved spraying the flames!
Hunter made a little fireman hat.
I made this cute firetruck with our co-op preschool class. This is Hunter’s firetruck.
Hunter mixed together yellow and red paint on a flame shaped paper. He was very impressed to see it turn orange.
Then we practiced saying- Don’t hide! Go outside!
And of course, we went on a field trip to a fire station.
It was super fun week!
One of the books we read last week for our Fire Safety theme had a dalmatian in it named Dot. So, Hailey decided that she wanted to make Dot the Dalmatian.
You’ll need: red and black construction paper, google eyes, glue and a paper bowl.
Cut out a tongue, ears and spots. I used a 3 hole punch to cut out a bunch of spots for the dog.
Glue the spots onto the bowl.
Add the eyes, ears and tongue. Then Hailey told me we needed to add a hat just like Dot in the book had. So, I did my best to make a hat.
The completed Dot the Dalmatian.
Since last week was Fire Safety Week we did some fire safety art projects. I had a bunch of them planned but we got busy and ran out of time to do everything. I do have a couple of ideas to share though.
Put some yellow and red paint on a piece of paper.
Spread and mix the paint using a cotton ball until it looks like fire. I ended up having to add more yellow to try to get the orange look I was hoping for.
Then cut out some pieces to make a fire truck
Glue the fire truck together.
Glue the fire truck onto the fire.
The finished fire truck.
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A Revolution in Taste: The Rise of French Cuisine, 1650-1800
The French have been inextricably tied with fine cuisine, and Pinkard's accessible and often fascinating examination of the country's culinary evolution gives foodies a rich, savory treat. Beginning with medieval cooking, characterized by strong seasonings that gave food a singular flavor, Pinkard explains how cooking was greatly influenced by early medicine, which insisted that the body's ""humours"" could be regulated by spices. As more fruits and vegetables made their way onto French tables, preparation methods evolved. By the mid 1600s, cooks began to emphasize tastes and textures, first incorporating the sauces now associated with classic French cooking. By the mid 1700s there was a drive toward lightness and simplicity called nouvelle cuisine, ""a style that could be just as expensive, subtle and exacting to execute as its twentieth-century namesake."" Though she rarely points out similarities to current trends like ""slow food"" and organic ingredients, the parallels are clear and relevant. Digressions on eating patterns, typical meals, the evolution of the dinner party and classic recipes (reproduced in an appendix) add interest and depth. Despite occasional ventures into academic minutiae, anyone interested in the evolution of modern cooking and entertaining is sure to find Pinkard's history a wealth of lore and trivia.
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Ask virtually any teacher whether they are paid enough for the work they do and you’ll get the same answer. “No!”
Is that true? Teachers are represented by unions, organizations that exist for the purpose of raising wages and improving working conditions. So why do teachers feel they are getting short-changed?
On the surface of things, teaching seems to be an easy job. You just stand up and tell a bunch of kids things that you already know, right? Not really. Consider some of the things that teachers are asked to do:
- Teach subject matter, usually in multiple subject areas
- Maintain discipline without use of corporal punishment
- Diagnose learning disorders
- Enforce dress codes ignored by many parents
- Spot signs of child abuse
- Stop bullying
- Educate “special needs” children in situ and simultaneously teach the rest of the class
- Act as substitute parent and role model
- Stand or walk for 8 hours per day
- Grade hundreds of papers every week & record results
- Prepare individual progress reports for 2 dozen students every month
- Balance real learning vs. mandated test results
- ID and correct aberrant behavior
- Ensure physical safety of children
- Subject oneself to a constant barrage of coughs, sneezes, and germs
- Excite children to want to learn about subjects they don’t care about
That’s a lot to ask for a person with a 4-year degree who generally comes into the profession making less than $30K per year. According to the Houston Chronicle, the average salary for an HISD teacher is about $48K per year, which is not bad, except for the fact that this number is inflated by the “combat pay” that’s dished out to get teachers to work there.
Support from parents and administrative officials is generally minimal or non-existent. At too many schools administrators fail to participate in curriculum development or simply issue vague mandates about following the latest trend in educational theory. School administrators are supposed to be leading the charge into the new century, not using teachers as blocking backs against the onslaught of standardized testing. Too often they are not carrying their share of the burden, a share that, given their relatively higher salaries, should be substantial.
As for the parents of today, well, what more needs to be said?
But teachers get the whole summer off, don’t they? Consider that the average teacher works about 10 hours per day for 190 days per year and compare this to Joe Sixpack’s 8 * 250 schedule. Teachers work about 100 hours less per year, assuming they don’t lift a finger over the summer. But many of them are busy preparing for the next school year without compensation. Some do so because they love what they do, some to make the next year a little bit easier, and most for both reasons, none of which changes the fact that there’s no pay for working extra hours.
Leaving the issue of unpaid time aside and sticking to the base number, we can see that new teachers are paid $15.79 per hour (30K / 1900 hours) – considerably less than your average plumber, air-conditioning repair man, UPS delivery driver, or fast-food restaurant manager. Is this what we want?
Let’s face it: teaching is a profession where burnout is much more common than we’d like to believe. We want children to be taught by teachers who not only have an “A” game but bring it to class every day. But the truth is that it’s impossible to do this day after day, year after year. Being asked to do it for 30-50% less money than comparably educated peers earn in other professions only makes doing the impossible that much harder.
Recall your own childhood. Do you remember a time when your teacher wasn’t having a good day? When he or she snapped at your childish antics for no apparent reason? I’m sure you do. Most of us have the luxury of letting a call go to voice mail on a bad day or putting off a difficult problem if we’re not feeling well or just going to the bathroom when we need to go. But there’s no down time for teachers – twenty-odd pairs of eyes are always watching, hopefully waiting to learn, just as often waiting for the teacher to make a mistake so they can point it out and laugh, but always watching and taking in everything the teacher does. Lessons have to be made fresh and exciting each time lest an opportunity to capture a child’s imagination be lost forever. And not just the first time or the second or third – every time, even when they’re old and stale in one’s mind.
Think you can do that every day for nine months while making a mediocre salary? If so, you should try. Every class has a couple of shining stars in it that are just a joy to work with. But don’t forget that you’ll have to deal with:
- the 5th grader who can’t read
- the ADD child who can’t sit still for 10 minutes straight
- the kid who hates the world because dad beats mom at night
- the boy whose parents let him stay up ’til midnight every night of the week
- the girl whose parents let her dress like a sex toy
And all the while you have to teach twenty other “normal” children who – let’s tell the truth – don’t really want to be in your class. Also, don’t forget that when junior gets a failing grade on his report card that the parents who never helped him with his homework because TV was more interesting will demand a conference to find out why you didn’t force him to learn how to divide fractions. Don’t forget that half of your class has never been taught manners at home, don’t know how to behave properly in an educational setting, actively refuse to obey instructions, and misbehave the moment your back is turned. And above all, don’t forget that regardless of what you’ve actually taught the children that a standardized test will be the primary judge of your ability as an educator.
Money cannot compensate a person in enough ways to make these issues disappear. But it helps. HISD knows this – that’s why they paid out $14 million dollars in bonuses to the cream of the crop among its teachers. Sounds good to me – except of the fact that they did it wrong.
“Let me just say that the BEST teacher at my school received NOTHING!!! One of the WORST received over $4,000. Teachers who co-teach on the same team received different amounts. Tell me how that’s fair – because one is labeled the language arts teacher and one is labeled the reading teacher??? What this incentive pay did was divide teachers and build resentment. If parents choose teachers based on incentive pay they will be TERRIBLY disappointed.”
“My children’s science teacher at their elementary receives no bonus. She has won many awards and has been featured in the Chronicle.”
“First off, I do believe in bonuses for teachers. It’s not easy what they do everyday for our children. However, they must not be grading the teachers correctly. My husband is a writing teacher, nominated for teacher of the year for his school, has 97% passing and his school was recognized in Texas Monthly as one of the best writing schools, yet he received zero dollars as a bonus.”
“Last year I taught 2 classes of 11th grade and 3 classes of 10th grade in one of the worst schools in HISD. All core subject classes, all tested by TAKS. 100% of my students passed. My bonus? $0. I guess 100% isn’t progress.”
“It must be very subjective. I get an award every year for 100% on TAKS. Yet I received no bonus while those without 100% passing receive thousands. Morale is VERY low among most teachers.”
“Teachers who have ALWAYS had 100% pass that TAKS and Stanford didn’t get a bonus. Go figure.”
“Please explain to me how every ancillary staff and part time staff recieved more incentive pay than I did. I had 100% of my 90 students pass the math TAKS with more than 1/2 recieving commended performance. Yet I was “ranked” lower than the ancillary staff. Thanks for a great day at work!!!”
Here’s a likely looking explanation:
“The performance pay system isn’t based on passing rates on the TAKS. It’s based on scale scores and student growth compared to students in similar classrooms. If this writing teacher’s students had more growth on the TAKS and the Stanford test last year than most other comparable classrooms, he earned the bonus pay. If the teacher didn’t get that kind of growth, he didn’t get the bonus pay. This is all about rewarding the teachers who get the most improvement among students.”
Why do we pay performance bonuses? To make teachers work harder? No. It’s to reward and retain the best teachers, with an emphasis on those who teach the most important subjects: reading, writing, and arithmetic.
If the measurement being used doesn’t generate the correct result then the measurement is not correct.
In this case the measurement is clearly stilted toward teachers who work with students with low achievement histories. At-risk kids. Why? Because these kids have the most room for improvement and can improve at greater rates than kids already utilizing their potential. This can generally be correlated with kids and schools “in the rough part of town”.
While educating these kids is a worthwhile goal in and of itself, a bonus system is an inappropriate way for their teachers to receive additional compensation. Instead, teachers should be given incentives to work at low-performing schools in the form of a higher base salary. That way the bonus plan can be used to achieve its true purpose: to identify and reward the best teachers across the system.
HISD superintendent Abelardo Saavedra says, “The system is designed purposefully to be objective,” Saavedra said.
But what is the objective, Abe? Here’s another anecdote that tells me HISD is aiming at the wrong target:
Linda Burks, the 2006 Teacher of the Year at Anderson Elementary, said co-workers rallied around her last week after learning she was not among the nearly 8,000 educators districtwide to pocket a bonus.
“They were shocked,” said Burks, a fourth-grade language arts teacher. “They really thought I (should have) received something.”
Somehow that just seems right to me. What about you?
How do we know who the best teachers are? Simple. We observe them.
Interestingly, the HISD bonus system does not make use of observations as data points in determining who should receive bonus pay. This indicates that the comment that defined the system as primarily rewarding teachers who improved the bottom of the barrel is correct. This is the wrong approach.
What should be happening is that teachers should be observed frequently over the course of the school year and a standard criteria applied to those observations to determine which teachers are providing the most benefit to their students. Monthly observations seem reasonable and would give teachers 9 opportunities to demonstrate their chops.
Administrators hate this idea, of course, because it means more work for them. But the objective should be to reward the best teachers and doing that means that the “cream of the crop” must be correctly identified.
Why is it the case that only very new teachers are observed in the classroom more than once per year? This is very nearly criminally negligent. In what other profession can one work 99+% of one’s work days without being observed by one’s manager? Annual observations are completely inadequate.
Yet many schools do not even implement this feeble standard of evaluation for veteran teachers. The theory is that they’ve been there, done that, and don’t need to be observed. But the truth is that just the opposite is true. Many veteran teachers are so burnt out from the stress of their jobs that they are only minimally functional in the classroom. These teachers need to be evaluated more often than relative newcomers, not less.
That isn’t happening. One reason why is that teachers and administrators think of education as guaranteed employment. Teachers that fail to meet the minimum standards of subject competency and coverage are retained, in part, because they are deemed to be entitled to the job they’ve held for X years already.
It’s easy to understand why they feel that way – simply refer to the bullet points at the beginning of this post to see why. And yet, few other professions offer lifetime security. Fundamentally educators are not entitled to more protection than the rest of us except for one reason: we’re not paying them a salary that’s competitive with their level of education. To make up for it the system offers a back-end reward, the teacher’s retirement system, that encourages (read “demands”) that teachers stick with their profession until retirement age whether they want to or not.
That too is a sign of a broken system, like HISD’s failed performance bonus system. Superintendent Saavedra was forced to offer a left-handed apology only days after the bonus distribution information was made public, saying that:
…teachers seemed especially offended that, at a celebratory news conference, he referred to those who received the biggest bonuses as “the cream of the crop.”
“The sense I got from the e-mails is, there’s a lot of confusion out there and a misunderstanding of the system itself,” he said. “I also felt that some of my statements at the press conference were misconstrued.”
I think the problem is, Abe, that teachers understood the bonus system perfectly. In my view, the system was never intended to reward the best teachers at all; instead, it was designed as a form of scholastic welfare, one that would drive money into underachieving schools.
Not too cool.
At least HISD did something, even if it was wrong. What would be right? I’ll tell you later!
Houston ISD’s principals can expect larger bonuses and proportionally more of them will receive bonuses then did teachers:
The district plans to reward at least 250 campus principals with a minimum of $1.2 million, said HISD spokesman Terry Abbott. If those estimates hold true, that means 83 percent of principals will receive bonus pay. The average check will be $4,800.
In comparison, an estimated 58 percent of the district’s teachers earned bonuses earlier this year, and the average payout was about $1,850…
Are we to believe that principals are half-again as likely to be dedicated to their jobs and exceed expectations than teachers.
Meanwhile, HISD’s head honcho Abe Saavedra will be living well this year too:
Houston ISD Superintendent Abelardo Saavedra will be $67,250 richer today when the school district distributes its latest round of performance bonuses.
Saavedra’s new contract, approved by the school board in January, made him eligible for $80,000 in bonus pay based in part on students’ test scores.
As head of the state’s largest school district, Saavedra earns a base salary of $302,000. His bonus — 22 percent of his base pay — is more than almost all his teachers take home in a year.
Something doesn’t seem right.
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In the dog sport Disc Dog, dogs and their handlers interact with a flying disc. Disc Dog is the generic title, but the sport is also commonly referred to as Frisbee Dog, after Wham-O's tradmark brand of disc.
The human throws the disc and the dog catches it. It sounds simple, but the sport is filled with exciting acrobatics and athleticism that take years to master.
Disc dog competitions have two types of events: distance catching (toss and fetch) and choreographed freestyle catching (freestyle).
In toss and fetch, teams of one person and one dog compete. Distances vary, but the longest distance usually does not exceed 50 meters (165 feet). Dogs are awarded points for catches based on the distance of the throw, with mid-air catches rating extra points. The divisions (levels) in disc dog events are usually based on the skill and experience of the handler.
Freestyle is a judging competition. The handler and his/her dog peform a choreographed routine to music with multiple discs in play. Athleticism, degree of difficulty, showmanship and other skills are judged. Freestyle is a very popular event with audiences. Incredible flips, hyperfast multiple catches, and spectacular vaults make it challenging for dog and handler, as well as great entertainment for spectators.
Read other articles in our series on Dog Sports:
Do you have a dog sport experience or tip you want to share? Post your comments below.
Copyright 2015 DogHeirs. All Rights Reserved.
View more articles in: Training and Behavior
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State science testing didn't get federal push
Four years ago Barack Obama promised to improve states' standardized testing of scientific aptitude in public schools.
In his campaign literature, he pointed to a few states that were already measuring students' ability "to design and conduct investigations, analyze and present data, (and) write up and defend results.” He said he would work with governors and educators to make sure more states tested those skills.
We didn't find any evidence that the Education Department is directly involved in creating new state standards and assessments for science. Although standards and assessments are the responsibility of states, the federal government has played a role recently in supporting states with changing curriculum and measuring aptitude in other subjects, such as reading and math. In rating a related promise, we found that the Obama administration had pushed college readiness assessments in states. In that case, the federal government leveraged competitive grant funding and waivers under the No Child Left Behind law to compel changes at the state level. So far, state science testing hasn't received the same kind of federal attention.
The Education Department did use grant funding to encourage the hiring of science teachers and the expansion of science, technology, engineering and math curriculum. Obama has also used his bully pulpit as president to speak about the importance of 21st century critical thinking skills. In a related promise, we noted that Obama convened meetings and encouraged contests involving students, science and engineering societies, nonprofits and businesses.
Finally, the science section of the country's national standardized K-12 education test received an overhaul in 2009. The revised test not only examines students' knowledge of subjects such as biology and physics, but also evaluates critical thinking skills, such as inquiry, interpretation and argumentation. It's worth noting, however, that a better national test is not a substitute for Obama's goal of improved state science assessments -- only a representative sample of students take the national test every four years and the results do not provide information about the performance of individuals or specific schools.
State testing appears to be on horizon, too, but not as a result of federal policy. A partnership of 26 states have set out to do exactly what candidate Obama described in his 2008 campaign promise. Using a report on science education from the National Research Council -- a branch of the National Academy of Sciences -- the states are trying to create a common set of standards that states could use for future science testing. Those standards don't exist yet, but the National Research Council report says that public school science curriculum should go beyond memorization of facts and concepts -- students should also learn skills such as analyzing and interpreting data and making evidence-based arguments. If the effort is successful, standards would be available for states to adopt by 2013, with new testing to follow in years to come.
Improved science assessments as Obama once envisioned them might materialize in his second term. However, we couldn't find any evidence that the federal government played a role in improving state standardized testing in science. We rate this a Promise Broken.
Interview with Jason Amos, spokesman for the Alliance for Excellent Education, Nov. 15, 2012
Interview with Maria Ferguson, Executive Director of the Center on Education Policy at George Washington University, Nov. 15, 2012
Interview with Martin Storksdieck, director of the Board on Science Education at the National Research Council, Nov. 15, 2012
Interview with Arnold Goldstein, program director at the National Center for Education Statistics, Nov. 15, 2012
Interview with Mary Crovo, deputy executive director at the National Assessment Governing Board, Nov. 15, 2012
Email interview with Elaine Quesinberry, spokeswoman for the U.S. Department of Education, Nov. 15, 2012
National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress: Overview (accessed on Nov. 15, 2012)
National Center for Education Statistics, What Does the NAEP Science Assessment Measure? (accessed on Nov. 15, 2012)
PolitiFact, Federal money supported states' push for college readiness standards and testing, Nov. 15, 2012
PolitiFact, Competitions for science are racing along, Nov. 15, 2012
Committee on Conceptual Framework for the New K-12 Science Education Standards, National Research Council, A Framework for K-12 Science Education: Practices, Crosscutting Concepts, and Core Ideas, 2012
U.S. Department of Education, Obama Administration Sets High Bar for Flexibility from No Child Left Behind in Order to Advance Equity and Support Reform, Sept. 23, 2011
Grants will encourage states to assess higher-order thinking skills
President Barack Obama has packed a number of his campaign promises related to education into his "Race to the Top" program, which seeks to encourage innovative approaches to teaching and learning by having states compete for $4.35 billion worth of grants from the Department of Education. The program was funded through the Obama-backed economic stimulus package approved by Congress in February.
In a speech in Madison, Wis., on Nov. 4, Obama announced the criteria for states to win the grants.
"The first measure is whether a state is committed to setting higher standards and better assessments that prepare our children to succeed in the 21st century," Obama said. "And I'm pleased to report that 48 states are now working to develop internationally competitive standards -- internationally competitive standards because these young people are going to be growing up in an international environment where they're competing not just against kids in Chicago or Los Angeles for jobs, but they're competing against folks in Beijing and Bangalore."
In academia-speak, the grant program talks about rewarding states that develop and implement "high-quality assessments," later defined as "an assessment designed to measure a student's understanding of, and ability to apply, critical concepts through the use of a variety of item types, formats, and administration conditions (e.g., open-ended responses, performance-based tasks, use of technology)."
A White House fact sheet on "Race to the Top" says it would emphasize "designing and implementing rigorous standards and high-quality assessments, by encouraging states to work jointly toward a system of common academic standards that builds toward college and career readiness, and that includes improved assessments designed to measure critical knowledge and higher-order thinking skills."
Competition for the grants will be conducted in two rounds -- the first starting this month and the second in June -- with winners announced in April and September next year.
But Obama has set this promise in motion; and so we rate it In the Works.
Department of Education, Press release: "President Obama, U.S. Secretary of Education Duncan Announce National Competition to Advance School Reform," July 24, 2009
Department of Education, "Race to the Top Fund"
Department of Education, "Race to the Top Fund; State Fiscal Stabilization Fund Program; Institute of Education Sciences; Overview Information; Grant Program for Statewide Longitudinal Data Systems; Notice Inviting Applications for New Awards Under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009"
YouTube, President Obama on Race to the Top , July 24, 2009
Washington Post, Op-ed: "Education Reform's Moon Shot," by Arne Duncan, July 24, 2009
White House Web site, "Fact Sheet: The Race to the Top," Nov. 4, 2009
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Lethbridge Herald March 5. 1995
George Kush, president of the Lethbridge Historical Society, is writing a book dealing. with the Nez Perce movement into southern Alberta in the late 1880s.
The title will be, In the Grandmother's Land: The Nez Perce Experience in Canada.
"My objective is to make Americans aware of the Canadian connection with the Nez Perce," says Kush. "It will complete their whole story, a story of how many survived in Canada and how this group of Nez Perce continued to resist and never surrendered."
The book will also add to the movement by the American National Parks Services, the Nez Perce council and a few other interested American parties to tell the entire story of the Nez Perce and establish the Bear Paw Mountains Battleground Park near Chinook, Montana. The Nez Perce-Bear Paw saga began in early July of 1877 in the Wallowa Valley near the Washington-Idaho-Oregon borders and culminated in October, 1877 in the Bear Paw Mountains. The contents of the book will cover about three decades, from the 1877 flight to about 1910.
"More than half of Chief Joseph's people managed to make it to Canada," says Kush. "In the end Joseph was left behind with the women, children and the sick.
White Bird took the rest of the people into Canada. About 105 warriors made it to Canada according to Supt. James M. Walsh of the North West Mounted Police.
"This was not really a victory for the American army, that was 'why they had to build up the capture of Joseph, making it far more than what it was. All the army actually did was capture Joseph and a handful of men left behind to protect the women and children."
Indian accounts of the final battle and surrender say White Bird and his followers simply rode away from the Bear Paw battlefield in the dead of night The soldiers saw them, but did nothing to stop them.
Writing in 1915, Yellow Bull, a very prominent Nez Perce warrior, says White Bird said no to the surrender by Joseph. Yellow Bull chose to go north to Canada with White Bird.
"We crept out silently," Yellow Bull wrote "The soldiers saw us but were afraid to fire."
"White Bird would never give up his gun, his horse and land to the white man. He never believed in the white man."
Kush says soldiers' accounts of the escape showed the army privates were relatively uneducated men, mostly immigrants, who knew from experience the Indians were crack shots. They also knew they, and their army buddies, were poor shots. If they fired at the retreating Nez Perce they knew the Indians would return the fire and they'd be in the middle of yet another battle.
"They didn't want to get into that, so they just said to themselves, 'Go, for god's sake go,"' says Kush.
The soldiers were no more willing than the Indians to fight another battle. That is evident through the soldiers' accounts, says Kush.
But officers' accounts are much different. The officers built up the capture of Joseph as a great accomplishment and brushed off the Nez Perce who had escaped. They concentrated on the capture of Joseph and the women and children as a great victory.
Kush has photo-copied hand-written army reports, one from General Nelson A. Miles, saying he was satisfied the trouble with the, until July, peaceful Nez Perce was ended.
The whole incident was begun after a brief conflict with a handftil of Nez Perce warriors and some belligerent whites.
"They should be allowed to return home and control their own affairs," Miles wrote about the captured Joseph band. He spent the next 30 years fighting for the Nez Perce, with support from General Terry, to have them restored to their Wallowa Valley home.
But Generals William T. Sherman and Sheridan had other ideas. Sheridan wrote that the Nez Perce should be made to sleep in the bed they had made for themselves.
"I think all these Indians, who have started back, should be arrested and sent back to join the others in the Indian Territory (now part of Oklahoma)," wrote Sheridan,
The Flight tof the Nez Perce - An Introduction
How do I participate in the student Sketchbook Project?
Back to Our Heritage Home Page
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These MIT students made a computer-based paper generator that got accepted at a scientific meeting. The Rooter paper begins: "Many scholars would agree that, had it not been for active networks, the simulation of Lamport clocks might never have occurred. The notion that end-users synchronize with the investigation of markov models is rarely outdated..."
Good grammar was all that was needed to make the grade (the conference organizers have since rescinded the invitation since finding out about the mechanical fraud). The areas important for semantic sense and real word sense (is it true?) appear to be located in about the same location in the brain, but physiological tests can tell the difference. Maybe a physiological machine would have done a better job figuring out if the paper made sense?
MIT students pull prank on conference
Different Brain Areas for Being Understandable and Making Sense>
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Nairobi, 16 December 2014 – Three student groups from France, Mexico and the United Kingdom bagged top prizes for their creative and committed efforts to reduce food waste in their schools and communities in the recently concluded Think.Eat.Save. Student Challenge.
Food waste is a massive global problem that has negative humanitarian, environmental and financial implications and schools are a huge part of this story. In England, for example, schools throw out some 123,000 tonnes of food a year at a cost of £250 million a year. On average, an American student is responsible for 67 pounds of discarded lunch waste every school year.
Think.Eat.Save, a campaign led by the United Nations Environment Programme with the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, the Save Food Initiative, and the UN Secretary-General’s Zero Hunger Challenge, called on all students to join the fight to reduce the one third of all food that is lost or wasted globally each year, and around 470 schools and student groups from close to 80 countries took up the call.
“The level of participation was very encouraging which shows how the issue resonates with people from all walks of life. The submissions by the students – from elementary to university level - offer a wealth of ideas and potential solutions that should be mined, promoted, replicated and scaled up in various schools and other organizations. We hope the Challenge is just a start and that the schools will continue on with their quest to reduce, if not eliminate, food waste and create a more conscious mindset towards food consumption, “ states Lucita Jasmin, head of the campaign at UNEP.
Groups led by Julie Tasse (France), Ana Borges (Mexico) and Catherine Brogan (UK) were judged to have organized the most effective, creative and widely promoted campaigns. They created apps, tracked the food being wasted in their schools to encourage others to change their eating patterns, and used their extensive social media networks to spread the message.
1st Prize ($5,000) - Julia Tasse, leader of What The Food
What The Food developed a prototype application that will link students with restaurants around campus, allowing the students to plan their meals better and the food providers to better plan the quantities of food they should prepare, reducing waste. The group also interviewed restaurateurs to better understand the causes of waste, implemented outreach activities, and convinced the school’s management to adopt waste-prevention measures. Click here for the group’s Facebook page.
Tristram Stuart has a message for students from What the Food app
Manifesto de la team Whatthefood
Sense Academy Zéro Gâchis
What The Food - app pour réduire le gaspillage alimentaire dans les restaurants universitaires
2nd Prize ($3,000) - Ana Borges, leader of Sullivan Grow and Appreciated
The group measured food waste and worked with pupils who often left food on their plate to change behaviour by giving these students seeds for growing vegetables in the school garden so they could understand the work and resources needed to produce food, and eventually have a greater appreciation and connection to the full food ‘life’ cycle.
Click here for the group’s Facebook page.
3rd Prize ($2,000) - Catherine Brogan, leader of Eat My Words
The group used creative performances, such as slam poetry, spoken word and music, to more effectively disseminate their message, employed social media extensively, and gathered produce that would have otherwise gone to waste to organize feeding events outside the school to encourage better awareness of how perfectly edible food normally gets wasted.
Click here for more.
Maicom B. (Brazil)
The group came up with an educational program to promote a zero-waste culture in Dining Hall at University of Sao Paulo, Sao Carlos campus
Sadik Gulma (Kenya)
The group project was about awareness raising and call for action against Food Waste at the Pan African University, Institute for Basic Sciences, Technology and Innovation.
Kateryna Vorona (Ukraine) – School 6:
The elementary school group created an awareness raising activity project.
Aida Miller (Brazil)
The group created a Zero waste project with the aim to raise awareness on the impacts of food waste on the environment and economy.
Michael Iyanro (Nigeria) – Winners Group
The project developed a manual for schools on best practises on food preservation and food distribution.
Hurricane Keenor/ Anui Normal University (China)
The group developed a slogan: "Low Carbon, Less Waste, and Light Lifestyle. Let's do it!” The project focused on Food Waste research as well as awareness raising .
Haifeng Zhou (China)
The group carried out various awareness raising activities as well as a Food Waste Challenge “Empty-plate”.
The Think.Eat.Save campaign of the Save Food Initiative, is a partnership between UNEP, FAO and Messe Düsseldorf, and in support of the UN Secretary-General’s Zero Hunger Challenge, which seeks to add its authority and voice to these efforts in order to galvanize widespread global, regional and national actions, catalyze more sectors of society to be aware and to act,including through exchange of inspiring ideas and projects between those players already involved and new ones that are likely to come on board.
For more information, please contact
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Bloodborne pathogens are microorganisms present in blood or other body fluids that can cause diseases including AIDS, Hepatitis B, and Hepatitis C.
To protect yourself from exposure to these disease agents:
- obtain the Hepatitis B vaccination series
- follow Standard Precautions
- treat all human blood, tissue, and body fluids as infected.
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BRISBANE, Australia, April 12 (UPI) -- Sea levels in the Southwest Pacific have risen dramatically since the late 19th century, a study by Australian and British researchers shows.
Scientists at the University of Queensland, with colleagues in British universities, said sea levels in Tasmania remained relatively stable for much of the past 6,000 years but around 1880 they started rising drastically, increasing almost 8 inches in the last century.
Between 1900 and 1950, relative sea levels rose at an average rate of 0.16 inches per year, Queensland researcher Patrick Moss said in a university release.
The highest rates of sea level rise occurred in the 1910s with a second peak in the 1990s, he reported.
"The rise in 1910 probably reflects the end of the little ice age, when temperatures were about 1 to 2 degrees cooler in the Northern Hemisphere than today," Moss said.
"The 1990s peak is most likely indicative of human-induced climate change."
Sediment cores from Tasmania's salt marshes were studied to reconstruct a record of past sea levels, the researchers said.
"The surface of the marshes builds up over time in response to tidal inundation, providing an accurate record for sea level change," Moss said.
Past sea levels have significant implications for understanding sea level rise under a changing climate, he said.
"Any drastic changes from the norm, which persist for several decades and over a wide area, represent important climate signals," Moss said.
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Australia's highest court has ruled unanimously that a version of a gene that is linked to an increased risk for breast cancer cannot be patented. The case was brought by 69-year-old pensioner from Queensland, Yvonne D'Arcy, who had taken the US company Myriad Genetics to court over its patent for mutations in the BRCA1 gene that increase the probability of breast and ovarian cancer developing, as The Sydney Morning Herald reports. Although she lost twice in the lower courts, the High Court of Australia allowed her appeal, ruling that a gene was not a "patentable invention."
The court based its reasoning (PDF) on the fact that, although an isolated gene such as BRCA1 was "a product of human action, it was the existence of the information stored in the relevant sequences that was an essential element of the invention as claimed." Since the information stored in the DNA as a sequence of nucleotides was a product of nature, it did not require human action to bring it into existence, and therefore could not be patented.
Although that seems a sensible ruling, the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industry has been fighting against this self-evident logic for years. The view that genes could be patented suffered a major defeat in 2013, when the US Supreme Court struck down Myriad Genetics' patents on the genes BRCA1 and the similar BRCA2. The industry was hoping that a win in Australia could keep alive the idea that genes could be owned by a company in the form of a patent monopoly. The victory by D'Arcy now makes it highly likely that other judges around the world will take the view that genes cannot be patented.
This is a result that will have major practical consequences, and is likely to save thousands of lives. In the past, holders of gene patents were able to stop other companies from offering tests based on them, for example to detect the presence of the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes that were linked with a greater risk of breast and ovarian cancers. This patent monopoly allowed companies like Myriad to charge $3,000 (£2,000) or more for their own tests, potentially placing them out of the reach of those unable to afford this cost, some of whom might then go on to develop cancer because they were not aware of their higher susceptibility, and thus unable to take action to minimise their risks.
Striking down gene patents in Australia, as in the US, clears the path for new entrants to the gene testing market, which is likely to drive down prices. It could also spur more biomedical innovation by allowing researchers freedom to investigate previously patented genes and develop new therapies, without fearing potential lawsuits.
If the judgement is followed by courts in other jurisdictions, and the whole idea of gene patents is rejected, the number of people whose lives could be saved will be correspondingly greater.
This post originated on Ars Technica UK
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Have you ever wondered where and how lipstick was created? I mean don't get me wrong, we all know why someone would create a substance on a stick to perk up the color of a woman's lips. But I have always wondered when lipstick was created and did it always come in a stick? As you know lipstick now a days is made from a combination of oils, minerals, pigments, waxes and other agents that give this make-up sensation its texture and color. Now I'm no expert on make-up or even lipstick for that matter so naturally I had to do some research on lipstick in general. From what I have gathered lipstick was in use more than five thousand years ago back when women used to crush jewels and than applied to the lips and sometimes around the eyes as well. We have always associated the use of make-up with the Egyptian woman because they are the ones that have been recorded with having black thick lining around the eyes and rose colored cheeks and lips. What the Ancient Egyptians did (like Cleopatra) was take a specific type of beetle called the “carmine beetle” and crushed them. What this did was extract a reddish liquid or substance that would turn lips red. Later on down the road they found a way to even add a shimmer to their lips color by using an extracted substance found in fish scales. As you can imagine, lipsticks five thousand years ago didn't come in a tube or a jar, instead they were extracted and placed in shallow bowls or plates. Lipstick really took appeal to woman when female actresses colored their lips in black and white films. Today woman have the pleasure of coloring their lips with many different kinds of lipsticks and lip glosses that are available on the market today. The most popular color of all lipsticks that have ever been placed on the market is still and always will be candy apple red. With this tutorial you will learn how to draw red lipstick step by step with easy to follow instructions that are detailed and easy to read. I hope you all like this lesson on this fashion object that girls will always have a need for. I will be back in a bit with more drawing fun so stick around folks.
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Frequently Asked Questions
What is research?
Undergraduate research is scholarly study in any discipline in which inquiry, discovery and creativity culminate in advancements in science, technology, the arts or humanities. It is the behavioral endeavor employed only by humans and, in this case, it is undergraduates who work under the mentorship of proven scholars, experts and professionals. Any undergraduate chosen by a mentor may participate in undergraduate research. Students from all disciplines – from anthropology, history, design and English to physics, microbiology and turf grass management – can engage in the excitement of scholarly research. Know that motivated students from high schools, community colleges and universities from North Carolina, the nation and the world are invited to participate.
It has been said that the "lecture" hall is all about answering questions. Conversely research (creative scholarship) is all about ASKING questions. If you are interested in the who? what? where? when? how?, then it is very likely that you will enjoy conducting research.
Why undergraduate research?
- Develop Skills to Conduct Research
The job market is continuously evolving and the rate of evolution is fast because of the rapid development of new technologies. The job market is also highly competitive as employers try to be efficient and do more with less. An adaptable work force gives employers an edge and hence the ability to adapt is a requirement and no longer a luxury. Furthermore, effective communication skills are now essential in nearly all fields of practice. Undergraduate research teaches students the process of developing creative ideas, formulating and executing research and presenting the outcome. The skills learned through undergraduate research enable the college graduate to develop and adapt to new ideas and pursue them in a systematic way. The ability to communicate, both in written and verbal form, enhances the overall effectiveness of the individual and makes her/him a success.
- Develop and Produce New Knowledge
One of the major roles of universities is to create and investigate new ideas. Undergraduate students can be an important part of teams that that often involve graduate students and research associates, all operating under the guidance of a faculty mentor. Because of their fresh and unbiased look at new ideas, undergraduate students often strengthen the research team and can positively affect the direction of research.
- Improve a Sense of Community and Group Dynamic
The exposure of many students to the university setting is often limited to attending classes and occasionally meeting with an advisor. Undergraduate research provides a mechanism for students to interact more closely and frequently with faculty mentors and other researchers on campus. The improved sense of belonging and accomplishment enriches the educational experience of the student and provides opportunities to explore potential career paths.
What can I expect of a research experience?
It depends on your level of experience, your academic discipline and the faculty mentor. Some students do a lot of work in the library while others work in the laboratory, at a computer or even out in the field. Still, other students work in the art studio or on perfecting a musical performance.
What experience do I need to do research with a UNCG faculty member?
It depends. Most faculty members are willing to take any enthused, hard working and dedicated student. Others expect that you have completed certain courses or surpassed a certain GPA.
Can I get paid to do research?
It depends. Some faculty members have grants in which they can pay you from. You can work with a faculty member to apply for a UNCG URA. Even if you don't get paid you might be able to earn academic credit for your work by enrolling in an independent study.
Will research help me get into graduate school?
The bar for getting into graduate school has been raised. Stellar GPAs and GRE scores are important, but today the importance of a student's own undergraduate research project is a significant contributing factor to acceptance into, and success in, graduate school.
Will research help me get a job?
Probably. There are many skills you are likely to improve as you work on a research project: thinking independently, writing, working with others, synthesizing information, creating new knowledge and organizational skills. All of these are valued by employers. Employers look for students who took advantage of a variety of learning opportunities and who demonstrated they were successful at them.
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|« The wisdom of skepticism||Obamacare Targets Entitlements »|
THE RISE OF ATMOSPHERIC CO2 ABOVE 350 PPM AT THE CURRENT RATE OF ABOUT 2 PPM/YEAR IS TRANSCENDING THE CONDITIONS THAT ALLOWED THE DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN AGRICULTURE AND CIVILIZATION FROM ABOUT 8000 YEARS AGO.
Life on Earth depends on a delicate balance between the atmosphere, the oceans and the biosphere. The atmosphere acts like the “lungs” of the biosphere, while the ocean currents act as its “vein system”, modulating temperatures around the globe. Changes to the chemistry of the atmosphere, including greenhouse gases (CO2, methane, nitric oxides, ozone) and aerosols (mainly sulphur dioxide) through Earth’s history resulted in climate shifts between greenhouse states and glacial/interglacial states. Such changes were triggered by orbital shifts, solar cycles, volcanic events, asteroid impacts, release of methane from sediments and, on longer time scales, the distribution of oceans, continents and mountain ranges.
Sharp decline in CO2 34 million years ago and 15 million years ago to below 500 ppm has resulted in the development of the Antarctic ice sheet. About 2.8 million years ago a further decline in CO2 resulted in formation of the Greenland ice sheet and Arctic Sea ice. The current runaway climate change is a direct result of human emissions and land clearing. The emission of more than 320 billion tons of carbon (over 50% the original atmospheric inventory) since 1750 raised CO2 levels from 280 to 388 ppm, or 460 ppm CO2-equivalent (a value including the effect of methane).
Acceleration of climate change since the mid-1970s is leading toward a global temperature rise of +1.5oC above pre-industrial time, once the masking effects of sulphur aerosols are removed. The polar regions have already warmed by up to 4oC. This results in carbon cycle and ice/water melt feedback processes, with consequent (A) extreme rates of polar ice melting, including the Arctic Sea, Greenland, West and East Antarctica, which threatens accelerated sea level rise above the current rate of 0.35 cm/year; (B) a progressive shift of climate zones toward the poles, which extend the tropics, as indicated by intensified cyclones and floods, and enlarging desert regions as manifested by extreme droughts and fires. Given lag effects, looming threats include (1) ocean acidification, collapse of coral reefs and the marine food chain; (2) mountain snow and glacier melt and availability of freshwater; (3) destruction of native habitats, i.e. the Amazon; (4) ozone depletion; (5) atmospheric aerosol loading and (6) chemical pollution by metals, plastics, radioactive nuclei.
The consequences for human habitats include loss of arable land, fresh water supplies and extreme weather events. The loss of Himalayan snow and thereby decreased river flow, coupled with a failure of the monsoon and sea level rise, threatens more than one billion people in south and south-eastern Asia. As the polar regions warm, a release of methane from the many hundreds of billions of tons of carbon stored in permafrost and shallow lakes and seas, is imminent.
In the view of leading climate scientists there is no alternative to attempts at reducing atmospheric CO2 levels to below 350 ppm as soon as possible. What is urgently required is a combination of (A) urgent deep cuts in carbon emissions; (B) fast-track development of clean renewable energy systems; (C) an intensive global reforestation campaign; (D) application of a range of CO2 draw-down sequestration measures, including world-wide replantation and reforestation campaigns and chemical capture methods, solar-powered desalination plants, and long-range channel and pipe water transport systems.
Schellnhuber, Oxford meeting, 28-30.10.09 http://www.eci.ox.ac.uk/4degrees/programme.php
British Antarctic Survey http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/press/press_releases/press_release.php?id=989 NASA/GISS). http://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/
Copenhagen Synthesis Report http://www.anu.edu.au/climatechange/content/news/copenhagen-synthesis-report-released-today/
Hansen et al. 2008. Target CO2: Where Should humanity aim? http://www.columbia.edu/~jeh1/2008/TargetCO2_20080407.pdf
Lenton et al., 2008. Tipping points in the Earth climate system. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/02/080204172224.htm
Reports by NASA/GISS, Hadley_Met, Potsdam Ocean Institute, NSIDC, CSIRO, BOM.
Earth and paleoclimate scientist
22 October, 2009
Your donation helps provide a place for people to speak out.
Not tax deductible. email@example.com
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Resources » Disability » Mobility Impairments » Dystrophy
A newsgroup on muscular dystrophy.
news:alt.support.musc-dystrophy - 25-Feb-2000 - Hits: 117 - Rate This | Details
A newsgroup for support and discussion of the nerve disease Reflex Sympathetic Dystrophy.
news:alt.support.rsd - 25-Feb-2000 - Hits: 231 - Rate This | Details
To subscribe to this mailing list, you will need to compose a short email. Click on the link above and enter this text into the body of your email message (leave the subject line blank): subscribe MD-list Your-name
Mailing list: mailto:[email protected] - 21-Feb-2000 - Hits: 57 - Rate This | Details
Muscular dystrophy FAQs
First described in 1902, DD is a class of muscular dystrophies that primarily affect distal muscles, which are those of the lower arms, hands, lower legs and feet. Muscular dystrophies in general are a group of genetic, degenerative diseases primarily affecting voluntary muscles. This site has info on and maps the different types of MD. General correspondence also can be addressed to: Muscular Dystrophy Association — USA National Office 222 S. Riverside Plaza, Suite 1500 Chicago, Illinois 60606 (800) 572-1717
http://www.mdausa.org/disease/ - 22-Mar-2000 - Hits: 180 - Rate This | Details
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The Kentucky Geological Survey has produced maps showing the distribution of water wells and springs in Kentucky at a scale of 1:100,000 (30 x 60 minute quadrangles). Each map displays locations of four types of water wells (private, industrial, public, and monitoring) in addition to location of springs. The maps also indicate locations where water quality analyses have been completed for both wells and springs. The data for these maps are being compiled from the Kentucky Groundwater Data Repository.
This series of maps is useful to environmental scientists who need to locate water wells that could be affected by various environmental problems, such as chemical spills or leaks from underground petroleum storage tanks. Homeowners seeking a suitable groundwater supply will be able to locate water wells or springs in their vicinity that might assist well drillers in determining where and how deep to drill for water. Industrial or recreational planners would also be able to use the maps to locate wells or springs near their area of interest to help determine depth to groundwater or allow them to check for possible water sources for projects such as golf courses or public parks.
Maps of the following 30 x 60 minute quadrangles have been produced:
Each map is available online as a PDF file at http://kgs.uky.edu/kgsweb/findpubsmain.asp (click on "main catalog search" and enter "water well and spring" in the keyword search field.) Detailed information about the wells and springs identified on the maps is available from the Kentucky Groundwater Data Repository at http://kgs.uky.edu/kgsweb/DataSearching/watersearch.asp . Paper copies of the maps can be purchased from the KGS Public Information Center for $8.00 each (859-257-3896 or toll-free at 1-877-778-7827.)
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