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Philosophy | Introduction to Ethics
P140 | 6135 | Caldwell
Perhaps no area of study is as important, pervasive in everyday
life, and difficult, as is Ethics. Ethics is the branch of
Philosophy that attempts to answer the following sorts of
questions: “Is so-and-so a duty that I must perform?” “Is such-and-
such action permitted?” , “In what sort of way should I live my
life?”, “What kind of personal character should I develop?” More
importantly, Ethics carefully scrutinizes the answers that people
give to these questions. The vast majority of people may all agree
that “Murder is wrong” is a true statement, but 10 different people
might give 10 different arguments/reasons WHY it is the case
that “Murder is wrong” is true. As we shall see in the course, not
all of these arguments are good ones.
We will look at several ethical theories that have been developed
over the past 2,300 years to attempt to answer some of the above
questions. These include, but are not limited to, Moral Relativism,
Divine Command Theory, Consequentialism, Deontological ethics,
Virtue ethics, and Sartreian ethics. We will read the works of both
historical and contemporary writers.
Many Introduction to Ethics classes finish the semester by
getting ‘down and dirty’ in some applied areas—discussing issues
such as abortion, euthanasia, and animal rights. Though these
issues will undoubtedly come up over the span of the course, I would
like to—provided we have enough time—get ‘down and dirty’ in another
area: Meta-ethics. Metaethics goes to the very foundations of
ethical theory, asking whether or not we are actually discussing any
sort of real ‘objective’ truth when discussing ethical theories, or
if we are simply ‘expressing ourselves.’ Are ‘rightness’
and ‘wrongness’ properties in the world in the same way ‘length’
or ‘mass’ are? Are they more akin to the psychological phenomena of
love or consciousness? Or are they simply ways of saying ‘Yay!’
and ‘Boo!’. (‘Yay kindness! Boo murder!’).
Your grade will be a composite of 2 or 3 exams, one term paper, and
class participation. I will likely have occasional short homework
assignments and/or reading quizzes that will count under the heading
of ‘class participation.’ I do not take attendance; we’re all
adults—the more you put into the class the more you will get out.
No previous philosophical experience is required. This class, after
all, is in part an attempt to introduce you to philosophical
thinking. That being said, you will be expected to think
rigorously, write rigorously, and do the readings.
I enjoy this topic and expect it to be a fun class. If you have any
questions about the course, please feel free to email me at
The only required text for the course is “Ethics: History, Theory,
and Contemporary Issues” by Steven M. Cahn and Peter Markie. I may
provide other readings through oncourse.
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RED ARROYO. Red Arroyo rises eight miles southeast of Flomot and eleven miles north of Matador in north central Motley County (at 34°10' N, 100°52' W). The small wet-weather draw runs northeast for three miles before it enters Tom Ball Creek seven miles northeast of Whiteflat (at 34°11' N, 100°50' W). The arroyo is located in an area of moderately steep slopes with locally high relief where mesquite and grasses grow in shallow to moderately deep silt loam soils.
Image Use Disclaimer
All copyrighted materials included within the Handbook of Texas Online are in accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107 related to Copyright and “Fair Use” for Non-Profit educational institutions, which permits the Texas State Historical Association (TSHA), to utilize copyrighted materials to further scholarship, education, and inform the public. The TSHA makes every effort to conform to the principles of fair use and to comply with copyright law.
For more information go to: http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/107.shtml
If you wish to use copyrighted material from this site for purposes of your own that go beyond fair use, you must obtain permission from the copyright owner.
The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Handbook of Texas Online, "Red Arroyo," accessed June 27, 2016, http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/rbrcd.
Uploaded on June 15, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.
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Astronomical observatories were built and designed to map celestial events throughout the year. Ancient man discovered that celestial events follow cycles and needed a way to track them. Approximately 5,000 years ago early man devised a way to place stones in a certain positions to align for events like the seasons, lunar phases, solar phases and so on. As mankind has always been fascinated by the heavens, their mythologies reflecting many of these monuments connected to the Gods and Goddesses their civilization worshipped.
In examining the observations of such peoples, it is possible to gain a certain insight into the ways in which they constructed their own universes and therefore provide a more holistic understanding of the means and motivations of the culture as a whole.
The astronomical inquiry of the ancients must be looked upon as a mechanism of observation and prediction which closely tied them to their environments, depending upon their cultural, religious and mythological bases for validation in the process.
The erection of these monuments was a great task created by the astronomers, priests, and stone builders of each culture. This was a global phenomenon. These ancient people are presently referred to as the Megalithic Stone Builders erecting huge edifices around the planet, many of which were placed on sacred grid points, indwells and outwells of powerful energy. The remnants of their achievements can be found throughout the planet especially where the power grids intersect.
The ancient Megalithic Stone Builders used this knowledge to better calculate when the Earth energies would be at their peak. If the energy-ley lines that run down the major axis of their observatory or power site is oriented to the Summer Solstice Sunrise, then that would be the day that particular site will experience a peak of power. They used this opportunity to visit these places which became temples for meditation, a place to talk to their Gods, or to move through 'interdimensional doorways'.
Stars Aligned at Ancient Tomb in SpainLive Science - May 14, 2013
Some astronomical sleuthing has revealed the cultic past life of a Roman tomb in Spain. Researchers believe the burial site was once used as a Mithraic temple, positioned to line up with the constellations and guide sun through its window during the equinoxes. The Carmona necropolis in Seville is full of burials from the 1st century B.C. through the 2nd century A.D., including the so-called Elephant's Tomb, named so for an elephant-shaped statue discovered inside the structure. Researchers have debated what this structure was used for and archaeologists from the University of Pablo de Olavide in Seville now propose that it served as a place of worship for devotees of Mithraism, a cult that thrived during the Roman Empire.
Once a year, at the winter solstice, the rising sun shines directly along the long passage into the chamber for about 17 minutes and illuminates the chamber floor. The sun enters the passage through a specially contrived opening, known as a roofbox, directly above the main entrance. Although solar alignments are not uncommon among passage graves, Newgrange is one of few to contain the additional roofbox feature The alignment is such that although the roofbox is above the passage entrance, the light hits the floor of the inner chamber. Today the first light enters about four minutes after sunrise, but calculations based on the precession of the Earth show that 5000 years ago first light would have entered exactly at sunrise.
The solar alignment at Newgrange is very precise compared to similar phenomena at other passage graves such as Dowth or Maes Howe in the Orkney islands, off the coast of Scotland.
Current-day visitors to Newgrange are treated to a re-enactment of this event through the use of electric lights situated within the tomb. The finale of a Newgrange tour results in every tour member standing inside the tomb where the tour guide then turns off the lights, and lights the light bulb simulating the sun as it would appear on the winter solstice. Anyone visiting the historic site can experience an approximation of the phenomenon any time of year, and is often the highlight of the tour. A lottery is held annually for "tickets" to be allowed into the tomb to view the actual event. The popularity of this event was the reason a lottery was introduced, and also why the lights were installed.
At dawn on Winter Solstice every year, just after 9:00 am, the sun begins to rise across the Boyne Valley from Newgrange over a hill known locally as Red Mountain. Given the right weather conditions, the event is spectacular. At four and a half minutes past nine, the light from the rising sun strikes the front of Newgrange, and enters into the passage through the roofbox which was specially designed to capture the rays of the sun. For the following fourteen minutes, the beam of light stretches into the passage of Newgrange and on into the central chamber, where, in Neolithic times, it illuminated the rear stone of the central recess of the chamber. With simple stone technology, these wonderful people captured a very significant astronomical and calendrical moment in the most spectacular way.
Newgrange appears to have been used as a tomb. The recesses in the cruciform chamber hold large stone basins into which were placed cremated human remains. During excavation, the remains of five individuals were found. It is speculated that the sun formed an important part of the religious beliefs of the neolithic ("New" Stone Age) people who built it. Formerly the mound was encircled by an outer ring of immense standing stones, of which there are twelve of a possible thirty-seven remaining. However, it seems that the stone circle which encircled Newgrange is not contemporary with the monument itself but was placed there some 1,000 years later in the Bronze Age.
According to Irish mythology, Newgrange was one of the sidhe, or fairy-mounds, where the Tuatha De Danann lived. It was built by the god Dagda, but his son Oengus later tricked him out of it. It is named for the goddess Boann, the mother of Aengus, who is also credited with the creation of the River Boyne. According to some versions of the story, the hero Cuchulainn was conceived there. However, most of the mythical cycles associated with Newgrange date from the Celtic era of Irish history and mythology. The monument was already in existence for well over 2,000 years before the Celtic era.
Goseck Circle Wikipedia
Early Celtic 'Stonehenge' Discovered in Germany's Black Forest Science Daily - October 12, 2011
A huge early Celtic calendar construction has been discovered in the royal tomb of Magdalenenberg, nearby Villingen-Schwenningen in Germany's Black Forest. This discovery was made by researchers at the Romisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum at Mainz in Germany when they evaluated old excavation plans. The order of the burials around the central royal tomb fits exactly with the sky constellations of the Northern hemisphere.
Whereas Stonehenge was orientated towards the sun, the more then 100 meter width burial mound of Magdalenenberg was focused towards the moon. The builders positioned long rows of wooden posts in the burial mound to be able to focus on the Lunar Standstills. These Lunar Standstills happen every 18,6 year and were the 'corner stones' of the Celtic calendar.
The position of the burials at Magdeleneberg represents a constellation pattern which can be seen between Midwinter and Midsummer. With the help of special computer programs, Dr. Allard Mees, researcher at the Romisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseum, could reconstruct the position of the sky constellations in the early Celtic period and following from that those which were visible at Midsummer. This archaeo-astronomic research resulted in a date of Midsummer 618 BC, which makes it the earliest and most complete example of a Celtic calendar focused on the moon.
Julius Caesar reported in his war commentaries about the moon based calendar of the Celtic culture. Following his conquest of Gaul and the destruction of the Gallic culture, these types of calendar were completely forgotten in Europe. With the Romans, a sun based calendar was adopted throughout Europe. The full dimensions of the lost Celtic calendar system have now come to light again in the monumental burial mound of Magdalenenberg.
The Temple at Karnac is oriented toward
the sunrise of winter solstice.
It has been long recognized that the ancient Egyptians possessed a great knowledge of geometry, mathematics and astronomy , all being the basis for the Great Pyramid of Giza which for 5000 years has stood as a monument to the great cultures that once populated the Nile River Valley. One of the greatest achievements of the Egyptians is the creation of a calendrical system which relied heavily on lunar observations.
By 3000 B.C., they had devised a solar calendar of 365 days, the starting point of which hinged on the helical rising of Sirius, which also happened to coincide with the time of the summer solstice and the annual flooding of the Nile. While this all may seem to be rather unimpressive it serves to solidify the intrinsic necessity for ancients to be in touch with natural surroundings, through tracking celestial phenomenon, the Ancient Egyptians were able to predict events of great significance in their desert environment.There are other celestial observatories like it in Egypt.
Sahara Astronomical Site Older Than Stonehenge - AP - April 1, 1998
The monument was discovered over several years of field work ending in 1997. Stonehenge was first used about 5,000 years ago and gained some of its current stones about 4,000 years ago. The stones indicate the points of midsummer sunrise and midwinter sunset, but nobody knows just what people used Stonehenge for. The Egyptian stone complex, which isn't circular like Stonehenge, is spread over an area 1.8 miles by three-quarters of a mile. It includes 10 slabs some 9 feet high, 30 rock-lined ovals, nine burial sites for cows, each under a pile of 40 to 50 rocks weighing up to 200 or 300 pounds apiece, and a "calendar circle" of stones. Many of these features line up in five radiating lines, one of them running east-west.
The calendar circle is a 12-foot-wide arrangement of slabs about 18 inches long, most of them lying down. Two pairs of upright stones stand directly across the circle from each other, defining a view that would have displayed sunrise at the summer solstice, the researchers said. That would be an important day to the cattle-herders, because summer is when monsoon rains would begin. But the circle wouldn't have been a very accurate indicator of when the solstice was occurring. It was "more symbolic than practical. The circle also contains two other pairs of standing stones that defined a north-south view. Charcoal from hearths around the circle and wood from one of the burial sites date to about 7,000 years ago. It's not clear when most of the rest of the monument was erected, but it was at least 5,000 years ago.
Stunning Astronomical Alignment Found at Peru Pyramid Live Science - May 6, 2013
An ancient astronomical alignment in southern Peru has been discovered by researchers between a pyramid, two stone lines and the setting sun during the winter solstice. During the solstice, hundreds of years ago, the three would have lined up to frame the pyramid in light. The two stone lines, called geoglyphs, are located about 1.2 miles (2 kilometers) east-southeast from the pyramid. They run for about 1,640 feet (500 meters), and researchers say the lines were "positioned in such a way as to frame the pyramid as one descended down the valley from the highlands."
Stunning astronomical alignment found at Peru pyramid MSNBC - May 6, 2013
An ancient astronomical alignment in southern Peru has been discovered by researchers between a pyramid, two stone lines and the setting sun during the winter solstice. During the solstice, hundreds of years ago, the three would have lined up to frame the pyramid in light.
Towers point to ancient Sun cult BBC - March 1, 2007
The oldest solar observatory in the Americas has been found, suggesting the existence of early, sophisticated Sun cults, scientists report. It comprises a group of 2,300-year-old structures, known as the Thirteen Towers, which are found in the Chankillo archaeological site, Peru. The towers span the annual rising and setting arcs of the Sun, providing a solar calendar to mark special dates.
Pre-Inca Observatory Is Oldest in Americas, Study Says National Geographic - March 1, 2007
A mysterious set of monuments in Peru make up the oldest solar observatory in the Americas, according to a new study. The 2,300-year-old Thirteen Towers of Chankillo were used for marking the sun's position throughout the year - an activity that was part of the sun-worshipping culture of the Inca, the study authors said. The large stone towers are arranged in a line along a ridge near Chankillo, a walled hilltop ruin north of Lima. "This is the oldest known example of landscape timekeeping in the Americas," said Ivan Ghezzi, lead author of the study and an archaeologist at the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru.
One of Machu Picchu's primary functions was that of astronomical observatory. The Intihuatana stone (meaning 'Hitching Post of the Sun') has been shown to be a precise indicator of the date of the two equinoxes and other significant celestial periods. The Intihuatana (also called the Saywa or Sukhanka stone) is designed to hitch the sun at the two equinoxes, not at the solstice (as is stated in some tourist literature and new-age books).
At midday on March 21st and September 21st, the sun stands almost directly above the pillar, creating no shadow at all. At this precise moment the sun "sits with all his might upon the pillar" and is for a moment "tied" to the rock. At these periods, the Incas held ceremonies at the stone in which they 'tied the sun' to halt its northward movement in the sky. There is also an Intihuatana alignment with the December solstice (the summer solstice of the southern hemisphere), when at sunset the sun sinks behind Pumasillo (the Puma's claw), the most sacred mountain of the western Vilcabamba range, but the shrine itself is primarily equinoctial.
Shamanic legends say that when sensitive persons touch their foreheads to the stone, the Intihuatana opens one's vision to the spirit world (the author had such an experience, which is described in detail in Chapter one of Places of Peace and Power, on the web site, www.sacredsites.com). Intihuatana stones were the supremely sacred objects of the Inca people and were systematically searched for and destroyed by the Spaniards. When the Intihuatana stone was broken at an Inca shrine, the Inca believed that the deities of the place died or departed.
The Spaniards never found Machu Picchu, even though they suspected its existence, thus the Intihuatana stone and its resident spirits remain in their original position. The mountain top sanctuary fell into disuse and was abandoned some forty years after the Spanish took Cuzco in 1533. Supply lines linking the many Inca social centers were disrupted and the great empire came to an end. The photograph shows the ruins of Machu Picchu in the foreground with the sacred peak of Wayna Picchu towering behind. Partway down the northern side of Wayna Picchu is the so-called Temple of the Moon inside a cavern. As with the ruins of Machu Picchu, there is no archaeological or iconographical evidence to substantiate the new-age assumption that this cave was a goddess site.
Mayan Temple of the Sun
As with other ancient cultures, observatories, pyramids and temples were erected based on celestial alignments. Prior to the Maya rising to power circa 400 AD in Central America and Mexico, there is evidence that the Olmec people had already begun to use astronomical orientations to direct the layout of several ceremonial centers, with the Pyramids of the New World oriented to observing and predicting the motions of the Sun and Mon.
As with the Egyptians, we can deduce that Mayan astronomical endeavors, heavily relied upon the ritual and ceremonial worlds of the culture, however, here we have a wealth of evidence to substantiate such claims. Left behind are codices, or systems of hieroglyphic recordings of the Maya, and which include celestial sightings and how these sightings and predictions are woven into the entire cultural complex.
'The Dresden Codex' has perhaps proved the most fruitful in helping to recreate the ancient environment, and containing an elaborate calendar used to record the observations of Venus, which seems to be an object of utmost importance to them. Working with both a solar calendar and a ritual calendar, the ancient Maya imparted much meaning in the helical rising of Venus, which is made evident in the structure of several ceremonial centers throughout the area. Unlike the Megalithic and Egyptian complexes, scientific observation can be better deciphered here, because of the elaborate records left behind, and because of the fact that so many of the deductions the Maya made so closely resemble recent calculations of the same recorded cycles.
Like the Egyptians, the Maya had devised two calendars, one solar and one ritual which interacted and depended upon one another for the dictation of certain ritual events to be carried out. The sky for the Maya was a seeming personification of Gods and deities who played important roles in the daily lives of the population. Most significantly, the relationship between the Sun and Venus (talked about previously in the helical rising, conjunction, phases) was representative of Kutaikcan, the God of Venus , and "symbolizes the cyclic myth of departure and return or death and resurrection." (Aveni 1984). In addition other objects may have been tracked in order to predict certain 'natural' phenomenon in accordance to seasonal changes therefor placing major importance on the accurate predictions undertaken to better predict the earthly events thought to be under the control of the Gods.
A great many structures are indicative of the devotion to and dependence upon Venus, to the Maya, and can be found in the architecture ceremonial centers throughout the region. Caracol, at Chichen Itza sits atop a large earthen mound and is a structure obviously intended for observing Venus at its most extreme points on the horizon.
Just as famous, is the Governor's Palace at Uxmal, constructed so that it would center on the helical rising of Venus at its southernmost point during the eight year cycle it follows. Such an alignment can be further substantiated by the fact that the Palace deviates from the remainder of the buildings at Uxmal by twenty degrees, indicating the care taken to insure the sight lines of the observation windows. The careful planning inherent in the design and building of such structures is made evident in the precision of their alignments, however this precision was indispensable to the planning of ritual events and the prediction of natural processes that so dictated the lives of the Maya.
In Chichen Itza, in Mexico there is a celestial observatory to the stars that was aligned along the line of the summer solstice and the winter soltice. It was built by the ancient Maya and their God Quetzalcoatl.
Observatory in the Chichen Itza complex
The Miami Circle, also known as The Miami River Circle or Brickell Point, is an archaeological site in downtown Miami, Florida. It consists of a perfect circle of 24 holes or basins cut into the limestone bedrock, on a coastal spit of land, surrounded by a large number of other 'minor' holes. It is the only known evidence of a permanent structure cut into the bedrock in the United States, and considerably predates other known permanent settlements on the East Coast. It is believed to have been the location of a structure, built by the Tequesta (also Tekesta) Indians, in what was possibly their capital. It was discovered in 1998, and is believed to be somewhere between 1700 and 2000 years old, though some have questioned both its age and its authenticity.
A strange circle formation has been discovered at the mouth of the Miami River in what could be signs of an ancient culture. Archeologists have discovered a perfect circle measuring 38 feet in diameter, with 24 irregular cut basins, ranging in size from one to three feet. Some experts believe the basins depict the images of sea turtles, dolphins, sharks, manatees, shrimp and other marine animals.
Centuries or millennia after its creation, the formation still seems sacred because of its apparent function as a temple or astronomical device. The structure has 41 potholes on each side of the circle's center along the east-west axis. It measures the precise outlines of the autumnal equinox (the time when the sun crosses the equator, making night and day equal in duration) and the summer and winter solstices (the northern and southern extremes of the sun's seasonal travel through the sky).
Could it be that the time-obsessed Maya or maybe a much older culture carved this astronomical observatory for future memory or to remind us what was sacred to our ancient people?
Archeologists say the perfect circle measuring 37.5 feet in diameter, with 24 irregular cut basins, ranging in size from one to three feet, may have an "astronomical purpose" as it has an obvious east-west alignment. Some experts believe the basins depict the images of sea turtles, dolphins, sharks, manatees, shrimp and other marine animals.
Mainstream experts familiar with the Miami Circle say it may be an astronomical observatory. But they also note it could have been the foundation of a sacred temple with no connection to the stars. Also, mainstream archaeologists do not share the notion of an ancient global stone civilization linking the Egyptians, Incas or Mayans. In addition, the standard view of ancient Egyptian history is that the pyramids were royal tombs - not astronomical monuments.
Does this observatory resemble Avebury?
Or Stonehenge in England?
Stonehenge I (3100-2300 BCE)
Stonehenge IIIa (2100-2000 BCE)
Or ancient Mayan ruins?
The Native Americans called it Star Knowledge which included the ability to mark events based on celestial alignments. Almost everything the Lakota scholars brought together from elders in the Lakota Star Knowledge book is about observations leading to the summer solstice where the sunpath will be at its farthest north, the days are longest, and the Sun Dance is held "when the sun is strongest and the power of growing things is greatest".
Cahokia was the most important center for the peoples known today as Mississippians. Their settlements ranged across what is now the Midwest, Eastern, and Southeastern United States. Cahokia maintained trade links with communities as far away as the Great Lakes to the north and the Gulf Coast to the south. Pottery and stone tools in the Cahokian style were found at the Silvernale site near Red Wing, Minnesota. At the high point of its development, Cahokia was the largest urban center north of the great Mesoamerican cities in Mexico. Although it was home to only about 1,000 people before ca. 1050, its population grew explosively after that date. Archaeologists estimate the city's population at between 8,000 and 40,000 at its peak, with more people living in outlying farming villages that supplied the main urban center. If the highest population estimates are correct, Cahokia was larger than any subsequent city in the United States until about 1800, when Philadelphia's population grew beyond 40,000.
Fajata Butte in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico boasts a chamber in which a spiral petroglyph may be found. The glyph is surrounded by stone slabs allowing only scant light to penetrate into the darkness, and as the sun makes its appearance, a slit of light climbs the wall arriving at the center of the petroglyph at noon at the time of equinox. A number of artistic depictions of celestial phenomenon can be found as well, left behind by various tribes, indicating that even if they were not predicting the movements of the stare, they were intently contemplating the evident motions of the celestial bodies which corresponded to their various mythologies. This also marks a 19-year lunar cycle as the spiral has 19 rings.
Chaco Canyon was an important Anasazi cultural center from about 900 through 1130 AD. About 30 ancient masonry buildings, containing hundreds of rooms each, attest to Chaco's importance. Some structures are thought to serve as astronomical observatories or calendars. At noon on the summer solstice, a dagger of sun penetrates the center of the spiral. On the autumnal equinox, a sun dagger passes through the center of a small spiral on the left, and another passes on the edge of the large spiral. At the Winter Solstice, a big sun dagger passes on either side of the large spiral.
Cahokia Mounds in southern Illinois near East St. Louis has a circle of postholes interpreted in 1970 as an astronomical indicator of summer solstice sunrise, winter solstice sunrise, and equinox sunrise. Monk's Mound is the central focus of this great ceremonial center. A massive structure with four terraces, it is the largest man-made earthen mound in North America. Facing south, it is 92 feet (28 m) high, 951 feet (290 m) long and 836 feet (255 m) wide. The Travel Channel has called it the "world's largest pyramid." Excavation on the top of Monk's Mound has revealed evidence of a large building - perhaps a temple or the residence of the paramount chief - that could be seen throughout the city. This building was about 105 feet (32 m) long and 48 feet (15 m) wide, and could have been as much as 50 feet (15 m) high. The east and northwest sides of Monk's Mound were twice excavated in August 2007 during an attempt to avoid erosion.
"Woodhenge," a circle of posts used to make astronomical sightings, stood to the west of Monk's Mound. The name is taken from Stonehenge, as this structure marked solstices, equinoxes and other astronomical cycles. Archaeologists discovered Woodhenge during excavation of the site. They found that the structure was rebuilt several times during the urban center's roughly 300-year history. According to Chappell, "A beaker found in a pit near the winter solstice post bore a circle and cross symbol that for many Native Americans symbolizes the Earth and the four cardinal directions. Radiating lines probably symbolized the sun, as they have in countless other civilizations." It is not to be confused with another site of the same name that exists in the United Kingdom.
Fascinating information about the people who once built the great prehistoric city of Cahokia was revealed accidentally during excavations in the early 1960s. Professional archaeologists were trying desperately to save archaeological information which was to be destroyed by the construction of an interstate highway, which was later rerouted. After a summer of intense excavation, Dr. Warren Wittry was studying excavation maps when he observed that numerous large oval-shaped pits seemed to be arranged in arcs of circles. He theorized that posts set in these pits lined up with the rising sun at certain times of the year, serving as a calendar, which he called Woodhenge. More post pits were found where predicted, and evidence that there were as many as five Woodhenges at this location. These calendars had been built over a period of 200 years (A.D. 900-1100). Fragments of wood remaining in some of the post pits revealed red cedar had been used for the posts, a sacred wood.
The first circle, only partially excavated, (date unknown) would have consisted of 24 posts: the second circle had 36 posts; the third circle (A.D. 1000), The most completely excavated, had 48 posts; the fourth, partially excavated, would have had 60 posts. The last Woodhenge was only 12, or possible 13 posts, along the eastern sunrise arc(if it had been a complete circle, it would have had 72 posts). Building only the sunrise arc might indicate that red cedar trees had become scarce. It is not known why the size and location of the circles, and the number of posts was constantly changed - perhaps to include more festival dates or to improve and increase alignments.
Only three posts are crucial as seasonal markers - those marking the first days of winter and summer (the solstices), and the one halfway between marking the first days of spring and fall (the equinoxes). Viewing was from the center of the circle, and several circles had large "observation posts" at that location, where it is likely the sunpriest stood on a raised platform. Other posts between the solstice posts probably marked special festival dates related to the agricultural cycle. The remaining posts around the circle have no known function, other than symbolically forming a circle and forming an enclosure to hold the sacred Woodhenge ceremonies. There have been suggestions some posts had alignments with certain bright stars or the moon, or were used in predicting eclipses, and others have suggested Woodhenge was used as an engineering "aligner" to determine mound placements, but none of this has been proven convincingly.
The most spectacular sunrise occurs at the equinoxes, when the sun rises due east. The post marking these sunrises aligns with the front of Monks Mound, where the leader resided, and it looks as though Monks Mound gives birth the sun. A possible offertory pit near the winter solstice post suggests a fire was burned to warm the sun and encourage it to return northward for another annual cycle and rebirth of the earth. This probably marked the start of the new year.
The third circle (A.D. 1000) was reconstructed in 1985 at the original location. The circle is 410 feet in diameter, had 48 posts spaced 26.8 feet apart (9 are missing on the west side, removed by a highway borrow pit). The posts were 15-20 inches in diameter and stood about 20 feet high. Red ocher pigment found in some of the post pits suggests the posts may have been painted. The post pits averaged 7 feet long and just over two feet wide, sloping from the surface at one end to a depth of four feet at the other, forming a ramp to slide the posts down to facilitate their raising.
The Big Horn Medicine Wheel in the Big Horn Mountains near Sheriden, Wyoming was interpreted in 1974 as an indicator of summer solstice sunrise and sunset, with other alignments for the rising of certain stars (Aldebaran, Rigel, and Sirius).
Built about 1050 AD. Has 28 spokes, and is about 90 ft in diameter.
About 50 similar circles exist. The oldest is in Canada (built about 2500 BC - the age of the Egyptian pyramids, for comparison).
The alignments presented by these stone circles are controversial; they could be due to chance. There is no evidence that they were astronomical in design. Why were they interested in those 3 particular stars?
Research regarding North American Indian astronomical insight has just recently begun to gain headway in the studies of archeoastronomers, and while the same volume of evidence does not exist as with cultures such as the Maya, the depth of Native American astronomical use and understanding is beginning to emerge. Based on the climactic conditions of more northern latitudes, it is safe to assume that one of the major reasons various tribes tracked the stars was for the prediction of seasonal change, which would indicate to nomadic or semi nomadic peoples that it was time to relocate for the winter months. This idea can be tied to the alignments found by John Eddy in the remains of the Big Horn Medicine Wheel in Wyoming.
At Big Horn, Eddy noticed that by standing at the hub of the wheel one is able to deduce "a coherent alignment scheme" where the points on the outer wheel correspond to the sunrise of summer solstice, as well as the rising of Rigel, Aldebaran, and Sirius, all of which have helical risings at the time of year when the site was climactically suited for occupation.
Makeshift structures and artwork in the southern United States argue for the ingenuity of the various architects responsible for constructing them, and as to the important part of astronomical phenomenon in constructing their own cosmos. Von Del Chamberlain notes that even structures dedicated to habitation may have served as observatories, and has found that the Pawnee earth lodges "highlight a number of celestial phenomena, ranging from the movement of the solar disk to that of constellations known to have been named".
While lack of written records stall progress somewhat, the strong mythological tradition that exists among the descendants of various North American Indian groups helps in deciphering the origins of myth that would lend explanation as to the importance of the sky in the life ways of native cultures. A certain number of scholars however have raised the question as to whether North American Indian astronomy can in fact be considered in the context of archeoastronomy and its study of prehistoric peoples, contending that these Indian populations may have been tainted by Christian schools of thought somewhere along the line. While this is a valid point, and deserves consideration, it is important to account for the mythological elements which factor into the overall schematic.
SACRED STONE CIRCLES
ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS INDEX
SACRED PLACES INDEX
CRYSTALINKS HOME PAGE
PSYCHIC READING WITH ELLIE
2012 THE ALCHEMY OF TIME
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It is difficult to pinpoint the exact motive Dumas had in mind when he wrote The Count of Monte Cristo. He wrote the novel in 1844 and it was published in 18 fragments between the years 1844-46. This was at the same time that Dumas embarked on his project including the D'Artagnan romances. These romances were written in conjunction with his collaborator Auguste Maquet starting in 1837. Their objective was to reconstruct French National history through a series of novels. The Three Musketeers is such a novel. In any case, The Count of Monte Cristo, also written with a team of collaborators, was written at the same period as these novels, which had a distinct didactic purpose. It was Dumas goal to teach the French people their historical heritage. The plots of the D'Artagnan romances are thus restricted to actual historical events and the characters reflect actual historical personages. The Count of Monte Cristo is only loosely based in fact, and thus does not fit the category of the D'Artagnan romances. History forms a mere backdrop to the plot. Dumas thus had much more freedom to create the imaginative plot and to develop the characters' role. Does this mean that The Count of Monte Cristo is not didactic in nature? Most likely the novel was created as a relief from the genre of the D'Artagnan romances, however , this is not to say that one cannot find historical events within the novel. Historical and social values are still contained within the work, though they are reduced to the backdrop. The work covers the period of French History from 1814-1838.
Historically one is carried through the closing Hundred days of Napoleon's Dynasty, the reigns of Louis XVIII, Charles X, and Louis Philipe, and the Revolution of July. These events however, do not particularly intrude upon the story.
Dumas' Count of Monte Cristo also covers French societal customs of the period. It was completely possible that a political prisoner should be forgotten in prison, though political prisoners normally stayed for a year. Another feature of 19th century post-Napoleonic society that Dumas illustrates is the humble origins of many of the most influential persons of Parisien society. Danglars, The Count de Morcerf and
Villefort represent three different means by which an individual of humble origin entered elite Parisien society. One is financial (Danglars), Morcerf represents military and political advancement, and Villefort's advancement is judicial. Other features of society outlined by Dumas are the theatrical shows the elite attend (such as the Opera), and the trend to purchase a house in Parisien suburbs, such as the Count did in Auteuil. Though Dumas' purpose in writing the novel was not didactic, it certainly contained many historical and societal realities.
Perhaps Dumas wrote this novel as a tribute to the spirit of his father who he never knew. His father had been a General in Napoleon's army, and had led a life full of adventure and intrigue. Perhaps Noirtier, the old Bonapartist hero in this tale is thus a tribute to Dumas' father.
These are not the reasons why The Count of Monte Cristo is often listed as one of the ten best novels of all time. It is rather the imagery of man acting as a force of divine justice that enthralls the senses. The Count if Monte Cristo focuses on man-man hatred. This hatred is far more powerful than the man-woman love contained within the work. The psychological portrayal of vengeance is one that fascinates yet it is a portrayal that also repels. Monte Cristo's character does not arouse sympathy, yet somehow his actions are justified. He is almost a mythological hero. A supernatural aura creates an adventure tale that is hard to resist.
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Yale ‘shapes’ up nanomanufacturing with bulk metallic glassPublished on March 3rd, 2009 | By: firstname.lastname@example.org
Yale engineers are “shaping” the future of nanodevice manufacturing by developing nanoscale molds made from amorphous metals – a.k.a. bulk metallic glasses. Opening the door to mass nanofabrication processes, their work may also enable higher-density computer chips, faster microprocessors, better biosensors and more. Research is led by Jan Schroers, a professor of mechanical engineering in Yale’s School of Engineering and Applied Science. Reporting in the February 12 edition of Nature, Schroers says the “success and proliferation” of nanotechnology fabrication depends on “robust and durable master molds.”
Currently, however, most nanomolds are comprised of silicon or metal – two materials that offer significant mold-making limitations. For example, silicon molds can capture fairly fine detail, but they’re brittle and seldom last longer than 100 uses. Metal molds last longer, but the grains in their crystalline structures interfere with imprinting details on their surfaces. Where silicon and metal fail, however, bulk metallic glasses or “BMGs” succeed. Cooled rapidly, they don’t form crystal structures and, so, don’t have “grains” as metals do. “Although they seem solid,” Schroers says, “they are more like a very slow-flowing liquid that has no structure beyond the atomic level – making them ideal for molding fine details.” BMGs also have the “pliability of plastics at moderately elevated temperatures, but they are stronger and more resilient than steel or metals at normal working temperatures,” Schroers reports.
BMG molds can be “can be used millions of times to pattern materials, including polymers like those used to make DVDs,” he says, noting the Yale team had used them to fabricate a range of three-dimensional microparts, including tweezers, gears, scalpels and more. He reports confronting only one major hurdle – finding a way to get material to release intact from a BMG mold. “Surfaces of liquid metals exhibit high surface tension and capillary effects that can interfere in the molding,” he explains. Golden Kumar, a postdoctoral team member, found the solution. “By altering the mold-BMG combination,” Kumar was able to “create surfaces so that the atoms take advantage of their favorable interaction with the mold – to both fill the mold and then release the product,” according to the Yale Bulletin. This solution reportedly has enabled the nano-patterning of details as small as 13 nanometers. Schroers believes even finer detail can be replicated in the future. “Theoretically,” he says “the size limit is the size of a single atom.”
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Discussion of everything related to the Theory of Evolution.
8 posts • Page 1 of 1
How high you are is a measure of fitness. Its like if you have a parcel of land and you specify the latitude and longitude, then there is a certain height of the land for that point. If you specify a particular genome (DNA) for an organism, then there is a certain fitness for that DNA (given a particular environment). The higher the fitness, the more reproductively successful offspring it has.
You can think of its offspring as being at different points on the landscape. Some may be higher (more fit) than the parent, and soon that organism will produce more points, but the lower points not so much. Let's suppose a population which changes its DNA by mutations, and suppose each mutation only gives a small change in fitness. If you look at a whole population of organisms (a whole lot of points on the landscape at various heights) the population will always be pushing upward, as the high points reproduce more and the lower points less. If the population hits a peak, then it cannot push upwards any more. The population will stay around the peak. It won't all be at the peak because it is still mutating, but the points will be gathered around the peak.
Actually there can be mutations which give a large change in fitness too, but these tend to be low on the landscape. Every once in a while one may land near another peak that is even higher than the first peak. Then it forms a population which runs up the new peak and may even out-reproduce and replace those on the first peak.
The fitness landscape is always changing, as the environment changes. A point that is "high" one day may be low a while later. The population is always "searching" for a peak. Organisms that reproduce by mutation have to reproduce quickly in order to keep up. That means they have to be small and simple. If the population sexually reproduces, it can range over a wider landscape, mostly avoiding the low spots, and it doesn't have to reproduce as quickly in order to keep up. That means they can be large and more complicated.
Thanks Rap, I'm still left wondering about steepness though. Here's a picture of what I mean: http://imageshack.us/photo/my-images/71 ... capeu.png/
What's the difference between the two?
Or does that just mean that it's easier for the pathogen (in this case the virus) to be transmitted to a new species when the fitness valley is shallow?
I hope I'm understanding this correctly.
Yes. The location of the organisms in a species tend to concentrate at the peak, but mutations and sexual reproduction keep it spread out around the peak, not all at the peak. For a shallow valley, its more likely that this spreading will spread to the upslope of the other peak, and then those organisms will multiply and move up the new peak. For a deep valley, its unlikely that any part of the species that drops that low in fitness will be able to make the jump and make it up the new peak.
R C Lewontin and Andre Ariew prduced a very good paper in 2004 entitled
The Confusions of Fitness, you will find it here.
http://docencia.med.uchile.cl/evolucion ... itness.pdf
8 posts • Page 1 of 1
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A massive sea wall built around Swansea Bay, near the South Wales coast, could harness the power of sea tides to provide power to over 100,000 homes. A few weeks ago an environmental assessment of the £650 million ($1.6 billion) project was completed with full public support putting it on track for a completion date sometime in 2017. The 10 kilometer (6.2 mile) long sea wall is designed to be the world’s first tidal lagoon that will completely surround the Swansea Bay with a horseshoe shaped barrier. The colossal coastal structure will capture 11km2 of water as the seas rise and fall to generate 14 gigawatts of electricity and produce 25 terawatt hours of energy each year.
Technically speaking, the idea of harnessing sea tides for their energy actually dates back to 7th century Europe. The tidal wall can capture energy by placing a tide pool inside of the sea wall and separating it with sluice gates as well as an energy-generating turbine. When the seawall opens up during high tide, water will pass through the open sluice gate and turn the turbine as water fills the tide pool. Meanwhile, at low tide the sea wall will open again to release water back into the sea to generate even more electricity.
According to project engineers, the Swansea Bay tidal lagoon will be able to generate energy from the sea’s tides at least four times a day. In the future, lagoons could even be divided into separate pools to generate power on demand, much like pumped storage hydro plants do today. Of course, the best part of using the water to generate electricity is it does not produce any carbon emissions whatsoever.
That said the tidal lagoon won’t be without its trade offs. For one thing, having a sea wall wrap around the coast will have a huge impact on the natural landscape. Building a sea wall will destroy part of the seabed, while cutting off the area from the natural sea could cause a loss of the estuary’s intertidal habitat and lead to significant declines in 13 bird species.
Images © Tidal Lagoon Swansea Bay
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Mind Over Mechanics
It's a staple of science fiction: people who can control objects with their minds. At the University of Minnesota, a new technology is turning that fiction into reality. Thanks to the work of biomedical engineering professor Bin He and his team, this flying robot takes its orders from a person's thoughts.
The technology, pioneered by He, may someday allow people robbed of speech and mobility by neurodegenerative diseases to regain function by controlling artificial limbs, wheelchairs, or other devices. And it’s completely noninvasive: Brain waves (EEG) are picked up by the electrodes of an EEG cap on the scalp, not a chip implanted in the brain.
A report on the technology has been published in the Journal of Neural Engineering.
“My entire career is to push for noninvasive 3-D brain-computer interfaces, or BCI,” says He, a faculty member in the College of Science and Engineering. “[Researchers elsewhere] have used a chip implanted into the brain’s motor cortex to drive movement of a cursor [across a screen] or a robotic arm. But here we have proof that a noninvasive BCI from a scalp EEG can do as well as an invasive chip.”
To read more, please visit the source: UMNews
Posted by Michael Kaudze on 08/12 at 03:59 PM
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August 21, 2007
Scientist Unveils Plan on Climate Change
SOCORRO, N.M. -- A New Mexico Tech scientist believes he has found a way to head off dangerous climate change. Oliver Wingenter said the idea is simple - fertilize the ocean so that more plankton can grow.
Plankton growing in the ocean emits a gas known as dimethyl sulfide, or DMS, that once in the atmosphere, helps spur cloud formation. That, in turn, would cool the planet and offset some of the global warming caused by human emitted greenhouse gases, he said.World governments are looking for ways to cut emissions and head off the worst damage such change might cause. Efforts are having limited success, though, so some scientists have begun to advocate counter measures to offset the warming.
Wingenter said his idea has been a tough sell, and it has been a struggle to win funding to further pursue the research.
But as Earth inches toward a climate tipping point of runaway warming, Wingenter said his technique could be used to buy time to make societal changes necessary to cut greenhouse gas emissions.
"I'm just hoping that this is something that will give us a little more time," he said.
He and a pair of colleagues published the information last month in the scientific journal, "Atmospheric Environment."
Wingenter said he came up with idea while spending seven weeks at sea in early 2002, collecting atmospheric data as part of a major climate change research experiment.
At the time, DMS and cloud formation were the furthest thing from the scientists' minds. They were trying to see if fertilizing plankton in the planet's southern oceans could slow down global warming in an entirely different way - by coaxing the ocean plankton to gobble greenhouse gases out of the atmosphere.
Greenhouse gases, primarily carbon dioxide coming out of the tailpipes of cars and exhaust stacks of factories, are changing Earth's climate, most scientists agree.
But the potential for using plankton to scrub greenhouse gases out of the atmosphere remains uncertain.
In pursuing his idea, Wingenter is entering a scientific political minefield known as geo-engineering.
The most widely discussed geo-engineering proposal involves a fleet of jets spewing aerosols that would deflect the sun's rays, cooling the planet in the process.
Other suggestions include launching giant mirrors into space to block some of the sun's light.
One risk, said Ken Caldeira, an expert in the field at the Carnegie Institution in California, is that geo-engineering might be used as an excuse to avoid cutting greenhouse gas emissions.
But by far the less risky course is to minimize greenhouse gas emissions in the first place, he said.
Caldeira said that, in principle, Wingenter's idea looks like it might work. But he suggested a cautious approach, with more research to understand the effect fertilization might have on both ocean and climate.
"It might be relatively benign," he said. "It might not. We just don't know."
Information from: Albuquerque Journal, http://www.abqjournal.com
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A law authorizing the Huna Tlingit to harvest glaucous-winged gull eggs in their traditional homeland of Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve in Alaska has been signed by President Obama.
The president signed the legislation on July 25. Both the National Park Service and the Hoonah Indian Association, the federally recognized tribe of the Huna Tlingit, testified before Congress on behalf of the legislation earlier this year. The final step to implement the law is the promulgation of regulations required to allow HIA tribal members to collect the gull eggs at rookeries under a harvest plan to be developed annually by the National Park Service and and the tribe.
“The passage of this legislation is integral to conserving the Xuna Kawoo as a living community whose continued existence requires the sustainable management of the resources on which it depends," said Bob Starbard, the association's tribal administrator. "The tribe looks forward to working cooperatively and collaboratively with the National Park Service in development of agency-specific regulations necessary to achieve a sustainable harvest.”
Gull eggs are an important traditional spring food source for the Huna Tlingit. Family harvest trips once served as a mechanism for maintaining ties with homeland and transmitting stories, moral codes, and cultural traditions to the younger generation, according to a Park Service release. In particular, the islands in lower Glacier Bay called K'wát' Aaní (Land of the Seagull Eggs) are thought to produce richer, more abundant, and tastier eggs than elsewhere. Gull egg harvest was curtailed in Glacier Bay in the mid-20th century as the activity was prohibited by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act and National Park Service regulations.
The Service began exploring options for authorizing gull egg harvest when Huna tribal elders described the tradition at a consultation meeting in 1997.
“The elders explained that gull eggs were far more than a nutritious food source for the Huna clans,” said Mary Beth Moss, cultural anthropologist at Glacier Bay. “Gull egg collection signaled the beginning of a new year of seasonal harvest rounds. Harvest trips provided opportunities for families to bond; served as a context in which Tlingit values, morals and ethics could be passed down to youth; tied the Huna Tlingit to their beloved homeland of Glacier Bay; and served as a unique element in the Huna tribes’ identity.”
NPS staff and Department of Interior solicitors recognized there were numerous legal hurdles to overcome before a harvest could occur, including analyzing the effects of harvest activities as required by the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), passing legislation to authorize a harvest, and promulgating regulations to implement such legislation.
NPS initiated ethnographic and biological studies in 1999; later passage of the Glacier Bay National Park Resource Management Act of 2000 provided additional direction for NPS to assess whether sea gull eggs could be collected in the park on a limited basis without impairing the biological sustainability of the gull population. The Act further required the Secretary to submit recommendations for legislation to Congress if the study determined that collecting could occur without impairment in the park. A team of biologists, cultural specialists, and tribal members subsequently prepared the required Legislative Environmental Impact Statement which analyzed various harvest alternatives and identified a preferred harvest program. This cooperatively developed harvest strategy forms the basis of Senate Bill 156’s language.
Similar legislation was first introduced by Senators Lisa Murkowski and Mark Begich and Representative Don Young in 2011, but S.B 1063 and H.R. 3037 languished on Congressional dockets. The slightly revised language captured in S.B 156 and H.R. 3110 clarifies how harvest could occur in Glacier Bay – a park where subsistence activities are not authorized.
Because the Alaska National Interests Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA) does not authorize subsistence activities in parks established before the Act’s passage – including Glacier Bay – the NPS and HIA have worked together for decades to explore options for maintaining and facilitating traditional uses – including food gathering – through other mechanisms. Through a Memorandum of Understanding, the partners have developed a range of ongoing programs including annually sponsored ceremonial and food gathering trips, the development of culturally responsive school curricula and summer camps, and the construction of a 2,500 square foot tribal house on the shores of Bartlett Cove.
"The park will now be able to focus on a regulatory package to implement this important aspect of Huna Tlingit cultural heritage while maintaining seabird populations and protecting other park purposes and values," said Glacier Bay Superintendent Philip Hooge. "This regulation will need to have the flexibility to authorize egg collection within the changing landscape that defines Glacier Bay.”
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Intro || Zoning 101 || Catching Up With the Zoning Approval Process || Public Participation || Shoreland Zoning
Wisconsin Shoreland Zoning and Shoreland Wetlands
Wisconsin law requires counties, cities and villages to regulate construction activities within the designated "shoreland zone." The shoreland zone includes the area 1,000í from a lake-edge and the greater of 300í from a river-edge or to the landward side of the floodplain (see diagram). Local governments must adopt and administer shoreland zoning ordinances that meet or exceed minimum state standards. These standards include:
1. Design standards such as minimum lot sizes, building set-back requirements and restrictions on the removal of vegetation adjacent to lakes and rivers.
2. Shoreland wetland standards including prescriptions for allowed, prohibited, and conditional (i.e., needs a special permit) uses for designated wetlands within the shoreland-wetland zoning district.
Shoreland zone as defined by minimum state standards.
Counties and towns may adopt more stringent standards than these minimum requirements.
Minimum shoreland wetland standards:
At a minimum, shoreland wetland standards apply to all wetlands within the shoreland zone that are greater than 5 acres in size and appear on a Wisconsin Wetland Inventory map. However, some counties approve more stringent shoreland wetlands standards. Common variations include applying shoreland wetland standards to all mapped wetlands that are 2 acres or greater or to all wetlands within the shoreland zone regardless of size or the presence of the wetland on a map.
Visit your county website or contact your county Zoning Administrator for more information about your countyís shoreland zoning ordinance. Keep in mind that city and village ordinances may differ from those that apply county-wide, however all shoreland zoning ordinances must comply with minimum state standards.
Once you know which wetlands receive protection under county, city or village shoreland zoning ordinances, youíll also need to understand what types of uses and activities are allowed, prohibited, or allowed with a permit, within designated shoreland wetlands.
Allowed uses must generally be carried out without filling, flooding, draining, ditching, tiling, or excavating, however some exceptions apply. Uses allowed with a permit may be subject to specific conditions and cannot be located in a wetland if there is an upland alternative. Filling, excavating, ditching, or draining will not be allowed for permitted uses unless the wetland alteration is necessary for construction and done in a way that minimizes wetland impacts. All other uses are considered prohibited uses and cannot be approved unless the land is rezoned as something other than shoreland wetland.
> Click here for a WDNR presentation describing allowed, prohibited or conditional (permit required) uses in Wisconsin shoreland wetlands.
Rezoning shoreland wetlands:
|As mentioned above, approval of projects that propose prohibited uses in shoreland wetlands requires that the land be rezoned. At a minimum, the rezoning process includes approval by one or more county committees, the county board, and the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, and will include at least one hearing before the County board.
||Only a shoreland wetland so degraded as to lack all of the functional values listed below could be eligible for rezoning.
Shoreland wetlands cannot be rezoned if the proposed rezoning may result in a significant adverse impact to any of the following wetland functions:
- Storm and flood water storage
- Maintenance of dry season stream flow or groundwater recharge to, discharge from, or flow through a wetland
- Filtering of sediments, nutrients or contaminants
- Shoreline protection against erosion
- Fish and wildlife habitat
- Areas of special natural resource interest as defined by Wisconsin Administrative Code in NR 103.04
DNRís involvement with shoreland zoning and permit decisions:
Though Wisconsin counties, cities and villages administer Wisconsinís shoreland zoning program, the state retains oversight authority to ensure that the adoption and administration of local shoreland zoning ordinances comply with minimum state standards.
For example, state law provides the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (WDNR) the authority to adopt a shoreland zoning ordinance for counties, cities and villages that either fail to adopt their own ordinance, or adopt an ordinance that fails to meet state standards.
WDNR also conducts a consistency review on conditional use, variance and appeal decisions made under county shoreland zoning ordinances and can appeal these decisions before the county board or request judicial review of county actions. Though WDNR does not have the express authority to routinely conduct consistency reviews on individual shoreland zoning decisions made by cities and villages, they do retain authority to review the entire local program to ensure that implementation and enforcement of city and village zoning ordinances meet minimum state standards. State law also allows WDNR to initiate enforcement actions if it finds that a city or village has not adequately implemented or enforced its local zoning ordinance.
> Click here for contact information for your countyís zoning office and the WDNR Shoreland Zoning contact in your area.
Tracking and providing input on local shoreland zoning decisions calls for the same set of skills and commitment as tracking other local land use decisions, but citizen advocates may find it easier to influence project outcomes in the shoreland zone for the following reasons.
- People care about the quality of local lakes and rivers and the character of the shoreline. Many of your neighbors will share your concerns about development in the shoreland zone and may be willing to speak up on behalf of wetland protection.
- State minimum standards, and the WDNRís obligation to monitor implementation of local shoreland zoning ordinances for compliance with these standards, provides important checks and balances into the decision-making process. It also provides you with another place to turn if you believe your local governmentís decisions violate the local shoreland zoning ordinance. Click here to contact your local WDNR Shoreland Zoning Specialist.
For More Information:
Wisconsin Administrative Code NR 115 Wisconsinís Shoreland Zoning Program outlines minimum shoreland zoning standards for Wisconsin counties.
Wisconsin Administrative Code NR 117 Wisconsinís City and Village Shoreland Wetland Protection Program outlines minimum shoreland zoning standards for Wisconsin cities and villages.
WDNRís Shoreland Management website
Shoreland Zoning Publications
Links to websites offered by Wisconsin Cities, Villages and Towns can be found through the following sites:
|> Back to Top |
|If you find these pages useful and would like to help expand Wisconsin Wetlands Associationís |
efforts to provide community-based wetland protection assistance, please click here.
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Roebuck Bay Working Group
Recognising that Roebuck Bay was without management plans to protect its high values into the future, the Roebuck Bay Working Group (RBWG) formed in Broome in 2004, with the objective of developing a community driven planning to protect, restore and maintain the catchment into the future. The RBWG, a community group of 35 members, won a State Coastal Award in 2007 and won a WA Regional Achievement and Community Award in 2013.
RBWG has a strong emphasis on partnerships, working landholders, community groups, scientists, conservation groups, industry and government to contribute to management planning and affect on ground change to protect, restore and maintain Roebuck Bay.
Declared a Ramsar site in 1990 and listed on the National Heritage Register in 2011, Roebuck Bay is of international importance for at least 20 species of migratory shorebirds and as a site in the East Asian-Australasian Flyway. Roebuck Bay is a tropical marine embayment with highly biologically diverse intertidal mudflats. Dugongs, Green turtles and rare Australian snubfin dolphins regularly feed on the extensive seagrass meadows. Roebuck Bay is a major nursery for marine fishes and crustaceans and supports an exceptionally high diversity of benthic invertebrates (est. between 300 – 500 species), placing it amongst the most diverse mudflats in the world. Indeed, Roebuck Bay’s tidal range is so large, it exposes a staggering 160 km² of mudflats, with tides travelling at up to 20cm/sec mid cycle.
Yawuru people have been members of the RBWG since its inception. Yawuru Traditional owner Neil McKenzie, speaking at the WA coastal conference (2005) captured the diversity of values that Roebuck Bay holds: “Roebuck Bay means many things to many people – to some it’s an ancestral home to which they have continuing responsibilities and a place to hunt, fish and collect shellfish; to others its importance lies in its status as one of the most important migratory shorebird sites in Australia. For many it is a place to relax and unwind; or earn a living from fishing, hovercraft rides, pearl farming and shipping.”
The signing of an Indigenous Land Use Agreement between Yawuru native title holders and the State in 2010, has resulted in the creation of a Yawuru Coastal Conservation Estate and proposed Roebuck Bay marine park. The conservation estate will be jointly managed by Nyamba Yawuru Buru, Department of Parks and Wildlife and Broome Shire for the purposes of conservation, recreation and customary Aboriginal use. The conservation estate covers a large part of the Yawuru coastline between its most northern boundary at Willie Creek to its most southern boundary below Eco Beach. Please respect Roebuck Bay as you will be respecting Yawuru culture »
Bounded to the north-west by Broome township and Sandy Point to the south, Roebuck Bay is intrinsic to the recreational life of residents and visitors as a favourite place to go fishing, bird watching and to draw inspiration for music, art, photography and literature.
Broome Port of Pearls, located in Roebuck Bay was built in 1965, with an extension of 148 metres added onto the existing structure in 2006. Broome Port’s early trade was based on pearl shelling which has evolved into a world renowned pearl aquaculture industry. Subsequent trade includes fuel imports for the growing region, livestock export, cruise ship tourism, commercial fishing and more recently, the oil and gas industry.
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Pregnancy is a period of intense and rapid development for both the mother and the fetus. Physiologically, anatomically, and psychologically, the rapid transformation of an embryo into an infant and of a woman into a mother is unparalleled. Although not a comprehensive review of pregnancy, this chapter discusses maternal and fetal development in each of the three trimesters, considering the physical and psychological changes that take place.
TRIMESTER 1: WEEKS 1 TO 12
The first sign of pregnancy for most women is a missed menstrual period. Other early signs of pregnancy are tenderness of the breasts--a tingling sensation and special sensitivity of the nipples--and nausea and vomiting (called morning sickness, although it may occur at any time of the day). More frequent urination, feelings of fatigue, and a need for more sleep are other early signs of pregnancy. A wide variety of reactions may follow the discovery of a pregnancy. For the woman who has been trying to conceive for several months, the reaction may be joy and eager anticipation. For the teenager who does not feel ready to become a mother, the adult woman who does not want to have children, or the adult woman who feels that she already has enough children, the reaction may be negative--depression, anger, and fear. The presence of a supportive social network is particularly important for such women at this time. The decision to end or continue the pregnancy is typically made within the first trimester.
The relationship between the mother and her partner may begin to change after the discovery of pregnancy. Although a range of patterns and frequencies in sexuality is normal, sexual desire and activity may decrease during pregnancy. Most women attribute this change to fatigue. Expectant fathers are sometimes initially ambivalent about their approaching father role, but trends in North America show fathers becoming more involved in parenting and childbirth preparation. For the couple eagerly awaiting the birth of their new baby, pregnancy can be a time of increased intimacy and relationship satisfaction.
The basic physical change that takes place in the woman's body during the first trimester is a large increase in the levels of hormones, especially estrogen and progesterone, which are produced by the placenta. Many of the other physical signs of the first trimester arise from these endocrine changes. The breasts swell and tingle, resulting from the development of the mammary glands, which are stimulated by the hormones, and the nipples and areolas may darken and broaden. There is often a need to urinate more frequently, which is related to changes in the pituitary hormones' effects on the adrenals, which in turn change the water balance in the body so that more water is retained. The growing uterus also contributes by pressing against the bladder. About 75% of women experience morning sickness, which may be due to high levels of estrogen irritating the stomach. Vaginal discharges may also increase at this time, partly because of the increased hormone levels, which change the vaginal pH, and partly because the vaginal secretions are changing in their chemical composition and quantity. The feelings of fatigue and sleepiness are probably related to the high levels of progesterone, which is known to have a sedative effect.
The development of the fetus during the first trimester is rapid: the small mass of cells implanted in the uterus develops into a fetus with most of the major organ systems present and with recognizable human features. During the third and fourth weeks, the head undergoes a great deal of development as the central nervous system begins to form, and the beginnings of eyes and ears are visible. By the end of the 10th week, the eyes, ears, arms, hands, fingers, legs, feet, and toes are completely formed. By the end of the 7th week, the liver, lungs, pancreas, kidneys, and intestines have formed and have begun limited functioning. Although the gonads have also formed, the gender of the fetus is not clearly distinguishable until the 12th week. From this point on, development consists mainly of enlargement and differentiation of structures that are already present.
TRIMESTER 2: WEEKS 13 TO 26
During the fourth month, the woman becomes aware of the fetus's movements, known as quickening. Many women find this to be an exciting developmental milestone in their pregnancy. In addition, the experience may lessen anxiety about a miscarriage. Around the same time, the physician or midwife can detect the fetal heartbeat. The mother is made even more aware of the pregnancy by her rapidly expanding belly. Some women feel that it is a beautiful and powerful symbol of womanhood; other women may feel awkward and resentful of their bulky shape and may feel insecure about their physical attractiveness.
Most of the physical discomforts of the first trimester, such as morning sickness, disappear in the second trimester. For this reason, the second trimester is usually a period of relative calm and well-being. As a result of the mother's physical changes, constipation (caused by increased progesterone, which inhibits smooth muscle contraction) and nosebleeds (caused by increased blood volume) may occur. For some women, edema may be a problem in the face, hands, wrists, ankles, and feet; it results from increased water retention throughout the body.
By about midpregnancy, the breasts, under hormonal stimulation, have essentially completed their development in preparation for lactation. Beginning about the 19th week, a thin amber or yellow fluid called colostrum may come out of the nipple. Around this same time, the fetus first opens its eyes. By about the 24th week, the fetus is sensitive to light and can hear sounds in utero. Arm and leg movements are vigorous at this time, and the fetus alternates between periods of wakefulness and sleep. These patterns are detected by the mother, whose bond to her developing fetus may strengthen as she becomes more acquainted with its activity.
Throughout pregnancy, it is important that the mother obtain adequate nutrition to support herself and her fetus. Folic acid, calcium, iron, vitamin A, magnesium, and protein are important for maintaining the mother's health and fostering the healthy development of the fetus. Some drugs, such as antibiotics, alcohol, cocaine, marijuana, nicotine, and some prescription drugs, may adversely affect fetal development and lead to birth defects, preterm labor, or even miscarriage.
For about 10% of women, pregnancy may be accompanied by depression. Although women with a history of depression are at increased risk for depression during pregnancy, the depressive episode during pregnancy is the first such episode for about one third of depressed pregnant women. Other risk factors include poor marital quality, inadequate social support, low socioeconomic status, an unwanted pregnancy, and negative life events. Depression during pregnancy increases risk for health problems during pregnancy (e.g., poor fetal weight gain, drug use, and noncompliance with health care) and in the postpartum (e.g., child cognitive, social, emotional, and health problems, as well as postpartum depression). Although the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has not approved the use of antidepressant medications during pregnancy, many studies suggest that some antidepressants may safely treat depression during pregnancy.
TRIMESTER 3: WEEKS 27 TO 38
The mother's uterus is very large and hard now, which puts pressure on her other organs and may cause some discomfort. The pressure on the lungs may cause shortness of breath. The stomach is squeezed, often leading to indigestion. The heart is also somewhat strained by the large increase in blood volume. Sleep can also be difficult because of the increased size of the uterus and increasing activity level of the fetus. These physical changes are often accompanied by a further decrease in sexual desire on the part of the mother because the mother's shape may make sexual intercourse uncomfortable at this time.
The weight gain of the second trimester continues in the third trimester, sometimes causing a disturbance in the mother's sense of balance and an increase in lower back pain. Although women typically gain 20 to 30 pounds during pregnancy, excessive weight gain can be a sign of gestational diabetes. Regular aerobic exercise during pregnancy can improve or maintain physical fitness and has not been conclusively shown to be associated with any risks. At the end of the 8th month, the fetus weighs an average of 2,500 grams. The average full-term baby weighs 3,300 grams and is 50 centimeters long.
During the seventh month, the fetus turns in the uterus to assume a head-down position. If this turning does not occur by the time of delivery, there will be a breech presentation. Women can do certain exercises to aid the turning. Physicians and midwives can also perform certain procedures to turn the fetus. Moxibustion (a technique used in Chinese medicine) can be performed by an acupuncturist to aid turning as well. In the last month, the fetus will begin to descend into the pelvis (called engagement), sometimes creating slight discomfort in the perineum. During the third trimester, the uterus may also tighten occasionally in painless contractions (called Braxton-Hicks contractions). Although not a part of labor, these contractions may help strengthen the uterine muscles in preparation for labor.
A mother and her developing fetus experience tremendous and rapid development during pregnancy. As adequate prenatal care and nutrition contribute to the healthy development of the fetus, a supportive social network contributes to the psychological wellbeing of the mother.
Childbirth.Org. (2001). Pregnancy. Retrieved from http://www.childbirth.org/articles/preglinks.html
Enkin, M., Keirse, M. J., Neilson, J., Crowther, C., Duley, L.,Hodnett, E., et al. (2000). A guide to effective care in pregnancy and childbirth (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford.
Hyde, J. S., & DeLamater, J. D. (2003). Understanding humansexuality (8th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Northrup, C. (1998). Women's bodies, women's wisdom (2nd ed.). New York: Bantam.
Simkin, P., Whalley, J., & Keppler, A. (2001). Pregnancy, childbirth, and the newborn, revised and updated: The complete guide. Minnetonka, MN: Meadowbrook.
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The LANDSAT 7 satellite aquired this true-color image near the Hanford Nuclear Reservation
on July 9, 2000, two weeks after a brushfire swept through 100,000 acres of
scrubland. LANDSATs Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus views the Earth at much
higher resolution than the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite
(GOES) Imager or Multi-angle
Imaging Spectroradiometer (MISR). Each instrument has different strengths. LANDSAT
has up to 15 meter resolution, compared to GOESs 1 kilometer resolution and
MISRs 275 meter resolution. GOES can view the same area of the Earth as
frequently as once a minute, while LANDSAT is limited to once every 16 days. MISR
is unique because it views the Earth at 9 different angles simultaneously. Combined
with other Earth observing sensors, these instruments are providing us with a
new view of the world that is leading us towards a new understanding.
For more information visit the LANDSAT 7 page at the United States Geological Survey (USGS)
Note: Often times, due to the size, browsers have a difficult time opening and displaying images. If you experiece an error when clicking on an image link, please try directly downloading the image (using a right click, save as method) to view it locally.
This image originally appeared on the Earth Observatory. Click here to view the full, original record.
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by Staff Writers
Berlin, Germany (SPX) Jul 10, 2015
After performance breakthroughs in 2012, a new class of organic-inorganic absorber material for solar cells has raised worldwide attention. These organometallic halide perovskites are low cost, easy to process, and have enormous potential for efficient solar energy conversion: power conversion efficiencies up to 20.1 % have already been reported. Pioneering work has been led by the group of Henry Snaith at the University of Oxford in the UK.
Optimal performance for these devices has been achieved with methylammonium lead halide absorbers which use a mixture of chlorine and iodine. Despite typical chlorine-to-iodine concentration ratios of 0.66 in the initial precursor solution, the perovskite films contain little or no chlorine.
Depending on the processing procedures, chlorine tends to be depleted, whereas the iodine atoms remain in the material. Nevertheless, the chlorine seems to benefit the efficiency of the absorber material, but it is still not understood how and why.
Analysing deeper layers
With hard X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (HAXPES) experiments at the KMC-1 beamline they probed the surface of perovskite layers and found nearly no chlorine near the surface. With a different method, fluorescence yield X-ray absorption spectroscopy (FY-XAS), they probed more deeply into the layers of the sample.
"We have observed a higher concentration of chlorine near the perovskite/TiO2 interface than in the rest of the thin film", David Starr, first author of the publication in Energy and Environmental Science explains.
Chlorine boosts efficiency
"These results may help to understand the apparent beneficial effects of chlorine for perovskite solar cell device performance and could potentially provide a route to device optimization," Marcus Bar, who heads the HZB team, says.
"The ultimate goal is to use this knowledge to tailor deposition processes and material compositions to achieve specific desirable properties; perhaps by completely understanding the beneficial role of chlorine in the Pb-based perovskite material, we can overcome some of the difficulties involved in replacing the Pb with a less toxic material."
Energy Environ. Sci., 2015, 8, 1609, DOI: 10.1039/c5ee00403a; Direct observation of an inhomogeneous chlorine distribution in CH3NH3PbI3_xClx layers: surface depletion and interface enrichment. David E. Starr, Golnaz Sadoughi, Evelyn Handick, Regan G. Wilks, Jan H. Alsmeier, Leonard Kohler, Mihaela Gorgoi, Henry J. Snaith and Marcus Bar
Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin fur Materialien und Energie
All About Solar Energy at SolarDaily.com
|The content herein, unless otherwise known to be public domain, are Copyright 1995-2014 - Space Media Network. All websites are published in Australia and are solely subject to Australian law and governed by Fair Use principals for news reporting and research purposes. AFP, UPI and IANS news wire stories are copyright Agence France-Presse, United Press International and Indo-Asia News Service. ESA news reports are copyright European Space Agency. All NASA sourced material is public domain. Additional copyrights may apply in whole or part to other bona fide parties. Advertising does not imply endorsement, agreement or approval of any opinions, statements or information provided by Space Media Network on any Web page published or hosted by Space Media Network. Privacy Statement All images and articles appearing on Space Media Network have been edited or digitally altered in some way. Any requests to remove copyright material will be acted upon in a timely and appropriate manner. Any attempt to extort money from Space Media Network will be ignored and reported to Australian Law Enforcement Agencies as a potential case of financial fraud involving the use of a telephonic carriage device or postal service.|
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What's wrong with current 'Drug Ed'?
Many "drug ed" courses in the public schools
today are not drug prevention courses. They are
nondirective and psychological. Instead of teaching
that drug use is wrong, these courses may encourage
children to experiment with illegal drugs by telling
them they can make their own decisions.
Here are some telltale characteristics to look for
when you evaluate drug education:
Decision making process. Students are told
they must go through a process of evaluating options
and making their own decisions. Variations of this
process are sometimes called:
Helping youth decide
It's up to me
Nonjudgmental or nondirective.
The teacher is told not to moralize,
lecture, direct, preach or intimidate. Teachers are told not
impose their opinions on the students. Everything
opinion rather than right or wrong, good or bad.
Personal disclosure. Students are required to reveal their
innermost feelings and attitudes, as well as intimate and even incriminating details about their family, through -
detailed surveys and questionnaires
"magic circle" discussions
filling out incomplete sentences
Emotional attitudes. Students are required to
spend class time discussing emotions, feelings, and
attitudes. These lessons include -
Questions about suicide and depression
Emotional words evoking fear,
anger or sadness.
Preoccupation with stress
Treating legal and illegal substances and medicines as though they are only marginally different.
Putting aspirin and coffee in the
same list with pot and crack
Teaching that "everybody uses some kinds of drugs"
Discussing "positive" use of drugs
Focusing on good and bad uses
(or abuse) of drugs rather than on
good and bad drugs
Role-playing. This is psychological manipulation and necessarily includes negative roles.
Children are sometimes even required to role-play a
negative character about drugs.
Anti-parent innuendoes. Many drug courses
drive psychological wedges between child and parent.
the child to look within himself for
and his own decision instead of
looking to parent, church, or the law.
Emphasis on "self-esteem" and "social skills." These are
psychological courses - not academic. Students need objective information that drugs are unhealthy plus moral direction that they are wrong. Spending class time teaching children to "feel
good" about themselves is a fraud, takes time away from academic work, and does not comply with the law.
Overemphasis on getting the student to be a cooperative member of the "group" or the school community. This encourages the child to be a go-
alonger to win the approval of his peers rather than sticking with moral law or his parents' instructions.
New Age religious practices in many courses are a violation of students' First Amendment religion rights. Practices and teachings associated with New
Age or Eastern mystical religions include -
Progressive relaxation and meditation
Guided imagery and visualization
Centering and anchoring
Consulting with a "wise man" or a "wise rabbit"
Affirmations or mantras
What can you
do to replace
courses with courses
teaching that drugs
are wrong ?
What can you do to replace
nondirective drug courses with courses
teaching that drugs are wrong?
Ask your local public schools to show you the
pages of the curriculum where they teach that illegal
drugs are wrong. Be sure you see the teacher's
manual as well as the student materials. The law
gives you the right to see these materials.
Do not be distracted or misled by material which merely says that illegal drug use has harmful consequences, or by decision making exercises which
appear to encourage children to decide to say "no" to drugs, or by material which allegedly builds "self-esteem." Those teachings do not satisfy the law
which requires a clear message that drug use is wrong.
Drug Free Schools and Communities Act
Amendments of 1989
Excerpts from Public Law 101-226,
signed December 12, 1989
- No local educational agency shall be eligible
to receive funds or any other form of financial
assistance under any Federal program unless it
certifies to the State educational agency that it has
adopted and has implemented a program to prevent
the use of illicit drugs and alcohol by students or
employees that, at a minimum, includes -
- age-appropriate, developmentally based drug
and alcohol education and prevention programs
(which address the legal, social, and health
consequences of drug and alcohol use and which
provide information about effective techniques for
resisting peer pressure to use illicit drugs or alcohol)
for students in all grades of the schools operated or
served by the applicant, from early childhood level
through grade 12;
- conveying to students that the use of illicit
drugs and the unlawful possession and use of alcohol
is wrong and harmful;
- standards of conduct that are applicable
to students and employees in all the applicant's
schools and that clearly prohibit, at a minimum, the
unlawful possession, use, or distribution of illicit
drugs and alcohol by students and employees on
school premises or as part of any of its activities;
- a clear statement that sanctions (consistent
with local, State, and Federal law), up to and
including expulsion or termination of employment
and referral for prosecution, will be imposed on
students and employees who violate the standards of
conduct required by paragraph (3) and a description
of those sanctions....
- Each local educational agency that provides the
certification required by subsection (a) shall, upon
request, make available to the Secretary, the State
education agency, and to the public full information
about the elements of its program required by
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- freely available
Agriculture 2012, 2(3), 272-281; doi:10.3390/agriculture2030272
Abstract: The paper summarizes key findings of alternative lines of research on the relationship between food and fuel markets, and identifies gaps between two bodies of literature: one that investigates the relationship between food and fuel prices, and another that investigates the impact of the introduction of biofuels on commodity-food prices. The former body of literature suggests that biofuel prices do not affect food-commodity prices, but the latter suggests it does. We try to explain this gap, and then show that although biofuel was an important contributor to the recent food-price inflation of 2001–2008, its effect on food-commodity prices declined after the recession of 2008/09. We also show that the introduction of cross-price elasticity is important when explaining soybean price, but less so when explaining corn prices.
Recent decades have witnessed a growth in demand for energy, which continues to outpace growth in supply of fossil fuels as well as concerns about energy security, fossil fuel price volatility , and the environment. This has led to growth in demand for alternative (clean) energy sources, including bioenergy, which is produced using chemical and biological processes to break starch and sugar into carbons. However, the use of plants and especially food crops to produce energy has led to concerns about the overall supply of food, especially to the poor . The ongoing argument asserts that limited land resources and the use of land to produce energy reduce the supply of food. This has spurred a great deal of research on the relationship between food versus fuel, and different researchers have taken different views on the matter. While some of the work looks at the relationship between food and fuel prices, other work focuses on the implications of the introduction of biofuels—that is, some have looked at the marginal effect of introducing biofuels whereas others have considered the total effect due to the their introduction .
In this paper we survey the two strands of the literature. We follow the explanation offered in reference , and argue that in order to understand the impact of biofuels on food prices we should focus on the implications of the introduction of biofuels on food prices. Using global crop data on corn and soybeans, we derive an estimate for the biofuel effect on food commodity prices and investigate the importance of incorporating cross-price elasticity into the analysis.
Section 2 summarizes the two strands of the literature, and concludes that to understand the importance of biofuels we need to look at the total affect, not the marginal effect. Section 3 describes the methodology used to estimate the effect of the introduction of biofuels on corn and soybean prices, while section 4 presents the results. Concluding remarks are presented in Section 5.
2. Literature Review
This literature review focuses on two strands of literature on food and fuel. One strand of literature regarding the implications of the introduction of biofuels uses time-series techniques to investigate the dynamic linkages between food-commodity and fuel prices. As summarized in reference , these empirical studies suggest that the relationship between the prices of fuels and food commodities depends on location, the food and fuels considered, the modeling specification, and the time dimension of the data.
Using monthly data from 1990 to 2008, Serra et al. used autoregression techniques to identify the relationship between corn, ethanol, gasoline, and oil prices in the United States, finding that the four prices are related in the long run through two cointegration relationships: one representing the equilibrium within the ethanol industry and the other representing the equilibrium in the oil-refining industry. The empirical analysis of Serra et al. suggests that in periods of high corn prices, the price of corn becomes the dominant factor in price determination. This complements the results of references and , both of whom suggest that when the price of ethanol does not fully adjust to the rise in the price of corn, the corn biorefineries may suffer losses when corn prices are high.
Similar techniques were used by Zhang et al., who investigated the volatility of the wholesale prices of corn, ethanol, soybeans, gasoline, and oil in the United States between March 1989 and December 2007 . These authors concluded that ethanol and oil demands are derived from the demand for vehicle fuel, and that gasoline prices influence both the price of ethanol and oil. They also found a strong link between agricultural commodity and ethanol prices. However, increases in ethanol prices have only short-term rather than long-term effects on agricultural commodity prices.
Other studies employing time-series analysis found that ethanol prices are positively related to both sugar and oil prices, and that price dynamics indicate substitution between oil and ethanol . Zhang et al. found long-run relationships between oil and gasoline prices, as well as gasoline and ethanol . The analysis of Kristoufek et al. suggests that for quarterly data we observe a correlated dynamic behavior between commodities at the same (or close) geographic location . The authors also found dynamic linkages between food prices as a group and fuel prices as a group with biofuels serving as the link between these markets. McPhail et al. developed a joint structural Vector Auto Regression model of the global crude oil, US gasoline, and US ethanol markets, and showed that oil markets respond to ethanol demand shocks differently than to ethanol supply shocks .
Overall, this literature suggests that the linkage between ethanol prices and food prices is rather weak, and that the diffusion of shocks between fuel and food prices is very limited. Zilberman et al. claim that the weak response of food prices to biofuel prices does not ultimately suggest that the introduction of biofuel has no effect on food prices . They argue that studies employing time-series analysis estimate the coefficient of marginal effect while most of the literature on the impacts of biofuel on food prices assesses the total price effect of diversion of commodities from food to fuel production and that the impact of a change in the price of biofuel on food prices is not clearly connected. They also point out that the impact of the change in the price of biofuels on the change in the price of food commodities can be predicted only when the causes of the change in food prices are specified. Zilberman et al. argue that the relationships are likely to be different when assessing different biofuel feedstocks and examining different countries, and that countries should be distinguished according to the extent to which their agriculture is bounded by constraints on natural-resource availability, notably land and water. They conclude that this literature has limited capacity to assess the impacts of biofuel on food prices .
The second strand of literature relies on numerical models to assess the impact of the introduction of biofuel on food prices. This strand of the literature includes partial-equilibrium elasticity analysis as seen in reference , who show that the introduction of sugarcane ethanol leads to increased demand for sugarcane as well as an increase in supply. An early application of this approach was applied to corn and soybean biofuels . These authors emphasized the uncertainty about the magnitude of both the supply and the demand elasticities. Others, such as in reference , used ad-hoc multifactor analysis to analyze the rapid food-price rises between 2002 and 2008 and, through the use of economic logic and results from published studies, reached quantitative conclusions that attributed 70%–75% of the increase in food-commodity prices to biofuels and the consequences of low grain stocks, large land-use shifts, speculative activity, and export bans.
A related body of work analyzes the relationship between the food and fuel markets and the connection between supply and demand in each of them. This body of the literature considers several different policies to minimize the impacts of growth in the biofuel market on the food and feed market. As mentioned in reference , different policies better satisfy different criteria, and in order to best satisfy a multitude of criteria, the different policies need to be combined effectively. In the case of food versus fuel, a GHG tax is most effective when minimizing the quantity of biofuel produced (and thus increasing the relative share of crops used to produce food) while also maximizing government revenue. The most ineffective policy with relation to the impact on food and feed is an ethanol mandate, as it increases the relative share of crops used to produce biofuel. Yet, according to , ethanol mandates only carry heavy influence over corn prices when the margin of ethanol production is low enough to drive production below the levels dictated by the mandate. This can have a large effect when drought or other shocks are prevalent.
The multimarket models also fit among this strand of the literature and include and . Those authors developed a multimarket model to assess the impact of biofuel on fuel and food, emphasizing (i) heterogeneity of land productivity, (ii) multiple crops, and (iii) the relationship between crops and livestock. Chakravorty et al. argue that while biofuel standards are important contributors to the rise of food prices, they are not the most dominant and that two-thirds of the increase in food prices will result from increased food demand because of economic growth .
In attempting to assess the relative importance of various factors that contributed to the food-price increase in 2007–2008, Hochman et al. developed a multimarket analysis that quantifies the impacts of several factors including economic growth, biofuel expansion, and exchange-rate fluctuation, as well as the rise in energy costs on the prices of several agricultural commodities. In addition, their model incorporates inventory levels (based on ), a factor that is under-emphasized in the literature. The simulation model shows that when the effects of inventory management are taken into account, the estimated overall impacts of economic growth, increased energy prices, biofuel expansion, and exchange-rate fluctuations on food prices from 2001 to 2007 is roughly 12 percent smaller. To this end, Arseneau et al. find that endogenous movement in interest rates implied under general equilibrium enhances the effects of competitive storage on commodity prices . Those authors argue that compared to a model in which the real interest rate is fixed, storage in general equilibrium leads to more persistence in commodity prices and somewhat lower volatility. Hochman et al. argue that U.S. biofuel production contributed to 20%–25% of the increase in the price of corn between 2001 and 2007 and 7%–8% of the increase in the price of soybeans during that same period. However, they found that economic growth in developing countries was associated with a 30–38 percent increase in the price of corn, 29%–31% increase in the price of soybeans, 30%–31% increase in the price of rice, and 24%–40% increase in the price of wheat.
Using both the methodology developed in reference and global data collected from public sources, we compute the effects of the various factors (including biofuels) on food commodity prices. We extend and introduce cross-price elasticity, thus modeling the substitutability between corn and soybeans.
The model follows the one used by Hochman et al., where demand for each crop is composed of food/feed, inventory levels, and demand for biofuels, while expanding that model and introducing cross-price elasticities . The model is applied for two major crops, namely, corn and soybean, which are also used to produce biofuel.
Biofuel from corn and biodiesel from soybeans are each jointly produced with a co-product that provides a substitute for the raw grain or the oilseed used in planting the respective crop. For instance, in the case of corn, 1 bushel (56 pounds) of corn yields approximately 2.75 gallons of ethanol and 18 pounds of distiller grains, which is a substitute for corn grain. A fraction of the quantity of the original crop used in producing biofuel is thus replaced in the form of a co-product. Therefore, for these two crops we compute an effective demand of each particular crop for biofuel production, which equals the crop consumption used in biofuel production minus the quantity of a co-product. In the case of corn, the effective demand is 0.68 (= 1 − 18/56) bushels per 2.75 gallons of ethanol. We assume that biofuel production is represented by a Leontief (fixed-proportion) production function.
We divide the world into seven major regions, namely, Argentina, Brazil, China, the European Union (EU-27 countries), India, United States, and an aggregate that represents the rest of the world (ROW), and focus on the time period between the year 2001 and the year 2011.
The crop inventory demand function is represented as a nonlinear function of price and follows , where larger changes in inventory levels correspond to smaller changes in crop prices.
Key parameters in the calibration of these functions are elasticities of supply and demand, i.e., the sensitivity of a relative change in quantities supplied or demanded to a given relative change in (energy) prices. Given the wide range of elasticities reported in the literature and the sensitivity of the model to different elasticities, we used the mean of a range of elasticities for each crop. The range of elasticities is shown in Table 1. The elasticities of supply and demand with respect to energy price are assumed to be 0.075 and −0.035, respectively. This reflects the assumption that demand is less responsive than supply to energy prices.
|Commodity||Region||Supply (1)||Demand (2)||Income (3)|
(1) Own price elasticity of supply; (2) Own price elasticity of demand; (3) Income elasticity of supply.
We also introduced cross-price elasticity, thus modeling soybeans and corn as substitutes. Cross-price supply elasticities of corn with respect to soybeans, and vice versa, are 0.076 and 0.13, respectively . Cross-price demand elasticities of corn with respect to soybeans, and vice versa, are 0.123 and 0.027, respectively . See also .
We calibrate the crop supply and crop demand functions for each crop and region during the year 2001. The calibrated supply and demand parameters are used to numerically calculate the effect of each different shock on the observed price in a given year.
We focus on four shocks in this study: Economic growth in each region, biofuel production, energy prices, and exchange rates. To calculate the impact of each of these various factors in their contribution to the change in average yearly price for each commodity, we introduce a shock to the system and calculate the counter-factual world price that would have prevailed. We simulate one shock at a time, where for each type of shock the value of the shocked parameter equals its value in the base year being looked at, i.e., 2001.
The various data sources are shown in Table 2.
|Production, consumption and stocks in each region||U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Production, Supply and Distribution Data base |
|Domestic price of grains, sugar and oilseeds||Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) |
|World energy price||International Monetary Fund Primary Commodity Prices |
|Biofuel production and consumption||Renewable Fuels Association and EIA Annual Energy Review, Table 10.3 .|
|Exchange rates||ERS/USDA website |
|Price and income elasticities of supply and demand for crops||Food and Agricultural Policy Research Institute Elasticity Database and USDA elasticity database .|
4. The Impact of the Introduction of Biofuels on Food Commodity Prices
The price of corn spiked in 2008. It then rebounded in 2009 and eventually reached US$223 a bushel in 2011; from 2001 to 2011 world corn prices increased by 150%. We find that biofuels contributed about 23% of the increase in the price of corn while economic growth contributed more than 50%. Exchange rate and energy price also contributed, however economic growth overshadows these other factors. This suggests changes in meat consumption, and as a result the demand for feed, are the main drivers of the spike in corn prices during the last decade. When assuming no cross-price elasticity, the effect of biofuels declined only marginally and equaled 22%.
To assess the robustness of our results, we introduced two additional scenarios: an elastic scenario characterized by demand and supply elasticities that are one standard deviation larger than that of our baseline scenario, and an inelastic scenario characterized by demand and supply elasticities that are one standard deviation lower. Under the inelastic scenario, the contribution of both biofuels and income increased by about 7%, to 30% and 56% respectively. But under the elastic scenario, the biofuels contribution to the price of corn declined by a few percent points relative to the baseline scenario.
From 2001 to 2011, the price of soybeans grew by 77%, reaching a price of US$186 in 2011. Growth in income, and thus demand for feed, contributed almost 60% to the increase of the price of soybeans. Here, cross-price elasticity results in a difference of 6% attributed to the impact of biofuels. The impact of biofuels was 20% when the analysis included cross price elasticity but was only 14% without it. Cross price elasticity also made more than a 10% difference in the impact of economic growth and energy prices on the price of soybeans. Similar to corn, when introducing an elastic scenario, the biofuel and the income effects decreased by a few percent points. However, when introducing an elastic scenario, the impact of biofuels declines.
5. Discussion and Concluding Remarks
This paper follows the methodology presented by Hochman et al. , and focuses on four key factors responsible for the food commodity price inflation, namely, economic growth, biofuel expansion, exchange rate fluctuations, and energy price inflation. It incorporates inventory levels in analyzing the impact of biofuels and other factors on commodity food prices. Hochman et al. showed that growth in demand for meat led to the spike in corn and soybean prices in 2007/08 . Our analysis suggests that further growth in income, and thus demand for feed, also resulted in the spike of corn and soybean prices in 2010/11. The introduction of biofuels led to a 25% increase in the price of corn and soybean in 2011 relative to 2001, while economic growth contributed more than 50%. The remaining percent increase in corn and soybean prices was, among other factors, due to the consequences of low inventories, weather, large land-use shifts, speculative activity, and export bans.
Our analysis also suggests that cross-price elasticity may not matter much for corn, but that it is important when assessing the various factors affecting the price of soybean. The introduction of cross-price elasticities among corn and soybeans resulted in the effect of biofuels on soybean prices increasing by 50%; that is, without cross price elasticities, the introduction of biofuels resulted in soybean prices increasing by 14%, but with cross-price elasticities soybean prices increased by 21%, a 50% increase in the effect of biofuels on soybean prices. It also affected the impact of economic growth and changes in demand for feed, as well as the importance of inventories.
Further analysis is warranted for us to fully understand the importance of cross-price elasticity and the implication of ignoring it in future numerical analyses. Continued analysis is also needed in order to assess the robustness of our results with relation to the assumptions made on the elasticities.
Because of the relationship between the food and fuel markets and the connection between supply and demand in each of them, several different policies have been considered in order to minimize the impacts of the growth in one market on the other. Different policies satisfy different criteria, and in the case of food versus fuel, a tax is most effective in increasing the relative share of crops used to produce food while an ethanol mandate is considered the least effective, as it increases the relative share of crops used to produce biofuel (see ). In sum, this body of literature suggests that due to spillover from other sectors into the food and fuel markets, a well-rounded, combinative policy may be most effective in the long run for stabilizing food and ethanol prices even though one sector is not targeted directly.
From a policy standpoint, the food inflation during the last decade highlights the importance of both a proactive inventory management policy and the need for mechanisms that either compensate the poor when prices rise to abnormally high levels or reduce spikes in prices. These mechanisms may automatically adjust biofuel policy to changes in food markets and inventory management policies. However, increasing agricultural supply through investment in research and development, introducing regulation that allows for more effective utilization of existing technologies, and investment in outreach and infrastructure that enhances productivity reduces the likelihood of a food price spike.
The Energy Biosciences Institute and the World Bank supported the research leading to this paper. The first author also thanks NJAES and USDA-NIFA for financial support.
References and Notes
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© 2012 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
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On the third anniversary of the earthquake in Haiti, Patrick Meier (PhD12) describes how new media has transformed the ability to map conflicts, respond to crisis and mount humanitarian response in the wake of disaster.
"Information Communication Technology is changing the way we view the world—especially how we view those places in crisis. In my research, I’m exploring how humanitarian organizations, governments, activists and revolutionaries employ new media and how it has transformed our ability to map conflicts, respond to uprisings and provide humanitarian response. Sure, Facebook and interactive media are being touted as the next big thing, but what does that mean? How do you separate the hype from what’s really happening? How do you harness what is possible?
In 2010, while earning my PhD at The Fletcher School, I had the occasion to explore these possibilities firsthand when a devastating earthquake hit Haiti. In the immediate aftermath, I launched a crisis map to pinpoint the locations of those in need of services and available resources. With the help of more than 100 Fletcher students, Tufts undergrads and other volunteers, we created what FEMA called, 'the most comprehensive and up-to-date map available to the humanitarian community.' The project fielded thousands of Tweets and SMS messages and according to the U.S. Marine Corps helped save hundreds of lives.
The Haiti crisis map marked the beginning of what’s becoming an increasingly imperative and exciting aspect of international relations. Just look at the repressive regimes that have fallen recently—look at the impact that decentralized, distributed and mobile technologies have had in those revolutions. As one Egyptian activist asserted: 'We use Facebook to schedule our protests, Twitter to coordinate and YouTube to tell the world.'
At the Qatar Foundation Computing Research Institute (QCRI) we are working on the next generation of humanitarian technology solutions. I like to think of it as 'Computing for Good'—backed by some serious resources."
- Patrick Meier, PhD12, is an internationally recognized leader on the application of new technologies for crisis early warning, humanitarian response, human rights and civil resistance. He is the Director of Social Innovation at the Qatar Foundation Computing Research Institute (QCRI) and was previously Director of Crisis Mapping at Ushahidi. He holds a PhD from The Fletcher School, a Pre-Doctoral Fellowship from Stanford and an MA from Columbia University. He was born in Abidjan and raised in Nairobi.
Due to his involvement in crisis-mapping, Meier was named a 2012 National Geographic Emerging Explorer. The following promo highlights his efforts:
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By Susan Levitt
In May of 2012, archeologist William Saturno discovered ancient murals in Xultun, Guatamala that indicate the Mayans did not plan for the world to end on 12/21/12. Click here
to a National Geographic video about Saturno’s most recent and amazing discovery.
Love that his name is SATURNo!
So no doomsday on 12/21/2012. This day will go by just like 1984, 2000, and Y2K. 2012 is a Dragon year
, and in the last Dragon year 2000 people had similar fears.
Even without Saturno’s recent discovery, the Mayan calendar did not end on Winter Solstice 2012; there is another cycle in the Mayan astrological system. It’s based on the number two and is a smaller minor cycle of cooperation and partnership. That challenge will be people polarized between the haves and have-nots, and how to balance that split of stuffed or starved.
But a new age is predicted on 12/21/2012 by many indigenous cultures including the Mayan Indians, the Aztec Indians, and the Peruvian Q’ero Indians. The Sun on this Winter Solstice day will be in alignment with the center of the Milky Way (between Scorpio and Sagittarius). To the Mayans, this place in space was a womb of creation, the mother’s milk of the Milky Way. The Solstice Sun aligns with this galactic center every 26,000 years.
This date also marks the end of the 2,000-year Piscean age and beginning of the age of Aquarius. We’re in a new world of technology, jet travel, globalization, and the internet. Old institutions end as new generations use the electronic tools of the Aquarian age. The world becomes Aquarian, multicultural, a global village.
In Vedic astrology, this is the end of the Kali yuga, the age of iron. The Mayan Indian cycle age began in 3114 BC and ends now. The Kali yuga began 5,125 years ago and ends now. So both cultures foresee another end and another beginning as we all swim together through this sea of life.
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The Mast Camera (Mastcam) instrument for NASA's Mars Science Laboratory will use a side-by side pair of cameras for examining terrain around the mission's rover. The instrument delivered in March 2010 by Malin Space Science Systems, San Diego, to NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., pairs two cameras with fixed focal lengths: a 34-millimeter focal length for one, shown here, and a 100-millimeter focal length for the other. This one, called Mastcam 34, offers wider-angle viewing while the other, Mastcam 100, offers telephoto capability. Each can provide color images and high-definition video, and they can be combined for stereo views.
This image includes a Swiss Army Knife (88.9 millimeters or 3.5 inches long) for scale. Mastcam 34 is a duplicate of Mastcam 100 except for the lens. Each includes refractive optics, a focus mechanism, a filter wheel, a charge-coupled device (CCD) sensor and associated electronics. The only external indication of which camera is which is that the front baffle opening for the Mastcam 100 is smaller than the front baffle opening of the Mastcam 34.
The Mars Science Laboratory mission is in assembly and testing for launch in autumn 2011 and delivering a rover named Curiosity to Mars in summer 2012.
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The Man is much smaller than us. Can you use the picture of him
next to a mug to estimate his height and how much tea he drinks?
Can you put these shapes in order of size? Start with the smallest.
Try some throwing activities and see whether you can throw something as far as the Olympic hammer or discus throwers.
These pieces of wallpaper need to be ordered from smallest to
largest. Can you find a way to do it?
Can you place these quantities in order from smallest to largest?
This activity challenges you to decide on the 'best' number to use
in each statement. You may need to do some estimating, some
calculating and some research.
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Births have overtaken immigration as the driving force behind the growth of the Mexican-American population in the United States in the past decade, according to a report released Thursday by the Pew Hispanic Center.
The same can be said for the entire Hispanic population of the United States, which grew from 35.3 million in 2000 to 50.5 million in 2010, accounting for 16.3% of the U.S. population, according to U.S. Census Bureau data. About 58% of that growth resulted from births rather than the arrival of new immigrants, the report says.
The trend is most evident among Mexican-Americans, whose numbers grew by 7.2 million as a result of births and 4.2 million from new immigrant arrivals in the past decade, reversing trends from the previous two decades, when the number of new immigrants matched or exceeded the number of births, the report says.
Mexican-Americans are the nation's largest Hispanic group, at around 31.8 million, or 63% of the U.S. Hispanic population and 10% of the total U.S. population.
In the Pew report, the term Mexican-American applies to people of Mexican origin, regardless of immigration status. The study noted that in 2010, 52% of people of Mexican origin were in the U.S. illegally, and that 68% of births to undocumented aliens were to Mexican nationals.
What's behind the change?
Mexican-Americans are more likely than U.S.-born Americans to be in their prime child-bearing years, and they also have higher fertility rates, the report says. Another significant factor is a steep decline in Mexican immigration to the United States in recent years.
Hispanic births accounted for 25% of the nation’s newborns in 2008, the report says, citing statistics from the Centers for Disease Control. U.S. births are also disproportionately Mexican-American. While 10% of the nation’s population in 2008 was Mexican-American, 16% of the nation’s births were to Mexican-American mothers.
Meanwhile, the number of new immigrants arriving from Mexico fell by 60% between 2006 and 2010 because of declining job opportunities in the U.S., increased border enforcement and economic growth in Mexico, the report says, citing a previous Pew Hispanic Center study of Mexican immigration trends.
Age and fertility explain the high share of births among Mexican-Americans, the report says. On average, Mexican-Americans are younger than other major racial and ethnic groups, with a median age of 25, compared with 30 for non-Mexican-origin Hispanics and 41 for whites.
Mexican-American women also have more children than their counterparts in other racial and Hispanic origin groups. The typical Mexican-American woman between 40 and 44 has given birth to 2.5 children, compared with 2.3 children for the typical same-aged Hispanic woman and 1.8 children for the typical same-aged white woman, according to Pew Hispanic Center tabulations from the 2006 to 2010 June Fertility Supplements of the U.S. Current Population Survey.
The Hispanic share of the population is projected to rise from 16.3% in 2010 to 29% by the middle of this century, with the bulk of the future increase driven by births rather than the arrival of new immigrants, the report says.
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An eight-lane steel bridge on interstate 35 collapsed during evening rush hour. Dozens of cars plummeted 60 feet into the Mississippi River. Ten people died, and more than 50 were seriously injured. The bridge was being repaired because it was found to be structurally deficient; it needed to be reinforced. Like many bridges throughout America, the bridge was built more than 40 years ago. Traffic was much lighter then. Nowadays, cars, buses, and big trucks cross the bridge steadily, even late at night.
"I heard a terrific boom. It was like the loudest thunder I ever heard," said one witness to the disaster. She ran out of her car to see what was happening. She saw cars falling into the river and heard people screaming. She heard the loud cracking sounds of the bridge collapsing and splashing sounds as bridge sections and vehicles hit the water. "It was horrible," she said.
Engineers had no explanation for the collapse. They said the bridge had been inspected recently. The report said that, although it was structurally deficient, the bridge was not unsafe. Since the report did not declare the bridge unsafe, the decision was to simply reinforce it at strategic locations.
Americans were shocked that an American bridge could simply collapse. The news was all over TV, radio, and most newspapers. One newspaper investigation revealed that almost 10 percent (about 59,000) of America's bridges were structurally deficient.
Initially, some people speculated that terrorists might have rigged a bomb to the bridge. Others noted that all the pigeon poop on the bridge's support rails might have eroded the steel. One blogger wrote that, before he drove over another bridge in America, he would make sure that a life jacket was in the front seat next to him.
Copyright © 2016. All rights reserved.
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Moving Cities Beyond Performance Measurement
The recent explosion in the availability of data is changing the way Americans make decisions and do business in fields as diverse as sports, public health, shopping, and politics. The business of government is no exception. At the local level, new methods of collecting and analyzing information have varied and far-reaching effects on the ability of leaders to understand and work within their fiscal constraints and meet residents’ needs.
Local governments have used performance measurement—collecting and studying data with the aim of improving operating efficiency and effectiveness—for decades, but today’s cities have access to a wealth of other data. Those on the cutting edge are using these data with new analytical tools in innovative ways that often reach beyond the conventional definition of performance measurement. For example, the New York City Fire Department compiles information from various city departments about building characteristics—such as construction material, fireproofing, height, date of construction, and last inspection date—to prioritize buildings for inspections. Boston uses a cellphone app, called Street Bump, to help detect potholes using the accelerometers built into cellphones.
What’s new, beyond the sheer volume of data, to help governments improve?
- Local governments previously examined statistics only within individual departments. Today, they are gleaning new insights by combining data across agencies.
- Government officials typically reviewed performance statistics only periodically—annually, semiannually, or quarterly. Now they often have access to usable data in real time, allowing them to be more responsive and efficient.
- In the past, cities primarily used analytics to understand past events. Today, some are exploring predictive analytics, using data to anticipate occurrences and outcomes.
As local governments continue to operate under fiscal restraints after the Great Recession (as recent Pew Charitable Trusts research found), data and analytics offer cities a critically important way to stretch limited dollars and improve services. Cities today, in the words of one Boston official, need to be ambidextrous organizations that can collect trash, teach kids, and enforce laws today but also innovate and learn to do better tomorrow.1
This analysis looks at some of the innovative ways in which cities are using new tools and technologies and considers some of the challenges they face in using data effectively.
Using data in new ways
The huge quantities of data now available to governments present opportunities for cities seeking to improve services while cutting costs.
In an interview with Pew researchers, Jeff Tryens, a former New York City deputy director for performance management, noted that “performance measures are only one place to look for the data that you need to improve whatever it is you’re doing.”2 He pointed to New York’s efforts to figure out which restaurants were dumping cooking oil into sewers and clogging pipes across the city. Instead of sending inspectors out to try to catch perpetrators in the act, the Mayor’s Office of Data Analytics compared a list of restaurants that have grease-hauling contracts with the locations of sewer blockages—information from unrelated city departments that had not been connected before—to determine which restaurants were most likely to be dumping grease.
Tryens said these data sources didn’t shed much light until city personnel figured out how to effectively cross-reference them. “The rest of the fun stuff was doing lots of analytics to try and figure out what was going on which caused that performance measure to underperform,” he said. City inspectors eventually issued violations on 95 percent of the targets on the suspect list, according to the Mayor’s Office of Data Analytics. The increased enforcement led to a decrease in sewer blockages and to savings on inspection and remediation.
Other cities around the country are also using data and analysis in innovative ways:
- Boston’s Problem Properties Task Force identifies and responds to “problem properties,” which are nuisance buildings and/or vacant lots with persistent criminal activities and code violations. Four substantiated complaints within a 12-month period can land a property on the city’s list of such properties and result in fines and other enforcement actions. The task force analyzes trends using data points from various city departments—including 25-month crime statistics by neighborhood or police district and top-10 address lists for code violations—to predict which properties are at risk for further problems. It then works with landlords to address complaints and violations promptly. In the first two years of the task force’s operation, 275 properties were identified as potential problems. Of those, 58 were listed as problem properties, 44 of which have been remedied and removed from the list. An additional 39 cases were resolved before they were officially classified as problems. Calls to 911 about properties designated for crime-related issues fell by about 70 percent after the cases were deemed resolved.3
- Detroit collects information about response times, medical emergencies, calls for assistance, and other matters from the Fire Department, computer-aided dispatch, 911 dispatch, geographic information system, and other records through FireView Dashboard, a real-time tracking system. City officials use the information to allocate resources for the Fire Department, estimate response times, and plan community outreach. Budget cuts have forced the department to temporarily shut down some fire companies on a rolling basis to save on overtime costs, but the city had little information about how the brownouts would affect response times. One city official told Pew, “To get a response time would be to get two light-duty personnel to go through boxes of written reports and get a calculator to average out the response times.”4 The new system has helped the department determine which fire companies to brown out at what times to minimize the impact on response times, improving services for residents while maximizing city resources.
- Las Vegas is using a system known as the Park Asset Data Collection and Data Conversion Program (ParkPAD) to track and measure the city’s park system, cutting costs while improving services for residents. The system stores quantitative data and maps for all park amenities, including benches, restrooms, trees, soil, sod, and hundreds of other components. Previously, the city had to pay for staff time to assess the needs before work could begin. For example, if a park needed new sod, the city would send an employee to the park with a surveyor’s wheel to measure the area needing replacement. Today, using ParkPAD’s digital maps and measurements, the city can determine how much sod it needs within minutes, saving hours of manual labor and improving accuracy.
Using data effectively
For local officials hoping to make real and ongoing improvements to government operations, collecting and analyzing data are just the beginning.
Speaking at a recent National League of Cities conference, Rick Cole, deputy mayor for budget and innovation in Los Angeles, said cities should use data to identify potential problems, understand why they are happening, and find solutions. “It’s not the numbers. It’s what you do with the numbers,” he told the audience in Austin, Texas.
Cole advised city officials to check data frequently and make adjustments to operations as necessary to improve performance. In addition, he encouraged leaders to foster a culture among municipal employees that prioritizes innovation and enhancement rather than placing blame, noting that punitive environments inevitably lead to a temptation to “cook the books.”
Whether deliberate or accidental, inaccurate information can lead to flawed decision-making. In New York City, numbers showing a dramatic drop in violence at Rikers Island were found to be faulty, omitting hundreds of inmate fights. Two officials at the facility were promoted based on the erroneous figures. City investigators subsequently concluded in a confidential report that the numbers were inaccurate and recommended that the officials be demoted—one has since retired—according to The New York Times.
Determining which measures are meaningful in assessing government performance can also pose challenges. A recent report on performance management from the National League of Cities explored the issues through interviews with staff from cities across the country. Two frequently offered suggestions: that officials work with employees in city departments to identify which performance metrics to use and that cities measure both outcomes (long-term impact) and outputs (actions taken or completed). The NLC report notes that selection of the most appropriate metrics is often an iterative process, requiring adjustments over time to ensure the best results.
When done correctly, performance metric selection leads municipal leaders to think about the broader questions of whom they are trying to serve and how. Cole gave the example of libraries: Twenty years ago, libraries might have been judged on how many books were checked out. Today, they serve many other purposes, such as providing a safe place for children to go after school and serving as a resource for adults looking for jobs. Because of this evolution, the performance of a modern library requires new metrics.
New data and analytics offer local leaders the opportunity to provide better, more efficient services even as budgets remain tight.
Stephen Goldsmith, a professor of the practice of government at Harvard University’s Kennedy School of Government and a former two-term mayor of Indianapolis, called the potential for cities to improve performance using data and analytics “enormous and unlimited.”5
“We are at a point in time where the tools that allow us to drive performance exceed the application of those tools,” Goldsmith said. “It’s not technology that’s holding us back; it’s the conceptualization of how you use the tools in a practical way.”
- Chris Osgood, co-chair of Boston Mayor’s Office of New Urban Mechanics, interview with Pew staff, April 22, 2014.
- Jeff Tryens, interview with Pew staff, Nov. 11, 2014.
- Chris Dwelley, Boston citywide performance manager, interview with Pew staff, Nov. 20, 2014; Christopher English, city policy analyst who helps to lead the Problem Properties Task Force, pers. comm., Jan. 29, 2015.
- Orlando Watkins, now-retired captain with the Detroit Fire Department, interview with Pew staff, April 11, 2014.
- Stephen Goldsmith, interview with Pew staff, Dec. 2, 2014.
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This information is for reference purposes only. It was current when produced and may now be outdated. Archive material is no longer maintained, and some links may not work. Persons with disabilities having difficulty accessing this information should contact us at: https://info.ahrq.gov. Let us know the nature of the problem, the Web address of what you want, and your contact information.
Please go to www.ahrq.gov for current information.
Anthrax in children is difficult to detect and treat
Difficulties in diagnosing anthrax may lead to dangerous delays in caring for children infected with this often-deadly disease, according to a new report from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ). Treating pediatric anthrax is also a special challenge because most currently recommended therapies have not been widely used to treat children with the disease. The anthrax report was requested and funded by the Health Resources and Services Administration of the Department of Health and Human Services.
Since anthrax exposure occurs rarely in the United States and most of the recent cases have been naturally occurring, clinicians may not have first-hand knowledge of the disease and might have difficulty diagnosing it. In addition, symptoms of pediatric anthrax can be easily confused with those of more common illnesses; for example, inhalational anthrax has symptoms similar to influenza. Also, there is little evidence about the effectiveness in children of interventions currently recommended for adults.
The researchers found very little published evidence of the efficacy of treating children who have anthrax with newer antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin. They also found no reports of anthrax vaccine given to children. The report calls for more current research on the effectiveness in children of non-antibiotic therapies that have been used with considerable success in the past, such as anthrax antiserum and drainage of fluid from the lung cavity.
For the new AHRQ report, investigators analyzed 62 pediatric cases obtained through an extensive review of the scientific literature. Because case reports of pediatric anthrax are relatively rare, investigators examined cases from as early as 1900 in an effort to maximize the available evidence. More than 50 percent involved children between the ages of 14 and 18; data on younger children, especially those under age 2, were more limited. There were only two cases of inhalational anthrax, the most deadly form of the disease.
Editor's Note: The AHRQ report, Pediatric Anthrax: Implications for Bioterrorism Preparedness was prepared by AHRQ's Evidence-based Practice Center at Stanford University and the University of California, San Francisco. Copies of the report can be found at the Agency's Web site at http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/tp/pedanthtp.htm. Print copies of the report (AHRQ Publication No. 06-E013) are also available through the AHRQ Publications Clearinghouse.
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Claudio Saunt, author of West of the Revolution: An Uncommon Look at 1776, explained his approach in an article for the Boston Globe:
Spanish soldiers and missionaries were establishing the first permanent European colonies on North America’s Pacific Coast. (Native Americans, who observed Spanish schooners emerge on the horizon as if rising from the depths, called the newcomers “people from under the water.”)Specifically, Saunt wrote, “According to one traditional Lakota history, the Lakota (Sioux) Indians discovered the Black Hills in 1775-1776.” That memory was recorded by American Horse (1840-1908) in 1879—earlier than some Revolutionary traditions in textbooks and histories today.
Further north, Russians were seizing control of the Aleutian Islands and would soon push into the Alaskan mainland—territory they would not relinquish until 1867.
In the heart of the continent, Native Americans—who were as numerous as the Colonists then in revolution—sought to exploit the economic and geopolitical tumult engendered by European colonization on the coasts.
In a short review for the Globe, Kate Tuttle wrote: “One persistent undercurrent to Saunt’s narrative is how much history hinges on misunderstanding and ignorance, along with greed and fear — not a pretty picture, but a necessary and timely addition to the heroic creation story we celebrate on July 4.” Here are other reviews from Publishers Weekly and Kirkus.
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This blog is already structured around subjects (the easiest way to reach those subjects is by clicking the name of the subject in the logo at the top of the page). These subjects are laid out by the way I teach them in my classroom... correction the way I taught them in my classroom. The incoming Common Core State Standards (CCSS) will surely have an impact on that.
Now, the CCSS doesn't change the fact that in 5th grade I teach American history and geography. CCSS doesn't change the fact that, here in New Mexico, Social Studies is still covered by the New Mexico Standards and Benchmarks (those standards for Social Studies are available HERE).
The CCSS, after all, cover English Language Arts and Mathematics. An article put out by the New York Times on December 13, 2012 titled Fiction of Non-Fiction? Considering the Common Core's Emphasis on Informational Text asked if the focus on informational texts within the CCSS is detrimental to student learning and love of reading. The article also has a great resource, a quick little questionnaire that can be given to students to see how much they read outside of fictional literature (the answer: probably not much). I know that I'm guilty of having certain books I like to read every year (The Castle in the Attic, The Giver, Holes, and The Lightning Thief to name a few). Well, "the CCSS deemphasizes reading as a personal act and emphasizes textual analysis" (Calkins 2012). And before I dig too deep here, I'm going to just say that the CCSS for literature and informational text are the same, so I'm going to leave it at that.
When it comes to all these informational texts, as I said previously in the post titled Informational Text Free Digital Resources: Gearing up for the Common Core, it's not a matter of many of us going in a direction with literacy that we've never gone before, it's just a more mindful approach to the usage of some strategically chosen texts, and for students to not only be exposed to various texts, but to know their interests and steer them towards informational texts that pique their interests. Also, we have to be mindful of the fact that there is a different between reading for a fact hunt and reading to gain understanding and comprehension of an idea.
BUT, this doesn't mean that informational text reading just becomes about student interest and leave it at that. The research shows that students need to be reading for 90 minutes per day optimally, and that is actual holding a book in their hands reading time (Allington 2005). That's a lot. I usually give my students 25-35 minutes per day of individual reading, and the vast VAST majority of that reading is fiction based literature.
In the coming weeks, I will be laying out how to get started in the reading and writing classrooms (or at least how I will start), including how to assess student readiness and reading levels quickly and efficiently, and how to teach thematically (using The Lightning Thief and teaching Greek Mythology simultaneously for example). I will also be revisiting my units for Social Studies and Science, and focusing them on informational text and writing based approaches. It should be a fun time, but in the end, I feel that it will better prepare me (and anyone who finds these resources and uses them) for what lies ahead.
So stick around, bookmark my page, and come back soon. I'm already getting everything lined up, I just don't like to post things until they're finished. Look for more tomorrow!
Allington, Richard, 2005. What Really Matters for Struggling Readers: Designing Research Based Programs, 2d ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Calkins, Lucy, Mary Ehrenworth, and Christopher Lehman, 2012. Pathways to the Common Core: Accelerating Achievement. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
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Humayon's Tomb [and gateway], Delhi.
Photographer: Murray, John
Medium: Photographic print
Photograph of a gateway leading to Humayun's tomb in Delhi from 'Murray Collection: Views in Delhi, Cawnpore, Allahabad and Benares' taken by Dr. John Murray in 1858 after the Uprising of 1857. The tomb of the Mughal Emperor Humayun (r. 1530-56) was constructed c.1565 by his widow Haji Begum. The architectural style incorporated Persian and Mughal styles which later influenced the building of the Taj Mahal in Agra with similar features including a central bayed arch, a raised dome, and the use of chatris or pavilions. The tomb is located within a char bagh, a four-fold garden. "Based on the char bagh types established in Iran and more fully developed in Babur's own concept of the ideal garden, such formalized and geometrically planned garden settings became standard for all the imperial Mughal mausolea." Visible in this picture is the gateway with Humayun's tomb directly behind and central dome seen above. The two buildings on the right are the Barber's Tomb (c.1590) and the Blue Dome tomb (c.1556-1600).
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Science and Judaism: Biblical Numbers, Mathematics and Attributed Patriarchal Ages
The Hebrew Bible is filled with numbers. There are different kinds of numbers — cardinals and ordinals, integers and fractions, even primes. And they are everywhere in the Torah text.
There are numbers for days. (See, e.g., Gen. 1:5, 8, 13.)
There are numbers for life spans. (See, e.g., Gen. 5:5, 8, 11.)
There are numbers for populations, i.e., census numbers. (See, e.g., Ex. 1:5, 12:37; Num. 1:46, 2:32.)
There are numbers for the measurement of quantities. (See, e.g., Ex. 16:22, 36, 29:40.)
And for sizes. (See, e.g., Gen. 6:15.)
There are numbers for the duration of events. (See, e.g., Ex. 12:40, 24:18.)
There are numbers for a host of seemingly mundane things, such as the number of visitors and the number of palm trees. (See, e.g., Gen. 18:2; Ex. 15:27.)
Some Biblical numbers are curiously round. For instance, Noah reportedly was 500 years old when his son Shem was born, and 600 when the great Flood occurred. Shem was, then, 100 years old at the time of the Flood, and he died 500 years later at age 600. (Gen. 5:3, 7:11, 11:10-11.)
And Isaac married Rebekah at age 40, became a father of twins at age 60 and was 100 when Esau was married. He died at age 180. (Gen. 25:20, 25:26, 26:34, 35:28.)
Some Biblical numbers are identical and strangely coincidental. The rain that created the Flood for Noah lasted 40 days and nights. That is the same number of days and nights that Moses reportedly spent on Mount Sinai on each of two occasions to receive the tablets engraved with the teachings and the commandments. (Gen. 7:12; Ex. 24:18, 34:28.)
Other numbers appear hyperbolic and incredible. The Bible states that Jacob’s descendants consisted of 70 individuals when the family entered Egypt. (See Ex. 1:5; Deut. 10:22.) After centuries of involuntary servitude, the number of adult males that left Egypt with Moses is asserted to be about 600,000. (See Ex. 12:37; Num. 1:46.) Including wives, concubines and children, the total number of those leaving must have been in the millions. Understood literally, the number seems absurdly large. (But see, Sarna, Exploring Exodus (Schocken 1986), at 7-8, 94-102.)
When we encounter numbers in the Bible, what are we to so with them? Are all or some of the numbers to be taken literally or is one or more of them to be understood symbolically? And how can we tell which numbers fall into which category? Do we have a collection of essentially random numbers? Or, are there patterns that provide information, suggest meaning, or, even, reveal secrets?
Of all the number puzzles in the Bible, perhaps none is more intriguing than the longevity of the generations from Adam though Moses. Using a variety of approaches, scholars and others have for centuries considered the numbers found in the Bible, no doubt since the texts have existed. They have speculated fancifully in an effort to make sense of some of the numbers. With perhaps rare exceptions, though, these efforts have not been particularly satisfying, leaving the original problem, as the mathematician Lewis Carroll had Alice say in a different context, “curiouser and curiouser!” (See Carroll, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland (Ch. 2.))
Let’s look at the data first. According to the Torah text (meaning here the Masoretic text), there were 10 generations from Adam to Noah, inclusive. There were another 10 generations after Noah and to Abraham, inclusive. Coincidence?
The life spans recorded in the Bible for the first group are as follows: Adam (930), Seth (912), Enos (905), Cainan (910), Mahlaleel (895), Jared (962), Enoch (365), Methuselah (969), Lamech (777) and Noah (950). (Gen. 5:1-31, 9:29.) The life spans recorded for the second group, exclusive of Terah’s son Abraham, are as follows: Shem (600), Arphaxad (438), Salah (433), Eber (468), Peleg (239), Reu (239), Serug (230), Nahor (148) and Terah (205). (Gen. 11:10-32.)
Looking at the three primary patriarchs separately, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob lived 175, 180 and 147 years respectively. (Gen. 25:7, 35:28, 47:28.) Parenthetically, the only life span we have for a matriarch is that for Sarah, who died at age 127. (Gen. 23:1.)
Finally, while at one point the Bible states that Jacobs descendants were in Egypt for 430 years (see Ex. 12:40-41), the book of Exodus records just four generations from Jacob to Moses. Jacob’s son Levi lived 137 years, Levi’s son Kohath lived 133 years, and Kohath’s son Amram lived 137 years. (Ex. 6:16, 6:18, 6:20.) Moses, who was Amram’s son and, therefore, Jacob’s great-great grandson, lived 120 years. (Deut. 34:7; see also, The Torah: A Modern Commentary (URJ Press 2005), at 383 n. 20.)
What if anything do these 26 numbers tell us?
Even a quick review suggests that the life spans of the first group of Biblical humanity was reasonably consistent within a relatively narrow range of 895-969 years, with the notable exceptions of the seventh generation descendant Enoch and Noah’s father, Lamech. As a general matter, the life spans of the second group, and through Moses, then continued on a downward slope. The first three individuals after Shem lived between 433 and 468 Biblical years, and the next three lived in a reduced range of 230 to 239 Biblical years. After Terah, no Biblical personality is indicated to have lived in excess of 200 years.
Rabbinic sages of the past accepted the reported ages as accurate. To explain the longevity of Adam, one noted that Adam was made in God’s image and therefore physically perfect. Adam’s immediate descendants were similarly vigorous. To explain the decline after the Flood, the sage suggested that the Earth’s atmosphere deteriorated. Another opined that the people faced a harsher climate after the post-Babel dispersion. (See The Chumash (Stone Ed. Mesorah 1993) at 25, 51 n. 19.) There is, unfortunately, no actual evidence to support such speculation, no way to test any of these propositions.
A more modern and purely mathematical analysis of the numbers by Charles A. Glatt, Jr. concludes that the longevity of the individuals from Noah to Joseph (and then to Moses) declined in a manner consistent with base e exponential decay (where e = 2.718 . . .). See Glatt, “Patriarchal Life Span Exponential Decay by Base e,” at www.ldolphin.org/lifespans.pdf. Base e is a rate of growth (or decay) that appears to exist commonly in nature in continuing processes. If Glatt’s analysis is solid, then it would not only provide a naturalistic explanation for the reduction of the life spans studied, but might also impart some credence to the ages themselves.
Glatt used the ages of 14 individuals from Noah through Joseph, inclusive, as the raw data for his study. He claims that ten of the fourteen data points fall with one estimate of the standard deviation and the other four come within two standard deviations. (Id. at 9.) While the author concedes that his equation does not work if extended to today, he does argue that it “does fit the data for the 1500 years from the flood to Moses . . . .” He reaches this conclusion by looking at the calculated lifespan for the time in which Moses lived (said by Glatt to be 2,580 years after Adam) which yields 68 years, and he implies a consistency with the 70 year life span asserted in Psalm 90, the Psalm of Moses. (Id.)
Initially, there is a general concern with Glatt and his analysis. His bona fides are not evident. He provides no background information so that his qualifications can be checked and no contact information so that he may be called upon to respond to inquiries. His paper is not even dated. Still, treating the analysis as it appears, is Glatt on to something, or he is merely trying to squeeze a result out of the data?
There are both general and specific questions to be asked here. As a general matter, why is decay analysis an appropriate form of investigation of population ages? Isn’t this sort of exponential analysis more suited to radioactive decay, interest calculations or the growth of crystals or populations? And if decay analysis is appropriate generally, are fourteen data points really enough information on which to base a serious study?
There are specific issues, as well. One major error appears to be in the time frame used by Glatt. He has Terah born in 1879 AC (After Creation, sometimes Anno Mundi) and Terah’s son Abraham born in 2009 AC, when Terah would have been 130 years old. (Id. at 8.) According to Gen. 11:26, however, Terah was 70 years old at Abraham’s birth, meaning that Abraham was born in 1948 AC. All subsequent dates are erroneous as well. (For a traditional chronology and timeline, see The Chumash, above, at 53.)
Two other problems relate to the predicted and the reported duration of Moses’ life. First, and most simply, according to the Torah text, as noted above, Moses lived to be 120 years old. Glatt makes no effort in his study to address that number or relate it to his study. Second, Glatt does not explain how he reached either the 2,580 year number for “after Adam to Moses” or the 1,500 year number “from the flood to Moses.” Moreover, if Adam died in 930 AC, then according to Glatt Moses would have been alive in 3,510 AC, but if Moses were alive 1,500 years after the Flood, which occurred in 1656 AC, then he was alive in 3,156 AC. Not only are those results inconsistent, if the current count of years after Biblical creation comes to 5772, then both of Glatt’s timeframes place Moses much closer to the common era than seems justified.
Glatt’s real focus, though, is from Noah to Joseph. Within that range, though, Glatt does not express any opinion as to why the numbers seem to fall in line with his equation. Is he simply noting or claiming implicitly claiming that a natural phenomenon was at work. Or is he implicitly contending that supernatural activity was involved? Regardless of the answers to these questions, if one accepts the notion that base e decay was at work, how does Glatt explain why there are any deviations from the path predicted by the decay equation?
Finally, and despite the obvious decline in life spans, the raw numbers in group 2, and through Moses, still seem high. After all, the ages at the respective deaths of the fourteen identified individuals, Glatt’s data points, never fall below 110. Other than an unsupported statement (at 3), that “a global longevity of around 100 years is historically recorded in Egypt around the time of Joseph,” Glatt does not provide any information on life spans generally for populations 3,000-5,000 years ago.
Of course, accepting the accuracy of the given numbers, whether done so by rabbis centuries ago or mathematicians today, is problematic at another level. It avoids, even precludes, the possibility that the numbers we read or hear mean something other than what they appear to mean.
In connection with the antediluvian life spans recorded in the Bible, the editors of The Torah: A Modern Commentary, published by the Union for Reform Judaism, refer to the Metonic Cycle, a relationship of the solar and lunar cycles bearing the name of an Athenian astronomer Meton in the 5th century BCE, but, apparently, recognized long before him. The Meton Cycle is premised on the equivalence in time of 235 lunar cycles and 19 solar years. The editors then note that certain life spans of the ancient aged, like Methuselah’s 969 years and Noah’s 950, are divisible by 19. Under this approach, Methuselah lived 51 Meton Cycles and Noah lived 50. (See The Torah: A Modern Commentary, above, at 42.)
But what does this really tell us? If it is meant to suggest a formula by which we can devise the true age of these Biblical individuals, then it does bring the numbers down to an area where we are more comfortable, but the formula then creates other problems. Noah was 500 Biblical years old, or 26.3 Metonic Cycles, when he fathered Shem, but Methuselah was 187 Biblical years old when his son Lamech was born. Was Methuselah just under 10 in Metonic Cycles? What about Mahalaleel who was 65 biblical years old when his son Jared was born? That comes to just over 3 Metonic Cycles.
Umberto (Moshe David) Cassuto (1883-1951 CE) was the director of the Rabbinic Seminary in Florence Italy and, starting in 1939, chair of Bible studies at Hebrew University in Jerusalem. Cassuto has argued generally that it is not possible to comprehend Torah without reference to Israel’s neighbors. More specifically, he has contended that the ancient chronologies, and the use of numbers generally in the Bible, cannot be understood without reference to the sexagesimal system which prevailed in ancient Mesopotamia, often supplemented with the use of the number 7 or some multiple of it. (See generally, Cassuto, From Adam to Noah (Magnes, Eng. Ed., 1961), at 1,7, 192-93, 258-62; From Noah to Abraham (Magnes, Eng. Ed., 1964), at 255, 257-62.)
The sexagesimal system placed great emphasis on the number 6 and extensions of that number, including 60, 600, 6,000, 60,000 and 600,000. Fractions and multiplications of those numbers were also important. (See, e.g., Num. 7:84-88.) So, if 60 was a value, then 2 times 60, or 120, was even more special.
The numbers 5 and 7 were also important. According to Cassuto, 5 years was the equivalent of 60 months. The number 5 factored, i.e., the product of 1 times 2 times 3 times 4 times 5 turns out to be 120. The number 7 was considered an ideal or perfect number, one that was a sign of totality or completeness. (See Cassuto, above, From Adam to Noah, at 12-17, 191-92, 243, 256, 258-62, 276; see also, Gen. 2:1-3.) The number 7 appears by itself hundreds of times in a wide variety of contexts, and as an additional element or factor, such as 17 or 77, in scores more. (See, e.g., Gen. 5:31, 33:3.)
For Cassuto, then, the years listed in Genesis for the first 10 generations, with two special and explainable exceptions, can be divided into two groups, one where the ages end in 5 or a multiple of 5 and another where seven has been added to such a number. As he notes, the reported life spans of six of the first ten individuals identified from Adam through Noah end either in 5 or a multiple of 5 which yields an end number of 0. Two more ages fit the pattern if 7 is added. Methuselah’s age of 969 requires the addition of 2 times 7 to conform, perhaps further underscoring the exceptional importance of his age.
The two individuals whose ages do not fit the main pattern are, to Cassuto, the proverbial exceptions that prove the rule. Methuselah’s father, Enoch, lived only 365 years. The age 365 can be viewed as special in at least three different ways. It may refer to the number of days in a solar year. It may be seen special under the sexagesimal system, being the total of 6 times 60 plus 5. It is also a schematic number, the sum of 102 plus 112 plus 122. We do not know what the number denotes in this particular instance, but it does not seem merely coincidental that this 7th generation person was singled out for special treatment. Lamech’s age of 777, as described in Torah at Gen 5:31, is seven and seventy years and seven hundred years, an obvious emphasis on the ideal number 7, and, again, more likely symbolic than factual.
The ages of the second group of individuals, from Shem through Abraham do not fall so neatly into Cassuto’s system. Shem at 600 does and so does Terah at 205, but the others do not. Perhaps, as with Sherlock Holmes’s encounter with the hound of the Baskervilles, the clue is in the absence, rather than the presence, of something expected. Here, perhaps, the failure of the numbers to end in a 5 or a 0 signals that the member of this group are not as special or deserving as the original group of 10.
What happens when we reach the ages of the three primary patriarchs? As set forth above, the life spans recorded for Abraham, Isaac and Jacob are 175, 180 and 147, respectively. Each number falls neatly within Cassuto’s analysis. The numbers 175 and 180 end in 5 and 0, respectively, and 147 reflects an addition of 7 to the product of 2 times 70.
Not incidentally, the approach works for the matriarch Sarah, as well. Torah tells us that Sarah died at age 127 (Gen. 23:1), which is 2 times 60 (a good sexagesimal number) plus 7. If 120 was an honorific number, then 127 was even more so.
The ages of the three prime patriarchs are, however, also part of a sequence, and a unique one at that. As illustrated by Nahum Sarna, each number in the sequence is the product of a number squared multiplied by another number. And the numbers involved follow in two clear ascending and descending orders. So, 175 = 52 times 7, 180 = 62 times 5, and 147 = 72 times 3. (See Sarna, Understanding Genesis (Schocken 1970), at 84.) That formula can be extended in two directions, resulting in 144 for 42 times 9 and 64 for 82 times 1. No patriarch or other biblical personage is assigned either number, underscoring how special were the ages attributed to the prime patriarchs.
In his marvelous review of Genesis, University of Chicago Professor Leon Kass adds, no pun intended, that the sum of the three equations is identical. That is, 5 plus 5 plus 7 is the same as 6 plus 6 plus 5 which equals 7 plus 7 plus 3. Each total is 17. As to what possible significance this could be, Kass says, however: “I have no idea.” (Kass, Beginning of Wisdom (Free Press 2003), at 629 n.18.)
And there lies the rub. We are so removed from the mathematical considerations that even when we think we can identify some of the signals, we cannot determine where they point. The number 17 is, of course, a prime number, one not divisible by any number other than itself and 1. Moreover, it is the 8th prime number, after 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11 and 13. It is also the sum of 7 and 10, the latter also considered a number of ordinal perfection.
The number 17 occurs in interesting and varied contexts. For instance, after he was born, Joseph lived with his father Jacob for 17 years until he was sold to the Ishmaelites or, alternatively, the Midianites. Later, Jacob lived with Joseph in Egypt for 17 years until he died. (See Gen. 37:2, 25-28, 47:28.) Further, the life span of Levi, another of Jacob’s son, was 137, which is the sum of 120 and 17.
But what, if anything, is there here beyond coincidences and parallelisms? We really do not know. (Accord, Kvasnica, “The Ages of the Antediluvian Patriarchs in Genesis 5” (2005), at 4, 6 at www.bible.org/article/ages-antediliuvian-patriarchs-genesis-5.)
What is important about all this, though, is that the attributed ages of the first members of the human family, especially the primary patriarchs, are neither random nor mere numbers to be located as data points on a line. They are numbers, whether products or sums, which suggest an intent by the author or editor of the text to convey something important about the three primary patriarchs, their distinctiveness from all others and their relationship to each other.
A few final points need be made. First, this discussion has been limited to numbers that appear in the Masoretic text. There are some different numbers that appear in the Greek Septuagint and the Samaritan Pentateuch. (See Cassuto, From Adam to Noah, above, at 264-65; From Noah to Moses, above, at 258-59.)
Second, Cassuto was not a disinterested academic. In addition to desiring to show what Torah text meant to those who first heard it, he was interested in demonstrating that the text of Genesis was part of a unified whole, rather than a collection of writings of different authors as postulated by the documentary hypothesis of higher biblical criticism. (See, e.g., Cassuto, From Adam to Noah, above, at 94, 193.)
Nevertheless his insights cannot be denied. Sarna concludes that “the biblical chronologies of the patriarchal age are not intended to be accurate historical records in our sense of the term.” (Exploring Genesis, above, at 84.) Rather, they “fall within the scope of historiosophy, or philosophy of history, rather than historiography.” (Id.) In this view, they tell us less about actual time intervals than about the ideas of Biblical import. Numerical symmetry or harmony is not a matter of coincidence among random events, but a signal of importance, and a sign of presumed divine control and direction. (Id. at 85.)
Lastly, whoever wrote or redacted the Hebrew Bible was more than a drafter of national history, a recorder or developer of laws and mores and a masterful storyteller. He, she or they also had a real competency with mathematics. We do not yet understand the signals, or even whether they were theologically purposeful or narrative drivers or both, but they are clearly there and worth further consideration.
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Family: Callichthyidae, Subfamily Corydoradinae
Origin and Habitat: Upper Rio Araguaia basin, Brazil. Burgess and Sands report a second population in the Rio Negro, Brazil. Occurs in faster-flowing streams; Sands observed them in leaf-littered shallow edges of streams with light-brown (tannin) water.
Compatibility/Temperament: Very peaceful bottom fish, similar to the corys which is closely resembles. Only suitable with smaller, non-aggressive tankmates such as characins, small species catfish, dwarf cichlids. Must be in a group, preferably six or more.
A substrate feeder, sinking foods such as tablets and pellets are accepted, and frozen bloodworms or live worms.
Attains 1.4 inches.
Minimum Tank Suggestion
Water parameters for Aspidoras
Soft (hardness up to 12 dGH) acidic (pH 6.0 to 7.2) water, temperature 22-25C/71-77F.
The genus Aspidoras contains some 14 species that all closely resemble the Corydoras. Aspidoras is distinguished internally from Corydoras by the fontanel (openings) in the top of the skull; Aspidoras have a dual fontanel, while all Corydoras have a single fontanel. Externally, Aspidoras are small in size, and except for one species they have a rounded transverse head shape as opposed to the triangularly depressed head of corys; compared to corys, the head length is slightly longer in relation to the body length in most Aspidoras species. Some authorities feel the two genera should be combined, but to date they are deemed distinct.
The subject species, A. pauciradiatus, is probably the most commonly available. It differs from the other species in the genus by having only six soft rays in the dorsal fin; all other species have seven. The pattern is also more distinctive compared to the very similar patterning of the other species; this species has a conspicuous dark blotch basally on the dorsal fin.
Given its habitat of faster-flowing streams, it does better in an aquarium with a slight current from the filter. The aquarium should be well-planted with pieces of bogwood, a dark substrate (fine gravel or sand, provided it is smooth-edged) with some open areas, and subdued lighting which can be partly achieved by floating plants; like corys, Aspidoras do not like bright lighting. This species will swim mid-water to browse wood and plant leaves, as well as foraging the substrate. As with the corys, mature females are rounder when viewed from above.
Like their cory cousins, Aspidoras are quite sensitive to water parameters and quality, and highly intolerant of salt, chemicals and medications. Signs of stress usually begin with rapid respiration, then lethargy (often just "sitting" on plant leaves, wood or the substrate respirating heavily, sometimes near the surface) and sometimes rolling onto one side. At such signs, a partial water change of at least 50% with a good water conditioner should immediately be made, and appropriate steps taken to remove the cause. Aspidoras introduced to new aquaria will settle in much better if the tank is established; they do not adjust well to a new aquarium with still-unstable water conditions and fluctuations.
As in Corydoras, the dorsal and pectoral fins are each preceded by a spine which is actually a hardened and modified ray, thickened and shortened in the Aspidoras species; the pectoral fin spine can be "locked" into position by the fish; care must be taken when netting the fish not to entangle these spines, which can also give the aquarist a nasty jab. They are believed to be a defense adaptation, to lodge the fish in the throat of a predator.
All species in the genus will periodically and fairly regularly swim quickly to the surface for a gulp of air. The fish swallows the air and blood vessels in the hind gut extract oxygen from the air; it is then expelled through the vent the next time the fish breaks the surface for another gulp of air. This adaptation is believed to have evolved so that the fish can survive in poorly-oxygenated water such as drying pools during the dry season. It is however essential to the fish's well-being that it regularly swallows air. Aspidoras occur in more highly-oxygenated water than most of the corys.
When first described by Weitzman and Nijssen (1970) this species was placed in the Corydoras genus, and is still sometimes seen in the literature under the name Corydoras pauciradiatus. Burgess reassigned it to Aspidoras in 1989. The two populations in the Rio Araguaia and Rio Negro are separated by a considerable distance, and Burgess (1992) noted that the morphological differences are not sufficient to accurately determine if they are separate species or sub-species.
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How do you create your own test for CD-ROM drives?
Just take a disk with files, for example a disk with Windows 2000 Professional. Poke it into the drive under question and load the FC Test up. After that, choose the New menu and say you’re interested in creating a file list, then point to the CD disc (or to any folder on this disc).
In a few seconds, we have a list of the files inside the requested folder.
Note that if the selected folder contains subfolders, the files in these subfolders are also included into the file-list. The file-list also keeps the full paths to the files as you can see in the screenshot.
Then, click the Read Files button and the FC Test starts reading all the files, specified in the file-list, from the media and calculates the average read speed.
With the particular disk I took, the reading of all files (354.71MB total size) took 94.3 seconds. The average read speed equals 3.76MB/s. In the ordinary “X” measurements of CD-ROMs, it is 25.077x speed.
Why is it more correct to measure the speed of reading files? Because CDs are never read linearly (this only occurs when you’re grabbing audio tracks). In real applications, files are requested from CDs and it’s important to measure not the linear speed alone, but also the file reading speed. As you may guess, it will depend on the access time of the drive as well as the algorithms its cache buffer uses.
Testing Network Interface Cards
That’s possible, too. We can attach computers to the network, share a disk on the “server” and map this disk on the “client” computer as a network drive. Then, we can check out the speed of working with the network drive. Just in case, we should make the pause between system restarts a bit longer. If you want to test 1Gb cards, you must make sure that the disk subsystem of the server can provide a stream of 125MB/s and higher. In this case, the network card will really be a bottleneck.
In a nutshell, the results repeatability exceeded all our brightest hopes!
Of course, it greatly depends on the “stability” of the tested object. For example, the repeatability is close to the ideal with flash drives. With hard disk drives, we had exactly the same dispersions as in our examination of the PCMark04 benchmarking suite (see our article called PCMark04: Benchmark for Hard Disk Drives?). Thus, copying files is no less exact than playing traces of the disk subsystem’s activity.
Of course, the test shouldn’t be run just one time if you want to have correct results. As for the number of repeats, it’s your own choice.
Right now, the new version of the FC Test 1.0 is being beta-tested and we don’t offer it to the public. Some minor changes are to be implemented into the interface and the realization of the log file. We have also planned a handful of features that help to use the FC Test more efficiently.
So far, we are willing to offer the current version of the test to all our colleagues from other hardware test laboratories. You can request it from me by e-mail.
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What Is the Histoplasmosis Complement Test?
Histoplasmosis is an infection caused by the fungus Histoplasma capsulatum (H. capsulatum). The fungus is commonly found in the eastern United States, particularly in the Ohio and Mississippi river valleys. It is spread through bird and bat droppings that form mold in the soil.
Spores from the mold can become airborne and enter your lungs. Histoplasmosis typically impacts the lungs, but in advanced stages it can affect other parts of the body as well.
A histoplasma complement fixation test, also known as a histoplasma antibody test, is used to detect the presence of H. capsulatum antibodies in a patient’s bloodstream.
When the fungus enters the bloodstream, the body produces antibodies to fight the infection. The antibodies are the proteins that attach themselves to the fungus.
When Is the Test Ordered?
If you display symptoms of histoplasmosis and have recently traveled to a region of the United States where H. capsulatum is found, your doctor will likely order this test. Histoplasmosis can be difficult to diagnose because the symptoms are similar to those of a cold or the flu. They may include:
- fever and chills
- dry cough
- chest pain when breathing
This test may also be ordered to confirm the findings from an abnormal chest X-ray. Patients who have had histoplasmosis in the past may experience scarring of the lungs. When lung scarring is discovered on a patient’s chest X-ray, the physician may order a histoplasma complement fixation test to determine if histoplasmosis caused the scarring.
How Is the Test Administered?
The histoplasma complement fixation test is administered by a nurse or technician in a doctor’s office or clinical lab. You will be required to provide a blood sample, which is usually taken from a vein in your forearm with a small needle. The blood will be collected in a tube and sent to a lab for analysis.
No special preparation is necessary for this test.
What Are the Risks of the Test?
Patients undergoing a histoplasma complement fixation test may feel some discomfort when their blood is drawn. After the test, patients may experience pain or throbbing at the injection site.
In general, the risks of a histoplasma complement fixation test are minimal. Potential risks of any blood test include:
- difficulty obtaining a sample, resulting in multiple needle sticks
- excessive bleeding at the puncture site
- fainting or lightheadedness
- accumulation of blood under the skin (hematoma)
- infection at the puncture site
Interpreting Your Results
A negative result means that no H. capsulatum antibodies were present in your blood. This means that you do not have an active or previous infection.
If the test results are positive, this indicates the presence of a histoplasmosis infection. However, if your antibody levels are low, you may not have any symptoms.
Patients who experience symptoms but have negative test results may need to have their test repeated. Antibody levels typically increase as the disease progresses. In patients with an early-stage infection, antibody levels may be too low to detect using the histoplasma complement fixation test.
If symptoms persist, your physician may order additional histoplasma complement fixation tests. Values from these tests can be compared to determine if you have an active infection. An increase in antibody levels will indicate the presence of an infection.
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In the boys’ classroom at Lamplighters Yeshivah in the Hasidic Jewish stronghold of Crown Heights, Brooklyn, Montessori number-counting boards and decimal beads share space with Hebrew-learning materials. A colorful timeline on the wall shows two strands of world history in parallel: secular on the left, Jewish on the right. A photo of the grand rabbi of the Chabad-Lubavitch Hasidic movement hangs above a list of tasks that children perform individually: make a fractions poster, practice cursive, learn about the moon’s phases.
Into the classroom on a recent morning came Rivkah Schack, one of the school’s principals, holding a tool whose form, if not its content, would be familiar to any Montessori teacher: a small nomenclature booklet in which the students were to write words from the Bible by hand and illustrate them. In secular Montessori, the booklets might be used to teach botanical terms; here, they were for Hebrew.
“Not to mix our metaphors, but that’s our holy grail,” said Ami Petter-Lipstein, the director of the Jewish Montessori Society, based in Highland Park, N.J., as Ms. Schack gathered a few pupils around her on the rug for a group Hebrew lesson.
For an educational movement trying to use a century-old pedagogical method developed by an Italian Catholic, Maria Montessori, to teach Jewish tenets, mixing metaphors is the point. Arguing that the traditional Jewish day-school model they grew up with is outmoded and too clannish for 21st-century Judaism, a new generation of parents and educators are flocking to Montessori preschools and elementary schools that combine secular studies with Torah and Hebrew lessons.
Daniel Septimus, who attended a modern Orthodox school but now identifies as a traditional egalitarian Jew, said the schools he had attended were “purposely insular.”
“We knew there was a big, wide world out there where people did different things, but it was kind of scary, and we were supposed to have limited contact with it,” he said.
His son Lev, 3, attends Luria Academy in Prospect Heights, Brooklyn, a Montessori school that proudly advertises the religious diversity of its students. “I think this is just more realistic,” Mr. Septimus said. “Ultimately, our kids are going to live in diverse and multicultural communities.”
In Brooklyn, whose more than 600,000 Jews include secular Jews in brownstone Brooklyn and Hasidic Jews in Borough Park and Williamsburg, four Montessori schools have opened in the last decade. Each is tailored to a different group: one is for Hasidic girls in Borough Park, another for Hasidic boys in Midwood; Lamplighters’ students are mainly Chabad-Lubavitchers, while Luria’s students range from secular to Hasidic.
Both Luria and Lamplighters have expanded to accommodate growing demand.
Jewish Montessori schools, which began to catch on about 15 years ago, have also surged in popularity across the country. In Boca Raton, Fla., there are centrist Orthodox, Chabad Orthodox, Reform and Conservative Montessori preschools; Orthodox day schools have started Montessori programs in Houston and Cincinnati; and several New Jersey towns with large Jewish populations now have Montessori schools. The American Montessori Society says there are more than 4,000 Montessori schools in the United States; most are private (and secular, although some are associated with other religions) but a few are public. Ms. Petter-Lipstein said her group was tracking more than 40 Jewish Montessoris in North America and about 30 in Israel.
Though some secular parents criticize the Montessori schools as expensive and elitist, too unstructured or even cultish, the philosophy of allowing children to learn at their own pace and develop personal responsibility through individual learning tasks gels well with the Jewish tenet of educating each child according to his or her own way, its advocates say.
“We’re not just educating for academics, we’re trying to bring the child for God,” said Yocheved Sidof, the executive director at Lamplighters. “It’s all one world.” (Chabad-Lubavitchers also embrace the Montessori method because the movement’s spiritual leader, Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson, endorsed it before his death in 1994.)
The interest in the Montessori method reflects what some Jewish educators say is a broader trend toward innovation and opening up to the secular world. Once focused on perpetuating Jewish religious identity, educators, like the leaders of the Solomon Schechter Conservative school network, are adopting buzz words like “engagement” and “cosmopolitanism,” said Benjamin M. Jacobs, a professor of Jewish studies at New York University.
The economic downturn prompted soul-searching about the high cost of most Jewish day schools, which are concerned about losing students to public schools, other private schools or new alternatives like Montessori or Hebrew charter schools, Professor Jacobs said. Day-school tuitions can be $15,000 to $20,000 per child — or higher in the New York area — and Jewish Montessoris seem comparably priced. Lamplighters’ yearly elementary school tuition for new families is $12,000; Luria’s is about $15,000 a year depending on the age of the child.
“There are a ton of people out there who think they’re too stifling, who want their kids to have a broader perspective on the world,” Professor Jacobs said of the traditional schools. The question is, he said, how are students “going to be served, Jewish educationally, so that they could still want to quote on quote ‘stay in the fold,’ but have their differing, more contemporary needs met?”
A founder of Luria, Sam Boymelgreen, grew up ultra-Orthodox but now identifies as “open Orthodox.” Recalling that he “spent a lot of time sleeping at my desk” as a student, he said he started the school after finding that there were few options in Brooklyn for parents looking for progressive, yet Jewish educations.
Luria may embrace diversity, but many new Jewish Montessoris are the only such schools in town and draw a heterogeneous array of students by accident.
One mother in Highland Park pulled her son out of the local Montessori after preschool because it was coeducational, and the family’s rabbi said the boy had to be in a single-sex environment as he grew older; others find the schools too religious, Ms. Petter-Lipstein said.
Parents also often worry about the seeming lack of structure and supervision, and have questioned whether the religious education would be rigorous enough. But several parents interviewed said their fears were allayed after several months. The secular-plus-Jewish approach “reinforces all the different ideas, makes for a richer learning experience,” said Belle Guttman, whose daughter Aviva is in a class for 5- and 6-year-olds at Luria.
For schools like Lamplighters, even giving secular subjects like English equal billing with religious studies is radically innovative. Boys in traditional Chabad elementary schools receive no secular lessons except through after-school programs and private tutors; girls often learn Hebrew, Hasidic law and Jewish philosophy in the morning and secular subjects in the afternoon.
At Lamplighters, the children pray in class, eat kosher lunches and are taught by teachers who often double as rabbis, but their religious lessons are rotated with secular ones. Sometimes the two are closely integrated: When the boys’ class expressed an interest in animals, the teacher organized a unit on animals and the Jewish laws that relate to them. Montessori tools, known as manipulatives, that help children learn about animals were divided between kosher and nonkosher species.
Melding the secular and the spiritual can be trickier at Luria. The school encourages children to talk about their families’ varying religious practices, believing that sharing their differences will strengthen their religious identities. Parents can ask teachers to make sure their children are following family practices. If families host birthday parties, they must make sure the food is kosher enough for all.
In one classroom of 5- and 6-year-olds, some children wore skullcaps and had the fringes of prayer shawls dangling at their waists. On his son’s first day, Mr. Septimus recalled, “I didn’t know if there were more Chabad parents or tattooed parents.”
Ms. Guttman’s daughter often comes home with questions about why their religious practices differ from those of her classmates. She is jealous, for example, of friends who are allowed to watch TV and ride in cars on the Sabbath. But Ms. Guttman, who grew up Hasidic in Borough Park and attended an all-girls yeshiva, said Aviva was absorbing the tools to make choices about her spirituality on her own.
But tough questions loom, like what will happen when the children grow old enough that some parents become uncomfortable with coed classes.
“I tell parents,” said Amanda Pogany, Luria’s head of school, “you’re being brave to send your child here.”
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In an article published on Tuesday, November 19 in the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Gettysburg College was mentioned in relation to the Dedication Day ceremony. The article predominately focuses on the relevancy of this historical event and what it symbolizes to the public.
From the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette:
The message today on one of the nation's most famous battlefields: Abraham Lincoln’s call to action 150 years ago is as relevant in 2013 as it was in 1863.
Bryce Stenzel said he and two friends came from New Ulm, Minn., to Adams County to be part of the commemoration today of Lincoln’s famous speech at the Soldiers’ National Cemetery. About 3,500 casualties of the Battle of Gettysburg – hundreds of them unidentified – are among the 6,000 people buried there.
In his two-minute speech on Nov. 19, 1863, Lincoln reminded his listeners that they owed a duty to the soldiers who died there to assure that “government of the people, by the people, for the people” would endure.
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Nanobubbles (ultra fine bubbles)
Nanobubbles (ultra fine bubbles) are sub-micron gas-containing cavities in aqueous solution.
Interfacial water and water-gas interfaces
Self-generation of colligative properties in water
Evidence for nanobubbles
Nanobubble preparation and use
Rationale for nanobubble stability
Bubbles are gas filled cavities with internal equilibrium pressures at least that of the external environment. Each bubble is surrounded by an interface with different properties than the bulk solution.
Only nanobubbles (see below) are stable for significant periods in suspension, with larger or smaller bubbles disappearing rapidly from aqueous suspensions unless stabilized with surface -active agents.
Solutions containing large numbers of bubbles are made by vigorous mixing of gas and water and are generally produced with a wide range of bubble diameters. When generated, small bubbles can be created at higher concentrations than larger bubbles (see left). The surface area of a volume of bubbles is in inverse proportion to the bubble diameter; thus, one mL of 100 nm diameter bubbles (2x1015 bubbles) has 1000 times more surface (240 m2) than one mL of 0.1 mm bubbles (2x106 bubbles, 0.24 m2). Small bubbles (< 25 µm diameter) have taut inflexible surfaces (like high pressure balloons) that limit distortion whereas large bubbles (~mm) have flexible surfaces (like low pressure balloons) and can divide (break up) relatively easily. The buoyancy of larger bubbles will cause them to rise to the surface of aqueous solutions. From theory, this has been proposed as following Stokes' equation, which is valid for particles at low Reynolds number: l
R = ρgd2/18μ
where R = rise rate (m ˣ s-1), ρ = density (kg ˣ m-3), g = gravity (m ˣ s-2), d = bubble diameter (m) and μ = dynamic viscosity (Pa ˣ s); according to this relationship a 2.5 μm diameter bubble rises 100 times slower (~0.2 mm ˣ min-1) than a 25 μm diameter bubble (~2.3 cm ˣ min-1) . The actual behavior of bubbles is more complex than this, however, with the Stokes equation rarely shown by experiment.
The degree of saturation next to a bubble depends on the gas pressure within the bubble. Smaller bubbles have higher internal pressure (see right) and release gas to dissolves under pressure into under-saturated solution whereas larger bubbles grow by taking up gas from supersaturated solution; thus small bubbles shrink and large bubbles grow. The rates of these processes depend on the circumstances. Also as bubbles rise the pressure on them drops due to the depth of the water and they consequentially enlarge and rise faster. Bubbles less than 1 μm diameter rise so slowly as not to be determinable due to low buoyancy and as they are additionally affected by random Brownian motion. m Accumulation of denser elements at the bubbles' extensive surfaces may contribute significantly to the low buoyancy of such small bubbles. Larger bubbles (25-200 μm diameter) do not obey the above Stokes equation but the Hadamard and Rybczynski equation with terminal velocity 1.5 times the Stokes velocity :
RH-R = 3R/2 = ρgd2/12μ
This is due to interfacial oscillations as the surface becomes greater. Bubbles larger than about 0.2 mm rise at rates proportional to their diameter (Rd=0.2-2 mm = 120 d , m ˣ s-1). Bubbles larger than about 2 mm diameter rise rapidly at almost the same rate irrespective of diameter (Rd>2mm = ~0.25 m ˣ s-1) . Larger bubbles (~> 0.2 mm) undergo significant shape changes on rising through the solution due to the resistance of the liquid. All these rise velocities are relevant to low concentrations of bubbles. Where the solution has high bubble concentrations the bubbles may be physically prevented from rising so fast.
In addition to and in competition to the effect of buoyancy, small bubbles (<25-50 µm diameter) shrink (see below right ), such that the overall behavior of micro-bubbles can be complex.
The electrostatic interactions between nanobubbles can be large enough for little coalescence to occur but will slow any rise even more. The charge on the bubbles can be determined from their horizontal velocity (v, m2 ˣ s-1 ˣ V-1) in a horizontal electric field, where
v = ζε/μ
where ζ = zeta potential (V), ε = permittivity of water (s2 ˣ C2 ˣ kg-1 ˣ m-3) and μ = dynamic viscosity (Pa ˣ s). The zeta potential is generally negative but mostly independent of the bubble diameter. It depends strongly on the pH (see graph elsewhere) and the dissolved salt concentrations (increased ionic strength reduces zeta potential). As all the bubbles are similarly charged, their coalescence is discouraged. Also their division is not favored unless there is considerable energy input, with smaller bubbles requiring greater energy (see below). Thus, small bubbles can grow or contract, but rarely coalesce or divide.
According to the widely-accepted Laplace equation, the pressure inside gas bubbles is inversely proportional to their diameter, with excess pressures Pexcess (Pa) given by
Pexcess = 4γ/d
where γ is the surface tension (N m-1) and d is the cavity diameter (m). a Thus 10 µm and 100 µm bubbles contain gas at about 1.3 and 1.03 bar respectively. The pressure within nanobubbles may be affected by other factors and be much lower than expected (see below). a The gas-liquid interface of bubbles may be deliberately (or fortuitously) coated with surface-active materials, such as protein or detergent, that reduce the surface tension and hence the excess pressure in order to stabilize the bubbles. The concentration of surface active agents may also be used to regulate the bubbles size. Such coated microbubbles/nanobubbles may be used as ultrasound contrast agents or for targeted drug delivery . [Back to Top ]
Evidence for nanobubbles
Stable nanobubbles (diameter 40-300 nm) were first reported (by Nature ) in the white cap of a breaking waves by sonar observation. Nanobubbles i [1632, 1989, 2013, 2108, 2307] are long-lived (» s) gas-containing cavities in aqueous f solution. e Although these bubbles are smaller than the wavelength of light and therefore too small to be visible to the naked eye or standard microscope (giving transparent solutions), they can be visualized by backscattering of the light from a laser pointer. Their concentration is increased by stirring, reduced by filtration and they are not present after degassing . It is now thought that bulk nanobubbles may be present in most aqueous solutions, possibly being constantly created by cosmic radiation [2108, 2109] and agitation, and that surface nanobubbles are present at most surfaces. Generally as with larger bubbles, they have been found to possess negative zeta potential (~ -25 - -40 mV) in neutral solutions by electrophoretic light scattering. These nanobubbles may have far reaching physical, chemical and biological effects. They are in constant flux with gas molecules both leaving and entering continuously. They are under excess pressure as the surface tension causes a tendency to minimize their surface area, and hence volume. a For the same volume of bubble their surface area (A) increases proportional to the reduction in bubble diameter (D; A = 6/D).
Nanobubbles grow or shrink by diffusion according to whether the surrounding solution is over-saturated or under-saturated with the dissolved gas relative to the raised cavity pressure. The solubility of gas is proportional to the gas pressure and this pressure, exerted by the surface tension in inverse proportion to the diameter of the bubbles, increases greatly at small bubble diameters. a This dissolution process is, therefore, accelerated with an increasing tendency for gases to dissolve as the bubbles reduce in size. Such dissolution is increased by the bubble's movement and contraction during this process, which aids the removal of any gas-saturated solution around the cavities. Early theoretical calculations showed that nanobubbles should only persist for a few microseconds . However, the ease with which water forms larger visible bubbles, under slight tensile pressure well below the tensile strength of water, and the greater difficulty that occurs in this on degassing, both indicate the occurrence of gas-containing nanobubbles (cavities). Clusters of nanobubbles (bubstons) have been proposed that are stabilized by ionic solutes (and magnetic fields ) and containing gas at atmospheric pressure .
A model for the nucleation of stable nanobubbles in water has been developed based on water's cohesive nature . A high density of nanobubbles has recently been created in solution and the heterogeneous mixture lasts for more than two weeks . The total volume of gases in these nanobubble solutions reached about 1% v/v under pressure in 1.9 ˣ 1016 50-nm radius nanobubbles (equivalent to about 600 cm3 when converted to standard temperature and pressure) per 1 dm3 of water, and the liquid density was reduced substantially to about 0.988 g ˣ cm-3 . The surface tension of solutions containing large numbers of nanobubbles seems to be reduced by up to about 15% . Experimental determination, using an atomic force microscope, has shown up to 42% reduction in surface tension in surface nanobubbles, using a number of assumptions .
In contrast to the previous theoretical view, there is now much evidence that sub-micron-sized gas-filled nanobubbles can exist for significant periods of time both in aqueous solution [974, 1172, 1269, 1433, 1532, 1618] and at aqueous submerged hydrophobic surfaces [506, 1270]. d Their presence has been used to explain the behavior of water bridges . h
Bulk phase nanobubbles can be easily detected by diverse techniques including light scattering j and a resonant mass measurement technique k (e.g. Archimedes) that can simply distinguish them from solid (or liquid emulsion) nanoparticles. Interestingly, bulk nanobubbles are subject to Brownian motion, m so behave as though they have solid shells similarly to solid nanoparticles. Interestingly, the typical size of detected nanobubbles is about 150 nm diameter, which is the same as that reported for the initiation of bubble nucleation in champagne .
Surface nanobubbles can be detected by a number of different techniques, prominent amongst which is tapping mode atomic force microscopy (AFM) . Nanobubbles are commonly found on solid hydrophobic surfaces in solutions open to the air, where they appear to be quite stable and may spread out to form pancake-like structures. Bulk nanobubbles are likely to be repelled from each other, and from negatively charged hydrophilic surfaces, at distance but may attach to such surfaces through water separated films, if they closely approach . Surface and bulk-phase nanobubbles can both give rise to the otherwise difficult to explain long range attraction between hydrophobic surfaces. As the temperature of aqueous solutions rises, the solubility of non-polar gases drops, so increasing the gas released and nanobubble volume and surface coverage but generally having much lesser effect on nanobubble concentration.
Surface nanobubbles vary considerably in dimensions but typically they might have dimensions of r = 50 nm - 6 µm, rS = 25 - 1000 nm, h = 5 - 20 nm, with contact angles (θ = 135° - 175°) much greater than expected from macroscopic studies. The excess internal pressure is not great when the bubble radius is greater than about a micron. a Surface nanobubbles explain the increased liquid slip at the interface and the resulting lower drag . Extended flat surface nanobubbles are known as micro- or nano-pancakes. Surface nanobubbles and nano-pancakes may be partially stabilized by processes that are not available to the bulk nanobubbles. The hydrophobic wall repels water and raises the solubility of gas molecules as well as increasing the surface radius relative to the bubble size. The lifetime of surface nanobubbles is so long that they may be considered stable , and can withstand near-boiling temperatures .
The likely reason for the long-lived presence of nanobubbles is that the nanobubble gas/liquid interface is charged, introducing an opposing force to the surface tension, so slowing or preventing their dissipation. Curved aqueous surfaces may introduce a surface charge due to water’s molecular structure or its dissociation. It is clear that the presence of like charges at the interface will reduce the internal pressure and the apparent surface tension, with charge repulsion acting in the opposite direction to the surface minimization due to surface tension. Any effect may be increased by the presence of additional charged materials that favor the gas-liquid interface, such as OH- ions at neutral or basic pH or applying negative ions with an anti-static gun that reduces nanobubble diameter (see below) . This charge similarity, together with the lack of van der Waals attraction (the cavities possessing close to zero electron density) tends to prevent nanobubbles from coalescence.
Additional to this is the slow rate of gas diffusion to the bulk liquid surface from both surfaces and bulk-phase nanobubbles [1973, 1987]; in particular, nanobubbles in a cluster of bulk nanobubbles protect each other from diffusive loss by a shielding effect effectively producing a backpressure of gas from neighboring bubbles that may be separated by about the thickness of the unstirred layer.
This slow dissolution will be even slower than might be expected due to the higher osmotic pressure at the gas liquid interface so both preventing the gas dissolving and driving dissolved gas near the interface back into the nanobubble . Also, it has been proposed that supersaturation around the nanobubbles may reduce the surface tension significantly, so reducing the pressure and required backpressure. This concept of a thick interfacial layer is supported by the higher forces required to penetrate greater depths of surface nanobubbles [1986, 1987]. There is also evidence of a novel structure of water within this interface by use of synchrotron based scanning transmission soft X-ray microscopy (STXM) . The zeta potential of the nanobubble is shown if you mouse over the figure left. This zeta potential is reduced in the presence of higher ionic strength (positive charges interfering) and lower pH (less OH-) and with greater diameter bubbles (thinner unstirred layer).
Nanobubbles have a tendency towards self-organization in much the same way as charged oil-water emulsions, colloids and nanoparticles. This is due to their charge, long range attraction , slow diffusion and interfacial osmotic pressure gradients.
Where there are large numbers of bulk phase nanobubbles, such as in electrolyzed aqueous solutions, there is relatively large amounts of water associated with the surfaces, which can give rise to greater hydration effects due to their greater capacity for forming new hydrogen bonds. Nanobubbles have the effect of increasing the mobility of the water molecules in the bulk as shown by the increase in proton NMR relaxation time T2 .
The question arises as to why these surface charge effects are not seen to affect the determination of the surface tension when different conditions such as pH and solute are used. The answer may be partly that small nanobubbles are constantly moving such that they lose counter ions beyond their slip planes, and partly that the effect of the charged surface is stronger through the low-dielectric gas phase formed by the tightly curved surfaces.
Under 260 nm excitation wavelength, nanobubbles seem to give two wide structure-less photoluminescence bands
at 345 nm and at 425 nm that may be due to the electronic charge density induced by the concentration of hydrated ionic compounds at their interface [800b]. It has been shown that nanobubbles in (still) mineral water can be magnetized and retain this magnetization for more than a day . [Back to Top ]
Nanobubble preparation and use.
Nanobubbles may be initiated in under-saturated water due to temperature fluctuations with raised temperatures reducing solubility and causing saturation fluctuations . Such bubbles may then take considerable time to relax or attach themselves to surfaces. Nanobubbles can be made by electrolysis , by the introduction of gas into water at a high shear rate [1618, 2306], from smaller bubbles containing volatile liquids , by saturation at higher pressures followed by pressure drop or by saturation at low temperatures followed by fast temperature increase jump. Many tons of nanobubble water can be produced per hour. The stability of nanobubbles, together with their high surface area per volume, endows them with important and useful properties. Water containing nanobubbles can be used in water treatment and as a surface cleaning material (for example in toilets) without the need for additives or detergents and with low water usage. Their large gas-liquid interfaces pick up insoluble, but surface-active, fragrance and flavor molecules into aqueous solution for use in the food and fragrance industries . Recently, plasmonic nanobubbles are showing great promise in cancer treatment . Unfortunately, a continuing and general lack of awareness concerning nanobubbles in both ordinary and complex aqueous solutions has meant that many scientists have been uninformed of the effects that their presence and concentration may make on their studies.
The effect of surface charge on surface tension and nanobubble stability.
In the analysis that follows it is shown that surface charge can counter the surface tension (see also ), so preventing high pressures within the nanobubbles. Clearly the final net charge density at the surface is that required for stability. It may be expected that as the nanobubble shrinks, the charge density will increase. During this process, some charge density will be expelled to the bulk but it is not clear to what extent this will occur as the energy required for expulsion b must be less than the increase in energy due to the approach of the charges. In any case, surface charge density will always slow down the process of nanobubble collapse. Even at the equilibrium charge density, contained gas will dissolve if the solution interface is under-saturated (but see above), although this is unlikely if the exposed liquid water surface is also in contact with similar gas at similar pressure.
The effect of charges at the water/gas interface is shown opposite, with the surface negative charges repelling each other and so stretching out the surface. The effect of the charges is to reduce the effect of the surface tension. As the repulsive force between like charges increases inversely as the square of their distances apart the charges cause strongly increasing outwards pressure as bubble diameter lessens. As well as tending to increase the nanobubble diameters, surface charge will clearly also tend to increase the contact angles. The greater van der Waals attraction across the gas bubble also assists in flattening surface nanobubbles .
The surface tension tends to reduce the surface whereas the surface charge tends to expand it. Equilibrium will be reached when these opposing forces are equal. The expected increase in surface charge density as bubbles reduce in volume has been confirmed .
Assume the surface charge density on the inner surface of the bubble (radius r) is Φ (C ˣ m-2). The outwards pressure (Pout, Pa) can be found to give , c where D is the relative dielectric constant of the gas bubble (assumed unity), ε0 is the permittivity of a vacuum (= 8.854 pF ˣ m-1). The inwards pressure (Pin, Pa) due to the surface tension on the gas is , where γ is the surface tension (0.07198 N ˣ m-1, 25 °C). Therefore if these pressures are equal (Pout = Pin), rΦ2 = 4Dε0γ = 2.55 ˣ 10-12 ˣ C2 ˣ m-3 = ~ 0.1 nm ˣ (e- ˣ nm-2)2. For nanobubble diameters of 10 nm, 20nm, 50 nm, 100 nm and 200 nm the calculated charge density for zero excess internal pressure is 0.14, 0.10, 0.06, 0.04 e- nm-2 and 0.03 e- ˣ nm-2 bubble surface area respectively. a
Such charge densities are achievable; e.g. one surface anion to every about 250 surface water molecules would stabilize a 100 nm diameter nanobubble. The nanobubble radius increases as the total charge on the bubble increases to the power 2/3. Under these circumstances at equilibrium, the ‘effective’ surface tension of the water at the nanobubble surface is zero and the excess pressure is also zero. The presence of charged gas in the bubble clearly increases the size of the stable nanobubble. Further reduction in the bubble size would not be indicated as it would cause the reduction of the internal pressure to below atmospheric pressure and consequent inward gas flow into the bubble. The surface charge is discouraged from dissipating when the bubbles shrink due to the interfacial osmotic pressure gradient giving rise to the metastable nanobubble structures.
The theory above, would predict that greater surface charge density would allow decreased nanobubble diameter, as found in dilute salt solutions . However, nanobubble size also depends on the bulk properties and increased pH leads to increased nanobubble diameter together with the increase in OH- concentration . It has recently been shown how the stability of nanobubbles in the presence of an amphiphile varies with pH and ionic strength .
It is possible that the bubble could divide to give smaller bubbles due to the surface charge. Assuming that a bubble of radius r and total charge q divides to give two bubbles of shared volume and charge (radius r½= r/21/3, charge q½=0.5q), and ignoring the Coulomb interaction between the bubbles, calculation of the change in energy due to surface tension (ΔEST) and surface charge (ΔEq) gives:
ΔEST = +2 ˣ 4πγr½2 - 4πγr2 = 4πγr2(21/3 – 1)
The bubble is metastable if the overall energy change is negative which occurs when ΔEST + ΔEq is negative,
which gives the relationship between the radius and the charge density (Φ):
For nanobubble diameters of 5 nm, 10 nm, 20nm, 50 nm and 100 nm the calculated charge density for bubble splitting is 0.12, 0.08, 0.06, 0.04 and 0.03 e- nm-2 bubble surface area respectively. For the same surface charge density the bubble diameter is always about three times larger for reducing the apparent surface tension to zero than for splitting the bubble in two. Thus, bubbles will never divide unless there is a further energy input.
The presence of salt ions adversely affects nanobubble stability causing aggregation followed by coalescence at higher salt concentrations . The aggregation behavior appears similar to that of the salting out of colloidal particles due to the screening of the particle charge by the ionic strength of the solution. Coalescence is due to changes at the gas-water interface. [Back to Top ]
a The pressure inside gas cavities is theoretically given by the Laplace equation, Pin = Pout + 2γ/r,
where Pin and Pout are the cavity internal
and external pressures respectively, γ is the surface tension and r is the cavity radius. This equation is simply derived by equating the free energy change on increasing the surface area of a spherical cavity (= γΔA = 4πγ(r+δr)2 - 4πγr2) to the pressure-volume work (= ΔPΔV = ΔP(4/3)π(r+δr)3 - ΔP(4/3)πr3). Although it is not certain
that the Laplace equation holds at very small radii [1129, 1807] and it has been shown that surface tension may increase almost 20-fold to 1.3 N m-1 for 150 nm diameter droplets in the absence of other effectors such as surface charge, this equation appears correct down to about a nanometer or so, below which a small correction must be applied . However, there may well be further contributions to the work required , due to the removal of surface-bound material, as the surface area contracts, that would lower the excess pressure. In the absence of any other surface effects such as solutes or charges, the excess pressures expected in a 50 nm radius spherical nanobubbles and a 50 nm diameter surface nanobubble (rS = 50 nm, r = 1000 nm), due to the surface tension minimizing the cavity surface, are 5.8 MPa and 0.14 MPa respectively. It has been proposed that supersaturation around the nanobubbles may reduce the surface tension significantly, so allowing stable nanobubbles . [Back]
b The free energy of surface absorption is expected to vary from about 4-10 kJ mol-1at higher concentrations to 25-40 kJ mol-1 at low surface concentrations (~10-3-10-4 nm-2) . [Back]
c This equation may be simply derived by considering the total surface charge (area ˣ charge density, 4πr2Φ) as equivalently concentrated at the center of the spherical cavity and that this charge then exerts a force on the same charge at the surface. The force would be (4πr2Φ)2/4πDε0r2 from basic electrostatics (Coulomb's law), and therefore the pressure (force per unit area) would be (4πr2Φ)2/(4πDε0r2 x4πr2) = Φ2/Dε0. However for each part of the surface the force has been double counted (towards the surface and towards the center; equivalent to the surface again), therefore the final pressure concerns only half this force (= ). [Back]
d There is some dispute over whether the density depletion often found at hydrophobic surfaces is real in some cases . Some hydrophobic liquid-water interfaces behave differently, with no vapor-like layer being observed . [Back]
e Another interesting phenomenon in aqueous solutions is the antibubble where a water drop is held, surrounded by a gaseous film, within the bulk liquid [Back]
f Although first reported that nanobubbles seem to be specific to water and aqueous solutions , more recent work indicates that surface nanobubbles can be produced in non aqueous liquids that can form three-dimensional hydrogen-bonding networks, such as formamide, but not hydrogen-bonding liquids that cannot form three-dimensional networks, such as ethanol .. Such bubbles produced in other non-aqueous solutions are not stable and disappear rapidly. Freely existing nanobubbles have so far only been found in water and aqueous solutions. [Back]
g Similar results to these have been published for dilute salt solutions , where the nanobubble size is seen to increase with reduction in the salt concentration. [Back]
h The floating water bridge is a stable nearly cylindrical tube of water of 1-2 mm diameter extending up to 25 mm between two beakers of pure water under the influence of a large (15-25 kV) applied electric potential difference . [Back]
i Nanobubbles are generally recognized in current (2016 and prior) scientific literature as those gaseous cavities with diameters less than a micron. As such cavities (bubbles) are often greater than 100 nm in diameter but the term 'nano' is applied mostly to particles of smaller diameter (< 100 nm, ISO/TS 27687:2008), sub-micron bubbles should probably be known as ultra fine bubbles in the future; all bubbles smaller than 100 µ diameter should then be known as 'fine' bubbles. [Back]
j Dynamic light scattering (DLS). This determines the fluctuations in the scattering of laser light traveling through the sample solution . The fluctuations are due to the Brownian motion m of the particles with larger bubbles giving greater scattering but slower fluctuations. Analysis of the total signal gives both the concentration and size distributions of the nanobubbles.
Nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) ia a related technique (e.g. NanoSight) can track individual bubbles within a small volume (e.g. 100 µm ˣ 80 µm ˣ 10 µm, 80 pL), so ascertaining the x- and y- movement in a given time. The NTA method can be used to analyze lower bubble concentrations than DLS. The calculated diffusion constant can be used to determine the hydrodynamic sphere-equivalent radius, r, of the particles using the Stokes-Einstein equation where Dt is the translational diffusivity (m2 ˣ s-1 ), R is the gas
constant (J K-1 mol-1), T is the temperature (K), N is Avogadro's
number (mol-1) and η is dynamic viscosity (Pa ˣ s). Each bubble is individually sized with the bubble concentration determined from the number of bubbles within the field of view. Some instruments also give the zeta potentials of the bubbles. [Back]
k Resonant mass measurement. Nanobubbles, in about 1 nL solution, passing around the resonator (shown green in (a) right) changes its effective mass and shifts the resonator's resonant frequency (b). Movement of the resonant frequency (Δω shown in (c) right) gives an accurate and precise measure of a particle's buoyant mass (< ~ 1 fg, < ~100 nm diameter cavity), so easily distinguishing bubbles (positive buoyant mass; increasing frequency) from particles (negative buoyant mass; decreasing frequency). [Back]
l Bubble and particle flow and liquid molecular and turbulent motions are often described by means of a number of empirical relationships, involving
dimensionless numbers. The most important of these is the Reynolds number (Re), which relates the inertial force due to the flow of solution to the viscous
force resisting that flow. Low Re indicates streamlined flow whereas higher Re indicates progressively more turbulence, there being a critical value for Re,
dependent on the configuration of the system, at which there is a transition
from streamlined flow to turbulent flow. Re is defined in terms of Lfm/h or Lf/n, where L is the characteristic length of the system (m), fm is the mass
flow rate (kg ˣ m-2 ˣ s-1), f is the fluid velocity (m
ˣ s-1), h is the dynamic
viscosity (kg ˣ m-1 ˣ s-1) and n is the kinematic viscosity (m2 ˣ s-1). Re is higher at high flow rates and low viscosities where turbulent flow occurs and lower at low low rates and high viscosities where laminar flow occurs, characterized by smooth motion. [Back]
m Brownian motion, named after the botanist Robert Brown who noticed the phenomenon in 1827, is the irregular (apparently random) motion of small particles suspended in water (or other fluids) resulting from their collision with the water molecules . This irregular movement is observable down to extremely small timescales. The mean squared displacement is proportional to the time elapsed (t) and the diffusivity (D); the averaged net displacement (Δx) being proportional to the square root of the elapsed time.
[Back to Top ]
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Political Reform in Qatar: Participation, Legitimacy and Security
In a surprising announcement in November 1995, the Qatari regime declared its intention to hold elections for the 29-seat Central Municipal Council (CMC), an advisory body attached to the Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture. All male Qataris over the age of 18 would be eligible to vote. Then, in an even more surprising move, a reporter with CNN asked Qatar’s emir in 1997 whether women would be allowed to vote. The emir cautiously said that he did not know, but that he saw nothing wrong with their voting.1 Later he announced that women would be allowed to vote and run as candidates. Qatar deliberately set the CMC election for March 8, 1999, International Women’s Day.
Most regimes in the Middle East/North Africa (MENA) region allow some form of electoral politics within their states. While many of these regimes actually use political participation to avoid democratization2 or manipulate electoral politics to reinforce authoritarian rule,3 political participation in authoritarian regimes, even when not promoting democracy, does open political space within such states. Lust-Okar and Zerhouni, for example, argue that elections in authoritarian states are often fiercely contested by domestic political actors, help lead to the formation of political associations if not actual political parties and can influence decision making. Some Arab Gulf monarchies began to institute some form of electoral politics within their states in the 1990s. Kuwait started holding regular elections in 1992. Oman initiated a Consultative Council in 1991 but only allows each district to submit three suggestions for each seat. In 2003, Oman granted universal suffrage to all Omanis; however, the sultan must still approve each representative.
The Qatari leadership followed this trend in 1995, when they decided to initiate national elections for the CMC. They also decided to take a step that none of their neighbors had yet taken by giving women the right to vote and run for office. As noted earlier, regular elections for the Kuwaiti National Assembly began in 1992.4 Until 2005, however, only Kuwaiti men were allowed to vote and run for office.5 Omani women gained the right to participate in elections in 2003, and Bahraini women only won the right to vote and run for office in 2002. While other states in the MENA region are having far more nuanced discussions about women’s political and social rights (e.g., Morocco, Tunisia), women in the Arab Gulf are only just gaining the right to participate in political life. Women in Qatar, as in most Arab Gulf monarchies, have traditionally been relegated to the domestic sphere and often avoid calling attention to themselves in public. Thus, granting women political rights legitimizes their existence outside the home in a way that is quite revolutionary for the region.
Questions remain as to why the Qatari government decided to take this bold step. Conventional explanations suggest that such reforms would only come in response to a loss of oil wealth or as a concession to domestic demands. Both explanations fail to adequately explain the regime’s decision. This article will show that the leadership decided to initiate national elections and allow women to participate in them to generate international attention for “democratic” and “modern” reforms that seem uncharacteristic in the Arab Gulf. These reforms were instrumental in bolstering the legitimacy — and, ultimately, the security — of the new Qatari regime. While Qatar allows the United States to use the Al Udeid Airbase, and its geopolitical location and liquefied natural-gas supply likely ensure a large measure of Western security guarantees, clearly the regime also feels that being liked by the international community is important.
ELECTIONS AND QATARI POLITICS
In November 1995, Emir Hamad Al Thani, only five months after he had overthrown his father’s regime, announced that Qatar would directly elect the 29 seats in the CMC. Before Emir Hamad made his announcement, the CMC’s seats were filled by emiri appointment. His announcement “surprised almost everyone in his country and the rest of the Gulf.”6 The CMC has advisory powers and works with the Ministry for Municipal Affairs and Agriculture on issues related to city services like road construction and maintenance, water and sanitation services, and parks and recreation. The CMC makes recommendations to the ministry; in the event of disagreement, issues can be brought to the Council of Ministers for resolution.
Making the CMC an elected body was part of a broader effort to change some of Qatar’s national political institutions and leadership. The emir amended Qatar’s constitution to separate the powers of the prime minister and emir; previously, the emir had held both positions. He then named his brother, Sheikh Abdallah bin Khalifa Al Thani, as the new prime minister.7 The emir also expanded the seats in Qatar’s Consultative Council (an appointed national body) to 35, appointed new members to fill these seats and changed some cabinet ministers. The emir even appointed the first female undersecretary for education in the Gulf, Sheikha Ahmad al-Mahmoud.8 About a week later, the emir convened the new council and cabinet and stressed Qatar’s desire to be an integral part of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) order, resolving disputes in a peaceful manner in accordance with international law.9 Relations with the GCC were strained when member-states hosted the emir’s ousted father and refused Qatar’s request for a meeting to discuss the discovery of a coup plot.
Then, in 1997, the emir indicated that women might be able to vote in the upcoming municipal elections. He indicated that he saw no problem himself with women’s participation in the elections.10 The minister of justice indicated that the issue of women’s voting rights was “under consideration.”11 The mere existence of this debate had an impact on political events in Kuwait. At a meeting of Kuwaiti women, the president of the faculty association of Kuwait University, Fawzia al-Roumi, said, “The state of Qatar, under the leadership of Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani, is taking firm steps toward the future in order to build a strong, pioneering state” and indicated that this should be “an example of how to treat Kuwaiti women, who gave their souls and blood during the Iraqi occupation.”12 An Arabic-language newspaper based in London reported that the Arab Gulf was witnessing the development of intense competition between Kuwait and Qatar over the media and “liberal and democratic orientations in general.”13
Finally, in an address to the Consultative Council (Majlis al-Shura) on November 29, 1997, the emir declared that all 29 seats in the CMC would be decided by direct election and that women would be allowed to fully participate in the process:
The formation of the Central Municipal Council through direct elections, and granting women the right of membership and voting are a major step toward boosting popular participation in both executive and legislative activities and laying the foundations of democratic practice in our country in a gradual manner until we ultimately reach the full democracy we dream of achieving.14
By the October 17, 1998, deadline to register as a candidate for the Central Municipal Council, there were 280 candidates, including eight women, for the 29 seats. Close to 45 percent of Qatari women registered to vote. Though the number of candidates shrank to 227, including six women, by the election, participation was high. Initial reports indicated that close to 95 percent of registered Qataris in Doha voted in the election, while 75 percent outside Doha participated.15 Figures released later reported the overall turnout at 79 percent of registered voters.16 Interviews with civil servants, academics and journalists indicated that the regime was frustrated that none of the women won election.17 One journalist, laughing, indicated, “It’s almost like [the Qatari leadership] thought, if we say to everyone how important it is to allow women to vote and to have them in office, everyone will say ‘sure it’s ok, let’s vote some women into office,’ and it’s done.”18 One senior Qatari official, speaking confidentially, stated, “After all [the Qatari regime] had done to convince the [Qataris] that allowing women to participate and run for office would enhance Qatar’s image, they didn’t even elect a single one!”19 According to this source, government officials, “important families” and other “important people” held meetings to try to build support for the government’s announcement that women would have the political right to vote and run for office.20 One civil servant suggested that the government was “pleased with the elections generally but disappointed that no woman was elected.”21
Even though none of the women won, the introduction of elections generated significant debate about democracy throughout the sheikhdom. Local papers ran special pages with Qataris sending in comments about what democracy meant in Qatar. Qataris attended public lectures and seminars about democracy and public participation. They began referring to the fanfare of attention and debate paid to democracy and elections as “the democracy festival.”22
Elections for the CMC led to a countrywide phenomenon of government officials replacing appointed bodies with elected ones. One of the most significant bodies to adopt the practice of direct elections was the board of the Qatar Chamber of Commerce. Elections for the board took place in April 1998; 3,700 Qatari businessmen voted by secret ballot for 17 seats.23 Previously, the emir had appointed the members of its board on recommendation of the finance minister.
This “democracy festival” even impacted schools in Qatar. In December 1998, the deputy minister for education, Sheikha Ahmad Al-Mahmoud, stated that she would apply the principle of democracy in all aspects and at all levels of her ministry.24 She instituted elected student unions in all schools.
The discussion of women in political life accompanied other significant changes for women in Qatar. The emir named his sister, Sheikha Aisha, as head of the Women’s Information Committee, which was encouraging women’s participation in the CMC elections and educating women about the virtues of democracy. The committee oversaw a large public-awareness campaign prior to the first elections and also weighed in on matters regarding constitutional and human rights.25 The first female anchor appeared on the Al Jazeera Satellite Channel in 1997. A Qatar-based women’s magazine appointed a female editor for the first time. Sheikha Moza, Emir Hamad’s second wife, led a two-hour all-female march through Doha in support of a local charity, and she continues to give speeches at public events and interviews in the media. In a particularly visible move that attracted international attention, she traveled to the United States to give speeches at two American universities and appeared in a widely televised interview on the CBS news program 60 Minutes.26 She is the first wife of a GCC ruler to appear abroad in public at a speaking engagement and appear in a televised interview. Gradually, Sheikha Moza has become known as the “first lady” of Qatar, a sobriquet that describes her functional role as the emir’s wife and how visible she has become in Qatari politics.27
Many indicators suggest that women readily embraced their new rights. The eight women who originally filed to run as candidates in the 1999 CMC election represented a rather diverse group of women. They included a civil servant, a Qatari TV and radio station employee, the director of a nursing school, a psychiatrist, and the head of the women’s section of the Qatari Red Crescent. In anticipation that the more powerful Consultative Council would become a partially elected institution in the future, one candidate, Dr. Mozza al-Malaki, even expressed greater aspirations: “My election to the Municipal Council is only a step to the coming of the Qatari Majlis [Consultative Council], as the Majlis will realize further aspirations. The Municipal Council deals only with small and local aspirations.”28 Furthermore, of the 22,225 Qataris who cast their votes in the 1999 CMC election, 45 percent were women.29
Female candidates indicated that their families were supportive, and the Qatari media voiced support for women’s political participation in the 1999 elections.30 One author noted that this supportive environment stood in stark contrast to the reception that advancements for women have received elsewhere in the Gulf: “By contrast, when Saudi Arabia allowed the opening of all-female branches of banks in 1980, the Saudi media was divided between supporters and opponents, and there were even Saudi women who criticized the idea of working women.”31 Even the spokesperson for the Muslim Brotherhood of Qatar supported women’s participation in the elections: “There is nothing in Islam that prevents women from participating in the elections and being a member of parliament; thus there is a role for women in all aspects of life, side by side with men.”32
Not all evidence is positive, however. Several interviews with individuals familiar with the state of media practices in Qatar indicated that the press was told to cover the issue of women’s political rights in a favorable light. Two journalists, speaking confidentially, indicated that senior Qatari officials “essentially fed stories” and “encouraged positive coverage of anything to do with women’s participation.”33 One Qatari official said the press was essentially “under orders” to portray women’s political rights positively.34 Two public employees indicated that the regime “took measures” to make sure the press knew it was “on order” to only supply positive coverage of women voting,35 although one interviewee familiar with the Qatari press indicated that the regime would not have to take extreme measures to ensure positive coverage, as “the Qatari press doesn’t critically question regime priorities anyway.”36 Failed female candidate Dr. al-Maliki, following her loss, indicated that the 1999 elections prove that Qatar remains “a male-dominated society to the bone” and suggested that women may have voted the way that their husbands told them to vote.37 Elsewhere, she suggested that women voters may be the key obstacle faced by women candidates, as she claimed that 80 percent of the female candidates’ votes came from men.38 A former Kuwaiti information minister criticized Qatar’s reform efforts in the Kuwaiti press and claimed that “traditionalists express vehement opposition to female participation, opposition that has been ruthlessly put down.”39 The Saudi newspaper Asharq al-Awsat reported that “a group of Muslim fundamentalists” sent a memo to Qatar’s Consultative Council opposing women’s participation in state affairs.40
Municipal elections are scheduled for every four years; so far elections have taken place in 1999, 2003 and 2007. In 2003, Qatar’s first female candidate was elected to office: Sheikha Yousef Hassan al-Jufairi. She became the first woman in the Gulf region to win elected office, though she did run unopposed in her district. One Qatari official suggested that the disappointment over the failure to elect a woman in 1999 led the regime to ask men running against Sheikha Yousef in the Old Airport district to step down.41 Still, the first “election” of a woman to political office in the Arab Gulf region marked an important political event. Qatar publicized her victory in the first-ever Qatar embassy newsletter, The Pearl.42 The newsletter also announced the recent appointment of the first female cabinet minister, to the Ministry of Education.43
In another bold move, the emir officially announced that Qatar would draft a new constitution that would include a largely elected national assembly, the Advisory Council. Using the opportunity to criticize the lack of popular input in Arab states, he said that popular participation is “one of the requirements of the future” and that Arab leaders should meet to discuss its wider adoption.44 On April 23, 2003, 98 percent of Qatari voters approved the new constitution in a referendum.45 The constitution replaced the appointed Consultative Council with a 45-member largely elected Advisory Council and stipulated that 30 of the 45 Advisory Council seats be determined by direct election. The council has the power to pass laws subject to emiri approval, to question ministers and to approve state budgets. The constitution also guaranteed women the right to vote and to run for office; these rights were guaranteed previously by an emiri decree.
News of Qatar’s new constitution reached a wide international audience. The president of the European Union “welcomed” the adoption of a more democratic constitution in Qatar.46 U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell praised Qatar for attaining “significant milestones” toward the advancement of democracy.47 The secretary general of the GCC even praised the emir, the Qatari government and its people when the constitution officially became law in 2004.48
In the meantime, turnout for the CMC elections fell drastically from 79 percent in 1999 to 38 percent in 200349 amid signs of diminishing enthusiasm for the municipal election.50 Explanations for the low turnout point to concerns about the CMC’s lack of authority. One candidate called the CMC “powerless”; another report indicated an “absence of confidence in the council’s role.”51 The regime tried to bolster turnout in the 2007 election by insisting they were a “practice run” for upcoming elections to the more powerful Advisory Council.52 Another source reported that the 2007 municipal elections occurred alongside rising expectations that the emir would set a firm election date for the Advisory Council.53 Turnout increased to 51.1 percent for the 2007 elections, and they were heralded as a success in the Qatari media.54
Despite the emir’s stated commitment to increase broader participation, elections for the Advisory Council have been scheduled and postponed several times. The constitution approved by the 2003 referendum officially went into effect in 2004, and elections to the Advisory Council were originally scheduled for the following year. Currently, elections are scheduled for June 2013. A Qatari civil servant indicated that they have been postponed because some of Qatar’s major families differ as to how districts should be drawn and seats awarded.55 A foreign diplomat suggested that the Qatari elite are afraid that Advisory Council elections may suffer a similar fate to certain reform efforts in Kuwait.56 There, liberal reforms supported by the royal family have routinely met with opposition in the more conservative national parliament. For example, the Kuwaiti royal family encouraged the national parliament to recognize equal political rights for women, but two separate parliaments refused. The Kuwaiti prime minister dissolved parliament twice before a new national parliament finally awarded Kuwaiti women the right to vote and run for office in 2005. Another Qatari seemed to concur with the foreign diplomat’s observation, suggesting that the ruling elite want to make sure they have all the “necessary reforms” cemented into place as law before an elected Advisory Council takes office.57
EXPLANATIONS FOR POLITICAL REFORM
Some explanations of current Arab Gulf reform efforts suggest that they are a response to the fiscal crisis of the 1990s. Hit by the “twin effects” of stagnating oil prices and demographic growth, many Gulf states faced economic pressures, and some initiated political reforms.58 Evidence does indicate that the combination of low oil prices and the large infrastructural expenditures necessary to access its gas reserves put pressure on Qatari government finances. The state budget for 1999 predicted that state revenue would fall by 15 percent, and state expenditures were reduced by 10 percent.59 Yet no cuts were made to spending on housing, and health and social-security spending actually rose. The spending cuts only slowed the development of Qatar’s major infrastructural projects. Furthermore, in that same year, Standard & Poor estimated that Qatar’s oil reserves would last another 95 years and that gas reserves would substantially increase Qatar’s GDP in the future.60 So, not only was the fiscal pressure rather minimal in Qatar, it also promised to be short-lived. Qatar’s ambitious political reforms do not match the rather limited fiscal pressure it faced at the time.
Other explanations view Arab Gulf reform efforts as a response to the development and growth of a more educated and sophisticated citizenry. Sager,61 for example, explains reform as a “response to domestic pressures and developments” such as “the increase in population, in particular in terms of large numbers of youth; the rise in the standard of education and its impact on the population as a whole; and the increase in the levels of political consciousness.” An examination of the evidence on Qatar, however, does not fit this explanation. Qatar’s total population, as reported by the UN Population Division, was 565,000 in 2000; its population in 2050 is projected to reach 831,000.62 Compared to other states in the region whose populations are projected to double (Kuwait) or triple (Saudi Arabia), Qatar’s projected growth rate is rather modest and certainly sustainable as Qatar starts to tap into its liquefied natural-gas reserves. The percentage of Qatar’s population below age 24, at 39.3 percent, is also the lowest in the region.63 One piece of evidence supportive of this argument, however, is the 1992 petition signed by 50 Qataris demanding political and economic reform.64 Yet the emir at the time dealt with the issue by detaining key signatories.
These 1992 demands, however, could foster the belief of current regime members that Qataris do want more political participation or will in the near future. Other evidence, namely candidate comments expressing a desire for a majlis or disappointment in the limited powers of the CMC, do suggest that at least some Qatari elites want an elected national assembly. Yet it is unclear if this demand existed before the promises of an elected assembly were announced. The evidence also suggests that the push for reform is not coming from the Qatari population. The top-down implementation of reforms, the lack of a contested female victory, and the apathy of Qatari voters all suggest that this reform process is driven by the regime and not the society. Even Al Jazeera’s intense debates and the government-sponsored Doha Debates have not fostered the sort of democratic discussion that the Qatari elite claims to have expected. In confidential interviews, three academics referred to this phenomenon as evidence that Qatari political consciousness still remains low.65
Members of the elite — high-ranking public officials and members of the royal family — do want to maintain that these reforms are driven by domestic factors, particularly after the 2003 U.S.-led Iraqi invasion.66 A debate about the drivers of political change in the Arab world emerged in the aftermath of the Iraqi invasion that sought to discredit any claims made by the United States that external pressure or action could promote democratic change. Even academic work dealing with the Gulf’s political changes has embodied this argument. After crediting the changes taking place in the Gulf to “domestic pressures and developments,” Sager67 writes, “Certainly, the steps that have been implemented are not a product of the events associated with the aftermath of September 11 or the result of the U.S. strategy to ‘spread freedom.’”
Unfortunately, this argument sets up a false dichotomy whereby political change must be domestically driven or it can be claimed as part of the U.S. strategy to promote change. One can identify international factors that promote change without crediting them to U.S. policy. One only needs to point out that these changes began in the 1990s, well before the events of September 11 and the subsequent invasion of Iraq. Additionally, if these reforms were in response to domestic pressure or developments, why were they introduced by decree rather than referendum? The evidence clearly indicates that the new emir and his supporters within the political elite wanted these reforms and considered their success too important to leave to popular approval. Only after legally enshrining elections and women’s rights as part of Qatari political life did the ruling elite put the issue to a referendum. Even then, the government spent a large number of resources to ensure the new constitution’s victory.
There is no evidence of any real domestic demand for either elections or increased women’s rights, certainly not demand of a kind that would have threatened the regime. In fact, allowing women the right to vote and run for political office opens up the regime to domestic and regional dissent unnecessarily. Sources suggest that other Gulf states placed pressure on the Qatari emir “not to grant his country a permanent constitution that would give large powers to a parliament, for fear that this kind of ‘democracy’ could affect traditional ways of governing.”68
Norms research, however, can account for the Qatari leadership’s ambitious path of political reform and the profile-raising activity that accompanied it. Hurd,69 in his concept of “norm instrumentalism,” examines how political actors can use norms to achieve certain political goals. Gurowitz70 examines how the Japanese leadership, in order to bolster their international role and reputation, initiated policy changes with respect to migrant workers that were more consistent with international norms on racism and equality. Similarly, the reform process in Qatar uses international norms regarding elections and women’s political rights to bolster the state’s external reputation. Elections and women’s political rights are well-accepted international norms that states in the Arab Gulf have traditionally been rather resistant to adopting. The reforms the Qatari leadership initiated, however, embrace these norms in a highly publicized manner.
The norm of elections follows a rather traditional path through Finnemore and Sikkink’s “life cycle of a norm.”71 The use of elections has spread across the globe, reaching far past a “tipping point,” where approximately one-third of states embrace this norm.72 As can be seen below, the number of legislative and executive elections has risen markedly.
While the increasing use of elections by authoritarian regimes has sparked some concern about their meaning, the initiation of elections is still met with praise and a hope that this step marks the beginning of a trajectory toward democracy.73
The norms associated with women’s rights, particularly women’s suffrage, are well established internationally. Prior to 1904, several domestic groups of “norm entrepreneurs” pushed for women’s suffrage. In 1904, an international campaign was launched with the founding of the International Women’s Suffrage Association (IWSA). Early adopters of women’s suffrage — New Zealand, Australia and Finland — adopted the norm in response to domestic campaigns in the first stage of the norm cycle. As these states were not hegemons, the case of women’s suffrage represents an exception to the typical path of hegemonic socialization. States like the United States and the UK were 10 and 20 years behind the initial adopters. Late adopters often encountered little domestic pressure once the norm passed the “tipping point.” Research indicates that women’s suffrage reached this stage in 1930, when 20 states had granted women suffrage rights.74 These 20 states became norm observers in the period from the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848 until 1930; 48 countries adopted these norms in the next 20 years, demonstrating how fast a norm can spread after the tipping point has been reached.75
Today, the norm of women’s suffrage is taken for granted, like all well-accepted norms.76 Yet Arab Gulf monarchies are among the few places in the world where a woman’s right to vote or run for political office is still questioned. Before 1999, not one Gulf monarchy had allowed women the right to vote, and members of the political elite still question a woman’s ability to vote or hold political office. An initiative granting political rights to women failed in Kuwait’s National Assembly by a vote of 32-30 in 1999; women were only granted political rights in 2005. A Freedom House report indicated that there were significant reservations in Kuwait about a woman’s ability to be an elected public official.77 In 2002, a poll conducted in Bahrain indicated that 60 percent of Bahraini women believed that women should not hold political office.78
Thus, it is even more impressive that Qatari women, who largely practice Wahhabi Islam, were the first women in the Arab Gulf states to gain the right to vote and run for public office. The lack of norm observance among its peers also suggests that Qatar would be insulated from the typical international socialization process associated with norm adoption. Yet Qatar chose to allow women to vote and run for office in a highly visible way, even setting the date for the first elections on International Women’s Day.
Of course, evidence of norm internalization is often difficult to prove. However, there is some evidence that members of this new and younger Qatari elite believe that democratic elections and women’s rights are principles that Qatar “ought” to embrace. A U.S. citizen who came to know the emir quite well claims that Sheikh Hamad initiated these political reforms “because he believed it was the right thing to do.”79 Before announcing plans to allow women to vote, the emir indicated that he saw nothing wrong with women’s voting.80 The emir also said that popular participation is “one of the requirements of the future” and urged its wider adoption within the Arab world.81 Yet, when democratic norms are not as readily embraced as desired by the Qatari elite or the risk of creating political conflict seems too great, the evidence suggests that the regime may resort to undemocratic means to ensure that democratic norms seem robust in practice. This is the case with the “election” of a female candidate who ran unopposed for the CMC. The fear of an illiberal Advisory Council also seems to be a factor in the postponement of national legislative elections.
Evidence thus suggests that these reforms were clearly important to the leadership’s own self-esteem and Qatar’s reputation — particularly when the regime seems willing to engage in norm-inconsistent (undemocratic) behavior to ensure the norm adoptions are viewed as successful. This evidence calls into question the actual degree to which the norms have been internalized. The very method of introducing elections and women’s rights by decree indicates they were important to the regime — too important to risk failure.
The evidence is more solid in demonstrating that the Qatari leadership became convinced that adopting these norms would help bolster the external legitimacy of the regime and the state. More ambitious reforms demand greater attention and invite praise. Regimes value external legitimacy and may adopt norms to secure or bolster their place within the international system.82 According to a Qatari academic, “These political changes, particularly women’s rights, while they benefit Qatari women, were definitely initiated with an eye to increasing Qatar’s international image. If anything, the issue of women’s rights has cost the emir some domestic support, angered traditionalists domestically and angered GCC members regionally.”83 Hurd84 discusses how norms can be used instrumentally in circumstances where the actor seeks an expected gain from an audience that has internalized the norms. The regime clearly publicizes Qatar’s adoption of these norms to an international audience. As mentioned previously, the first CMC elections took place on International Women’s Day. The very first edition of the newsletter published by the Qatari embassy in the United States heralded the adoption of the new constitution and the first election ever of a woman in Qatar’s municipal elections.85 These reforms were instrumental to Qatar’s goal of promoting a different image, one Thomas Friedman86 embraced when he described Qatar in The New York Times as “a good modernizing monarchy.” This praise and enhanced visibility is used as proof by the Qatari leadership that “our efforts are bearing fruit.”87
Have the Qatari elite internalized norms regarding elections and women’s political rights? There is some evidence of elite learning; the regime does espouse some commitment to these norms as principles that it should adopt. Yet the evidence is also ambiguous. How deeply the regime has internalized the norms is at issue, particularly given the evidence that suggests some norm-inconsistent behavior. The evidence pointing to the instrumental use of norms to bolster the external legitimacy of both the regime and the state, however, is stronger. These ambitious and highly visible reforms are best explained by norm diffusion, which emphasizes the importance regimes place on external perception and praise.
Qatari political reform is that rare case in the literature on international norms that demonstrates how important elite agency can be in explaining their diffusion. Without the Qatari leadership’s decision to embrace political reform, the norms of elections and women’s rights likely would not be adopted anytime soon. While the international normative structure is important, the case of Qatari political reform serves as a reminder that domestic agents count, too.
This research also raises the question as to why external attention and praise are important to the Qatari government. In 1995, the leadership was part of a new regime initially opposed by the Saudi Arabian elite. The previous emir was content to exist under the shadow of Saudi Arabia. The new emir was eager to differentiate the young state from its Saudi neighbors and be freer to operate according to Qatar’s interests, as he and his new regime viewed them. As one member of the Qatari royal family remarked, “Fanatics and extremists…give us a bad name. Holding elections, electing women, that will cause people to see Qatar in a new and different light.”88 When asked why this was important, he responded: “It’s important for our security. We have a freer hand in crafting our own foreign policy, and people come to the defense of ‘good’ states.”89
1 Louay Bahry, “Elections in Qatar: A Window of Democracy Opens in the Gulf,” Middle East Policy, Vol. 6, No. 4, June 1999, pp. 188-127.
2 Daniel Brumberg, “Authoritarian Legacies and Reform Strategies,” Political Liberalization and Democratization in the Arab World, Vols. 1 and 2, 1995; and Daniel Brumberg, “Democratization Versus Liberalization in the Arab World: Dilemmas and Challenges for U.S. Foreign Policy,” Strategic Studies Institute, http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/pub620.pdf., accessed April 12, 2010.
3 Ellen Lust-Okar and Saloua Zerhouni, Political Participation in the Middle East (Lynn Reinner, 2008).
4 Jill Crystal, “Oil and Politics in the Gulf: Rulers and Merchants in Kuwait and Qatar,” 2nd Ed. (Cambridge University Press, 1995).
5 Hassan M. Fattah, “Kuwaiti Women Join the Voting after a Long Battle for Suffrage,” The New York Times, June 30, 2006.
6 Bahry, “Elections in Qatar,” op. cit.
7 “Emir Enlarges Consultative Council,” Agence France Presse, November, 12, 1996.
8 “How Long until Qatari Women Get the Right to Vote?” Mideast Mirror, April 23, 1997.
9 “Emir Opens Consultative Council, Comments on Peace Process,” BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, November 20, 1996.
10 Bahry, “Elections in Qatar,” op. cit.
11 “How Long until Qatari Women Get the Right to Vote?” Mideast Mirror, April 23, 1997.
13 “News Analysis,” al-Quds al-Arabi, May 23, 1997.
14 “Qatari Emir Announces Municipal Elections,” al-Hayat, December 1, 1997.
15 Bahry, “Elections in Qatar,” op. cit.
16 “Qatari Municipal Elections Take Place,” Agence France Presse, March 10, 1999.
17 Confidential interviews, fall 2007.
19 Confidential interview, spring 2008.
21 Confidential interview, fall 2007.
22 Confidential interviews, spring 2006, fall 2007.
23 Bahry, “Elections in Qatar,” op. cit.
26 “Qatar: Embracing Democracy,” 60 Minutes, CBS, March 3, 2003; and “How Long until Qatari Women Get the Right to Vote?” op. cit.
27 Scott Peterson, “A First Lady Gently Shakes Qatar,” The Christian Science Monitor, January 1, 1998.
28 Bahry, “Elections in Qatar,” op. cit.
30 A. Saif, “Deconstructing before Building: Perspectives on Democracy in Qatar,” Reform in the Middle East Oil Monarchies (Ithaca Press, 2008), pp. 103-28; Mary Anne Weaver, “Qatar: Revolution from the Top Down,” National Geographic, March 2003; and Louay Bahry, “Elections in Qatar” op. cit.
31 Bahry, “Elections in Qatar,” op. cit.
33 Confidential interviews, fall 2007.
34 Confidential interview, spring 2008.
35 Confidential interviews, fall 2007.
37 Mary Anne Weaver, “Qatar: Revolution from the Top Down,” op. cit.
38 A. Saif, “Deconstructing before Building: Perspectives on Democracy in Qatar,” op. cit, pp. 103-28.
39 “Kuwaiti Claims Opposition ‘Put Down,’” Mideast Mirror, November 30, 1998.
40 “Saudi Editor Assesses Qatar’s Taste of Democracy,” Mideast Mirror, March 10, 1999.
41 Confidential interview, fall 2007.
42 “Woman Elected to Municipal Council,” The Pearl, Newsletter of the Embassy of the State of Qatar, Vol. 1, No. 1, September 2003.
44 “Qatar’s Emir Promises Elected Parliament,” Mideast Mirror, November 17, 1998.
45 “Yemen, Qatar Praised for ‘Significant Milestones’ towards Democracy,” AP Online, April 30, 2003.
46 “EU Welcomes referendum Backing New Constitution,” AP Worldstream, May 8, 2003.
47 “Yemen, Qatar Praised for ‘Significant Milestones’ Towards Democracy,” AP Online, April 30, 2003.
48 “GCC Ministers Meet,” Asia Africa Intelligence Wire, June 9, 2004.
49 “Apathy Prevails ahead of Qatar’s Municipal Polls,” Middle East Online, March 30, 2007, http://www.mena-electionguide.org/details.aspx/26/Qatar/article718, accessed February 12, 2010.
50 “CMC Poll Fails to Evoke Voter Enthusiasm,” The Peninsula, March 26, 2007.
51 Ibid; and “Apathy Prevails Ahead of Qatar’s Municipal Polls,” op. cit.
52 Confidential interviews, fall 2007.
53 A. Saif, “Deconstructing before Building” op. cit.
54 “CMC Polls a Huge Success,” The Peninsula, April 2, 2007.
55 Confidential interview, fall 2007.
58 Andrew Rathmell and Kirsten Schulze, “Political Reform in the Gulf: The Case of Qatar,” Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 36, No. 4, 2000, pp. 47-62.
59 “Qatar Cuts Back,” Reuters, May 4, 1999; and Angus Hindley, “Better Prepared to Manage the Downturn: Special Report: Qatar,” MEED Middle East Economic Digest, May 1, 1998.
60 “Standard and Poor’s Says Qatar’s Credit Outlook is Stable,” Agence France Presse, May 13, 1999; and Angus Hindley, “Better Prepared to Manage the Downturn,” op. cit.
61 A. Sager, “Political Reform Measures from a Domestic GCC Perspective,” Constitutional Reform and Political Participation in the Gulf, Gulf Research Center, 2006, pp. 17-32.
64 Bahry, “Elections in Qatar,” op. cit.
65 Confidential interviews, summer 2006.
66 Confidential interviews, fall 2007.
67 Sager, “Political Reform Measures from a Domestic GCC Perspective, op. cit. p. 22.
68 Bahry, “Elections in Qatar,” op. cit.
69 Ian Hurd, “Legitimacy and Strategic Behavior: The Instrumental Use of Norms in World Politics,” Paper presentation at International Studies Association, 2007.
70 Amy Gurowitz, “Mobilizing International Norms: Domestic Actors, Immigrants, and the Japanese State,” World Politics, Vol. 51, No. 3, 1999, pp. 413-445.
71 Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink, “International Norms and Political Change,” International Organization, Vol. 52, No. 4, Autumn 1998, pp. 887-917.
72 Ibid; and Cass Sunstein, “Behavioral Analysis of Law,” University of Chicago Law Review, 1997.
73 Middle East Policy, for example, ran a story about Qatar’s elections entitled “Elections in Qatar: A Window of Democracy Opens in the Gulf,” by Louay Bahry, op cit. An article ran in the UK’s Mideast Mirror entitled “Qatar’s Liberalization Drive Wins Applause” (May 1997). Both articles referred to the initiation of direct elections for the Central Municipal Council.
74 Francisco Ramirez, Yasemin Soysal and Susanne Shenahan, “The Changing Logic of Political Citizenship: Cross-National Acquisition of Women’s Suffrage Rights, 1890 to 1990,” American Sociological Review, Vol. 62, October 1997, pp. 735-745.
76 Finnemore and Sikkink, “International Norms and Political Change,” op. cit.
77 Brian Katulis, “Women’s Rights in Focus: Kuwait,” Freedom House, March 2005.
78 N. Janardhan, “In the Gulf Women Are Not Women’s Friends,” The Daily Star (Lebanon), June 20, 2005.
79 Confidential interview, summer 2006.
80 Bahry, “Elections in Qatar,” op. cit.
81 “Qatar’s Emir Promises Elected Parliament,” Mideast Mirror, November 17, 1998.
82 Gurowitz, “Mobilizing International Norms: Domestic Actors, Immigrants, and the Japanese State,” op. cit.
83 Confidential interview, spring 2007.
84 Hurd, “Legitimacy and Strategic Behavior: The Instrumental Use of Norms in World Politics,” op. cit.
85 “Woman Elected to Municipal Council,” The Pearl, Newsletter of the Embassy of the State of Qatar, op. cit.
86 Thomas Friedman, “Between Dust and Deliverance,” The New York Times, June 17, 2007.
87 Emir Hamad Al-Thani, Opening Speech to the 37th Session of the Advisory Council, April 11, 2008, http://qnaol.net/QNAEn/Qatar/HH_The_Emir/Speeches/Pages/HHEmiradvisotycouncil04nov2008.aspx, accessed February 12, 2010.
88 Confidential interview, fall 2007.
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The much overlooked life story of England’s early eighteenth century monarch Queen Anne is explored in the biography Queen Anne: The Politics of Passion by Anne Somerset. This queen, who was the last of the Stuart monarchs, reigned during a very turbulent time, coming to the throne in the midst of a revolution which deposed her father James II. The fact that she was already plagued by chronic health problems when she was coronated at the age of 37 makes her accomplishments, such as forging the kingdom of Great Britain by uniting the realms of England and Scotland, that much more impressive.
However, as the title suggests, this book is not just focused on matters of state. The plentiful drama of Anne’s personal life is also uncovered. The heartbreak of seventeen miscarriages, stillbirths and premature births, resulting in no direct heir upon her death, is discussed. Most interestingly the author delves into the queen’s passionate love life including a possible lesbian relationship with the tempestuous Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough, who spread scandalous gossip about the queen’s sexuality when she was replaced as Anne’s favorite by Abigail Masham.
This real-life story, which reads like a royal soap opera, is definitely one of the more absorbing tales of the British monarchy and it is surprising that this reign, filled with such triumph, tragedy and colorful events, hasn’t received more attention over the years.
The award-winning Anne Somerset is the author of several biographies on historic figures including the book Elizabeth I.
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- About Us
- Local Savings
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Connect with Us
Program targets invasive plant species at Steel Lake
To help maintain a healthy ecosystem at Steel Lake, the Federal Way City Council unanimously approved the renewal of the Steel Lake Management District (LMD) for another 10 years.
Dan Smith, who is the water quality coordinator for the city's Surface Water Management Division, explained what the LMD is for, and how it helps keep Steel Lake as healthy as possible.
"An LMD is a governmental mechanism by which property owners can embark on a program of lake improvement and maintenance," Smith explained at the Feb. 19 council meeting, "which is funded through assessments of lake-area properties."
The current LMD has been in place since 2003, and has been mostly used to combat noxious weed species and educate property owners surrounding the lake, Smith said. Smith explained some of the activities for both areas of attack.
"One product that we produce is a survey and a report. So our contractor goes out and they map Steel Lake. It's a very comprehensive survey, and they locate the noxious weed species," he said. "Those locations are indicated by GPS coordinates, and they can go back and find those noxious plants and control those individual plants. The Washington State Department of Ecology has said our program enhances native plant communities, and does promote the ecosystem health of Steel Lake."
The biggest noxious weed the LMD has dealt with is known as milfoil, Smith said. Milfoil is an invasive plant species that's capable of overtaking a body of water in a season, and can affect oxygen levels in lakes, which in turn affects all the other organisms in the lake, he said. Another issue with milfoil is that it presents a hazard to both boaters and swimmers.
Keeping milfoil out of Steel Lake also stops the spread of the invasive species to other local lakes, Smith said.
The public education part of the LMD includes printed notices and flyers, a quarterly newsletter, information for boater education, a website dedicated to Steel Lake, and an annual report.
"It's information concerning lake health, storm water impacts, pollution prevention and natural yard care practices," Smith noted.
With the renewal, Smith said the LMD would expand the scope of its operations and tackle issues like water quality, Canada Goose management, outlet channel maintenance, and the management of hazardous algae blooms.
In order to fund these extra activities, a $3 increase in the current $95 annual fee would be required, Smith said. However, it appears that Steel Lake property owners are on board.
"We got (this process) kicked off with a petition that was submitted to the clerk, and per the RCW (Revised Code of Washington), we needed 10 landowners to sign, and had 37. We needed 15 percent property acreage signing, and we got 20 percent," he said.
A few Steel Lake property owners were in attendance, and gave a small round of applause with the council's unanimous approval.
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Q: What is the Mission Rosary?
A: The Mission Rosary links two major
concerns of our church: prayer and apostolate. The rosary is a traditional form of prayer
which combines remembrance, praise and petition. It remembers the events of Salvation
History and is, in fact, the memorial of Christs mission. The Hail Mary as
essential part of the Rosary combines praise and intercession. It praises God for the
wonderful things he has done for Mary and through her. But its second half also reminds us
that we are in need of Gods help and protection, which we seek with Mary as intercessor.
If the rosary already by itself points to apostolate and mission, this idea has been
reinforced by Marys urging to convert and evangelize expressed in numerous
apparitions. The missionaries of the Society of the Divine Word consider themselves
mandated to bring this message to the whole world, especially in view of promoting peace.
One of the tools they use is the mission rosary. It encourages prayers for their
mission. The colored beads symbolize the missionary efforts of the Society of the Divine
Word (SVD) in each of the five continents. The beads of each decade of the rosary then has a distinct color:
Red for the Americas (North,
Central, and South)
Green for Africa
White for Europe
Blue for Oceania
Yellow for Asia
The missionary rosary follows the normal pattern of Creed, Our Father, three Hail
Marys, Glory and the five decades (each for the Joyful, Sorrowful and Glorious Mysteries).
For each of these decades the ten Hail Marys are preceded by the Our Father and conclude
with the Glory.
This page, maintained by The Marian Library/International Marian Research Institute,
Dayton, Ohio 45469-1390, and created by
, was last modified
Monday, 06/25/2007 11:22:17 EDT
Michael P. Duricy
. Please send any comments to email@example.com.
URL for this page is http://campus.udayton.edu
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THE LIVES THEY LIVED: SEYMOUR MILSTEIN, B. 1920 LEWIS RUDIN, B. 1927
THE LIVES THEY LIVED: SEYMOUR MILSTEIN, B. 1920 LEWIS RUDIN, B. 1927; Lords of the Land
By James Traub
Published: December 30, 2001
The real-estate business in New York City is a dynastic enterprise; the great fortunes are passed down undiluted from generation to generation, yielding a culture that bears a closer anthropological relation to, say, the clan society of Lebanon than to the modern world of the corporation. Individuals are identified in tribal terms -- as a Rose or a Tishman. And so when two of the oligarchs, Lew Rudin and Seymour Milstein, died earlier this year, they were memorialized not just as individuals but also as representatives of their very different clans.
For all the fixity of its ways, the real-estate oligarchy is only a few generations old. The antediluvians -- the Astors or the Goelets -- occupy a different planet, inaccessible but also irrelevant. The modern clans consist almost entirely of Eastern European Jews whose ancestors got dumped on the Lower East Side at the turn of the century. Today's oligarchs are thus only a generation or so removed from the pushcart.
The Rudin patriarch, Sam, began the family empire when he branched out from his father's ladies'-coat business to build apartments in the Bronx in the 1920's. Lew and his brother Jack kept the business pretty much as Sam gave it to them, buying or building almost exclusively in Manhattan, selling nothing but accumulating slowly, conducting their affairs with bulletproof respectability. The public thinks of real-estate men as flamboyant buccaneers, but the Rudin fortune is based on prudence, not risk. Jack has long been considered the dealmaker in the family -- and perhaps the brains too -- while the gregarious Lew used the spare time afforded by the family's well-oiled machine to become a public figure.
Lew Rudin will be remembered as the Great Convener. All the tribes gathered every year at his break-the-fast cocktail party after Yom Kippur. But his convening went far beyond the boundaries of the profession. He was the founder, popularizer and M.C. of a body called the Association for a Better New York, which promoted the city's reputation and performed minor good works. Every month or so, A.B.N.Y. would invite an important public figure to speak at a breakfast in a hotel ballroom. Lew would permit half an hour of manic schmoozing before he would take the microphone; then, with the instincts of an Ed Sullivan, he would insist that every last ex-mayor and City Council member in the crowd rise to accept a round of applause.
Lew was associated with many acts of civic virtue, most of which involved spending long hours in the company of his friends. No one ever accused him of trying to profit by his good deeds -- Rudins don't do such things. His funeral, at Central Synagogue, temple of choice of the oligarchy, resembled his annual cocktail party. Lew's beloved golf clubs were placed next to his casket and were caddied off the stage when pallbearers carried off his remains. It was an event no one would have loved more than he.
Seymour Milstein was also something of a philanthropist, and a figure of irreproachable probity in his personal affairs. He had one wife to Lew Rudin's three. He was, however, a Milstein, not a Rudin; and it was said, inside the tribal world, that while with the Rudins, a handshake was enough, with the Milsteins -- well, it wasn't. William Stern, a former chairman of the state's Urban Development Corporation, once referred to the family collectively as ''barbarians.'' And Stern was considered something of a Milstein partisan.
The Milsteins are relative parvenus in the real-estate world. The family patriarch, Morris, was a floor contractor; Seymour and his younger brother, Paul, began buying buildings only in the mid-60's. They were classic risk takers; the brothers bought up not just property but also companies, and at one time or another owned United Brands, the Starrett Housing Corporation and Emigrant Savings Bank. Paul was the little Caesar of real estate, waving a mighty cigar while he shouted curses into the telephone. ''We live in a jungle,'' Paul once rasped. ''In order to survive in a jungle, I guess you've got to be tougher to be a winner.'' Seymour, a muted and diplomatic character, preferred the shadows, where he dealt quietly with the family financiers. Seymour once said, with admirable understatement, ''Part of our problem is that we don't interview well.''
The Milsteins became more famous for litigation than for development, though they did quite a lot of both. In 1981 they promised city officials that they would protect the gilded clock and Palm Court lounge of the Biltmore Hotel, and then demolished both. They sued the city when their bid to build office towers in Times Square was rejected, alleging vague, dreadful conspiracies. And then, as in a tale out of Dreiser -- or Dante -- the family turned its venom upon itself. First Seymour's son, Philip, sued Paul's overweening son, Howard, for cutting him out of a deal; then Seymour himself blocked Howard from developing his own family's lucrative parcel at 42nd Street and Eighth Avenue (a leftover from the failed Times Square bid); then Howard tried to get Philip fired as chief executive of Emigrant; and finally, earlier this year, Seymour forced a court-ordered sale of the Times Square property (which Howard bought, for $77.8 million). And so the Milsteins became famous for destroying themselves.
Paul and Seymour ate lunch together at the Rainbow Room every day for years. By the end, they were no longer speaking. When Seymour died, Paul's family -- i.e., Howard -- issued a statement that read in its entirety: ''We will always cherish the happy times we shared and our many years together.''
Photos: Milstein, 1971. Right: Rudin, 1971. (Neal Boenzi/The New York Times, Jack Manning/The New York Times)
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The Influenza Virus
Influenza virus, or what is commonly known as "the flu" has caused myriad problems for the human population. Finally, some real solutions are being developed.
The deaths caused by influenza which occurred around the time of World War I wiped out 20-million people worldwide; a death count which far exceeded the actual loss of life due to the war itself. Today, the disease of Influenza (or, “the flu”) has become much more treatable and therefore far less dangerous. However dangers still exist in that the flu has become so commonplace, when an individual begins to feel the all too familiar symptoms of headache, aches and pains, chills and a fever, it is naturally assumed that influenza is the cause. The fact is, however, that the apex of the flu season is only one to three months long, and many times it is a different virus or bacteria that is causing the symptoms. There have been recent reports of people dying of bacterial infections that were left untreated because they and their doctors thought they had influenza and used the new anti-flu drugs instead of checking to see if antibacterial antibiotics were needed. For this reason, it is important that proper diagnostic techniques are applied whenever possible.
There are only three types of true influenza virus: A, B, and C, and the C type is relatively rare. The A type can be separated into strains derived from two antigens, the H and the N. About once a year, a slight modification (called a “drift”), occurs in either one or both antigens, however that change is sufficient to cause individuals who had the last “popular” strain to be vulnerable to the most recent one. Massive changes (called “shifts)” in the antigen of the A virus occur approximately once every decade, resulting in widespread epidemics of the flu due to the major portion of the population’s lack of immunity to the shifted virus. The yearly drifts can also result in strains that large numbers of people are susceptible to, but this process can take several years.
When an individual becomes infected with a new viral strain, his immune system must “start fresh” in order to successfully combat this infection. The response is therefore relatively slow; it often takes several days to accumulate an effective defense, and by this time, the individual may already be seriously ill. For the elderly especially, the results can be fatal. In fact, according to The American Cancer Society, in excess of 90% of people who die each year of influenza are over the age of 65. For this reason, presumptive treatment in the elderly is necessary, even when the classic influenza symptoms are not present.
Every year, the US Center for Disease Control and Prevention, along with those companies which manufacture the vaccines, establish which strains are most apt to create flu epidemics for the following year, and subsequently develop vaccines that are “custom-made” for those particular strains. Today, “the flu shot” is a respected form of preventative treatment, however in the sixties and seventies, it developed an unsavory reputation because scientists were not yet adept at predicting which strains of flu were likely to crop up in the coming year.
Generally, the flu vaccine is given as a single dose, and it usually takes about a month or so after the vaccine is administered for an individual to develop total immunity.
Two new anti-flu medicines were just recently approved by the Food and Drug Administration; one an inhalant, the other a pill. Both of these drugs can help lessen the effects of all three influenza viruses by blocking neuramidase, an enzyme that the flu viruses use to attach themselves to the cells they are preparing to infect. Regrettably, these new treatments are not approved for use in children and they are only effective on influenza; They do nothing to combat bacterial infections. Thus the FDA strongly suggests that patients and doctors use these new anti-flu drugs with caution and look out for other potential causes of flu-like symptoms.
Approximately 50 million Americans are stricken with the flu virus every year. Even the healthiest adults generally require a weeklong recovery period, which is not merely aggravating, it’s expensive. The Flu is reported to cost over $5 billion in lost work and hospital bills every season. For these reasons, swift diagnosis of influenza is extremely important. After all, an accurate diagnosis is necessary to apply appropriate treatments, because most treatments are more successful when they are administered within the first two days of virus’ attack. In addition, rapid and accurate diagnosis would help to present an early picture of local influenza activity and possibly reduce the improper prescribing of antibacterial drugs.
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The rise of wearable activity trackers, such as Fitbit, Fuelband, and Jawbone, has generated a lot of public excitement as well as interest from researchers who are enthused about the opportunities these devices may provide to monitor activity and help people lead healthier lives.
A new article notes that the traditional randomised trial designs used in health and medicine are not well suited to mobile health, and perhaps the "micro-randomised trial" can be a useful alternative. Micro-randomised trials are trials in which participants are randomly assigned a treatment from the set of possible treatment actions at several times throughout the day. Therefore, each participant may be randomized hundreds or thousands of times over the course of a study.
"These trials will provide evidence regarding in which real-time settings wearable devices should provide treatments to help you and me, and in which settings these treatments will only aggravate us," said Dr. Susan Murphy, senior author of the Significance article.
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12Z 8 Jun 1993:
NCEP implemented the 80km/38-level Eta analysis and forecasting system (Black, 1994) to provide forecast guidance over North America. A one-year comparison of QPF during 1993-94 showed that the Eta model solidly outperformed the Regional Analysis and Forecast System (the model Eta replaced) during both cold and warm seasons (Rogers, 1995).
12Z 12 Oct 1995:
In the pre-implementation parallel tests, each of these four components proved to have a positive impact on the model's precipitation forecast, both individually and when combined with the three other components (Rogers, 1996. Tests were initially made on either the 48km grid or a 40km grid. In the end the 48km grid was chosen for implementation due to computer limitations at the time).
- reduced the horizontal grid spacing from 80km to 48km (QPF scores from test 1 and test 2).
- used a 12h period of Eta-based data assimilation system (EDAS, with 3-hourly optimal interpolation [OI] analysis updates) to provide initial conditions for each cycle of forecast (QPF scores).
- implemented an explicit cloud prediction scheme (Zhao, 1997. QPF scores).
- used satellite-based total column water vapor information in the 3-hourly OI analysis (Lin, 1995. QPF scores).
12Z 31 Jan 1996:
Added modern multi-layer soil/vegetation/snowpack model
12Z 18 Feb 1997:
This "bundle" of changes are described in Black (1997. QPF scores for the parallel test).
- Added bias adjustment to the initial GDAS soil moisture (used by Eta/EDAS as a first guess
- Implemented new high resolution seasonal greenness fraction database
- New top soil-layer direct evaporation function used
12Z 9 Feb 1998:
12Z 3 Jun 1998:
- grid resolution increased from 48km/38-level to 32km/45-level (QPF scores for the parallel test).
- Soil layers increased from 2 to 4
- Eta OI analysis replaced by Eta based 3D variational analysis (3DVAR) (QPF scores for the parallel test).
- "Partially cycled" EDAS: rather than starting each cycle of EDAS entirely the first guess obtained from the global model, we now obtain soil moisture/temperature, cloud water and TKE from the previous EDAS cycle.
References: Rogers et al., 1996, 1997.
12Z 3 Nov 1998:
- "Full cycling" of EDAS variables (both atmospheric and land) was implemented, and the Eta/EDAS system became independent of the Global Model (QPF scores for cycling vs. non-cycling EDAS under OI and 3DVAR analysis).
- Forecast are made 4 times each day (00, 03, 12 and 18Z).
Changes to the 3DVAR analysis were made to improve the analysis of surface and lower tropospheric data, particularly moisture. During the winter of 1998-99 it became apparent that the Eta model forecasts had decreased skill from the previous winter (Rogers, 1999):12Z 13 May 1999:
QPF scores for 1 Dec 1997 - 28 Feb 1998
QPF scores for 1 Dec 1998 - 28 Feb 1999
After extensive tests, the problem in the 3DVAR analysis implemented in the previous November was fixed (Rogers, 1999. QPF scores shown here).27 Sep 1999, Cray90 outage:
C90 was damaged by a fire on the afternoon of 27 Sep. Currently only the 80-km Eta (from static analysis) is being produced at 00Z and 12Z.References:
Impact to the QPF due to the production model downgrade (the degradation in the Eta threat scores after September can be seen in the now-smaller advantage Eta has over the AVN and NGM models):
QPF scores for Sep 1999 (90% of cycles are from 32km ETA/EDAS)
QPF scores for 1-21 Oct 1999 (from 80km static ETA)
Black,T, M. Baldwin, K. Brill, F. Chen, G. DiMego, Z. Janjic, G. Manikin, F. Mesinger, K. Mitchell, E. Rogers, and Q. Zhao, 1997: Changes to the Eta forecast systems. Technical Procedures Bulletin, No. 441, NOAA/NWS, [National Weather Service, Office of Meteorology, 1325 East-West Highway, Silver Spring, MD 20910]. On-line version
Black, T., 1994: The new NMC mesoscale Eta model: description and forecast examples. Wea. Forecasting, 9, 265--278.
Lin, Y., K.E. Mitchell, E. Rogers and G.J. DiMego, 1995: Impact of satellite moisture observations on forecasts made by NMC's Eta model. Preprints, 14th Conf on Weather Analysis and Forecasting, Dallas, TX, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 301-302.
Rogers, E., D. Parris and G. DiMego, 1999: Changes to the NCEP operational Eta Analysis. Technical Procedures Bulletin, No.*** (not yet numbered), NOAA/NWS. [ National Weather Service, Office of Meteorology, 1325 East-West Highway, Silver Spring, MD 20910 ]. On-line version
Rogers, E., M. Baldwin, T. Black, K. Brill, F. Chen, G. DiMego, J. Gerrity, G. Manikin, F. Mesinger, K. Mitchell, D. Parrish, Q. Zhao, 1997: Changes to the NCEP Operational "Early" Eta Analysis/Forecast System. Technical Procedures Bulletin No. 447, NOAA/NWS. [ National Weather Service, Office of Meteorology, 1325 East-West Highway, Silver Spring, MD 20910 ]. On-line version
Rogers, E., D. Parrish, Y. Lin and G.J. DiMego, 1996: The NCEP Eta data assimilation system: tests with a regional 3-D variational analysis and continuous cycling. Preprints, 11th AMS Conference on Numerical Weather Prediction, Norfolk, VA, 19-23 August 1996.
Rogers, E., T. L. Black, D. G. Deaven, G. J. DiMego, Q. Zhao, M. Baldwin, N. W. Junker and Y. Lin, 1996: Changes to the operational ``Early'' Eta analysis/forecast system at the National Centers for Environmental Prediction. Wea. Forecasting, 11, 391--413.
Rogers, E., D. Deaven and G. J. DiMego, 1995: The regional analysis system for the operational "early" Eta model: original 80-km configuration and recent changes. Wea. Forecasting, 10, 810--825.
Zhao, Q., T.L. Black and M.E. Baldwin, 1997: Implementation of the cloud prediction scheme in the Eta model at NCEP. Wea. Forecasting, 12, 697--711.
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The Miller Analogies Test (MAT) is a test of verbal skills (vocabulary and comprehension) and analytical thinking which the test makers have designed to be a predictor of success in graduate school and professional life. The test is currently owned and administered by Pearson Education.
The test has been around for more than fifty years and is still accepted by the admission departments of many graduate schools, especially in the social sciences, humanities and education, as an alternative to the GRE.
The test is a one-hour examination with 120 questions. MAT is currently offered as a computer-based test, but a paper and pencil version is also available. All the questions require the test taker to complete an analogy.
A MAT analogy can be based on general knowledge, or can test your knowledge of language and vocabulary, math, science, social science, or the humanities.
A student with a good vocabulary and who is familiar with general aspects of Western culture should be in a good position to score well on the test.
A student who is not scoring too well on our MAT practice tests would be well advised to brush up his or her vocabulary using our word lists. General reading � good quality magazines, for example � would also help.
Details of testing centers, registration procedures and costs can be found at www.milleranalogies.com
* Miller Analogies Test (MAT) is a registered trademark of The Psychological Corporation. This website is not endorsed or approved by The Psychological Corporation.
All content of site and tests copyright © 2016 Study Mode, LLC.
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From: NASA HQ
Posted: Wednesday, September 18, 2013
NASA commercial space partner Orbital Sciences Corporation of Dulles, Va., successfully launched its Cygnus cargo spacecraft aboard its Antares rocket at 10:58 a.m. EDT Wednesday from the Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport Pad-0A at NASA’s Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia.
This is the first time a spacecraft launched from Virginia is blazing a trail toward the International Space Station, heralding a new U.S. capability to resupply the orbiting laboratory.
Traveling 17,500 mph in Earth's orbit, Cygnus is on its way to rendezvous with the space station Sunday, Sept. 22. The spacecraft will deliver about 1,300 pounds (589 kilograms) of cargo, including food and clothing, to the Expedition 37 crew, who will grapple and attach the capsule using the station's robotic arm.
"Today marks a milestone in our new era of exploration as we expand the capability for making cargo launches to the International Space Station from American shores," said NASA Administrator Charles Bolden. "Orbital's extraordinary efforts are helping us fulfill the promise of American innovation to maintain our nation's leadership in space."
Orbital is building and testing its Antares rocket and Cygnus spacecraft under NASA’s Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) Program. The successful completion of the COTS demonstration mission will pave the way for Orbital to conduct eight planned cargo resupply flights to the space station through NASA’s $1.9 billion Commercial Resupply Services contract with the company.
Future Cygnus flights will significantly increase NASA's ability to deliver new science investigations to the only laboratory in microgravity. As one of two U.S. carriers capable of providing cargo resupply missions to the space station, a successful demonstration mission will ensure a robust national capability to deliver critical science payloads to orbit. NASA's other cargo resupply provider, Space Exploration Technologies (SpaceX), began flying regular cargo missions to the space station in 2012, following its own COTS demonstration mission.
"Today’s launch is the culmination of more than five years’ work between the NASA and Orbital teams," said Alan Lindenmoyer, NASA’s program manager for commercial crew and cargo. "Everyone involved should be extremely proud, and we are looking forward to a successful series of checkouts between now and when Cygnus reaches the space station this weekend."
Over the next several days, Cygnus will perform a series of maneuvers to test and prove its systems, ensuring it can safely enter the so-called "keep-out sphere" of the space station, a 656-foot (200-meter) radius surrounding the complex.
NASA Television coverage for grapple and berthing operations will begin at 4:30 a.m. Sept. 22 and continue through the capture and installation of the Cygnus spacecraft. Capture is scheduled for about 7:25 a.m. with installation of the spacecraft beginning around 9 a.m.
A joint news conference will take place at NASA's Johnson Space Center in Houston and at Orbital's Headquarters at 45101 Warp Drive, in Dulles, Va., at about 1 p.m. EDT, after Cygnus operations are complete. The briefing will be carried live on NASA TV and the agency's website. Media may participate by telephone by calling the Johnson newsroom at 218-483-5111 no later than 15 minutes prior to the start of the briefing. Media interested in attending the briefing in Houston should contact Johnson's newsroom no later than 5 p.m. EDT Friday, Sept. 20. Media with U.S. citizenship who want to attend the briefing at Orbital should contact Barron Beneski at 703-406-5528 or email@example.com by noon Friday, Sept. 20. The registration deadline for non-U.S. citizens has passed.
NASA initiatives such as COTS are helping to develop a robust U.S. commercial space transportation industry with the goal of achieving safe, reliable and cost-effective transportation to and from the International Space Station and low-Earth orbit. NASA’s Commercial Crew Program also is working with commercial space partners to develop capabilities to launch U.S. astronauts from American soil in the next few years.
The International Space Station is a convergence of science, technology and human innovation that demonstrates new technologies and makes research breakthroughs not possible on Earth. The space station has had continuous human occupation since November 2000. In that time it has been visited by more than 200 people and a variety of international and commercial spacecraft. The space station remains the springboard to NASA's next great leap in exploration, including future missions to an asteroid and Mars.
For more information about the Orbital demonstration mission, visit:
For more information about the International Space Station, visit:
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MEDFORD, Ore. (AP) — The number of staffed forest fire lookouts keeps dwindling in Oregon, Washington and California as technology replaces human eyes.
The Medford Mail Tribune reports that of Oregon’s 1,000 lookout sites, fewer than 20 percent have structures and 106 are staffed. The number is smaller in Washington state where only 30 lookouts are staffed. California has 50 staffed lookouts out of nearly 200 buildings available.
Advancements in technology such as cameras and aerial surveillance have replaced staffed lookouts.
Many of the structures are now rented to hikers.
But cameras can’t replace human knowledge. Oregon Department of Forestry forester Dan Thorpe says human lookouts can provide information that cameras can’t convey, like fire behavior, slope, and topography.
Information from: Mail Tribune, http://www.mailtribune.com/
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The newest addition to the Queens Zoo is a baby puda born April 29, 2014. The baby is a member of the world's smallest deer species. The fawn weighed only one pound at birth.
New York City, NY (WPIX) -- Queens New York just got cuter.
A southern pudu fawn – the world's smallest deer – was recently welcomed into the world at the borough's zoo.
The still-unnamed female was born April 29, the Wildlife Conservation Society's Queens Zoo announced Friday.
She weighed just one pound when she was born. Pudu typically grow to just about 12 to 14 inches at the shoulder, and can reach 20 pounds as an adult.
The world's smallest deer species, pudu puda bark when danger is near.
"What the pudu lacks in size, it makes up in strategy," the zoo said.
"They are generally shy and solitary, preferring to hide in thick vegetation. When chased, pudu run in a zig-zag pattern to escape predators including owls, foxes, pumas, and small cats."
Pudu are bred at the Queens Zoo as part of the Species Survival Program. Native to Chile and Argentina, the tiny creatures have been designated Vulnerable.
Another equally aw-inducing pudu was born at the zoo last May.
Find out how to fawn over the new zoo baby at Queens Zoo's website by clicking on the link to the right..
Posted by Greg Palmer
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1 Answer | Add Yours
Macbeth is responsible for King Duncan’s death because he allowed himself to be manipulated, but the witches and Lady Macbeth share responsibility.
By all accounts, Macbeth was a brave and loyal soldier before hearing the witches’ prophecies. In fact, Lady Macbeth fears that he won’t be able to act on her plan because he is “too full o’ the milk of human kindness.”
Thou wouldst be great;
Art not without ambition, but without
The illness should attend it. (Act 1, Scene 5)
This implies that she does not feel that Macbeth has what it takes to take out Duncan on his own.
Lady Macbeth definitely had ambition and ruthlessness to spare. She wanted Macbeth to be king, and she knew just how to push him. The witches knew that the prophecy would plant the idea in his head, and Lady Macbeth knew that if she made a plan he would follow it.
So while Macbeth did kill Duncan and deserves full blame, we must remember the witches’ role in planting the idea in his head and Lady Macbeth’s, and Lady Macbeth’s role in egging him on, creating the plan, and ensuring he followed it through to the letter. Macbeth deserves blame, but they are certainly accomplices.
We’ve answered 328,106 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question
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- Iraqi women have lost more than they've gained since Iraq War began in 2003
- Women no longer guaranteed equal treatment under Family Statutes Law
- Violence against women is also on the rise
It is 10 years after the invasion of Iraq, and images of Iraqi women from various political parties are filling the streets of Baghdad ahead of April's local elections -- a sign to casual observers that women's equality is on track in this war-ravaged country.
But although the women of Iraq have obtained some benefits on paper, the reality is that they have lost far more than they have gained since the war began in 2003.
On the political front, Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki has not appointed a single woman to a senior cabinet position, despite the fact women are guaranteed 25% of the seats in parliament by the constitution. The Ministry of Women's Affairs, a poorly-funded and mostly ceremonial department, is the lone ministry headed up by a woman.
Constitutionally, women were able to secure the ability to pass their citizenship on to their children by non-Iraqi husbands, making Iraq one of a handful Arab countries with such a provision for their female citizens.
But on the other hand, women are no longer guaranteed equal treatment under one law in terms of marriage, divorce, inheritance and custody. That law, the Family Statutes Law, has been replaced one giving religious and tribal leaders the power to regulate family affairs in the areas they rule in accordance with their interpretation of religious laws.
This not only is making women more vulnerable, it is giving women from various sects (Sunni or Shia) or religion (Muslim or Christian) different legal treatments on the same issues.
Economically, women have gone from being visibly active in the Iraqi work force in the 1980s -- particularly in the farming, marketing and professional services sectors -- to being nearly non-existent in 2013.
The women who could afford it withdrew from the public space due the violence dominating the streets. 10 years ago Iraq produced much of its own food and had a productive industrial sector -- but now Iraq imports practically all of its food, and farmers and factory workers simply found themselves out of a job as industry ground to a halt. And while both women and men suffered as a result, the impact on women was greater due to their limited mobility in the face of poor security.
Violence against women -- and the lack of legal protection for women -- is also on the rise. Women's rights groups blame the increase in violence on the social and economic pressure that families face, the lack of public and political will to stop it, and the increase religious conservatism that often justifies the violence.
The saddest part of the story is the lost memory of what Iraqi women once were. I grew up in Baghdad with a working mother who drove herself to the office and always told me that I could anything I wanted with my life. My mother's friends were factory managers, artists, principals and doctors.
It has been just over 20 years since I left Iraq. Today, female college students ask me if it is true that the streets of Baghdad were once full of women driving, that women could walk around in public at all times of the day without worry, that university campuses were once filled with women who did not wearing headscarves.
It would be unfair to blame the regression Iraqi women have faced only on the last 10 years, as the previous decade of economic sanctions that preceded it also took its toll on Iraqi society.
But it is necessary to observe -- especially in light of all the changes that are happening in post-Arab Spring countries -- that female political participation in a country's democratic process cannot be the end of the story. Women's active economic and social engagement is just as crucial to society as it is to their own wellbeing.
America entered Iraq in 2003 with lots of promises, but women's rights were not even on the radar screen. Ten years later, Iraqi women find themselves the subjects of a story that does not have a happy ending.
But despite the challenges that face them, some Iraqi women continue to stand up for women's rights. They deserve everyone's support, for the story of women's rights is the story of Iraq's future.
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For the report at the Space Technology and Applications International Forum 2007 (STAIF) held in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Shen first offered a description of the SuperBot work:
"Superbot consists of Lego-like but autonomous robotic modules that can reconfigure into different systems for different tasks. Examples of configurable systems include rolling tracks or wheels (for efficient travel), spiders or centipedes (for climbing), snakes (for burrowing in ground), long arms (for inspection and repair in space), and devices that can fly in micro-gravity environment.
"This design allows flexible bending, docking, and continuous rotation. A single module can move forward, back, left, right, flip-over, and rotate as a wheel. Modules can communication with each other for totally distributed control and can support arbitrary module reshuffling during their operation.
"They have both internal and external sensors for monitoring self status and environmental parameters. They can form arbitrary configurations (graphs) and can control these configurations for different functionality such as locomotion, manipulation, and self-repair."
But since showing leads to knowing, Shen also illustrated his words with SuperBot action video showing these processes.
He and his colleagues and students made the fillms in just one week, immediately after completing the mechanics and electronics hardware for the latest batch of SuperBot modules at the beginning of February.
"The fact that SuperBot can achieve so much in so short a time demonstrates the unique value of modular, multifunctional and self-reconfigurable robots," Shen said.
The SuperBot team includes computer scientists Mark Moll and Behnam Salemi; PhD students Harris Chiu, Jacob Everest, Feili Hou, Nadeesha Ranasinghe, and Mike Rubenstein; and MS students Nick Kiswanto and Peter Shin.
Follow the links below to view .wmv files of some of the videos:
Finally: what does the world look like from a SuperBot POV?
Shen holds a research appointment in the USC Viterbi School of Engineering department of computer science in addition to his post as an ISI project leader and director of the ISI Polymorphic Robotics Laboratory.
Shen has been developing modular robots for six years, working with NASA (his current funder) and others.
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Where Did It Come From
This is used to be NASA’s favorite which says: “Millions of years ago Earth and a second planet collided and mixed together. The Moon was part of the Earth and then the moon escaped BOOM to orbit earth.”
The Moon’s rocks brought by Apollo missions are of a type that is low in iron, volatile materials’ sodium, potassium, and high in Titanium. That is not the type of rock that Earth has, Because, NASA searched the world for sample rocks so that they could type them for a match. If the theory was true, some of those rocks should have matched. If the two planets had mixed together there would be some remnants of that union.
NASA found no match to their Apollo samples
Then there was NASA’s fall back theory, and the concept goes like this; “The Earth and Moon are binary planets, which formed at the same time from the same space dust cloud to form a binary system.”
Sorry wrong again with the same problem as theory one: The Moon’s rocks are of a type that is low in iron, volatile materials sodium potassium, and high in Titanium. That is not the type of rock that Earth has, and they would if they were made from the same space dust. Sorry they are not! In fact the rocks brought back from the moon more closely match the rocks analyzed by NASA that originated from Mars.
Then there is that little problem of Geo-Synchronization of moons. After a time in orbit any moon will start to drift away from the host planet the moon slows down in relation to its host rotation: Just as the ice skater speed up when her arms are close to the center of her body; however, when she extends her arms she slows down. When the moon matches the speed of the host planet's rotation that moon will become Geo-Synchronized. Remember, the Apollo experiment that Buzz Aldrin and Neil Armstrong placed on the Moon: the mirrors that Professor Carroll Alley used to “Measure the Earth-Moon distance very precisely?” That experiment tells NASA’s scientists that the moon is in an expanding orbit and that in a few thousand years will erase the 48 minutes a day that the moon’s orbit out paces earth which causes there to be phases of the moon, New Moon, to Full Moon, to New Moon each month, that future synchronization will causes Tidal Bulges on Earth; one on the moon side, and on the opposite side to the moon. Mars has those synchronizes Lunar Tidal Bulge, the Tharsis bulge.
This is an anomaly, because MARS has no moon big enough to cause those tidal bulges that large, just two large rocks; the two sons of Mars, and Venus named Deimos, and Phobos. Our moon should also be synchronized if it had been here for millions of years but is not. However, that is the “Elephant in the room” for NASA an elephant sized problem that they DO NOT want to acknowledge. Because, if NASA's scientists take the data from those magic mirrors on the moon and run that data back in time in just a few thousand years the moon's closeness would cause major gravitational (Lunar tidal) disasters on earth, disasters that correspond to the geological record. However, when that data is ran further back in time we would have a collision with the moon and earth in Man’s recent past NOT MILLIONS of years ago as theory One and Two dictates.
So why has NASA pushing the two failed Theories? Because NASA has revulsion for the Alternative, Theory III and because NASA’s has other theories that are based on those failed moon theories that will also be proved invalid. Failed theories that have now cause NASA to change its direction for Man Space Exploration. But NASA has changed its tune but they are still singing off key.
The Moon came from somewhere else and was captured by Earth.
A. J. Anderson states that: “The moon was formed independently of the earth and later captured, presumably by a three-body interaction, and these events were followed by the dissipation of the excess energy through tidal friction in a close encounter." Anderson is not alone, a study of lunar paleotides has shown that “The Moon could not have been formed in orbit around the Earth” said V. Szebehely and R. McKenzie who also conclude: "The planetary origin and capture of the Moon by the Earth becomes a strong dynamic possibility." B. Chernyak, "On Recent Lunar Atmosphere," in the journal Nature, H. Alfven and G. Arrhenius found, “Strong theoretical evidence of a considerable atmosphere on the Moon during the greater part of its history” This fact was confirmed by NASA on September 24, 2009. “Two Alternatives for the History of the Moon, “Science” and S. F. Singer and L. W. Banderman, “Where was the Moon Formed?” The journal, Science "
Can I Get a Witness?
Yes, several, the god and goddesses of the Moon Adad, Dereto, Artagtis, the Azure Dragon, and Leviathan are all depicted at their arrival from the heavens with long fish tails.
Sargon II's "Display Inscription,"
Lines 110 and 146:
"Since the distant days of the age of Nannaru “When the gods fixed the crescent of the moon, to cause the new moon to shine forth, to create the month, the new moon, which was created in heaven with majesty, in the midst of heaven arose.
The Indians of the Bogota highlands in the eastern Cordilleras of Colombia relate to the time before there was a moon. In the earliest times, when the moon was not yet in the heavens," say the tribesmen of Chibchas. "A. J. Anderson and The Gilgamesh Epic agree that “The moon was formed independently of the earth” and its capture was “followed by the dissipation of the excess energy through tidal friction in a close encounter.
The Gilgamesh Epic
“With the first glow of dawn, a black cloud rose up from the horizon. Inside it, Adad [leviathan] thunders. While Shullat and Hanish go from Nergal like heralds, moving over the hills and valleys while he tears out the pillars [of the Earth]...setting the Earth ablaze with their glare...Adad [leviathan] (then) turned to blackness all that had been light. (The wide) and shattered like a (piece of pottery)...No one can see his fellow, nor can the peoples be recognized from heaven. (Even) the gods were terrified by the Deluge, and shrinking back (in fear), they ascended to the heaven of Anu”
Richard Andrea's book on the Flood Records states that many of the American native people insisted that the Moon arrived with the flood, however there were many other sources that confirmed Richard Andrea]. The South American Indian tribe of the Chibas of central Colombia has a legion of a bearded man: “Bochica” his wife: “Chia” was the cause of the flood and “Bochica” changed his wife, Chia into the Moon! Thousands of miles south of Columbia; in the extreme south of South America there is Indian Tribe the “Yamana” from Tierra del Fuego, have a flood legion. The Moon woman caused the Flood; this time was of “Great Upheaval” The Moon was filled with hatred toward human beings. Moon goddess Hunthaca of the Native South American Chibcha Indians believes that a one-time wife of one of their heroes became the moon as a punishment for causing a great flood of their land. Half way around the world the Babylonians have a mother and moon goddesses associated with deluge myths: Nuah. Hey? That sounds like the name Noah.
THE BRAHMANAS BELIEVE
Satapatha Brahmana chapter 24
“A certain Wise Man named Manu (aka Noah) was making his ablutions, he found in the hollow of his hand a tiny little fish”
Vishnu the flying serpent (The Moon) has just escaped from a distant planet with that planet's oceans and atmosphere. This is the account from Satapatha Brahmana chapter 24.
The little fish begged Manu to allow him (the fish) to live. (Manu) Taking pity on it (the fish) He (Manu) puts it in a jar. The next day, however it (the fish) had grown so much bigger that he (Manu) carried it (the fish) to a lake.
The size of Vishnu seemed too grown so much larger as it approached Earth.
Soon the lake was too small. (The fish said to Manu) Throw me into the sea and I shall be more comfortable. Then he (Vishnu the growing fish) warned Manu of a coming Deluge (The Flood).He (Vishnu) sent him (Manu) a large ship with orders to load it with two of every species and seed of every plant, and then to go aboard himself. The Water rose and Life was blotted out except for Manu. Vishnu appeared to Manu as a huge dragon with one horn and golden scales. The fish (Vishnu/Leviathan) said ‘I have saved thee; fasten the vessel to a tree that the waters may not sweep you away... (When) Manu descended with the waters (as the waters receded) The Deluge (the Flood) had carried away all creatures and Manu remained alone.
These goddesses of the Moon: Diana, Luna, Hecate, Artemis, and Sin are depicted as or with an archer's bow, the crescent Moon. Dereto, Artagtis, The Azure Dragon and Leviathan: these gods and goddesses of the Moon are depicted at their arrival here from the heavens with a fish’s tail. When seen on their approach to Earth with long tails of water/ice crystals. There is flying snake or dragon that is spoken of all around the world. “Then Angra Mainyu, who is full of death, created an Opposition to the same, a mighty serpent,” Vishnu, Leviathan, Dereto, Artagtis, the Azure dragon, Chia, Hunthaca, Nuah. The Un-Common explanation is different than what most people understand.
“God's Bow of Convent Was A RAINBOW!”
Was it really??
Monthly Lunar Phases
Sorry that is not what the Hebrew Bible says. Oh, you can find it contemporary translations that say that, but that word for bow is qasheth and in the Hebrew Bible qasheth is used 73 times to denote an archers bow or something to do with an archer: Only one time improperly as the term “Rainbow “ Making the Rainbow tradition. However, let us look at the text.
“The first day of the Month"
And it came to pass in the six hundred and first year, in the first month,
The first day of the lunar month is always the first crescent moon after the new moon The Hebrew Rosha Shauna and Islamic Ramadan holy days starts with the first waxing crescent Moon after the new moon phase ends, which the moon is in the shape of an archer's bow in the sky. The new moon was to be set aside as an extra Sabbath for the traditional Jew month: No work on that day. Why is that? A memory trace to the past: A time reflection of that covenant with GOD?
The twenty seventh day of the Month
And in the second month, on the twenty- seventh day of the month the Earth was dry.
The 27th is a waning crescent Moon: An archer's bow in the sky. No mention of more rain in Genesis 9:13 clouds, yes, but no rain A SIGN of COVENANT, yes; but rain no. The prism affect takes rain to make a rainbow. So no traditional rainbow could have been in the sky. However, the text said that there was a Crescent Bow Moon in the sky.
To understand where that fluffy water ice on the Moon came from we must first understand where the Moon came from, because the L.C.R.O.S.S. Orbiter, India’s Space Agency and the SWAS’s data was released September, 24, 2009 showed water vapor escaping over the Moon’s surface, not just at its poles. The answer to where the water on the Moon is from stories of the ancient past and that answer will surprise you.
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A Christian religious movement that began in the U.S. in the late 19th century and early 20th century to counter liberalism and secularism. It emphasized the inerrancy of the Bible. In recent years, fundamentalist and fundamentalism have become associated with any religious reactionary movement, such as Islamic fundamentalism. The words also have been used as pejoratives. Journalists often, and erroneously, label all conservative Christians, including conservative evangelicals, as fundamentalists. It is best to avoid the words unless a group applies the terms to itself.
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Quoted from The Aims of Education by Alfred North Whitehead:
The most austere of all mental qualities; I mean the sense for style. It is an aesthetic sense, based on admiration for the direct attainment of a foreseen end, simply and without waste. Style in art, style in literature, style in science, style in logic, style in practical execution have fundamentally the same aesthetic qualities, namely, attainment and restraint. The love of a subject in itself and for itself, where it is not the sleepy pleasure of pacing a mental quarter-deck, is the love of style as manifested in that study.
…Style, in its finest sense, is the last acquirement of the educated mind; it is also the most useful. It pervades the whole being. The administrator with a sense for style hates waste; the engineer with a sense for style economises his material; the artisan with a sense for style prefers good work. Style is the ultimate morality of mind.
…Style is the fashioning of power, the restraining of power… with style the end is attained without side issues, without raising undesirable inflammations. With style you attain your end and nothing but your end. With style the effect of your activity is calculable, and foresight is the last gift of gods to men. With style your power is increased, for your mind is not distracted with irrelevancies, and you are more likely to attain your object. Now style is the exclusive privilege of the expert. Whoever heard of the style of an amateur painter, of the style of an amateur poet? Style is always the product of specialist study, the peculiar contribution of specialism to culture.
I have crossposted this quote because it has direct relation to Krutetskii’s concept of “economy of thought” that I discuss in my book. In mathematically able children, this is still not a skill to work “without waste”, but an instinctive striving to think economically and choose between possible approaches to a problem the one which promises the most streamlined and elegant solution.
And here is a quote form Krutetskii’s classical book. It concerns one of his favourite subjects, Sonya L, 8 years old girl.
A distinctive tendency for “economy of thought.” Sonya is notable for a striving to find the most economical ways to solve problems, a striving for clarity and simplicity in a solution.
Although she does not always succeed in finding the most rational solution to a problem, she usually selects the way that leads to the goal most quickly and easily. Therefore many of her solutions are “elegant.” What has been said does not apply to calculations (as was stated above, Sonya is unfamiliar with calculation techniques). Consider a few examples.
Problem: “How much does a fish weigh if its tail weighs 4 kg, its head weighs as much as its tail and half its body, and its body weighs as much as its head and tail together?”
Solution: “Its body is equal in weight to its head and tail. But its head is equal in weight to its tail and half its body, and the tail weighs 4 kg. Then the body weighs as much as 2 tails and half the body — that is, 8 kg and half the body. Then 8 kg is another half of the body, and the whole body is 16 kg.” (We omit the subsequent course of the solution. The problem is actually already solved.)
“The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180 degrees. Angle BAC yields 180 degrees either when added to the exterior angle (as supplementary adjacent angles), or when added to angles B and C (as interior angles). Therefore, the exterior angle is equal to the sum of angles B and C.”
The issue of “economy of thought” in young children can be compared with the issue of style in sport. There were times, say, in swimmimg, when young boys and girls routinely won over adults – and it was before steroids coming into use. Interestingly, this happened in long distance swimming, where economy of effort was paramount, and not in short distances, where sheer power and force of adults prevailed.
As every boy in Sibirea, I had to do a bit of cross-country skiing — without much success, I have to say. Aged 15, I knew a 12 years old girl from my school who could beat me at any distance. She liked to tease 18-year old male conscripts on their compulsory 5 km skiing test, by flying past them, effortlessly like a snowflake in the wind. For sweating and short-breath guys, it was an ultimate humilation. For reasons unknown, the little girl had style.
At that point, the reader will not be surprised by other qute from Krutetskii:
The reduced fatiguabiliy in mathematics lessons that characterizes Sonya should also be noted. Not only is she very hard-working and fond of solving problems “on reasoning”: she
tires comparatively seldom during these lessons (excluding long, involved calculations, which she does in her head). Neither the lessons at home nor those with the experimenter were ever ended on her own initiative. Even prolonged lessons (for her age) did not lead to marked fatigue. For experimental purposes we set up a few lessons with her of an hour and a half, without interruption (a 45-minute lesson doubled!). Only at the very end of this period did the little girl of 8 show signs of fatigue (mistakes, slackening of memory). When occupied with other types of work (music, reading, writing), Sonya tires normally.
Should ve be suprised that “style”, “economy of thought” and non-fatigability go hand in hand?
Still, “style” in the sense of Whitehead is not something which can be attained at a very young age in a fully developed form. But it is something which could be seriously, perhaps irreversibly compromised at early stages of education by a student accumulating wrong habits and mannerisms.
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Art is considered as the core and key to culture. Culture is very important in the human life, as it is the final analysis of the values, which can be seen in human life in a variety of ways. Science, under its own constraints does not take up the question of values so vital for life. So, we need a philosophy with free thought for a deeper probe and understanding of art. This is aesthetics.
Aesthetics is not separated from psychology, sociology and cultural context of art. The importance of Aesthetics is to create a form in art. Form has its law of beauty and balance, rhythm and harmony. The human race learnt to create a form before it learnt to ideate a thought. Even the laws of reason flow from the laws of beauty.
Aesthetics is the philosophy of the beautiful. The beautiful, whether it is graphic or musical, dynamic or static, whether a divine (or natural) or human creation, from solid architecture and sculpture to the finest nuances of abstract art and poetry, must involve an element of perceptual experience, i.e. the beautiful is perceived. The modus-operandi of conveying beauty is aesthetics.
'A thing of beauty is joy forever.' It is a poetic utterance of great charm, and is good as far as it goes. But to define the thing of beauty and joy that lasts forever is not so easy.
As we know that, perception is not a small matter to deal with. We perceive color and form, a sensuous quality of object; or, so we think and feel. But soon the sensuous element begins to affect the perceiver, and the qualities of form like balance, harmony, rhythm, proportion, and movement start flooding the mind-body complex. This happens when we consciously view Natraja, Christ on the cross, or Yakshini in a dance Mudra.
In India, every form is a dance form and its dynamism is called Zaya (rhythm) which fills the living frame. But it was a little difficult in the West, where the stress was on harmony and balance, clarity and coherence for cultural reasons; another reason for its stress was on the rational nature of humans.
The perceiver is raised to the level of experiencing the timeless and the boundless. Aesthetic perception thus spreads from the sensuous to the supra-sensuous, from word to wordless as in poetic experience.
Since perception is the essence of aesthetic experience, it is easy to imagine that it has to do with the sensory organs, the cerebral and autonomic nervous systems, the hormonal and glandular feedbacks, in short, with the entire mind-body complex. The beautiful thing may please the eye or ear, or stir up deep memory-deposits and imagination. The really beautiful experience is one that scratches the lurking, deep, hidden yearnings of the soul. The perceiver may cry in agony of a tragedy, or laugh at the nonsense, feel in his flesh the sweetness of love, melody of music, or shiver in holy terror. There is complete resonance, as it were, in the psycho-organic life in a profound aesthetic experience.
The Present Scenario
The universality of Aesthetics as philosophy of art is the master note in the current scenario. Aesthetics studies the nature of its laws in the wide context of life. It discovers that forms are common to life and all its manifestations whether art or social organizations, brain or body, or for that matter, to all human and natural creations. The cosmic creations spring from the will to beauty, will to form, will to create.
Now the word philosophy is not to be dreaded. It is a way of acquiring knowledge and truth like science. In science, we start from observation of facts and events, do experiments and use instruments where needed, and from the data which we acquired we proceed to generalize, to infer, to verify and establish laws. In this we strive to be exact. But in doing so we impose upon ourselves restraints and conditions, and the kingdom of imagination is not allowed as it needs complete freedom of flight.
In philosophy the human mind enjoys full freedom of flight of imagination and thinking. The relation of aesthetic activity to culture is intimate and vital. Culture is the quest for values, and is reflected in all human sensitivities. Art cultivates them. All refinement and elegance, sense of decorum and decency are traceable to form and its laws of balance and harmony of rhythm and proportion. Even the values like tragic, comic, ugly, horrible are considered as negative in art but are derived from form. The laws of form are laws of beauty.
Art, in the simplest form, means to create, to do, and to express. Man creates a form, or does something clever, or he expresses his meaning and motive. This calls for skill, and dexterity. If what a man creates, and does, has a lasting value of joy for others, it becomes a work of aft. This work is called beautiful.
A work of art is thus full of social significance. It is a community phenomenon. And for the same reason, aft becomes the core of human culture. From the dateless past, man has been creating forms, doing marvelous things and expressing his profoundest thoughts and feelings.
An individual artist becomes the voice of the people and articulates what is his understanding in the deepest regions of the mind.
We have today sociology of art and we are moving towards a psychology of art. Even science and technology in all its applications do not feel shy of using the laws of form, the laws of beauty and balance etc. for the simple reason that these are rooted in all action and mechanism. Beauty is the truth of all that lives and moves and has its being.
The other is the folk art, the people's art which flows as the eternal stream of sweetness and beauty, full of primitive symbols of life. It adapts to change but never dies. Cave and rock paintings are being taken good care of. These are not as crude as they were once supposed to be. These are not just relics of the past, but are relevant to us in the present and for the future.
The author thinks that art begins with doing, making and being. The Greek work of art is ‘techne’ which means doing.
In Indian aesthetics, we must begin the study of arts in the context of Indian culture. Art supplies form to culture, and culture in its turn supplies content and intent to art. The two are inseparable.
Perspective on Aesthetics
What we perceive is a 'form,' a whole, a ‘smagra’, a creation of the autonomous psycho-neural processes. An object as such is unknown to us except through organization of sense data into a form. What lies at the root of form perception is thus aesthetic activity. As a form creating activity, it is basic to mind-body system. If the form arouses psycho organic resonance and activates it for the realization of the principles of form, balance harmony, and rhythm; it is the form of a beautiful object, an aesthetic reality. An experience of beauty thus can be not only joy giving but a life preserving exercise. It is no exaggeration to say that beauty preserves life within itself.
Beauty and Thought
Beauty is thus more primordial than thought. One would be tempted to say that art was born when the animal moved towards becoming man, the homo-sapiens. For ages he lived close to nature. When man breaks from nature, his culture begins, for then he starts acting on his own rather than re-acting to internal and external stimulations. Master of his own destiny, he begins shaping stones, to act on them, to work with them, so as to impress them with his idea, intention and image, and finally, he is pleased with his creation-a stone image. It might have been the earliest of the early stone age (Paleolithic age) when forming, fashioning, creating, impressing and expressing started. All these functions underlie art, which, in Greek, means doing.
It means the Paleolithic man was an artist, par excellence, before he was a thinker. It sounds quite sensible to define the primitive man as an aesthetic being, a form creating animal.
He was not only a form creating animal, but also loving his form-creations for their own sake. This is what we call beauty of art, or better still, an aesthetic reality, and aesthetic enjoyment.
A Thing of Beauty
Beauty is the love of a thing for its own sake. A thing of beauty has a form and an order, all springing from the brain-body complex. At the perceptual level, it is a feast of colors, a rhythmic dance of lines, a pleasing harmony of parts woven into patterns. If it is a melody, it is a feast to the ears. It suggests, touches, tastes and gives fragrance. The living system resonates with suggestions. Time, distance and causation are all suggested and felt. In intent and content, in impression and expression the thing of beauty becomes lovely in itself. Love is a value in itself as the supreme source of delight. A creative artist, human or divine, transfigures a thing of beauty and its turn, a thing of beauty transforms a perceptual experience into an experience of beauty, a pure joy of perception, which is the original meaning of the Greek word: aesthesis. Beauty makes one forget other things, at least for some time. Art transports the soul to unknown spheres. The method that art applies is beauty. The complete study of the details of artistic beauty is aesthetics.
The fusion of intent and content, of the inner and outer dimensions of form, or for the matter of that, the fusion of the mind and matter, is so complete in a thing of beauty that an onlooker is not able to comprehend and exhaust its loveliness, which increases with each contemplation. Raymond Bayer calls it "the aesthetic object," "a strange composite of Self and Thing, a compound that appears initially and by its very nature inseparable." In the building that is Taj Mahal, beauty and form are inseparable.
Nature and Scope of Aesthetics
There is always a controversy, to the origin and etymology of Aesthetics. The term was used in the present form by Baumgartner, a German art philosopher. Its Greek etymology suggests that it originally meant 'perception,' to which Baumgartner gave a new significance: aesthetic experience of perceptual qualities of an object of art. Aesthetics thus came to signify the science of the beautiful, studying the nature, meaning and value of a work of art.
When we speak of art, beauty and joy, we speak them in the same breath. Art refers to creation. The creator is the artist. The beautiful is the created object, and beauty, its quality and excellence. If the created object yields joy of perception, it may rightly be called an aesthetic object. But all creations of art need not give joy of perception. Some art is language, and speaks to us. Some art is symbolic like the hieratic art, which embodies a profound meaning to the worshipper, not so communicated through words of language. Some art involves abstraction and distortion of forms for effect not for joy. Some art may be positively repulsive and cause pain. The realm of art from the most primitive Pacific and African regions through the cave-carvings of hunters and cannibals up to the high tides the world civilizations and now to bizarre modern art, is too vast for a single formula, or a single format of Aesthetics. Man's creativity knows no limits, and forms and functions of art are boundless.
Aesthetic Dualism : Content and Form, and their Functionality
To some, like I.A. Richards, the core of art is its content, and there is no limit to its variety. There is no such thing to him as the transmutation or ‘poetization’ of experience in art, and "a contemplative and aesthetic attitude" is a complex myth. And, if content is all in a work of art, it need not always be beautiful and joy giving. As the mood of an artist changes, he may create ugly and abominable creatures. The form does not transmute the content.
On the other side there is a group of art critics believing that content is nothing in art. B. Croce leads them. They hold that "content of art is of no aesthetic importance. Beauty is expression and nothing more." S. Alexander goes to the extent of saying, "Any object is available for beauty if it is treated beautifully." And, further, "It is clear enough that the beauty of art has nothing to do with the vice and virtue of its subject."
Aesthetic dualism of content and form does not stand because in this way the meaning of art and substance of beauty is missed. It is the organic oneness of self and thing in a work of art that baffles the mind and pleases the soul.
Beauty is what is beautifully treated. Artistic treatment means the mastering of the content-form anti thesis and dualism. Says George Mehlis in his Aesthetic Problem of Distance: "Each work of art is based on the original contrast between form and content, which is mastered and brought to rest by the artist. The aesthetic problem lies in the subject object relation of the aesthetic reality."
Aesthetic philosophy thus studies the significance of art objects treated beautifully by creative artists, in a moment of spiritual furor and ferment, are beautiful. By such treatment an object (content) acquires a form and aesthetic significance.
E. Kant and his school thought that the beautiful is a distinct category, a form of aesthetic feeling. Aesthetic studies the aesthetic reality, form and function of beauty, the nature of communication and creativity, and above all the nature of beauty experience as a value in itself.
- The nature of beauty, or, aesthetic reality: Art philosophers, creative artists, art critics and the common men, have all to ask questions as to the nature of a work of aft, and the formal principles of beauty.
- The nature of aesthetic experience: In India, for example rasa or ‘ananda’ is the man himself, his inmost truth and reality, his self. Rasa bodies forth, as it were, in ‘rupa’, the sensible form of the supra sensuous essence. It is metaphysics of beauty. At a later stage, the psychology of art is formulated. It equates beauty-experience to an aesthetically caused feeling.
- The nature of aesthetic causation and communication: Several concepts are discussed under it. Transmutation or transformation of nature in art, Bharata's theory of ‘Vibhava’ or aesthetic causation, the nature of suggestion, ‘Dhvani’ or Empathy or Hridaya Samvada, such mental activities as myth making, symbolisms, dreaming, free fantasy, psycho-organic resonance etc.
- The nature of aesthetic function: What does beauty do to us? Is it to satisfy the creative urge? To please? To express? To impress? To pacify? To energize? To liberate man from his internal bondage and free him from psychic complexes? To cleanse him by emotional discharge or catharsis? To represent, to copy and to mimic? To idealize? To symbolize? Is aesthetic experience healthy or morbid, ethical, amoral, or immoral? Aesthetics examines the validity of these questions and answers given to them within its philosophical frame of reference.
- The cultural context of beauty: Beauty is a value, and as such it is born in a milieu of society and culture. As the core of culture, aesthetic activity reaches history, religion and science and all .aspects of a living civilization. The sense of beautiful is a product of social environment.
- Aesthetics as related to other disciplines: As individual and social phenomena, art has common frontiers with many disciplines. For example, psychology studies the workings of the mind, its depth and dimensions. Rudolph Amheim told that we are moving towards a Psychology of Art and evolving a unified theory of art. It comes closest to subjects like Physics, Chemistry, Biology etc. in studying optics, vision and hearing, the functioning of sensor motor mechanisms. Aesthetic philosophy does not deny itself the advantages of scientific knowledge or the advancement in meta physical or meta psychological speculations from Kant's Transcendentalism to Kierkegaard's Existentialism, or to Freudian-Jungian Meta-psychology.
- Classification of art: Several classifications have been proposed, each with its own rationale e.g. useful arts and fine arts, plastic and graphic arts, visual and musical arts, static and dynamic arts. There is a notion of literary arts also. Decorative and joy giving artistic skills come under purview. The empire of artistic activity spreads over architecture, sculpture, painting, music, dance, drama and poetry, designs and drawings, motifs and mosaics, expressive symbols and calligraphy; in short, all forms in and through which formative will of mankind sought to manifest itself. In India, Vatsyayana enumerated sixty-four forms of art. As a discipline in its own right, aesthetics is as light giving and fruit bearing as all disciplines are. To a disciplined mind, its study can open up vistas of joy and beauty. There is nothing more beautiful than the science of the beauty.
References and Background Reading:
- Metcalf, R. T. An Imperial Vision: Indian Architecture and Britain's Raj. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002.
- Subramanyan, K. G. Moving Focus: Essays on Indian Art. Calcutta: Seagull Books, 2006.
- Sinha, C. P. and U.C. Dwivedi (Eds). Appreciation of Indian Art: Ideals and Images. New Delhi: Aryan Books International, 2005.
- Tripathi, Radhabhallav. Indian Aesthetics Revisited, University of Poone, 2006.
- Rayan, Krishna. The Lamp and the Jar: Exploration of New Horizons in Literary Criticism/Essays by Krishna Rayan. Edited by Krishna S. Arjunwadkar. New Delhi, Sahitya Akademi, 2002.
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Secretary-General welcomes new report on efforts to green the UN
Nairobi, 1 April 2011 - The United Nations has released details of its greenhouse gas emissions for 52 institutions, covering 200,000 employees, in a new report published as part of ongoing efforts to reduce the organisation's carbon footprint.
The report, co-ordinated by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), calculates the UN's total greenhouse gas emissions for 2009 at 1.7 million tonnes of CO₂ equivalent, or 8.3 tonnes per capita.
Over 50 percent of UN's emissions are from air travel (4.1 tonnes per capita) making this the biggest challenge for the organisation in reducing its overall carbon footprint. Around 37 percent of emissions are from buildings and 13 percent are from vehicles.
The report, Moving Towards a Climate Neutral UN, was presented at the meeting of the UN Chief Executives Board of Coordination, in Nairobi, Kenya, where UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon met with the heads of UN agencies, funds and programmes.
In the report's foreword, Mr. Ban states that improving the UN's in-house sustainability performance will make the organisation more efficient, more effective and less exposed to risk.
"The United Nations has played a key role in elevating the profile of climate change on the international agenda, and continues to support Member States in their efforts to reduce emissions, strengthen adaptation and respond to this immense global challenge," writes Mr. Ban.
"Such work has a natural complement in our in-house drive to reduce the UN's own carbon footprint. What we demand of others, we must do ourselves."
The report provides a progress update on implementation of UN's Climate Neutral Strategy. In October 2007, the strategy was approved the UN Chief Executive Board and committed, all agencies, funds and programmes to move towards climate neutrality within the wider context of greening the UN.
The Strategy requires UN bodies to estimate their greenhouse gas emissions, undertake efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and analyse the cost implications of purchasing carbon offsets.
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On May 8, a Chinese archeology team finished its 55-day
excavation work on an ancient shipwreck, namely Huaguangjiao No.1,
off the Xisha islands in the South China Sea, with the recovery of
more than 10,000 pieces of antique Chinese pottery and porcelain and
the discovery of another 10 undersea relics sites. This is the first
time that China has conducted undersea excavation work in the open
Huaguangjiao No.1: The first ancient
shipwreck recovered in China's open sea
"Huaguangjiao No. 1", meaning Huaguang Reef No.1, is located
inside the swirling Huaguang Reef off the Xisha islands in the South
China Sea. The sunken ship, which is believed to have been a
merchant ship built in the Southern Song Dynasty, was discovered in
1996 and has suffered from being illegally excavated several times
since 1997. In 1998, the China National Museum and cultural relics
administrations in Hainan Province launched pilot excavations of
Huaguangjiao No.1, recovering around 1,800 relic items.
Measuring 20 meters in length, 6 meters in width, 3-4 meters in
the depth of its side, covering 180 square meters and with an
estimated displacement of 60 tons and 11 cabins still intact along
the bottom of the boat's wooden hull, Huaguangjiao No.1 lies 3
meters below the surface of the sea and is covered with corals,
looking like a huge coral reef. With the exception of its upper
sections, the vessel is relatively well-preserved. Considering that
the shipwreck has been in the sea for about 800 years and it's
difficult to consolidate its structure undersea, archeologists only
collected samples of the vessel for further studies. It is reported
that China has planned to salvage Huaguangjiao No.1 as early as this
fall. Once hoisted out of water, this vessel could be an extremely
valuable ancient sunken ship for antique research and display.
Huaguangjiao No.1 excavation: a
milestone in China's undersea archaeology
The excavation of Huaguangjiao No.1 was well-prepared and
conducted with precision, marking it a significant milestone in
China's undersea archaeology history.
With the main body of the shipwreck being the center,
archaeologists circumscribed an excavation area of 370 square
meters, which was divided into 50 sub-areas of 4 square meters
each. All the relic items were numbered according to the sub-area
they came from, recorded, and photographed. The excavation operation
was mainly carried out by manpower and the facilities were used for
clearing away tons of silt. After the 55-day excavation, the
majority of relic items on the shipwreck were salvaged and the
excavation site is now under preservation.
The total excavation time is about 300,000 minutes. Relic items
found at the site include green glazed porcelain plates, shadowy
blue porcelains and other rare exquisite antiques, which were
manufactured in Fujian Province and Jingdezheng in Jiangxi Province.
Why submerged in Huaguang
Since relics items yielding from Huaguangjiao No.1 were
mostly made in Fujian Province, it is estimated that the sunken
ship was an ancient merchant ship heading for Southeast Asia
for Chinese porcelain trading, but unfortunately sank on the way.
Sailing on the waters near the Xisha islands has been dangerous
and hazardous since the ancient times, as noted in a book written in
the Song Dynasty.
Archeologists have found that the relic items are concentrated
within an area of 38 square meters within the Huaguang Reef and only
the lower part of the ship body is left undersea. If the ship was
shattered by tides within the reef, it is impossible that the relic
items didn't scatter all over the bottom of the reef, whose area is
of hundreds of square meters. So, archeologists estimate that the
vessel went down on the open sea and then the shipwreck was taken to
Huaguang Reef by tides.
A pearl on the "Marine Silk
Huaguangjiao No. 1 has important significance in the process of
researching ancient China's Maritime Silk Road.
"Huaguangjiao No.1 and Nanhai No.1 which is
currently being excavated off the coast of south China's Guangdong
province, are two pearls along the ancient Maritime Silk Road," said
Zhang Wei, director of The Undersea Archeology Center of China
National Museum. "The two have equal significance,, but Huaguangjiao
No.1 is located in the open seas, and is more difficult to
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Red Bulborbs (アカチャッピー) are amongst the most well-known enemies in the Pikmin games, appearing in all games in the series. The Red Bulborb's original name was the Spotty Bulborb, but had its name changed when Olimar found other subspecies with spotted patterns. In Pikmin 3, it is simply named Bulborb, despite the Orange Bulborb also appearing in the game. This nocturnal creature will sleep out in the open, exposing themselves to Pikmin attacks.
Red Bulborbs are among the most mammalian enemies in the series due to them having leathery, soft skin and bulbous eyes, opposed to the compound eyes of most insects. Judging by the size of their eyes and their nocturnal lifestyle, their eyes have a wide pupil, a large lens and possible increased retinal surface used for collecting more ambient light during night time.
Olimar mentions the Red Bulborbs having a set of mandibles. Mandibles are a pair of appendages near an insects mouth, used for grinding and chewing food. The so-called mandibles Olimar mentions in his notes look nothing like normal mandibles and are instead most likely sabre-teeth, used for breaking exoskeletons of prey insects and digging through the soil for roots. It is very likely that Bulborbs are omnivorous creatures.
It seems that the juvenile Red Bulborb is the favored host of the parasitic Pikmin known as Bulbmin. This type of Pikmin appears to control its host, causing the animal to behave less like a Bulborb and much more like a Pikmin, following a Captain (which is naturally an older Bulbmin) and hunting in packs. Red Bulborbs are not observed at the two stages of development displayed by Bulbmin anywhere else in-game (unlike the Spotty Bulbear), so it is unknown whether Bulbmin are a common stage in Red Bulborb initial development or not, as symbiotic cooperation from the parasite would give this slightly weaker form of Grub-dog an advantage in the subterranean environment that all stages of the Red Bulborb species are found in.
"The most plentiful species on the planet, they are quite ferocious despite their appearance, using their massive jaws to swallow Pikmin whole. Frontal assaults result in disaster; attacks from behind are more successful. Attacking their legs is also effective."
"This nocturnal hunter feeds mostly on small animals returning to their nests at night."
"This large organism has the familiar mandibles and cranial morphology of the grub-dog family, as well as the characteristic bulging eyes. As with most grub-dogs, the creature's cranium comprises half of its total length and girth. Showing a scarlet abdomen with white spots, this creature is primarily nocturnal, choosing to prey upon smaller creatures returning to their nests. Originally classified as the spotty bulborb, further research has reclassified this species as the red bulborb. Subspecies of varied colors have recently been discovered, but academics are divided into two rival camps over how to handle their classification."
"Plump specimens are best spit-roasted whole, stuffed with a lime and a slab of bacon. Baste frequently to ensure a magnificently moist haunch."
Nintendo Player's Guide
"The weakest of the larger Bulborbs, the Red Bulborb can still hold its own against a good-sized Pikmin squad. Since it is a nocturnal species, most of the Red Bulborbs that you encounter in the daytime will be asleep to start. Sneak up on them from behind and hit them with a stream of flying Pikmin."
Super Smash Bros. Brawl Trophy
"A creature whose Japanese name translates as "spotted crimson bug-eye." These bulky nocturnal animals have white-and-red-flecked rumps that resemble strawberries. Red bulborbs sleep in the day and wake in the evening to feed on small animals. Several colors of Bulborb subspecies have been discovered--their classification is a hot subject for scholars."
Pikmin 3 Website
"It's considered one of the weakest of the Bulborbs, but can still hold its own against a good-sized Pikmin squad. Attack from behind to gain the advantage. Weakest point: eyeballs."
Pikmin 3 Prima Guide
"These large creatures use their jaws to gobble up several Pikmin with each bite. Whenever possible, use a large squad of Pikmin to charge the creature from the rear. If brute force isn’t an option, throw Red Pikmin and Rock Pikmin onto the creature’s back. During an extended battle, it’s important to retrieve your Pikmin as the Bulborb shakes them off."
Note: The following part(s) of the article is a strategy (or strategies); therefore, it is highly subjective, meaning it may not work for everyone.
The most effective strategy is to swarm it from the back with a large group of 30 or more Pikmin, preferably Red Pikmin for their high attack power, and it will die. Note that if the game has been running for a while it may instantly be standing and will kill more Pikmin than expected. Another very effective strategy is, with a group of 30-40 Pikmin(preferably Red, as stated above), to get behind it and throw Pikmin onto the back of the Bulborb. The Bulborb should shake in an attempt to get the attacking Pikmin off, but continue to throw your Pikmin; the speed you can throw in this game is perfect for this strategy, since even the fastest speed is slow enough that not all of your Pikmin will thrown onto the Bulborb come the first shake. This will result in more Pikmin on the Bulborb's back while the ones that were shaken off will rush to the feet of the Bulborb for greater damage.
If only a few Pikmin are available, repeatedly throw Pikmin onto the Bulborb's back and retreat if it starts charging at them. When it goes back to sleep, toss more Pikmin on its back. Then, when it attempts to shake them off, call your Pikmin back and throw them back when the Bulborb is done shaking. It should be unable to eat any Pikmin if done correctly. This strategy also works for the Spotty Bulbear, but it takes a little bit longer because Spotty Bulbears have more health. Red Pikmin are the best for this strategy. (Notice: This does not work well in Pikmin 2) When attacking Dwarf Bulborbs, they will sometimes screech when agitated and awaken nearby Red Bulborbs. Note that a glitch exists when the Bulborb moves in to attack that renders it invincible. Unless it is at very low health, expect some Pikmin to be devoured. With a large enough Pikmin group, this shouldn't be a problem. If Bomb Rocks are used, the Bulborb will die with two blasts or 3 blasts, each blast dealing half damage however he will heal himself over time so throwing two almost simultaneosly is recommended.
In Pikmin 2, rather than swarming it, continuously toss Pikmin onto its back and ignore any fallen Pikmin if it has low enough HP when it shakes. A few Purple Pikmin can cause serious damage, especially if they stun the Bulborb. If it is accidentally awakened it before attacking with Pikmin, run away until it turns around, and begins to fall asleep, if attacked at this moment, it will not realize it is being hurt until it begins to snore. In some metallic themed caves, Red Bulborbs and their kin can be led off of the stage by awakening it and quickly running around a hole in the sublevel, causing it to fall.
It should be noted that when it shakes, it flings attacking Pikmin in front of it, opposed to flinging them backwards as they did in Pikmin.
It has also been observed that hitting it from underneath could kill it immediately, but this is a rare occurance and not recommended.
In Pikmin 3, the best way to defeat a Red Bulborb is to gather a large amount of Pikmin, about 40, and sneak behind the Bulborb while it is sleeping. Once you are behind it, Lock on to it and dismiss your Pikmin. All the Pikmin should run towards it and kill it instantly, before it has a chance to eat a single Pikmin. If it has been awoken, repeatedly throw Pikmin at its eyes, preferably Rock Pikmin.
Super Smash Bros. for 3DS/Wii U
In the Smash Run mode of the 3DS version of Super Smash Bros. for Wii U/3DS, a Red Bulborb appears as one of many enemies featured in the game. It is one of, if not the largest enemy in the game
- Along with Olimar, the Pikmin and Louie, the Red Bulborb is available as a plush toy, along with being a secret figurine in the first volume of Pikmin Figures.
- The Red Bulborb's scientific name Oculus kageyamii russus translates to "red-eyed kageyamii". It is unclear what "kageyamii" actually means.
- On the title screen of Pikmin 2, pressing and holding the X button will summon a Red Bulborb onto the screen. The player can control it by using the C stick and can eat Pikmin using the Z button.
- While the Red Bulborb had purple eyes in the first two games, they now have blue eyes in Pikmin 3.
- Using an Action Replay to access a model test menu in Pikmin, the Spotty Bulborb's code name is "swollow".
- The Bulborb's name is possibly a play on the words 'bulb' and 'orb,' as they have large, round eyes and bulbous bodies.
- Its name has been slightly altered in every game so far. It is named "Spotty Bulborb" in Pikmin, "Red Bulborb" in Pikmin 2, and just "Bulborb" in Pikmin 3. This makes the Red Bulborb the creature with the most name changes in the series.
- The Bulborbs in Pikmin 3 look directly at the Pikmin instead of looking straight forward, as they have done in the past two games.
- The Red Bulborb Trophy in Super Smash Bros. Brawl states that the Red Bulborb only appears in Pikmin 2. This may be because they are referred to as "Spotty Bulborbs" in the first game.
- It is believed that Bulborbs are named after Olimar's pet dog, Bulbie. More evidence supporting this are the names Grub-DOG and BULB-orb.
- In the beta of Pikmin, the Pikmin originally carried the Bulborb's corpses upside down instead of rightside up.
- In Pikmin 3, if a Bomb Rock is planted near a Bulborb, the noise produced by the explosion will wake it up.
- In Nintendogs, a Bulborb can be seen in the shop.
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If variety is the spice of life, then imperfections can be a positive thing. This can be a learning curve when you grow your own citrus.
When I see perfectly orange, blemish-free oranges in the store I know they have required a number of chemical applications to make them so. The holidays is a traditional time to share home-grown citrus with others, but often newcomers to the area are taken aback if some sooty mold, rust mite damaged or scabbed fruit is shared.
To me, some imperfections on a gift of citrus means it was home grown and is heartfelt. It’s not what is on the outside that counts, but rather what is on the inside.
I learned a few years back from one of my volunteers that citrus with rust mite damage, a browning of the rind on the shoulders of the fruit, is actually sweeter then unaffected fruit. We did a taste test with fruit from our trees at the extension office and the rust mite affected fruit did taste sweeter.
If you are fortunate enough to have someone share some of their citrus with you this winter, remember not to judge a book by its cover and that the proof of the pudding is in the eating.
Citrus with some imperfections can actually be tastier than a superior looking fruit. If you own a citrus tree this may also help you to realize that spraying for a pest is not always critical.
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Protecting historic, architectural, and archaeological sites as part of the public planning process is one of the Division's primary responsibilities. Those duties are encompassed in the "review and compliance" process, which is carried out under provisions of Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act and the Illinois State Agency Historic Resource Preservation Act. These laws require state and federal agencies to consider the effects of their actions on historic properties listed in or eligible for the National Register of Historic Places.
The Preservation Division reviews more than 15,000 projects every year under these two laws. Most projects do not involve places listed in or eligible for the National Register of Historic Places. But, when a project does negatively affect a historic property, agencies consult with Division staff to seek ways either to avoid or to lessen harmful impacts. This may include revising architectural plans to ensure that the character of a historic property is maintained during rehabilitation or redesigning development plans to avoid archaeological sites. Those archaeological sites are often protected with a covenant.
State and federal agencies are required to identify any sites of historic, architectural, or archaeological significance located within the project area. This may require hiring an archaeologist to inspect the property for archaeological sites or hiring a local historian to research the history of buildings involved with the project. If sites are discovered, the project agency evaluates those sites in consultation with Preservation Agency staff to determine if they meet the criteria for listing in the National Register of Historic Places. If they do, the staff and the involved parties consider ways to change development plans to avoid harm to the resource.
Sometimes, however, plans cannot avoid harm to sites. If the property is archaeologically significant, a professional excavation is conducted to collect information about the people who once lived on or used the site. If buildings cannot be saved, an architectural and historical record of the property may be made in accordance with strict state standards (see Illinois HABS/HAER Program for more information).
A common misconception about these programs is that the Division's review can "stop" a project. In fact, both the state and federal laws authorize the funding agency to make the final decision about preservation. The Division's role is to assure that any adverse effects on cultural resources are recognized and that the feasibility of mitigation is considered before a project begins. This process also assures that the funding agency's activity and its impact on cultural resources is subject to public discussion.
At times, it is impossible to prevent adverse effects to occur to properties in implementing state or federal projects. In these cases, the parties enter into an agreement document that details how these adverse effects will be dealt with and offset. We also enter into operational programmatic agreements with agencies and communities to streamline individual project review. Click here for a list of those documents in effect in Illinois.
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Earwax From Whales Keeps Record Of Ocean Contaminants
How often do whales clean their ears? Well, never. And so, year after year, their earwax builds up, layer upon layer. According to a study published Monday, these columns of earwax contain a record of chemical pollution in the oceans.
The study used the earwax extracted from the carcass of a blue whale that washed ashore on a California beach back in 2007. Scientists at the Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History collected the wax from inside the skull of the dead whale and preserved it. The column of wax was almost a foot long.
"It's kind of got that icky look to it," says Sascha Usenko, an environmental scientist at Baylor University who was involved in the study. "It looks kind of like a candle that's been roughed up a bit. It looks waxy and has got fibers. But it's pretty rigid — a lot stronger and a lot more stable than one would think."
There are light and dark layers within the column, each layer corresponding to six months of the whale's life, Usenko says. Historically the rings have been used to estimate the age of the whale, he says, "very similar to counting tree rings."
But age is not what Usenko was after. He studies how chemical pollutants like DDT and flame retardants are affecting whales. These pollutants get deposited in fatty tissues, such as whale blubber. And scientists often analyze blubber to see what whales are eating.
But analyzing blubber has a limitation, Usenko says.
"I would only know that organism — that [particular] animal was exposed to those contaminants," he says. "I wouldn't know when."
And so he thought, why not look at earwax, which is also a fatty material that accumulates toxic chemicals.
Because each layer of wax corresponds to six months of a whale's life, by working through a plug of wax, Usenko could figure out when the animal was exposed to a particular chemical.
In this case, Usenko and his colleagues found that the whale had been exposed to worrisome pollutants throughout its lifetime.
He says the high levels of DDT surprised him.
"It's been 30-plus years since we've stopped using this compound," he says, "but to still see it showing up at such high concentrations — one of the dominant chemicals we see — was surprising."
Usenko and his team also determined that "a significant percentage of the exposure occurred in the first, early stages of the animal's life," when it was still nursing, and perhaps especially vulnerable. At that point, the pollutants came from the mother, through her milk, the scientist says.
Usenko says he can't tell just from looking at the wax whether these chemicals are hurting the development of young blue whales. He studied only one animal, and the earwax alone can't reveal whether the chemicals caused harm.
But the earwax also contained a record of fluctuations in stress hormones throughout the animal's life. And that, in combination with the chemical pollution data, may in the future provide better insight into the potential impacts of these chemicals on whales, Usenko says.
His current findings appear in the latest issue of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
But he needs more data, he says, so he has requested that scientists start collecting earwax from dead beached whales the world over and mail the samples to him.
RENEE MONTAGNE, HOST:
Back in 2007, a blue whale was struck by a ship in the Pacific Ocean, and washed up on a California beach. Scientists collected and preserved bits of the dead whale, including its ear wax. Yes, whales have ear wax too, and it turns out it's a good indicator of which chemicals are polluting our oceans. NPR's Rhitu Chatterjee reports.
RHITU CHATTERJEE, BYLINE: How often do whales clean their ears? Never. So year after year the stuff builds up, layer upon layer. By the time this blue whale died, its ear wax was almost a foot long.
SASCHA USENKO: It's kind of got that icky look to it. It looks kind of like a long candle that's been roughed up a bit. It definitely looks waxy. It's pretty rigid.
CHATTERJEE: Sascha Usenko, of Baylor University, studied the ear wax. He says the column of wax has light and dark layers.
USENKO: Historically in the past, they've been used to estimate the age of the whale, very similar to counting tree rings.
CHATTERJEE: But age is not what Usenko was really after. He studies how organic pollutants like DDT and flame retardants are affecting whales. These pollutants get deposited in fatty tissues, like whale blubber. And scientists often analyze blubber to see what whales are ingesting. But, Usenko says, there's a limitation.
USENKO: I would only know that that organism, that animal, was exposed to those contaminants, but I wouldn't know when.
CHATTERJEE: This is why ear wax has the edge. Like blubber, it's made of fatty material that accumulates toxic chemicals. But each layer of wax corresponds to six months of the animal's life, so by working through a plug of wax, scientists can figure out when an animal was exposed to a chemical. In the case of this whale, Usenko found that it was exposed to organic pollutants throughout its lifetime. And, he says...
USENKO: A significant percentage of the exposure to contaminants occurred in the first early stages of the animal's life.
CHATTERJEE: When it was still nursing. In other words, the pollutants came from the mother through her milk. At that age, Usenko says, the animal would have been at its most vulnerable, but he can't say just from looking at the wax whether these chemicals are hurting the development of blue whales. After all, he only studied only one animal and the ear wax can't reveal whether the chemicals caused harm.
He's published his results in the latest "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences." But he needs more data, so he suggests scientists start collecting ear wax from beached whales the world over and mail it to him.
Rhitu Chatterjee, NPR News. Transcript provided by NPR, Copyright NPR.
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Digital cash or electronic cash is money in electronic form. In the absence of actual currency, transactions are recorded electronically.
The development of digital cash transfer systems is important for the quick transfer of funds. This is also used in making direct deposits.
Electronic payment systems have also made it easier for merchants to sell their items, as well as for buyers to purchase these. For instance, a merchant who does not wish to shoulder additional operating expenses may advertise his goods on the Internet and make it possible for his buyers to pay, using an electronic payment system such as Paypal. This also gives him the additional benefit of reaching out to a larger market than would be possible by putting up a physical store.
Digital cash presents some issues, too. For instance, it is possible for a situation in which the amount electronic money available is greater than that of actual money. Also, transacting with digital cash may make it easier for money laundering and other forms of crime to take place. If a hacker succeeds in tampering with a database, for instance, it are possible for unauthorized funds transfers to take place.
Digital cash is also known as electronic money, e-money, or e-currency.
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Hello,Originally Posted by ThePerfectHacker
I'm a little bit puzzled about your question: What are the segments of the hypotenuse and what exactly do you take as divisor? The radius, the perimeter or the area of the inscribed circle?
I've attached a drawing of a right triangle so you can check which names I use for the variables.
Heron of Alexandra had found that in a right triangle is
The three bisectors of a triangle divide it into three smaller triangles. The height in every of these smaller triangles is always ρ. That's true with every triangle.
So you get:
Heron set and you get:
With a right triangle you've additional conditions:
With and you can change
Now you want to divide this term by a part of the inscribed circle. But I cann't help you any further because I don't know which part you want to take. But maybe you can use my remarks to get a little bit ahead.
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An omphalocele is a birth defect in which an infant's intestine or other abdominal organs are outside of the body because of a hole in the belly button (navel) area. The intestines are covered only by a thin layer of tissue and can be easily seen.
An omphalocele is a type of hernia. Hernia means "rupture."
An omphalocele develops as a baby grows inside the mother's womb. The muscles in the abdominal wall (umbilical ring) do not close properly. As a result, the intestine remains outside the abdominal wall.
Infants with an omphalocele often have other birth defects. Defects include genetic problems (chromosomal abnormalities), congenital diaphragmatic hernia, and heart defects.
An omphalocele can be clearly seen. This is because the abdominal contents stick out (protrude) through the belly button area.
There are different sizes of omphaloceles. In small ones, only the intestines remain outside the body. In larger ones, the liver or spleen may be outside as well.
Exams and Tests
Prenatal ultrasounds often identify infants with an omphalocele before birth. Otherwise, a physical examination of the infant is enough for your health care provider to diagnose this condition. Testing is usually not necessary.
Omphaloceles are repaired with surgery, although not always immediately. A sac protects the abdominal contents and allows time for other more serious problems (such as heart defects) to be dealt with first, if necessary.
To fix an omphalocele, the sac is covered with a special man-made material, which is then stitched in place to form what is referred to as a “silo”. Slowly, as the baby grows over time, the abdominal contents are pushed into the abdomen.
When the omphalocele can comfortably fit within the abdominal cavity, the silo is removed and the abdomen is closed.
Sometimes the omphalocele is so large that it cannot be placed back inside the infant's abdomen. The skin around the omphalocele grows and eventually covers the omphalocele. The abdominal muscles and skin can be repaired when the child is older for a better cosmetic outcome.
Complete recovery is expected after surgery for an omphalocele. However, omphaloceles often occur with other birth defects. How well a child does depends on which other conditions the child has.
If the omphalocele is identified before birth, the mother should be closely monitored to make sure the unborn baby remains healthy.
Plans should be made for careful delivery and immediate management of the problem after birth. The baby should be delivered in a medical center that is skilled at repairing omphaloceles. The baby's outcome is improved if he or she does not need to be taken to another center for further treatment.
Parents should consider screening their unborn baby for other genetic problems that are associated with this condition.
- Death of the intestinal tissue
- Intestinal infection
When to Contact a Medical Professional
This problem is diagnosed and repaired in the hospital at birth. After returning home, call your health care provider if the infant develops any of these symptoms:
- Decreased bowel movements
- Feeding problems
- Green or yellowish green vomit
- Swollen belly area
- Vomiting (different than normal baby spit-up)
- Worrisome behavioral changes
Chung DH. Pediatric surgery. In: Townsend CM Jr, Beauchamp RD, Evers BM, Mattox KL, eds. Sabiston Textbook of Surgery. 19th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders Elsevier; 2012:chap 67.
Ledbetter DJ. Gastroschisis and omphalocele. Surg Clin North Am. 2006;86(2):249-260.
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"The statement gave no details of the terms of the agreement."
Wellington, July 4 - Five historic wooden panels carved by New Zealand's indigenous Maoris have been returned to the country from Switzerland more than four decades after they were illegally exported, a senior government minister announced Friday.
The famed Motunui Panels - five late 18th century carved panels that comprise a masterpiece of Maori art - came back to New Zealand after intense legal battles, Xinhua reported.
The Motunui Panels are objects of huge cultural and historical significance as well as being extraordinary works of art, Christopher Finlayson, New Zealand's minister responsible for negotiating with Maori iwi (tribes) over redress for historical injustices, said in a statement.
Forming the end wall of a pataka (store house), the five panels were recovered from a swamp near Motunui, in Taranaki on the west of New Zealand's North Island in 1972.
The panels were carved before 1820 by artists of the Te Atiawa iwi, and were most likely hidden in the swamp for safe keeping during a period of inter-tribal war.
Shortly after their discovery in 1972, the panels were illegally exported, without the knowledge of the government, and were later sold, under falsified documents of provenance, to a private collector, George Ortiz.
Successive governments made efforts to secure the return of the panels in 1978, 1983, 1985, 1995, 2005 and 2007, said Finlayson.
The New Zealand government sought to have the panels returned in a 1982 case before the House of Lords in London.
While the case was unsuccessful, the judge ended his decision with a firm statement that governments should pursue an international convention to allow the retrieval of works of art of historical and cultural importance.
The case directly led to the Commonwealth Government Secretariat Scheme for the protection of cultural heritage and, ultimately, to the Unesco Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property and the Unidroit Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects.
In March, New Zealand officials travelled to Geneva to meet the Ortiz family and negotiate the return of the panels, which arrived back in the country last week.
The Ortiz family entered into good faith negotiations with the New Zealand government, honouring the memory of their father George Ortiz and his desire to see the panels returned to New Zealand, in reaching this historic agreement, Finlayson said.
The statement gave no details of the terms of the agreement.
The panels will be stored at Te Papa, the Museum of New Zealand, in Wellington until a final decision is made on their future.
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|This portion deals with the several possible Scenarios of The Helms
2) Rhode Island
5) Bethlehem, PA, Possibly Bethlehem TWP, Hunterdon Co., NJ
6) Dutch and Holstein
11) Table which shows the locations of people having names associated with the Helms.
There were numerous
Elmes in England and the Caribbean. Some have been shown to have migrated
to the continent in Colonial times. Some to New England and SC. We have
not discovered and in our lines; However we have carried along extensive
work on this. Also there was some Falkenburg data in Barbados.
The William found there may be significant. The results of
my searches in the Library of Congress and those in Barbados by Medford
and Susan Grimshaw are discussed in Appendix A. Recent disclosures
by Susan Grimshaw, from her 3 visits to Barbados, have generally confirmed,
and extended, the information we had on Barbados. She tried to get
enlarged versions of the Barbadian Helmes wills in England, since some
possessions in England were mentioned. However, that did not succeed.
A review of Barbados
History shows that the collapse of the sugar trade and the English disturbances
leading to the Cromwell regime may be factors in the Helme's migration
from Barbados. The arrival of the Helme's in Barbados
There were Catholic-Protestant struggles
in Barbados of which we do not have information. We do know that some
of the English Helme's were Catholic in Lancashire, England. Susan Grimshaw
is developing a rationale where the Helme's in Dorset County, England,
were involved with Barbados. One George Helme had a brewery in London.
A link with Barbadian sugar is a potential. Recent searches in St. Christophers
(Kits) mention the sale of former Jesuit property there. That Catholic
phase is not documented.
The French had moved into the Great Lakes in 1673, but that seems a long way from Barbados. However, the French had Caribbean Settlements and naval friction could have been a factor, and the friction between them was widespread. In a later time, King George's War (1744-48) broke out in the Caribbean because of trade conflicts, which had likely begun before that time. By 1761 the French Navy and Merchant Marine had been demolished, but that opened the door for French piracy in the Caribbean. Also, Barbados is a small 160 sq. mile island and could have become crowded.
Moses Helms (sp. Hellim) had a lot at the Raritan River in Piscataway
in 1740. The settlement at Piscataway was established by a Barbadian,
Captain William Standiford, for whom several pieces of land were found
in Barbados. A Welsh promoted Baptist Church had been founded
at Piscataway in New Barbados TWP in about 1700. It would be logical
to link Moses or the NC Helms brothers with the Welsh Baptist church
there, and the Welsh Baptist/Presbyterian groups in the PA/DE area.
Moses established a Presbyterian Church in VA, later, possibly because
of his wife's influence. The Jamison's in PA were Presbyterian.
(Moses wife's family, Jamison, was not explicitly found in PA; but,
Jamison's were found in Baltimore and NY in 1703, and extensively in
PA, particularly in Warwick TWP at Jamison, PA.) Her father's
name is supposed to have been William. There were timely Jamestown
in Lancashire, England who have not been searched. There were
Baptists in Lancashire, too who have not been searched either.
The Helms in NC
were Baptist. I associate their Primitive Baptist church with the English
Particular Baptist branch, because of having similar practices. Recent
information traces the Helms Church to the Welsh settlement in SC, most
definitely (see note from W. Helms of SC.) However, Baptist-like principles
are to be found in Dutch, and German and French Reformed groups such
as the Huguenots in France.
Additional data has been found for Barbados. However, data for additional Helmes and associated families has been found throughout the Caribbean. That will be dealt with in the English Section. The disappointing thing is that, so far, none have been definitely found to have come from the Caribbean and having a definite trail here.
In addition, much new data has been found relative to England itself, which will also be reported in the English Section.
In lost Virginia records recovered from England, a William Helms
and a George Tilman/Tilghman have been found in Prince Georges County,
Va. about 1704. George is tied to Christopher Tilghman/Tilman
who had settled in Charles City County, VA earlier. William may
tie to the Virginia Pioneer, John Helme/Hilme, at Jamestown early 1600's,
which is about 30 miles away. There was a Tilghman girl Elizabeth
(b. 1694) in Christopher's line who may have been the Helms brothers'
Mother. William may be the father. This information comes from
Mrs. Grimshaw. See the following sections for details.
We have long known that the basic HELM/HELME/HELMS name was spelled a number of ways in England, and elsewhere, and some of the spellings have persisted until today, more or less establishing independent lines. We have a collection of data for Barbados settlers which shows some of those spellings. Even the spelling HOLMES was sometimes used interchangeably with Helmes. Therefore, we have to extend our searches to those variations. One reason is that data for decades in Barbados is sparse and by considering those names, maybe we can better establish connections to the American mainland, and by that reflect back to England for their origins.
In addition, we have found a number of other lines connected with the HELMES in Barbados and, possibly, by a little looking around, we will be able to better trace people to America. As an example, Broome is a name which occurs together with the HELMES in the Caribbean and the HELMS in America, and there are others.
A collection of such data, grouped in lines
for various families found in Barbados, is shown in this table.
To view the table CLICK HERE.
Broome's and Jones are examples of possible connections found both here
and there. The reason the connections with the mainland are so
sparse is that many of the Ship's Passenger listings have been
lost because of the Bridgetown fire, the many hurricanes, the tropical
climate, and neglect, as discussed elsewhere in this website.
|Christopher Elme/Helme of Long Sutton, Lincolnshire,
England settled in RI. His children were born after about 1700 and
his grandchildren were born after about 1730; therefore, Christopher was
not likely to have been a direct ancestor of the NC Helms. A data
file for Christopher Helme is located on this site. Click
here to access that data in a new window. The link at the bottom
of the page will take you elsewhere.
Christopher had great-grandchildren named Thomas and
Jonathan who would have been born one generation later than the NC Helms
brothers. Thus, Christopher Helme of RI is not seen by this writer
as a root person in the NC Helms Brothers lines. I do not know
if William Helme of Long Sutton, Lincolnshire, England had other children
who came here. That William had three wives. The relationship,
if any, of the families of Thomas Helme of Goosnargh and William (father
of Christopher) of Long Sutton have not been defined. Sarah Helme's
will in Barbados said that son Barraby/Barrely returned to England.
A search for him there has been made without success, unless the name
was a nickname and, in England, he was listed as Barnabus, who was found
on a timely basis. Some of the Helm children were educated in
France. It is possible that Barrely did not actually go to England
Joseph W., Nathan, and Byron Helme were said
to have been in MA Colony, along with Rozetta (Helms) Williams.
Helms could have followed Roger Williams to RI, since Rozetta was married
into the Williams family. There were a number of Williams in the
MA Colony. It is not known if any or all went to RI with Roger.
So far as I know, no descendants of the MA Helms are known. Any
possible relation between Christopher and Joseph, Nathan and Byron Helme
is not known. A group from the MA Colony migrated to Greenwich,
Fenwick's Colony in Salem, NJ. No list has been found. They probably
founded a Baptist Church in NJ. There is considerable confusion
of the Helme and Holme names there. Also, it appears that the
New England Helmes used the Elme/Elam/etc. spellings rather than the
"H" spelling. They are traceable with that revised spelling.
No significant new data has been found by our research group, but Don Strahle of Canada has considerably expanded the lists of descendants of the original Christopher Helme/Elme of Rhode Island. He has published his book and is working on the Allied families. It continues to be felt that there is no connection with the Helms brothers in NC, in 1747.
|In my review of the Moses Helms material which
I have - looking for something on his being in or coming from Dublin--
I rediscovered some Hibernian Research Company material which Gerald Helms
had sent me earlier. In it, there was some information on an Isaac
Helme (Hilme). They mention a Will of Isaac Helme (Hilme) of Dublin
City in 1688. He was listed as a "clothier".
Just recently, we have followed up the prior Irish search by Hibernian with a researcher in Dublin. The results may be seen on another page, Click Here to view the results. Ms. Byrne found additional data on Helme people in Ireland. These two efforts are inconclusive except to show that there were persons with Helms related surnames in Ireland in the right time period for us. However, this data does not show any movement of these people towards America. It does indicate that more attention should be paid to Ireland.
It is known that the Polk family from Robert and Magdalene Pollock/Polk, who were associated with the Helms in NC did come to America through Ireland, the family having originated in Scotland. There, the name is also listed as Pollock and some Polk settlers continued that spelling here. Extensive data exists for Polk/Pollocks in MD, PA and NC. It is planned to have a Polk section in this website in the future.
We did find data which showed that Moses and Thomas Helm came here from Dublin and that Thomas appeared in Cecil Co, MD Court for Ann Drenon, in 1716.
Pertinent date abstracted from the will is repeated here for convenience:
Isaac Hilme/Helme of Dublin, Clothier, 6 July 1688, proved 16 July, 1688.
Wife Sarah (Deane?)
Brother, Abraham Helme
There was another 1696 will for Sarah Helme,
alias Deane, widow, likely the widow of the Isaac Helme/Hilme above.
I also note that they did not find any sons
of Isaac in the above Will, but suggested further searching in Church records
there but had run out of funds on the requested search. They searched
records of several Dublin Churches. My view would be that the births
of that Isaac's children were not in Dublin, possibly not even in Ireland
in about 1650. Several items in the collections of family stories
involve Dublin. My idea had been that they were transients; but if
they were early Protestants, or Catholics, they may well have had to get
out of England in the 1600's. The English immigration to Londonderry
County, Ireland began about 1613. Records show that some Irish Presbyterians
(likely Scots) emigrated to Boston, with Potatoes, in 1718.
It may be significant that this Irish Isaac was a clothier, similarly to
George Helm at Winchester, VA and Moses Helim at Piscataway, NJ.
I like the name Sarah for Isaac's wife - it fits my
idea about what the name would have been for Tilman's mother (Sarah,
Elizabeth, or Mary). This fits in with the English habit of reusing
the same names over and over in succeeding generations. Anyway,
someone who died in 1688 obviously would not have been the father of
Tilman. He might have been a grandfather. The nephew, John
Helme, in the Will is interesting. I'd guess nephew, John, and
daughters, Martha, and Deborah were born about 1650 +/- 10 years, depending
on the age of Isaac at death. The idea of John and Isaac Helms
there is itself interesting. My list of possible names of the
father are William, James, and John, rather than Isaac. Anyway,
I assume that Gerald did not ask them to continue a search at Dublin,
since it looked unpromising there. Abraham might have been a younger
brother of Isaac; so, there may have been other sons of Abraham later,
and the absence of listed sons in the will does not necessarily mean
that there were no sons of Isaac. The will does prove that there
were Helme's in Ireland. A better place to look would have been
Londonderry or Armagh Counties. I would associate the people leaving
from Dublin as caused by the fact that it was an oceangoing port.
In about 1610, numerous German "Palatine Protestants"
were sent to Ireland by the English. Some were settled in Dublin,
some in Western Ireland. Their identification and disposition has
not been addressed. Likely some came here, some are known to have
gone back to England
Bob Law, who wrote the book on Moses Helm,
thinks that Moses may have come from Tyrone County, Ireland. Also,
it seems to me that, at most points for various Helms "moves", we have
seen other Helms there at the same time or before. I have mentioned
the role of Moses as a possible way-station at Piscataway, NJ, at Winchester,
and in Bedford County, VA - even the Thomas Helms who had an Inn at
Williamsport - even though it was in a later time period (1800) -maybe
there was a Helms there as a forerunner to that Thomas Helms in 1800.
(A Thomas H. was listed in York and Washington County, PA 1790 census).
Then, there are the several Helms trickling out of Barbados, and there
is Moses trail of lots (Piscataway, Winchester, and Bedford County,
VA). These could have been relatives of various sorts. That
might say that there was a relative(s) at Bethlehem for Moses to go
to in the Bethlehem area in 1741-43. I have checked that out very
carefully. Only Germans were there initially; although, some "locals"
were used in the construction. Others were not permitted to buy
In fact, since none of them had been naturalized,
someone had to sign papers for them. It took 8 years to be naturalized;
in the meanwhile, they could not own land. If the Helms were German,
seeking out other established Germans would have been customary and logical.
I have not seen anything which placed them in the German group.
That could well have been Tilman and others.
We also have the possibility of multiple Helms trips from PA to NC, remembering
that the Deeds there were staggered, with the earliest going to George
and Thomas in 1749, with Tilman and Jonathan being later. Then, there
are the multiple Helms at Barbados and various ones coming here on different
dates. I see a possible relay system in play. Later, the list of
Helms in Barbados was expanded.
I noticed the Deane name for Isaac's wife. The Deane's were from the same area in England as the Goosnargh English Helmes. One of my daughters married the son of a 2nd generation Dean family here. I know something of their background. Recently, I found records of Deane's in Dublin, in the time of King John.
Anyone dealing with Helms genealogy must deal with the possible German connection. The German migration into PA Colony, while generally a second wave, was especially strong, and there were a number of Colonial German Helm(s) there. The earliest German Helm coming from Beerfelden Parish in 1750 was Johan Nicholas. One Johan Jacob Helm was listed as immigrating in 1754 but one is listed as being in Philadelphia in 1752. Thus, there were possibly 4 German Helms from Beerfelden Parish in this time period. These were all too late for present purposes. Samuel K. Helm mentions a Simon Helm who went from Germany to England and was sent to NY to manufacture pitch, presumably in early times, but does not give dates for him. He was likely a Palatine. Samuel also mentioned other German Helms who were identified with, from that description. There was a Simon Helmr, probably Helmer, listed in the 1790 NY Census. He was trying to deal with the apparently German George Helm (1723-1769) at Winchester, VA. That George is not believed to be a possible parent to the brothers, but a contemporary. His background and relationships are not known. Some think that the obviously German inscription on George's gravestone may have been done by/for his German or Swiss wife. However, the absence of German genealogical data means that some Helms will remain unattached to their roots. David A. Helms book provides a wealth of Helm genealogy and identifies an area in Germany from which the Helm lines could have descended. The writer has studied that book for clues. I believe I have located the German source of the Winchester Georg Helm at Airlenbach, from where John Jacob Helm emigrated in 1754.
Reverend Gregor Helms, a currently practicing
Baptist minister, of Bremen Germany has written indicating that his
family has resided there for over 180 years. Obviously, we need
more information on Gregor's family. He is preparing his family
history and will send it to us at a later date. He only writes
in German so we have been corresponding in German.
The Captain William Helm of NJ, mentioned above was
initially though to have been German but has been shown to have been
George Helm (1723-1769) in Winchester, VA
in 1744, who seemed to be German, was a contemporary of the Helms brothers;
so, it is not necessary for me to decide his relationship at this point.
He could have been a brother or cousin. It would help if we knew
the father of George. Rereading Samuel K. Helm's book section
on George, I noted that George had a loom, which could tie him to Moses,
who was also a weaver. Moses Helm (Hellim) had a lot in Winchester
in 1744, but is not known to be related to that George, although it
is known that they had business dealings. Moses and his wife are thought
to have come from England, via Ireland. Also
see above discussion of the Falkenburg's and another George Helm near
Recently interest in the 33,000 Germans who were labeled Palatines, who emigrated from Germany in the early 1700's, resided for a period of time in London, and were dispersed - some to Ireland, and a large number to NY and some to the Carolinas, PA, and MD. This was well ahead of the second big wave dealt with in David A. Helm's book. This group is a more logical group to expect to find the NC Helms, if they were German. Current interest for our search centers in that group, a recent book by Jones on the Palatines has been studied and does not include any Helms. Since this was written, definitive connections have been made with Falkenburg's, Hargate's, and Preslar's from that group of Palatines. Also, just recently Pressley's of English descent have been found in the Colonies; so, it is not certain that there is not a mix of Preslar's and English Pressley's in NC.
In the search of records of German settlers, particularly the Palatines, evidence exists that the Helms of North Carolina had significant involvement with several Palatines. One case is, Johan Henrich/Heinrich Herget (John Henry Hargett). The book, "The Hargrett's of Georgia and Their Ancestors in Germany and North Carolina", by Felix Hargrett has been reviewed. The author is from the Georgia line which used the different spelling. Of chief interest, from our point of view is the Johan Heinrich Herget (later John Henry Hargett) in NC, whose descendants were married to descendants of Tilman Helms, and to descendants of Thomas Preslar/Pressley, a fellow German living in western NC in the mid-1700's.
The book is obscure in exact identification of the German identity, and his exact location in Germany. The author groups him in the Palatines who began coming here after about 1715. The first appearance of the name is in the June 2, 1709 group which responded to Queen Anne's call to the "poor protestant Palatines" to come to England. In that list, there was one Jacob Nicol Hargart, Lutheran, age 30, with wife, two sons and a daughter, listed as a husbandman and vinedresser. However, a Peter Hargett with a wife and one child, was listed among the 2257 who, in 1709, were sent back to Holland, sic (because they refused to sign the oath denying their Catholic religion.)
Between the years from 1709 to 1753, six persons
with Hargett-type names came to Philadelphia.
Johan Heinrich Herget's first record in NC was the birth of his son, Peter July 25, 1754 "on a branch of the Big Peedee." Anson County had been created in 1748, out of the Indian Lands in the outskirts of settlements in NC. He had grants of land totaling 300 a. on a branch of the Peedee River. About 1763 or 1764, he moved to a grant of 200 a. on Richardson Creek, near present-day Monroe, Mecklenburg Co., NC.
That is as far as we need to take this, now. His descendants married into the Tilman Helms line and into the Presslar/Pressley line. Those marriages are a matter of record, see Gerald Helms book, "Helms Descendants 1720-1991."
This note is to outline what is known about his coming. The author does not know his path, whether down the 'Great Wagon Road' through the Shenandoah Valley of Va, or in other possible routes. The Hargrett author does mention the " Old Carolina Road", which is east of the mountains. (segments of US rte 15/29 approximate some of that Old Carolina Road.)
I think we have the right immigrant in mind, but more is needed to establish his German origin place and his exact route after debarking in Philadelphia.
The Carolina Road extended north to at least Warrenton, Va., where a present-day marker is placed. It also exists as segments as far north as the Potomac River at Lucketts, Va. where present-day road signs show that name. That inner route would pass through Orange County where a number of Helms-related situations occurred. More work is required on this.
Nevertheless, this helps fill-in the background of the various families which interacted with the Helms in North Carolina. It may be significant to note that Jacob Nicol Hargart was listed as a Lutheran. The names of the German immigrants were often misspelled.
William Helms of SC has written that the Helms came to NC with a group involving descendants of Jost Hite who had a large grant in Frederick County, VA directly at the place where Leonard Helme had land at the Opequan Creek. Also the Falkenburgs and Hite paths from NY via VA to Carolina and that of the NC Helms are similar.
There are records of the Hite's in NY, PA, VA and in the Carolinas. This is currently being explored as to it's significance. Also Helms intermarried with some of the group associated with Hite in VA and did marry into several Palatine families in North Carolina. Jacob Hite went on to SC and was killed by Indians there. The relationships of the people involved are being looked into, particularly the apparent proximity to the English Helms families of Leonard and Meredith Helms, thought by some to have been descendants of Thomas Helme of Goosnargh, Lancashire England; however, that has not been proven. The English connection is supported by the DNA studies. Meredith marriages to Helmes in England have been found and a Meredyth farm (vineyard) has been found near Middleburg, VA. One Thomas Helme may be significant. There were several there. Later in NC, there was a Thomas, neighbor to Tilman Helms The full Significance of this is being evaluated.
Bethlehem, PA was founded in 1741 by Moravian missionaries from an evangelical German Baptist group.
The Moravians and Brethren had an early beginning in Germany which is dealt with here. This file is offsite so Click here to read this file in a new window.
Nearby, Emmaus and Nazareth, were also Moravian settlements of a Cloister nature. Both were near Easton which was at the junction of the Delaware and Lehigh Rivers. By being associated with Bethlehem, PA, Moses Helms and the NC Helms brothers imply a connection to the German Baptists, since Bethlehem was nearly a closed German community at first. A reasonable assumption might be that the incoming Germans sought out the existing German settlements whenever they arrived. They often moved on, because of lands opening up in new areas, such as Western PA, MD, VA, and the Carolinas. The Bethlehem settlement is too late for the initial Palatines, but not the second wave mentioned above. A more reasonable assumption is to relate most strongly to the Welsh Baptists in SC.
Recently we have found a Bethlehem TWP in Hunterdon County, NJ across
the Delaware River, opposite the Bethlehem, Easton area of PA. Thus,
it is possible that the Helms trip south could have started in Bethlehem
(TWP), NJ rather than in Bethlehem, Bucks County, PA. Also
we have found a Bethlehem Parish near Albany. NY where both Helm's and
Falkenburgs were found. An early Helms Mill, owned by
Thomas Helms was at Hackettstown, NJ. One reference indicated that at
one time the actual area of Bethlehem, PA was within the NJ proprietors'
lands; so, there may be confusion with regards to "Bethlehem"
in the Helms story, and depicted by Gerald Helms' book.
Dr. Peter Craig, in a letter to the writer dated 25
Aug 1995, identified several German Helm Philadelphia County birth records:
Adam, son of Peter and Maria Helm b. 4 Sep 1766, son, John, b.28 Mar
1769; Jacob, son of Peter and Elizabeth Helm b. 4 Jul 1772, daughter,
Margareta, b. 7 Jan 1776, son, Peter, b. 5 Mar 1779, daughter, Maria,
b. 7 Jun 1781 10 Jul 1762; Margaret, daughter of Christian and Martha
Helm, b. 17 Jan 1774, son, John, b. 5 Jan 1771, daughter, Margaret,
b. 17 Jan 1774, daughter, Eliz., b. 1 Feb 1777, son, Charles, b. 20
Mar 1779, all baptized at the First Moravian Church (German); Henry
and John Bethel, twin sons, of Christian and Martha Helm, baptized at
St. Michaels & Zion Church (German) Philadelphia, PA. None
of these are pertinent to the NC Helms brothers family issues.
Also, no births were listed by Dr. Craig for the Bethlehem, Nazareth
or Emmaus Moravian settlements. A list of individuals in Bethlehem
in the time of the French and Indian War is available but I have
not yet seen it. It was called for by the authorities who feared
that the pacifist Moravians were harboring Indians who had committed
murders, or others.
One theory about the Helms involvement with the Bethlehem, PA area would have them possibly associated with establishing the roads and infrastructure of the Colonial Frontier forts above Bethlehem. These roads were established about the time the Helms Brothers were supposed to have been there (about 1740-47). Dates for the roads and Forts has been established, but no Helms have been identified in that so far. The Barbados Helmes were military (Militia) which lends weight to that theory that they may have participated. The Helms were surveyors and surveys were largely done by the Military in Colonial America
Present continuation of searches at Smithfield
TWP near the Colonial Fort Penn is leading to a conclusion that it was
a place where Helms could have been in the early 1740's. (That TWP
no longer exists, and the area is now in Monroe County). Alternatively,
there was an area identified on early maps as Smithfield, Williams TWP,
just south of Easton. A farm of Thomas Hellem has been referred to
in Lower Smithfield TWP in Bucks County History. Another Smithfield
was Lower Smithfield is which is now in Monroe County. The Thomas
Hellem property was sold by his daughters. The deed was found at
Harrisburg and it indicated that he was probably a Dutchman, Helling.
Helling may also be a German spelling. The Pennsylvania Dutch were
not usually Dutch at all, but were associated with the title "Deutch" which
meant German. On the other hand there were actual Dutch in Eastern
NJ and NY, stemming from the earlier Dutch settlement in NY and possibly
Census data for a William Helms was found at Rock
Hill TWP, PA, near Quakertown, just south of present day Allentown,
PA. In later time, Northampton and Monroe Counties were created
in these sections of upper PA. The trigger for settlements in
the Northampton County area was the fraudulent "Walking Purchase" which
opened that area for settlement; albeit, at the expense of bad Indian
relations. Thus, it was the trigger for Indian attacks as well
as for settlements and ultimately the frontier forts.
A book "Report of the Commission for the Establishment
of the Pennsylvania Frontier Forts" has been identified which lists the
military and other participants. The report has been read and there
were no Helms listed, but the report is silent on the road building aspect.
Robert Morris was Governor. Parsons, the Proprietor's agent in Easton,
PA may have been involved as well. Legislative acts and personal
papers relating to the forts and roads out of Bethlehem are also being
sought. The roads are infrequently mentioned in the records of the
Assembly. No systematic collection has been made of those legislative
actions. (It was useful for the Moses Helm story in Bedford County,
Va. to find the acts of the Legislature giving him the contract to build
and maintain roads there. It was hoped that similar information could be
found about the Pa. roads). Both Leonard and Meredith Helme had similar
contracts in Frederick County, VA. Both Moses and Leonard were cited
for laxity in doing the maintenance part of their jobs. Both had
a group of people with them to do the work. In Leonard's case
in Frederick County, VA, the workers were indentured servants. In
the case of Moses, it appears that they were simply a group working together.
Moses group has been identified by name.
It will be remembered that Moses Helm went to Bedford County, VA as the chief of a road building crew authorized by the Legislature. He may well have had a role in planning or building the roads from Bethlehem to the Forts. Involvement with those projects is in my mind the most logical reason I have found for the Helms to have been in Bucks County at that time. (Although land had become scarce and the opening up caused by the "Walk" could have been a reason). The PA county structure has changed a great deal since then, but the events would have been in the upper reaches of Bucks county then. Present-day Rte 100 which passes by the Israel Helm Brandywine lot extends to the region of the Blue Mountain where one of the line of forts, Fort Lehigh, was built in 1755. It also connects to old roads to Emmaus and Bethlehem. One old map notes Rte 100 leading to Bethlehem. We had found a house ruin and an old Carriage Inn or early Rail Station on that road near Chadds Ford. Present-day Rte 1 through Chadds Ford would have been a "Kings road" from Kennett Square, and portions of the upper end of Rte 100 are shown as "King' Road". The family story is that the brothers were on a Kings road, one on either side of a boundary, which fits the Brandywine site at the circular Delaware boundary at Brandywine Creek. The Broome's, a family which married into the Helms, in NC was supposed to have been close by. Broome's were found in the Darby TWP tax list, along with "Taxable" Helms, in about 1715-20. Extensive data for Broome's in England and in the Caribbean have been found, as well as Broome settlers in MD. However, the link between those Broome's and the family which intermarried with the Helms in NC (Wm Broome, son of John B., -m. Eliz Helms, daughter of Tilman Helms, in 1772) has not been found, as yet. Some Helms in Chester County at that time (Job, Isriel, and William) have been identified with the Swedish Helms by Dr. Peter Craig.
This section includes data for both Dutch and Holstein connections, which will be continued until we definitely establish one or the other or perhaps both origins for the Helm(?) people found so far.
Much literature falsely shows Holstein in Germany, Whereas it was then in Denmark.
I also ran into a record for Peter Helm, originally
from Holland, who added an "S" to his name. He had a son Peter
and a grandson Peter D. Helms, born 1843. His grandfather would
have come in about 1780. They settled at Reading, PA, were later
at Philadelphia, then at Pike County, where the grandfather died in
1850. Peter D.'s children were Richard, Jeremiah, Lucy, Peter
D., Jr., Birch, and Clinton. These details may help determine
who Peter Helms is, if we run into him in the studies. Peter Helms
born before about 1785 looks like a unique Helm(s) line. (Coming
from Holland does not mean he was Dutch. In that time, they spoke
of Low Dutch, meaning Hollanders, and High Dutch, meaning German.
Almost all of the German emigres I read about in 700 pages of German
Emigrants came from Rotterdam, Holland or on Rotterdam ships).
A great number came down the Rhine to the Baltic and left from Dutch
ports in Dutch Ships.
The Dutch family Hellinck, a weaver, in Leyden, Holland
where the Pilgrims first went in self-exile, was a Dutch Helm. The "ck"
ending means grandson of. (That spelling can be found
in Early PA)
The Pilgrims learned weaving as a trade while
in Leyden. It could be significant that Moses Helm was listed as
a "weaver" in his Piscattaway Deed, and the Irish Isaac above was a "clothier",
and that George Helm in Winchester, Va. had a Loom. Although, working
in textiles was the principle activity of the English who had occupied
Londonderry and other northern counties in Ireland, from where many later
came to America.
The presence of Hellins and Hellings in Bucks County then and today may be significant. Are they another Helm/Helms line? Are they Dutch Helms? What is the derivation of their spellings? A friend has identified a Dr. Helm in Suranam, currently.
In addition, in the discussion in Part Seven OTHER HELMS, we have found a possible Helms-like immigrant from either Holland or Holstein, where in 1642, Jan (John) Helms was said to have immigrated from Barltt, North Brabant Holland to PA, according to; The Ketelhuyn Chronicles 1451-1899 and The Swart Chronicles 1338-1899. Actually he apparently first came to the NY Dutch colony, located near Albany NY, which was later taken over by the English and later overrun by the Indians. Perhaps the Helms were scattered like the other inhabitants. History says that most of the Dutch remained after the English take over.
We found North Brabant, as Noordbrabant province, S Netherlands, presently bordering on Belgium to the south and on Germany to the east. The capital is Hertogenbosch (Den Bosch); other cities include Tilburg, Eindhoven, and Breda. However, we have not found a Bartl/Barlt there. To view a map of the possible location of Bartl click here to view in a new window.
In addition to that supposed entry into PA, we found a Jan Helmsz(en) (Jan de Bock) from Barlt in Holstein at south Dithmarschen District. He arrived at New Amsterdam, the Early Dutch colony, by "den Houttuyn" on August 4, 1642. We also found him at Bethlehem Parish, near Albany NY, where he or a descendant had a farm.
See the map for S Dithmarschen click here to view in a new window. This is the district where we also found a Barlt which was a parish in the area. The name was variously spelled. Bartl has a church emblem, perhaps meaning a Parish. (Kirchdorfer) Elfie Wilde, our German specialist, has found that Barlt is a small town, in June 2005 population was 853. But they govern themselves.
Barlt used to belong to the parish of Meldorf. (See Meldorf just above Bartl on the map) But, in 1428 they built their own church, giving the reason that it was too hard to go to Meldorf to attend church when the weather was bad. They still had to pay money to the church in Meldorf. Between 1598 and 1600, the church was renovated.
Helmsand is an island shown in the sound, that is uninhabited. Today, it is connected to the mainland by a dam and is now part of a National Park, protecting birds. No indication of why it named Helmsand. Of course we are considering things of 300 years ago.
The Bartl Church records start too late for us; but, the Meldorf church records start in 1520. We have leads on availability of LDS microfilm of those church records, and can expect more family data in the future.
A historical review has shown that the status of that area has varied a great deal because of numerous wars. It was part of Denmark at one point, but now it appears to be part of Germany. The populous in Dithmarschen is largely German and has been that way for a long time; so, it is not possible to determine the probable nationality of Jan Helms(sp in the 1600's). Our best lead is the church data, as mentioned above.
The coincidence of the place, Bartl is striking.
It is possible that Jan's path to America was through Holland, as many
came here on Dutch ships. And Holland is right
next to the district of Holstein. Jan first settled in the Dutch Colony
near Albany, NY. The year, 1642 is a potentially compatible date for
this Jan/John to have also been the NC Helms originator in some way,
possibly involving the South Carolina (SC) Hellums as discussed later
in Part Seven, OTHER HELMS .
The family history of the early Swede, Captain Israel Akeson (alias, Helm), was studied and does not seem to relate to the NC Helms. Although, Israel Helm, Jr. is really unaccounted for since he was supposed to have "gone to sea" about 1691, and another son or grandson would be needed from the Captain Israel Akeson (alias Helm) line to forge a link to the NC Helms brothers. See the Peter Craig comments above. There are ships passenger listings for Israel Helm in 1692-93, going between Philadelphia and NY, which need to be resolved. However, until some additional trace of a link is found, the English Helme's (John, William, and Thomas) remain the principle focus of the search for a father to Tilman and George by this writer. I have some ideas about Israel Jr. having been in Barbados. (1) There were other Helms family segments there in addition to Helmes, (2) Claypool land was there and he may have been a surrogate purchaser for Israel Jr.'s mother, since she became indebted to him for some reason. The mother also stayed in Philadelphia when Capt. Israel went to live at his NJ home, Helmstatt. My guess is that she stayed there at the waters edge hoping for the return of her eldest son. Dr. Peter Craig said he thought that Israel Jr. was not in any real danger from the pig stealing charge which he skipped bail on, an Archivist in NJ disagreed. It was a repeat offense, the English had taken control of the local court from the Swedes, and the English Common law would have been enforced. Pigs ran free in the colony in "open range", we would say. They were branded by slitting their ears and such markings were registered. Israel, Jr. was accused of altering such markings on some pigs. The English Common Law in effect in Pa. gave the judges wide latitude of punishments, branding, whippings, hand severing, or banishment to Australia for that offense. The senior Israel had been one of the Swedish colony judges but the incoming English had displaced them all, with the exception of Capt. Israel. I think that Israel, Sr. was not sure he could protect him. Also, Israel, Sr. remained a judge only one year after the English took over. He was active politically in NJ after going there, which may account for the 1992-92 ships passenger listings, mentioned above. The affairs of the NJ colony were conducted at Elizabethtown. Israel, Sr. was a member of the Legislature. There is some Barbados data suggesting our line if the spelling of Holme were accepted. Israel Jr. might well have changed his name to avoid extradition.
For several years we have considered the question of how to differentiate between the descendants of the Swede, Captain Israel Akeson, Alias Helm, and other HELMs who we find in Pa and NJ. This file, CLICK HERE TO VIEW, provides the best data we presently have on Captain Israel's line. It also includes some individuals who have been alluded to as illegitimate descendants, just for completeness. These data provide a location in some cases and the approximate dates for most of them. The Swedish names are not of certain spelling, as most had an alias, assigned to them or adopted by them after they were here. The timeframe falls into the time slot appropriate for our purpose.
A recently established website dealing with the Swedish Colony on the Delaware River can be found at:
A picture of the famous Gloria Dei Swedish Church may be found at:
|In view of the strong involvement of the NC
Helms brothers and their descendants in religious matters, and since they
were said to have come to NC from a Welsh settlement or with a Welsh group
in the Philadelphia area, the next step in the search was of the religious
and historical records at the West Chester, PA and Philadelphia Libraries,
and later in other counties in PA and NJ.
This located a Rev. John Helme/Holme/Helling
(but Probably John Holmes) at Lower Dublin (1686) in the Pennypack Baptist
church which met in the Barbados Storehouse. A Presbyterian, Rev.
George Craig, Sarah Smith in the first Baptist Church of Phil. and William
Smith in Philadelphia, were there in the 1700 time period.
We found a Richard A. Tilghman who married
Susan Toland , Apr 26, 1860,and they had six children, but he is out
of our date range of interest. (Added Feb 2003).
Extensive Tilghman genealogical information, and Craig and Smith Genealogies were found in PA and MD, but need to be studied further. Virginia Cordes, in a letter to Gerald Helms in 1984 had previously shown Daniel Helms at Marple TWP in 1715, and John and Thomas Helms on the 1715 Darby taxables list in "Delaware County History" by Ashmede. Significantly, Moses Helm was instrumental in founding a Presbyterian Church in Bedford County, VA where he settled, as described by Samuel K. Helm. I did not find anything on the Fortenbury/Falkenbury's, initially. A Falkenbury was in the Swedish Colony and served as an Indian Interpreter at Little Egg Harbor, NJ. It is not presently known how we get from Falkenburys in NJ/Pa to Falkinburys in NC in Tilman's time, and how we relate the Falkenburgs and George Helm, found on the Wagon Trail in the Shenandoah Valley. However, it appears that the real link is with Falkenburgs who passed through Cecil County, Md and were in the Shenandoah Valley region of VA as outlined above, rather than from the Falkenburgs of Little Egg Harbor, NJ.
More recently we have found additional
Falkenburgs in NY and PA. Click here to go directly
to the table.
Later, I used the GRS genealogical index and
the LDS listings to extend these historical and religious library searches,
and did find Falkinbury families in Western VA, Anson County, NC, and
elsewhere. The spelling of these names is an issue, according
to Dr. Peter Craig, the name derives from a Holstein family of George
Falkenburg, sometimes spelled "bury" and pronounced "berry" by the Swedes,
who was an ancestor of some early Delaware River Swedes. Sometimes
the name was spelled Fortenbury, as in some accounts of George Helms
wife, Mary Margaret. There were Fortenbury deeds in NC contemporary
with the NC Helms brothers. See Appendix. Recently Harold Polk
has developed information which placed a Falkenbury as an Indian interpreter
in Little Egg Harbor, NJ, and linked him with the Delaware Swedes. The
Falkenburgs were known to have gone on to SC.
Christopher Helme initially settled in MA Colony but went to Exeter, NH with Antimonium dissenters from Puritanism (one who emphasizes the role of faith in salvation, rather than works-a distinctive Baptist position), then to RI in further dissociation from the Puritans. His descendants were into the Baptist faith in RI, as his descendants are mentioned in RI Baptist church records.
Recently DNA data has became available through Y- DNA genetic test results of known NC Helms descendants, that has identified the HAPLO group for that line. By study of the details of the specific markers a definitive HAPLO Group, R1b, has been identified for the NC Helms; and, it is a well known group which has been found to have come from France to England. Just when this arrival occurred is conjectural.
By the times of the Colonial period, those people had likely been assimilated into the general population. But whenever they were, and bearing whatever name they used, the ones of our interest had that same Y-DNA imprint suitable adjusted for mutations. After those distant times, migrations of continental people continued and some migrated from France to England before the Roman conquest. It is believed that they initially settled in SE England, from about 1200BC to 400AD but continuing. Those initial settlers did not have surnames as we do today. Therefore, surviving companion persons still in France could have migrated here via England or directly to the USA at any time with or without using the Helms surname. We have no assurance that we are the only line here possessing that DNA.
In about 1066-1100 AD, William the Conquer, established a new land inheritance procedure in conquered England which was intended to make all of England the perpetual inheritance of his conquering Officers. To do that, he began the idea of surnames, which eventually was established throughout England. (His secondary purpose was to be sure he collected taxes for all of England).
The earliest Helms-like surnames, we know about in England, appeared in about 1300. So this date marks the beginning of the so-called Genealogical family tracing techniques which we use today. New Genealogical surnames came from a number of things, such as place, occupation, and what was called the Paternal method, widely used in many countries, which resulted in many surnames ending with, son (like Wilson, Johnson, or other such symbolic names). These names may not be useful Genealogical or Generic purposes. There were many Wills or other first-named people with differing genetics and most had sons. So, all Wilson's were obviously not genetically kin. similarly any Helms whose name came from a place named Helm are not necessarily all kin. However, any which are kin are so-marked by their Y-DNA. Therefore, DNA is a powerful tool for Genealogical purposes.
Genetic techniques trace all the way back to their origin in Africa eons ago and areas therein still have people with those genetic labels. In fact, Cameroon is strongly indicated as the starting point and a large fraction of the present populace there has that R1b HAPLO Group involvement. Always remember that many mutations will have occurred over that time period. Mutation rates vary with the Y-DNA markers, with some being slow and others being faster markers. A genetic line is promoted by the persistence of the markers which are changing more slowly.
There is considerable literature available which goes into the details. It is not our purpose here to detail it. The point to be made here is that one of the results from the NC Helms Y-DNA studies, is described in Part 9, herein, was the identification of the probable path and timing of their migrating to England. Additionally, one would expect some remnants of people remaining in France after any migrations to England. Presumably some may have the same genetic label as the NC HELMS. Whether genealogical continuity has been maintained is conjectural. That can only be proven by DNA testing.
We have not found any leads to Helms or similarly named people
coming here directly from France. We do know that there are some who are working
in that area. Our interest here is in letting anyone having
French Helms data know about our interest, and hopefully adding to this
| The parents of Tilman, George, and Jonathan
Helms remain elusive, but there is some chance that a little more work
may place them in Bucks County in the early 1740's. However, a strong
possibility exists that the Helms marriages did not occur until they were
in NC, after 1747-8. All of the families seem to have been in NC
then. Of course, these families could have traveled together to
or gathered at NC.
The recent finding
of Thomas Helms, in NJ, who might have been linked with NC, and finding
Helm's and Falkenbyurgs at Bethlehem parish near Albany NY means that
the initial Helms wagon trip to NC may have originated in NJ or NY rather
than PA. And, there was a strong German Baptist flavor to the Hunterdon
County, NJ situation. The changes in NJ County structures has to be
factored into the data.
As for the brothers wives, the listings, so
far examined in these various ways, say that NJ, PA, NC, and SC could
have been the place where some if not all of the Helms brothers families
came together with their wives' possible relatives. For Tilman,
the Craig's were in the upper Bucks County area and a Wm. Craig has
been found on the Blunston Licenses List for deeds West of the Susquehanna
River after 1733. The Smiths were in the early PA Colony, but
are too elusive, and the Falkenbury/Fortenbury's are very scarce, but
present in the Swedish Colony on the Delaware. A lead to Falkinbury's
in NY, PA, VA and NC is compelling. Whether the family came to
NC with the Helms, or a daughter married a Helms in PA or NC may be
irrelevant. A major problem is the gap in time between the supposed
marriages in NJ in the mid 1740's and the coming of children 8 to 12
years later. I think it is likely the marriages occurred in NC. At
the present time, it is more logical that the Helms brothers marriages
may have occurred about the time the households were established and
the birth of their children in NC as evidenced by their deeds and the
children's birth dates. This is still being studied.
Some of all of the families were in various colonies in the appropriate time period. This is summarized in the following table, which identifies people for further study. The connection with the Colonial Frontier Forts will be dealt with later. The next step will be to search for more information on each of these people.
Because of the unique group of Falkenbury
first names it is sort of easy to visualize their path through the colonies
to SC by 1790, but specifically, placing them in Anson CO NC with the
Helms in 1763. The link with George Helms in Shenandoah in the 1740's
is also apparently established. We have not treated their spread from
SC, after 1790. The historical records of the Falkenbury family have
not been very kind about the spelling of their surname.
The following table lists the occurrence of which we are aware of for
the Falkenburgs and other key people.
For a table of Falkenburg sources see the table. Click here
(2) Significantly, two Thomases and John and William were found in Barbados: Major Thomas and Captain Thomas. That has not been factored into prior genealogical studies. This John was in Maryland in a large grant to Sewald as an indentured servant.
(5) It was said in some Tilghman Genealogies that the same Tilghman's were correctly listed in more than one state. For instance, the History of Chester County, PA by Pope listed Benjamin, Edward, James, Richard and William Tilghman, some of whom have also been found in MD/DE records. Some were lawyers, whom have also been found in MD/DE records. Some were lawyers, some military which may account for this.
(6) Years ago, Martha Helms Bates had developed a listing of children of Israel Helm, Jr. This has been contested by Dr. Peter Craig, a noted Genealogy expert on the Delaware River Swedes. Bates had shown a son, John, b. 1695 who could possibly have been the father of the NC Helms brothers. Until some additional evidence of this is found it is best not to use that case. The nature of the small 200 family Swedish community and the good documentation of the ancient Swedish Colony suggests that it would have been difficult for a family of the NC Helms brothers' apparent size to have gone unnoticed in a Swedish family in the Delaware River region. Also, some of the Helmes we have been tracking seem to have emerged from Barbados when coming to the Colonies, rather than from an indigenous source, or from England.
Of course, It is possible that Israel, Jr. went to Barbados in 1691, married and had children who trickled back to the Colonies in the 1720's or 30's. Some of the "family stories" show them at places similar to the old Israel Helm sites. Also, the Ships passenger listings of Israel Helm in 1692-3 between Philadelphia and NY remain to be explained. That was not likely to have been Captain Israel Helm, according to Dr. Peter Craig, who also said that "passenger listings" are unreliable. The Helms coming from Barbados have been attributed by genealogists to the English Barbados have been attributed by genealogists to the English Helme family from Goosnargh in Lancashire, England. Christopher was later found to have originated from the family of WM. Elme/Helme of Long Sutton, Lincolnshire, England. The connection of the Goosnargh and Long Sutton Helmes is not presently known.
(7) The John and Thomas Helms in taxables list at Darby, PA in 1715 and the Daniel at Marple, also in 1715 remain to be accounted for. As mentioned in note 5) above, Martha Bates had shown a son, John (supposedly b. 1695), to Israel Helm, Jr.; but Dr. Peter Craig denied this. Peter Craig had shown a William Helms at Darby in 1765-74 (earlier in Ridley, b. abt 1728); so, there was other Helms lines around. That William may have been too late to have interacted with the NC Helms brothers. In fact, Barbados records place him in the next generation after Thomas and John. There were Thomas and John Helme's in the Christopher-Rouse-Samuel line in RI in about 1700, who might be the source of these Helm(s) people. There was a Daniel in ENJ in 1780 who may descend from the 1715 Marple Daniel. Also Christopher's son, Sands Helme, died in Surinam, a colony ceded to the Dutch in the treaty ending the fight over NY.
(11) These are the first people with the exact spelling, HELMS, who have been found in NJ. The implication is that they were in the geographical area of Hunterdon County, rather than in present-day Gloucester, hence probably have no connection with the Swede, Captain Israel Akesson (alias Helm). The Court Records for Glouster County were burned in 1745, so there may well have been other HELMS there before 1767. Hunterdon County was split off from Glouster County, so the precise location of these people cannot be determined from the county location only. The source of these marriages is the"Hunterdon County, New Jersey Marriages, 1790-1850".
(12) Nicholas was said to have come there from NC and Hunterdon County Records show: "Bastin Mires of Bethlehem, cooper, and Nicholas Tilman, mason, (now) live in Amwell", (1770) #31039. That Bethlehem would be the Bethlehem TWP in Hunterdon County. Nicholas was involved with the Morris Canal. Presently, we are not able to connect him with the Tillman/Tilghman families we have documented. However, there was a timely Richard Tillman in Anson County, NC. We have a NJ website note that "(Old) Amwell TWP was formed by Royal Charter in Burlington County, NJ, 1708, and in Undesignated Areas: Bethlehem TWP Existed in 1730, details uncertain.", Ref. "Some Records of Old Hunterdon Co. 1701-1838", Phyllis B. D'Autrechy, Trenton, 1979. Hunterdon was an early county, split later. (Old material should not be read with current geography in mind.) Some possible descendants of Nicholas are shown in this file, Click here to view.
(13)Just lately we have identified a John Tilghman who was b.in MD but probably died in Maine. This is drawn from a list of Early New England Settlers, which showed John in Maine, and from the Genealogy of Johannes Tilghman of England, c. 1225, by Karen Sola. John Tilghman was b. in Somerset CO, MD after 1652, m. Magdelen Gutch in Mass, 1679, they had children: Mary and Christopher. Mary married Mr. Soper and Christopher m. Hulda Hans. John's parents were Christopher Tilghman and Ruth Devoshire. Christopher was the grandfather of the Elizabeth who was b. 1694 who we have determined would have been a possible North Carolina Helms brothers' mother, as discussed in this website.
(14) Samuel Blunston was authorized to grant Licenses to "Sundry Persons to Settle and take up land on the West side of Susquehanna River by the Hon. Thomas Penn Esq.", dated 11 day of January 1733. A list is available in the Pa. State Land Office (Dept. of Internal affairs) a Harrisburg, Pa. page 7 of "Blunston's License Book " office # 64). Of particular interest to us are: Polk, Shelby, and Craig, known allied families of the NC Helms. Wm. Craig is of special interest on account of Tilman Helms wife, Rachel Craig
(15) Christopher Helm and a grandson, Robert and several others have been found at the Bashin Ridge Presbyterian Church, SOmerset Co., NJ. It appears that Christopher would have been of the same generation as the NC Helms Father. We also have another Christopher when Leonard Helm left him 40 Shillings in 1745 in Winchester, VA.
(16) First Court Record ???? Vol 2, 1797 A Samuel Holmes (possibly Helmes) was a plaintiff against Thos Buchmon; and on 17Dec1712 a Sam'll Helmes is listed as a juror. A NJ archivist things these are the same person. So we probably have a Samuel Helmes in Clovente Co., NJ by 1797. No other data available due to county records having been burned.
(17) "The Documentary
History of of the State of NY Vol I" gives a list of the free holders
in Albaby in 1720. There are are several Falkenburghs and Valkenburghs.
(Johannes, Hendy, and Jacob Valkenburgh) and Jaac Falkenburgh. The spelling
is not exact but is strongly suggestive that it is the Falkenburgs who
were later in MD, VA and the Carolinas. Hendy is obviously Henry, and
Jaac is obviously Isaac.
(18) William Helmes, 1704 in SE VA is one of the most timely Helms persons we have had who was close to a Tillman family. William or one of his children may have married into the Tillmans, and there was a Tillman girl, Elizabeth b. 1694 -just the right age in that Tillman line. More information is available in the linked file: William Helms Hulmes Notes. Helmes Wife in 1759 at Albemarle Co.
(19) Richard Tillman, b. 1727 was from the line of George Tillman and Mary House in Prince George Co., VA. Richard d. abt 1800 in Montgomery Co., NC (derived from old Anson Co.). George was an early neighbor to William Helme on Blackwater Creek Pr. Geo. Co., VA , according to lost VA records found in England. To find Richard in Anson Co. may be highly significant in our search for the possible Tillman mother of the NC Helms brothers. We have focused on Elizabeth b. 1694 to Gideon and Margaret Manax. Richard was in the next generation after Elizabeth in a parallel line (like a nephew). John Tillman who was father of Tobias was similarly a nephew. John and Tobias were also contemporaries with the Helms in the Carolinas.
Records of Cecil Co, MD No. 3 p 224 shows:
(21) Wm. and Sarah Elmes bought Ashley Green from an Ashley in 1696, but sold it back to a member of the Ashley family in 1735, Cecil Co., MD. Wm was listed as a Vestryman in the Shewbury PC Church in about 1704. The sale may have meant that Wm. left that area.
(23) Militia data
from Augusta Co., VA shows an item:
(24) This John appears to have been a business person. Note that we had two John Helmes in Charles County, MD the first John died. We have both purchase and sale data for a plat called "Shrewsbury'. To view a indenture for this second John Helme CLICK HERE. The document is from the Charles County Court, Liber E Folio 175, dated 10 MAR1673. John Helme sold that place to Henry Asdpenall in 1674 and no other record has been found for him. That is recorded in Archives of MD, Early holdings P78,79, 1674. John married Mary, the widow of John Mills. He may have moved to Upper MD. To view this file CLICK HERE.
(25) This Jan or John Helmsz(en) in NY 1642 has been associated with the Hellums of SC, and might have been a forerunner of the NC Helms. In the Falkenburg column, we list serveral Falkenburgs. In the same Rensselaer section, nr. Fr. Orange we have Isaac, Thomas, Melgert, John, Jacob. Andries and Claes (Nicolous) Falkenburg with some listed as Valkenburgs, which seems to have been a Dutch spelling, Also a list of all of the Free Holders at Albany lists others namely: Jochim, Bartlemeus, Lamert, Hendrick (Henry), and Jaac who may be the Isaac at Rensselaer. Some may have been at Ft. Orange.
(26) Lambert Van Valkenburg was in NYC before 1644. His arrival has not been discovered. His genealogical account has a good discussion about the spelling. The surname comes from Van Valkenburgh, meaning in Dutch, 'from the castle of the falcons' (van=from; valken=falcons; burgh=castle), It sometimes reverts to Valk or Valck which mean 'falcon'. And has resulted in Falconburh whereas the original name in Holland was Valkenburg, or vice versa since it is an international family. Even today, the descendants of Lambert still use Valkenburg in both Canada and America. a further deviation is Valic or Volick. Valck and Volk and Follick (the German/Dutch accent making a 'v' sound like an 'f' to English ears). His genealogy to the present has only one Helms entry, in the late 1800's. So it appears that there were Dutch and Germanic Falkenburgs in Colonial NY. Lamberts ancestry is traced to very early times. His genealogy is available. At: http://www.navvf.VVgene/pafg/
(28) Matthew Helmes transported to "the James River area" in 1683 by Wm. Harrison and the Math Elmes in Norfolk in 1680 may be the same person, since the Norfolk settlement was also on the Mouth of the James River, and Helme and Elme were often interchanged. Matthew may have been a forerunner of the William found at Pr Geo Co. in 1704. We have not found any data for William before or after Pr Geo Co in 1704, so Matthew might be a forerunner, and, now, finding William's wife mentioned in Albemarle Co. suggests they may have moved there after selling that Pr Geo 133 a. property. If we could find Matthew in the Caribbean before 1680, it might lead us back to England for that line.
These listings were the first step, when combined with other information, to begin looking for additional data on specific families. The census indexes were generally for "heads of families", so it does not tell us if they had a daughter, Elizabeth, Sarah, Rachel, or Mary Margaret. The actual census enumeration form might provide more information -- like number in the household, more names and ages possibly, and possibly different generations, although that kind of data only became collected after about 1790, which is after our time of interest. Sometimes it is possible to infer things from their neighbors (as in the case of the Thomas/George/Tilman Helms adjacent sites in NC). And those above at Rensselaer with Jan Helmsz(en) or his descendants. Jan was there in 1642. In 1720 there were Helme Janse, and Helmes Vedder, both names and surnames may be inversed.
For a table of Falkenburg sources see the table. Click here
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This page explores the movement and changes constantly altering the shore line. The site itself was built as a resource for teachers.
This page addresses the what, when, how and why of rip currents. It addresses misconceptions and gives several concrete safety tips.
This page contains the 9th lesson in a series of 10 regarding the Ocean. It contains 3 subtopics: Introduction, Where''s the RIP? and Break the Grip! This page addresses definition, location, misconceptions and safety tips.
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Why does Pluto's Orbit underlap inside of Neptunes Orbit. Clearly Neptunes Orbit is not overlapping on Pluto's. Yet, they fail to maintain the symmetric banding appearance all the other Planets maintain, similar to the quarter mile track you often see around football fields.
There are a few peculiarities of Pluto's orbit. These are:
During the later stages of planet formation, in this early Solar system, the planets were still forming. Neptune exchanged angular momentum with the remaining planetesimals, and its orbit expanded outwards. If Pluto were in a near-circular orbit larger than Neptune's (at about 33 AU), there is a high chance that Neptune could capture Pluto and lock it an orbital resonance (this probably happened when Neptune was at about 25 AU). As Neptune's orbit continued to expand outwards, this expansion drew out the eccentricity of Pluto's orbit.
Source and further reading: The Origin of Pluto's Orbit: Implications for the Solar System Beyond Neptune
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1 Answer | Add Yours
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is generally seen as a measure of how large our economy is. When looked at in a time sequence, it is seen as a measure of the health of our economy. When GDP rises, we say that our economy is growing. When GDP falls, we say that it is shrinking and that we are in a recession.
Technically, GDP measures the market value of all final goods and services produced within the borders of a country in a given year. In other words, GDP measures the dollar value of the things that we produce. It is important to note the term “final goods.” This means that GDP does not count the value of anything that is put into another product and sold. For example, if a bakery buys flour and makes that flour into bread, the value of the flour is not counted because it is not being sold to a final buyer. It is also important to note that GDP does not measure the value of work that is done for no pay. That means that we do not count the value of childcare performed by a relative but we do count the value of childcare provided at a day care center.
GDP is an important thing to measure because it gives us an idea of how much our economy is producing. That way, we know if our economy is healthy or not.
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The Badshahi Mosque (بادشاھی مسجد) or "Emperor's Mosque" was built in 1673 by the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in Lahore, Pakistan. It is one of the city's best known landmarks and a major tourist attraction epitomising the beauty and grandeur of the Mughal era.
Capable of accommodating over 55,000 worshippers, Badshahi is the second largest mosque in Pakistan, after the Faisal Mosque in Islamabad. The design of the Badshahi Masjid is closely related to the Jama Masjid in Delhi, India, which was built in 1648 by Aurangzeb's father, Emperor Shah Jahan.
Badshahi Masjid is one of the famous locations where Qari Basit (1927-88), a widely acclaimed Egyptian Qur'anic Recitor, recited the Qur'an.
History of Badshahi Mosque
The mosque was built under the patronage of the sixth Mughal Emperor, Aurangzeb Alamgir. It was completed in 1673 under the supervision of Aurangzeb's foster brother Muzaffar Hussain (also known as Fidaie Khan Koka) who was appointed governor of Lahore in May 1671 and held this post until 1675. He was also Master of Ordnance to the emperor.
The construction of the mosque took about two years, from May 1671 to April 1673. The mosque was built opposite the Lahore Fort, illustrating its stature in the Mughal Empire. In conjunction with the building of the mosque, a new gate was built at the fort, named Alamgiri Gate after the Emperor.
From 1852 onwards, piecemeal repairs were carried out under the supervision of the Badshahi Mosque Authority. Extensive repairs were carried out from 1939 to 1960 at a cost of about 4.8 million rupees, which brought the mosque to its original shape and condition. The blueprint for the repairs was prepared by the late architect Nawab Zen Yar Jang Bahadur.
In 2000, the repair work of marble inlay in the main vault was repaired under the supervision of Saleem Anjum Qureshi. On the occasion of the second Islamic Summit held at Lahore on February 22, 1974, thirty-nine heads of Muslim states offered their Friday prayers in the Badshahi Masjid, led by Maulana Abdul Qadir Azad, the 'Khatib' of the mosque.
Recently a small museum has also been added to the mosque complex, which contains relics of Muhammad, his cousin, and his daughter, Hazrat Fatima Zahra.
What to See at Badshahi Mosque
Like the character of its founder, the mosque is bold, vast and majestic in its expression. It was the largest mosque in the world for a long time. The interior has rich embellishment in stucco tracery (Manbatkari) and panelling with a fresco touch, all in bold relief, as well as marble inlay.
The exterior is decorated with stone carving as well as marble inlay on red sandstone, specially of loti form motifs in bold relief. The embellishment has Indo-Greek, Central Asian and Indian architectural influence both in technique and motifs.
The skyline is furnished by beautiful ornamental merlons inlaid with marble lining adding grace to the perimeter of the mosque. In its various architectural features like the vast square courtyard, the side aisles (dalans), the four corner minarets, the projecting central transept of the prayer chamber and the grand entrance gate, is summed up the history of development of mosque architecture of the Muslim world over the thousand years prior to its construction in 1673.
The north enclosure wall of the mosque was laid close to the Ravi River bank, so a majestic gateway could not be provided on that side and, to keep the symmetry the gate had to be omitted on the south wall as well. Thus a four aiwan plan like the earlier Delhi Jamia Masjid could not be adopted here. The walls were built with small kiln-burnt bricks laid in kankar, lime mortar (a kind of hydraulic lime) but have a veneer of red sandstone.
The steps leading to the prayer chamber and its plinth are in variegated marble. The prayer chamber is very deep and is divided into seven compartments by rich engraved arches carried on very heavy piers.
Out of the seven compartments, three double domes finished in marble have superb curvature, whilst the rest have curvilinear domes with a central rib in their interior and flat roof above.
In the eastern front aisle, the ceiling of the compartment is flat (Qalamdani) with a curved border (ghalatan) at the cornice level. The original floor of the courtyard was laid with small kiln-burnt bricks laid in the Mussalah pattern.
The present red sandstone flooring was laid during the last thorough repairs (1939-60). Similarly, the original floor of the prayer chamber was in cut and dressed bricks with marble and Sang-i-Abri lining forming Mussalah and was also replaced by marble Mussalah during the last repairs. There are only two inscriptions in the mosque: one on the gateway and another of Kalimah in the prayer chamber under the main high vault.
The measurements of Badshahi, as provided by a sign at the mosque, are:
Quick Facts on Badshahi Mosque
|Names:||بادشاھی مسجد · Badshahi Mosque · Emperor's Mosque · King's Mosque · Royal Mosque · Shah Badshahi Masjid|
|Visitor and Contact Information|
|Coordinates:||31.588295° N, 74.310951° E|
|Lodging:||View hotels near Badshahi Mosque|
- Photos of Badshahi Mosque - here on Sacred Destinations
Map of Badshahi Mosque, Lahore
Below is a location map and aerial view of Badshahi Mosque. Using the buttons on the left (or the wheel on your mouse), you can zoom in for a closer look, or zoom out to get your bearings. To move around, click and drag the map with your mouse.
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The majority of federal funding for health research and related activities is spent by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), within the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), the Department of Defense (DOD), and the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA). In fiscal year 2010, NIH, DOD, and VA obligated about $40 billion, $1.3 billion, and $563 million, respectively, for activities related to health research. Applications for federal funding of health research are typically submitted by principal investigatorsthe lead researchers for research projectsthrough their institution, and in some cases they may submit applications to multiple agencies at the same time for funding consideration. It is common for agencies to fund health research on topics of common interest, such as breast cancer and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In some cases, funding similar research on the same topics is appropriate and necessary, for example, for purposes of replicating or corroborating prior research results. However, without effective sharing of information among federal agencies about their funding decisions, they may use available funds inefficiently due to duplication of effort.
Specifically, about 94 percent of federal funding for medical sciences research in fiscal year 2008 was obligated by these three federal agencies, according to data from the National Science Foundation.
With respect to DOD, we obtained data on obligations of funds made available for research, development, testing, and evaluation in the annual appropriation for the Defense Health Program. With respect to VA, we obtained data on obligations of its appropriation for Medical and Prosthetic Research.
Principal investigators are typically individuals designated by the applicant organization, such as a university receiving federal grants, to have the appropriate level of authority and responsibility to direct the project or program to be supported by the award.
Agency officials told us that multiple agencies cannot fund the same research application unless they work together to jointly fund it.
In some instances, research is initiated in response to congressional direction. For example, according to DOD, the Office of Congressionally Directed Medical Research Programs is funded through the annual Defense Appropriations Act and manages research in many areas, including breast cancer. According to DOD, funds identified during the appropriations process at the request of members of the House and Senate are used for congressionally directed research. http://cdmrp.army.mil/about/fundingprocess.shtml (last visited Dec. 2, 2011). Future GAO work is expected to examine the Office of Congressionally Directed Medical Research Programs.
GAO recognizes that, in some instances, it is appropriate for multiple agencies or entities to be involved in the same programmatic or policy area due to the nature or magnitude of the federal effort. For purposes of this report, the term unnecessary duplication refers to duplicative research funding that is not necessary to corroborate or replicate prior research results for scientific purposes.
NIH, DOD, and VA each lack comprehensive information on health research funded by the other agencies, which limits their ability to identify potential areas of duplication in the health research they fund. NIH, DOD, and VA program managersofficials who typically manage agency research portfolios and may provide input to senior agency officials responsible for making funding decisionstold GAO that, when reviewing health research applications, they typically search publicly available databases for potentially duplicative research projects funded by other federal agencies. These databases are used by various federal agencies, including NIH, DOD, and VA, to maintain information on funded health research applications. For example:
According to NIH, DOD, and VA officials, the information provided in the research databases they use to identify any potential duplication when making funding decisions is generally not sufficient. For example, NIHs public database provides basic application information such as the title, principal investigator name, abstract, and agency contact information for each application. However, program managers said they need more details on the aims and methodologies of funded applications in order to determine whether applications considered for funding are duplicative of funded research. Officials noted that even applications with identical titles may have different aims. In such cases, officials said they typically obtain information not contained in the databases by contacting colleagues at other federal agencies to obtain details on specific applications.
Officials at NIH, DOD, and VA added that they also communicate with officials at other agencies through participation on joint committees that have members from various federal agencies. For example, NIH officials stated that the Interagency Breast Cancer and Environmental Research Coordinating Committee, a committee established in 2010 by NIH, facilitates exchanges of information about breast cancer environment and research efforts across various agencies. While DODs database for applications funded through its Congressionally Directed Medical Research Programs provides information about applications aims and methodologies, DODs database does not provide contact information for the officials associated with specific applications. One program manager at NIH and several VA officials said that they had difficulty knowing who to contact at DOD to obtain further information on specific applications.
Another limitation of the databases is that they do not always allow for efficient, comprehensive searches to identify unnecessary duplication of research. As stated earlier, information on health research funded by NIH, DOD, and VA is in different databases with varying types and amounts of information. DOD and VA officials told GAO that, in general, when searching multiple databases for potential duplication, the large number of funded applications on related topics makes comprehensive checks difficult and time-consuming. Because of this, officials at NIH, DOD, and VA told GAO that they often limit searches to principal investigators other federally funded research projects, which they are generally required to list on their applications. To address this challenge, VA officials told GAO that they are working to make comprehensive searching of the various databases less time-consuming. VA awarded a contract for the development of an electronic tool to search multiple databases and check for potential duplication among health research applications funded by various agencies and other sources. According to VA officials, this tool, when implemented, will allow these officials to identify in a timely manner applications that are most likely to be duplicative.
Officials at NIH, DOD, and VA acknowledged that duplication may sometimes go undetected. GAO performed searches on funded applications for breast cancer and PTSD research in NIHs database and DODs Congressionally Directed Medical Research Programs website using various key words frequently found in related research. While most of the applications identified did not appear to be duplicative, GAO identified two applications, one funded by VA and the other by DOD, that a VA program manager confirmed were duplicative as described in the databases. However, the databases were not updated to reflect modifications that had been made to the applications aims. The VA official told GAO that these two applications were originally identical and submitted by the same principal investigator. VA funded one of the applications with the understanding that DOD would not fund the second, duplicative application. Subsequently, according to DOD officials, DOD funded the second application after the principal investigator made some modifications to its aims in order to make it no longer duplicative. However, VA officials did not have information on DODs funding of the application or on how it had been modified. This example illustrates how the databases used to check for duplication in health research do not always provide comprehensive information needed to evaluate research for potential duplication across federal agencies during the funding decision process.
Officials at NIH, DOD, and VA also stated that they consider the opinions of peer reviewers, who are typically scientists or professors who score proposals for scientific merit, to determine whether applications may be duplicative of other research. NIH and VA applications have a required section where principal investigators and other key personnel must list all current funding they receive and all other applications they have submitted at the time of their application. Peer reviewers generally have access to this information when scoring the proposals.
According to VA officials, NIHs database contains information on about one quarter of all VA-funded health research applications. VA officials told us that they are working to add information on most VA-funded applications to this database by August 2012. In addition, NIH officials stated that they search NIHs database for information on proposals funded by NIH.
NIH, DOD, and VA officials told us that they also may search other databases, such as clinicaltrials.gov, DeployMed ResearchLINK, and PubMed, which contain information on federally funded health research.
NIH officials said the system that provides information to NIHs database may contain additional information for VA applications, such as the actual application and supporting documentation; however, this information is only available to NIH and VA officials.
Officials told us that they check this information prior to funding to ensure that the application is not duplicative of other federally funded research conducted by the principal investigator.
This tool will be completed by June 28, 2012, according to VAs contractor. After its completion, VA plans to use it internally to analyze its research portfolio and to identify potential duplication across research funded by various entities. VA also plans to make some information resulting from its use of the tool available to the public.
The searches we performed were not comprehensive or generalizable.
Because multiple federal agencies fund research on topics of common interest, there is potential for unnecessary duplication. As long as research on similar topics continues to be funded by separate agencies, it is incumbent on the agencies to coordinate effectively with each other. While NIH, DOD, and VA take steps to check for duplication in the health research they fund, the agencies have opportunities to improve sharing of information needed to evaluate research for potential duplication when making funding decisions. In order to do so, the Director of NIH as well as the Secretaries of DOD and VA should
For example, NIH, DOD, and VA could collaborate to allow for more efficient, comprehensive searches to identify duplication, by, for example, increasing commonalities among their respective databases; providing additional information in their respective databases, such as more details on the aims and methodology of applications that may be useful to program managers evaluating applications for duplication; and ensuring contact information for agency officials associated with specific applications is made available in their respective databases, if possible. NIH, DOD, and VA could also provide program managers with information to help them identify when they receive similar applications and to monitor the funding status of these applications, such as which applications receive funding, and which are modified during the funding process.
Determining ways to improve access to comprehensive information and to improve officials ability to identify duplication could help agency officials in their efforts to avoid duplication when determining which health research applications to fund.
The information contained in this analysis is based on findings from the products listed in the related GAO reports section as well as additional work GAO conducted.GAO used breast cancer and PTSD research as examples of areas of research that are funded by these three agencies. Within NIH, GAO focused on the National Cancer Institute and the National Institute of Mental Health, because these entities fund the majority of breast cancer and PTSD research within NIH, respectively, according to NIH officials. Within DOD, GAO focused on the Defense Health Program and, within VA, the Office of Research and Development, because these entities fund the majority of health research within DOD and VA, according to officials with whom GAO spoke. GAO focused its work on coordination across federal agencies that impacts decisions to fund health research. GAO collected and analyzed documents provided by NIH, DOD, and VA officials. GAO did not focus its review on coordination within federal agencies. In addition, GAO searched the available databases containing information on applications funded by NIH, DOD, and VARePORTER and DODs Congressionally Directed Medical Research Programs websiteto identify examples of potentially duplicative research applications funded by these agencies. GAO searched for the terms breast cancer and PTSD and then searched for terms that were frequently cited in titles that appeared to indicate potential duplication. GAO also interviewed 23 officials at NIH, DOD, and VA whom it selected because of their involvement in coordination across federal agencies when determining which research applications to fund in the areas of breast cancer and PTSD.
GAO provided a draft of this report section to HHS, DOD, and VA for review and comment. HHS and DOD provided written comments. DOD generally agreed with GAOs findings, and HHS did not state whether it agreed or disagreed. In its comments, on behalf of NIH, HHS provided more detail on NIHs policies and procedures concerning monitoring and managing potential overlap in funding, particularly within NIH. HHS also described an internal NIH database that is also available to VA staff and that provides more detailed information on grants than is included in NIHs public RePORTER database, but is not generally available to staff at other agencies. For this work, GAO focused on RePORTER because it is the NIH database that officials at other agencies told GAO they use when checking for information on NIH- or VA-funded research and is available to officials at all agencies. HHS and VA also provided technical comments, which were incorporated as appropriate. All written comments are reprinted in appendix IV of the PDF version of this report. As part of its routine audit work, GAO will track the extent to which progress has been made to address the identified actions and report to Congress.
For additional information about this area, contact Linda T. Kohn at (202) 512-7114 or email@example.com.
Comments from Department of Defense
Comments from Department of Health and Human Services
Jump to another area below related to this mission.
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By Devin Walecka
It's been really busy in Lab Central! Staff and volunteers have
been enrolling curious and science-hungry visitors in Genetics of
Taste: A Flavor For Health like crazy! As of today, we've enrolled
931of participants in our research study and counting! That means
we have 931of samples that need DNA extraction!
In this photo you'll see tubes of DNA collected so far:
Take a look at the cell above. The nucleus is the cell's command
center; shown here as the large center circle. Inside that nucleus
is DNA, and it's telling your body how to make you! In an earlier
blog post, Nicole explained that in the research study we swab the
inside of a participant's cheek in order to get cells which contain
We want to visualize a specific section of the DNA that contains
the gene TAS2R38. This gene helps determine whether or not you have
the genetic ability to taste the bitterness in vegetables like
broccoli and spinach. But how do museum scientists actually get the
DNA from inside the cells?
STEP 1: Rupture the Cell
The cheek cell sample on the swab is placed in a tube filled
with lysis buffer. "Lysis" is an old Greek word that means "to
separate." Lysis buffer is like soap, and it ruptures the cell by
disrupting the cell membrane. This step lets all the
components inside the cell (like fats, proteins and DNA) float into
STEP 2: Purify the DNA
We want to make sure our DNA samples are really clean, meaning
that there's no cellular "junk" floating around in the tube. So to
do this, we add a solution that has a lot of salt in it. The salt
helps precipitate fats, proteins, and other cell debris out.
STEP 3: Isolate
So the last thing we do to get a nice little pellet of DNA is
add to alcohol. Why alcohol? DNA is insoluble (meaning that it's
incapable of being dissolved) in alcohol. So when we add alcohol to
our DNA sample and then centrifuge it (spin it super fast), all the
DNA is forced to the bottom. We can then siphon off the alcohol,
dry the DNA pellet, and then re-dissolve it in water.
So take a look at that. It's kind of hard to see, but that
little smudge on the bottom of that tube is DNA! This DNA sample is
then the basis for further genetic analysis.
Don't touch that dial folks; later I want to tell you what we do
with visitor DNA after extraction!
Back to Main Page
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A community of seep tubeworms (Lamellibrachia) was discovered at the rocky foot
of the West Florida Escarpment near De Soto Canyon. These tubeworms thrive
on chemical nutrients (e.g., hydrogren sulfide) seeping through the sediments
below them. This tubeworm bush hosted anemones, Alvinocaris shrimp, hydroids,
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Age of Enlightenment
2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Philosophy
The Age of Enlightenment refers to either the eighteenth century in European philosophy, or the longer period including the seventeenth century and the Age of Reason. It can more narrowly refer to the historical intellectual movement The Enlightenment, which advocated Reason as a means to establishing an authoritative system of aesthetics, ethics, government, and logic, which would allow human beings to obtain objective truth about the universe. Emboldened by the revolution in physics commenced by Newtonian kinematics, Enlightenment thinkers argued that same kind of systematic thinking could apply to all forms of human activity.
The intellectual leaders regarded themselves as a courageous elite who would lead the world into progress from a long period of doubtful tradition, irrationality, superstition, and tyranny, which they imputed to the Dark Ages. The movement helped create the intellectual framework for the American and French Revolutions, the Latin American independence movement, and the Polish Constitution of May 3; and led to the rise of classical liberalism and capitalism. It is matched with the high baroque and classical eras in music, and the neo-classical period in the arts; it receives contemporary attention as being one of the central models for many movements in the modern period.
The enlightenment was mirrored by the Jewish Haskalah, which in Western Europe and particularly in Germany resulted in the elevation and eventual replacement of Yiddish by Hebrew, as well as the Jewish reform and Zionist Nationalist movements.
History of Enlightenment philosophy
Another important movement in 18th century philosophy, closely related to it, focused on belief and piety. Some of its proponents, such as George Berkeley, attempted to demonstrate rationally the existence of a supreme being. Piety and belief in this period were integral to the exploration of natural philosophy and ethics, in addition to political theories of the age. However, prominent Enlightenment philosophers such as Thomas Paine, Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and David Hume questioned and attacked the existing institutions of both Church and State.
The boundaries of the Enlightenment cover much of the seventeenth century as well, though others term the previous era " The Age of Reason." For the present purposes, these two eras are split; however, it is equally acceptable to think of them conjoined as one long period.
Europe had been ravaged by religious wars; when peace in the political situation had been restored, after the Peace of Westphalia and the English Civil War, an intellectual upheaval overturned the accepted belief that mysticism and revelation are the primary sources of knowledge and wisdom—which was blamed for fomenting political instability. Instead, (according to those that split the two periods), the Age of Reason sought to establish axiomatic philosophy and absolutism as foundations for knowledge and stability. Epistemology, in the writings of Michel de Montaigne and René Descartes, was based on extreme skepticism and inquiry into the nature of "knowledge." The goal of a philosophy based on self-evident axioms reached its height with Baruch (Benedictus de) Spinoza's Ethics, which expounded a pantheistic view of the universe where God and Nature were one. This idea then became central to the Enlightenment from Newton through to Jefferson. The ideas of Pascal, Leibniz, Galileo and other philosophers of the previous period also contributed to and greatly influenced the Enlightenment; for instance, according to E. Cassirer, Leibniz’s treatise On Wisdom ". . . identified the central concept of the Enlightenment and sketched its theoretical programme" (Cassirer 1979: 121–123). There was a wave of change across European thinking, exemplified by Newton's natural philosophy, which combined mathematics of axiomatic proof with mechanics of physical observation, a coherent system of verifiable predictions, which set the tone for what followed Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica in the century after.
The Age of Enlightenment is also prominent in the history of Judaism, perhaps because of its conjunction with increased social acceptance of Jews in some western European states, especially those who were not orthodox or who converted to the officially sanctioned version of Christianity.
Key conflicts within Enlightenment-period philosophy
As with theology, philosophy became a source of partisan debate, with different schools attempting to develop rationales for their viewpoints, which then, in turn, became generally accepted. Thus philosophers such as Spinoza searched for a metaphysics of ethics. This trend later influenced pietism and eventually transcendental searches such as those by Immanuel Kant.
Religion was linked to another concept which inspired a great amount of Enlightenment thought, namely the rise of the Nation-state. In medieval and Renaissance periods, the state was restricted by the need to work through a host of intermediaries. This system existed because of poor communication, where localism thrived in return for loyalty to some central organization. With the improvements in transportation, organization, navigation and finally the influx of gold and silver from trade and conquest, however, the state assumed more and more authority and power. Intellectuals responded with a series of theories on the purpose of, and limits of state power. Therefore, during The Enlightenment absolutism was cemented and a string of philosophers reacted by advocating limitation, from John Locke forward, who influenced both Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Enlightenment ideas influenced organisations seeking to effect state and social development, such as the Freemasons and Illuminati. And they ultimately had a profound effect on the actions of politically active individuals worldwide.
Within the period of the Enlightenment, these issues began to be explored in the question of what constituted the proper relationship of the citizen to the monarch or the state. The idea that society is a contract between individual and some larger entity, whether society or state, continued to grow throughout this period. A series of philosophers, including Rousseau, Montesquieu, Hume and Jefferson advocated this idea. Furthermore, thinkers of this age advocated the idea that nationality had a basis beyond mere preference. Philosophers such as Johann Gottfried von Herder reasserted the idea from Greek antiquity that language had a decisive influence on cognition and thought, and that the meaning of a particular book or text was open to deeper exploration based on deeper connections, an idea now called hermeneutics. The original focus of his scholarship was to delve into the meaning in the Bible and in order to gain a deeper understanding of it. These two concepts - of the contractual nature between the state and the citizen, and the reality of the nation beyond that contract, had a decisive influence in the development of liberalism, democracy and constitutional government which followed.
At the same time, the integration of algebraic thinking, acquired from the Islamic world over the previous two centuries, and geometric thinking which had dominated Western mathematics and philosophy since at least Eudoxus, precipitated a scientific and mathematical revolution. Sir Isaac Newton's greatest claim to prominence came from a systematic application of algebra to geometry, and synthesizing a workable calculus which was applicable to scientific problems. The Enlightenment was a time when the solar system was truly discovered: with the accurate calculation of orbits, such as Halley's comet, the discovery of the first planet since antiquity, Uranus by William Herschel, and the calculation of the mass of the Sun using Newton's theory of universal gravitation. These series of discoveries had a momentous effect on both pragmatic commerce and philosophy. The excitement engendered by creating a new and orderly vision of the world, as well as the need for a philosophy of science which could encompass the new discoveries, greatly influenced both religious and secular ideas. If Newton could order the cosmos with natural philosophy, so, many argued, could political philosophy order the body politic.
Within the Enlightenment, two main theories contended to be the basis of that ordering: divine right and natural law. It might seem that divine right would yield absolutist ideas, and that natural law would lead to theories of liberty. The writing of Jacques-Benigne Bossuet (1627-1704) set the paradigm for the divine right: that the universe was ordered by a reasonable God, and therefore his representative on earth had the powers of that God. The orderliness of the cosmos was seen as proof of God; therefore it was a proof of the power of monarchy. Natural law, began, not as a reaction against divinity, but instead, as an abstraction: God did not rule arbitrarily, but through natural laws that he enacted on earth. Thomas Hobbes, though an absolutist in government, drew this argument in Leviathan. Once the concept of natural law was invoked, however, it took on a life of its own. If natural law could be used to bolster the position of the monarchy, it could also be used to assert the rights of subjects of that monarch, that if there were natural laws, then there were natural rights associated with them, just as there are rights under man-made laws.
What both theories had in common was the need for an orderly and comprehensible function of government. The "Enlightened Despotism" of, for example, Catherine the Great of Russia and Frederick the Great of Prussia (a state within The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation), is not based on mystical appeals to authority, but on the pragmatic invocation of state power as necessary to hold back chaotic and anarchic warfare and rebellion. Frederick the Great was raised by his French governess, importing the Enlightenment to "Germany." Regularization and standardization were seen as good things because they allowed the state to reach its power outwards over the entirety of its domain and because they liberated people from being entangled in endless local custom. Additionally, they expanded the sphere of economic and social activity.
Thus rationalization, standardization and the search for fundamental unities occupied much of the Enlightenment and its arguments over proper methodology and nature of understanding. The culminating efforts of the Enlightenment: for example the economics of Adam Smith, the physical chemistry of Antoine Lavoisier, the idea of evolution pursued by Johann Wolfgang Goethe, the declaration by Jefferson of inalienable rights, in the end overshadowed the idea of divine right and direct alteration of the world by the hand of God. It was also the basis for overthrowing the idea of a completely rational and comprehensible universe, and led, in turn, to the metaphysics of Hegel and Romanticism.
Role of the Enlightenment in later philosophy
The Enlightenment occupies a central role in the justification for the movement known as modernism. The neo-classicizing trend in modernism came to see itself as being a period of rationality which was overturning foolishly established traditions, and therefore analogized itself to the Encyclopediasts and other philosophes. A variety of 20th century movements, including liberalism and neo-classicism traced their intellectual heritage back to the Enlightenment, and away from the purported emotionalism of the 19th century. Geometric order, rigor and reductionism were seen as virtues of the Enlightenment. The modern movement points to reductionism and rationality as crucial aspects of Enlightenment thinking of which it is the inheritor, as opposed to irrationality and emotionalism. In this view, the Enlightenment represents the basis for modern ideas of liberalism against superstition and intolerance. Influential philosophers who have held this view are Jürgen Habermas and Isaiah Berlin.
This view asserts that the Enlightenment was the point where Europe broke through what historian Peter Gay calls "the sacred circle," where previous dogma circumscribed thinking. The Enlightenment is held, in this view, to be the source of critical ideas, such as the centrality of freedom, democracy and reason as being the primary values of a society. This view argues that the establishment of a contractual basis of rights would lead to the market mechanism and capitalism, the scientific method, religious and racial tolerance, and the organization of states into self-governing republics through democratic means. In this view, the tendency of the philosophes in particular to apply rationality to every problem is considered to be the essential change. From this point on, thinkers and writers were held to be free to pursue the truth in whatever form, without the threat of sanction for violating established ideas.
With the end of the Second World War and the rise of post-modernity, these same features came to be regarded as liabilities - excessive specialization, failure to heed traditional wisdom or provide for unintended consequences, and the romanticization of Enlightenment figures - such as the Founding Fathers of the United States, prompted a backlash against both Science and Enlightenment based dogma in general. Philosophers such as Michel Foucault are often understood as arguing that the age of reason had to construct a vision of unreason as being demonic and subhuman, and therefore evil and befouling, whence by analogy to argue that rationalism in the modern period is, likewise, a construction. In their book, Dialectic of Enlightenment, Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno wrote a penetrating critique of what they perceived as the contradictions of Enlightenment thought: Enlightenment was seen as being at once liberatory and, through the domination of instrumental rationality tending towards totalitarianism.
Alternatively, the Enlightenment was used as a powerful symbol to argue for the supremacy of rationalism and rationalization, and therefore any attack on it was connected to despotism and madness, for example in the writings of Gertrude Himmelfarb.
Important figures of the Enlightenment era
- Kant | French Encyclopédistes | Voltaire | Leibniz | Lord Monboddo, Jean-Jacques Rousseau | Condorcet | Helvétius | Fontenelle | Olympe de Gouges | Ignacy Krasicki | Francois Quesney | Benedict Spinoza | Cesare Beccaria | Adam Smith | Isaac Newton | John Wilkes | Antoine Lavoisier | Mikhail Lomonosov | Mikhailo Shcherbatov | Ekaterina Dashkova | Montesquieu | Mary Wollstonecraft |
- Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717-1783) French. Mathematician and physicist, one of the editors of Encyclopédie
- Thomas Abbt (1738-1766) German. Promoted what would later be called Nationalism in Vom Tode für's Vaterland (On dying for one's nation).
- Pierre Bayle (1647-1706) French. Literary critic known for Nouvelles de la république des lettres and Dictionnaire historique et critique.
- G.L. Buffon (1707-1788) French. Author of "L'Histoire Naturelle" who considered Natural Selection and the similarities between humans and apes.
- James Burnett Lord Monboddo Scottish. Philosopher, jurist, pre-evolutionary thinker and contributor to linguistic evolution. See Scottish Enlightenment
- James Boswell (1740-1795) Scottish. Biographer of Samuel Johnson, helped established the norms for writing Biography in general.
- Edmund Burke (1729-1797) Irish. Parliamentarian and political philosopher, best known for pragmatism, considered important to both liberal and conservative thinking.
- Denis Diderot (1713-1784) French. Founder of the Encyclopédie, speculated on free will and attachment to material objects, contributed to the theory of literature.
- Ignacy Krasicki (1735-1801) Polish. Outstanding poet of the Polish Enlightenment, hailed by contemporaries as "the Prince of Poets." After the election of Stanisław August Poniatowski as king of Poland in 1764, Krasicki became the new King's confidant and chaplain. He participated in the King's famous "Thursday dinners" and co-founded the Monitor, the preeminent periodical of the Polish Enlightenment, sponsored by the King. Consecrated Bishop of Warmia in 1766, Krasicki thereby also became an ex-officio Senator of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
- Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) American. Statesman, scientist, political philosopher, pragmatic deist, author. As a philosopher known for his writings on nationality, economic matters, aphorisms published in Poor Richard's Alamanac and polemics in favour of American Independence. Involved with writing the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of 1787.
- Edward Gibbon (1737-1794) English. Historian best known for his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.
- Johann Gottfried von Herder German. Theologian and Linguist. Proposed that language determines thought, introduced concepts of ethnic study and nationalism, influential on later Romantic thinkers. Early supporter of democracy and republican self rule.
- David Hume Scottish. Historian, philosopher and economist. Best known for his empiricism and scientific skepticism, advanced doctrines of naturalism and material causes. Influenced Kant and Adam Smith.
- Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) German. Philosopher and physicist. Established critical philosophy on a systematic basis, proposed a material theory for the origin of the solar system, wrote on ethics and morals. Influenced by Hume and Isaac Newton. Important figure in German Idealism, and important to the work of Fichte and Hegel.
- Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) American. Statesman, political philosopher, educator. As a philosopher best known for the United States Declaration of Independence (1776) and his interpretation of the United States Constitution (1787) which he pursued as president. Argued for natural rights as the basis of all states, argued that violation of these rights negates the contract which bind a people to their rulers and that therefore there is an inherent "Right to Revolution."
- Adam Weishaupt (1748-1830) German who founded the Order of the Illuminati.
- Hugo Kołłątaj (1750-1812) Polish. He was active in the Commission for National Education and the Society for Elementary Textbooks, and reformed the Kraków Academy, of which he was rector in 1783-1786. An organizer of the townspeople's movement, in 1789 he edited a memorial from the cities. He co-authored the Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791, and founded the Assembly of Friends of the Government Constitution to assist in the document's implementation. In 1791-1792 he served as Crown Vice Chancellor. In 1794 he took part in the Kościuszko Uprising, co-authoring its Uprising Act (March 24, 1794) and Proclamation of Połaniec (May 7, 1794), heading the Supreme National Council's Treasury Department, and backing the Uprising's left, Jacobin wing.
- Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-1781) German Dramatist, critic, political philosopher. Created theatre in the German language, began reappraisal of Shakespeare to being a central figure, and the importance of classical dramatic norms as being crucial to good dramatic writing, theorized that the centre of political and cultural life is the middle class.
- John Locke (1632-1704) English Philosopher. Important empricist who expanded and extended the work of Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes. Seminal thinker in the realm of the relationship between the state and the individual, the contractual basis of the state and the rule of law. Argued for personal liberty with respect to property.
- Leandro Fernández de Moratín (1760-1828) Spanish. Dramatist and translator, support of republicanism and free thinking. Transitional figure to Romanticism.
- Montesquieu (1689-1755) French political thinker. He is famous for his articulation of the theory of separation of powers, taken for granted in modern discussions of government and implemented in many constitutions all over the world.
- Nikolay Novikov (1744-1818) Russian. Philanthropist and journalist who sought to raise the culture of Russian readers and publicly argued with the Empress. See Russian Enlightenment for other prominent figures.
- Thomas Paine (1737-1809) English. Pamphleteer, Deist, and polemicist, most famous for Common Sense attacking England's domination of the colonies in America.
- Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos. Main figure of the Spanish Enlightment. Preminent stateman.
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How do I security copy file from one server to another under Unix like operating system using secret file transfer protocol (sftp)?
sftp is an interactive file transfer program, similar to ftp, which performs all operations over an encrypted ssh transport. The syntax is as follows to copy file from one server to another.
Step #1: Starting sftp
The command for starting sftp session is as follows:
The first time you connect to server, sftp command will report that “The authenticity of the host can’t be established.”. This is normal and expected behavior. This means that sftp doesn’t have server in its database of known hosts. Answer yes at the prompt to connect to the server. Next, it will ask for your account password. Enter your password, and sftp will log in and present you with the sftp prompt as follows:
Step #2: sftp commands
sftp commands are similar to the Unix / Linux shell commands that you use for navigating files. You will be working with two servers or computers. So sftp will give you local and remote version of each command. Usually, all local commands are prefixed by an “l”.
Common sftp commands
|cd dir||Change directory on the ftp server to dir.|
|lcd dir||Change directory on your machine to dir.|
|ls||List files in the current directory on the ftp server.|
|lls||List files in the current directory on your machine.|
|pwd||Print the current directory on the ftp server.|
|lpwd||Print the current directory on your machine.|
|get file||Download the file from the ftp server to current directory.|
|put file||Upload the file from your machine to the ftp server.|
|exit||Exit from the sftp program.|
How do I get (download) file?
The get command in sftp allows you to download files from the sftp server. The syntax is:
To download a file called data.tar.gz, enter:
sftp> get data.tar.gz
Fetching /home/vivek/data.tar.gz to data.tar.gz /home/vivek/data.tar.gz 100% 1960 1.9KB/s 00:01
How do I put (upload) file?
The syntax is as follows to upload a file called file from local machine to the ftp server:
In this example, upload a file called Screenshot.png, enter:
sftp> put Screenshot.png
Uploading Screenshot.png to /home/vivek/Screenshot.png Screenshot.png 100% 12KB 12.2KB/s 00:00
How do I sftp from one server A to another Unix based server B?
First login to server A using the ssh command:
$ ssh user@serverA
Next, sftp to serverB:
$ sftp user@serverB
Finally, upload or download file to serverB:
sftp> put foo sftp> ls sftp> get bar sftp> lls sftp> exitShare this tutorial on:
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Image Source: google.com
The networking environment previously occurred in social clubs such as Lions’ Clubs, Jaycees or Toastmasters. Networking also used to occur in country clubs, churches and neighborhoods. This was a face to face meeting and it was usually previously scheduled. It had a fee one needed to pay to attend at the country club, professional conference or if it was instead a professional club it had a minimal joiner fee, required you to perhaps hold an office and/or meet at least once a month to network with the other members. If it was your neighborhood that you were choosing to network in, it required you to be able to afford the house in that neighborhood in which you wanted to build your professional reputation or business. Communicating effectively prior to 1990 within a network, if we were not networking in person, we would have used the postal system, telephone system with voice or fax. We also might have placed an ad in the yellow pages, newspaper, on TV and/or on radio which would have allowed us to share our message in a one way type of environment. Today not only do we use those same forms of communicating we also now use computers, email, internet, cell-phones, and mobile computers connected to wireless networks. It is the current way to meet people professionally and socially. One example, is a new movie called “Of Kings and Cowboys” in production in 2010 in which the Hollywood writer and now director David Martlet met his fellow executive directors on a social networking site in a polo group. It will be the first movie where the professionals creating the movie met on a social networking site, and it will be the first movie set with polo as the backdrop of love and drama as the professionals were addicted to polo (Marlett, 2009).
Another example of successful social networking, is how well Obama ran his campaign and won the presidency as he is proficient in and master of web 2.0 and traditional web toolsets (Smith, 2009). He utilized Facebook, Twitter, My Space, SMS text messaging, email, and wiki’s at a level that no president or candidate has ever done before. There are presently many new ways to communicate effectively and efficiently which also allow us to interact innovatively with other professionals in our career fields, suppliers, and customers or potential customers.
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On November 14th last it became public knowledge that the EU
Nitrates Committee1 had approved a derogation to the
annual amount of livestock manure applied to land established
in the Nitrates Directive2 for Ireland. However, the
Commission's Decision on the derogation has not yet
been published. This Article will focus on the contents of the
European Communities (Good Agricultural Practice for Protection
of Waters) Regulations 2006 ("Nitrates Regulations")
which implement the Nitrates Directive. Most of the provisions
of the Regulations are already in force.
2. So how do the Nitrates Regulations affect Irish
The Nitrates Directive was approved by the EU Council in
December 2001 after growing concerns on increasing levels of
nitrates in the waters in some European countries. The aims of
the Directive are to reduce and prevent water pollution caused
by nitrates originating from agricultural sources. The Nitrates
Directive is currently transposed into Irish Law by the
The Nitrates Regulations provide for certain obligations for
farmers. First of all, there is an obligation to take
reasonable steps to minimise soiled water (for example, by
ensuring that rainwater from roofs is diverted to a clean water
outfall). Livestock manure and other organic fertilisers,
before being applied into the land, shall be collected and held
in a manner that prevents run-off or seepage into the
Some rules regulate the structural integrity of storage
facilities, focused mainly on preventing run-off or See page of
manure or fertilisers into groundwater or surface water and the
capacity of storage facilities. The storage capacity required
will depend on several factors such as the animals from which
the manure is originated or the county where the farm is
The Nitrates Regulations limit the application of
fertilisers on land by establishing a number of tables and
indices. Regarding livestock manure, the amount applied any
year to land together with that deposited by livestock, shall
not exceed an amount containing 170 Kg of nitrogen per hectare.
Tables to calculate the amount of nitrogen produced by
livestock and the nitrogen content of livestock manure are
provided in the Regulations.
Some provisions regulate the distances that should be kept
from water bodies when spreading the fertilisers and
requirements are placed on the manner of application of
fertilisers, soiled water etc. Ploughing and the use of
non-selective herbicides are also regulated.
Certain periods are set where the application of fertilisers
on land is prohibited, which generally start in September,
October or November and last until January and vary depending
on the county where the land is located.
There is finally a record-keeping obligation whereby records
for each holding shall be maintained which shall include,
amongst other information, the total area of the holding,
cropping regimes and their individual areas, livestock numbers
and type, estimation of annual fertilisers requirement, soil
3. Grant of the derogation
According to the Department of the Environment, the grant of
the derogation will depend on an increase in the penalties for
breach of the regulations in the legislation. The European
Communities (Good Agricultural Practice for Protection of
Waters) (Amendment) Regulations 2007 (S.I. 526 of 2007) has
provided for an increase in the penalties accordingly. The text
of the derogation is expected to be published soon.
1 The Nitrates Committee was set up by the Nitrates
Directive and it is composed of the representatives of the
Member States and chaired by the representative of the
2 Council Directive 91/676/EEC of 12 December 1991
concerning the protection of waters against pollution caused by
Nitrates from agricultural sources.
The content of this article is intended to provide a
general guide to the subject matter. Specialist advice should
be sought about your specific circumstances.
To print this article, all you need is to be registered on Mondaq.com.
Click to Login as an existing user or Register so you can print this article.
In Turkey incentives and feed-in tariffs are provided to producers pursuant the Law on Use of Renewable Energy Sources for Electricity Production numbered 5346 and the Law on Electricity Market and other related legislation.
On 23 May 2016, the North Yorkshire County Council voted in favour of an application by Third Energy to extract shale gas from an existing onshore gas well in northeast England using hydraulic fracturing.
Previously on Mondaq (21.12.2015), we have published our views related to the proposed amendments to the Regulation on Un-licensed Power Generation issued for public opinion on The Energy Market Regulatory Authority (EMRA) website
Register for Access and our Free Biweekly Alert for
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The Santa Clara County Board of Supervisors last week adopted an ordinance that requires the installation of new water bottle filling stations where drinking fountains are required in private commercial development projects in unincorporated Santa Clara County. The ordinance is a local amendment to the California Plumbing Code that includes the installations of water bottle filling stations for new construction or renovations in government facilities and commercial, industrial and institutional buildings.
"Increasing water consumption in our community starts by providing fresh, accessible, and free water where residents work and gather," said County of Santa Clara Supervisor Ken Yeager, who introduced the ordinance. "Encouraging residents to drink water instead of sugar-loaded beverages will help us curb the obesity crisis facing Santa Clara County."
Also known as "hydration stations" or "drink tap stations," bottle filling stations are locations where water bottles can be filled with potable water. The stations are designed so water bottles can be placed below a downward facing water tap, and be filled with potable water activated by a sensor or manual button. Unlike water fountains, water filling stations are attractively designed to provide clean, safe drinking water, as the water tap is often protected and the water provided is usually filtered and chilled.
"We want to ensure that the infrastructure is in place to provide a convenient way to fill reusable water bottles with clean potable water," said board President Mike Wasserman, who is vice chair of the Board's Housing, Land Use Environment and Transportation Committee. "This new requirement will make clean drinking accessible for Santa Clara County residents and visitors."
Despite the belief that bottled water is a safer source of drinking water, studies have shown the potential for contamination and exposure to toxins can be higher than tap water. In comparison with municipal tap water, bottled water has a substantial environmental impact, as petroleum is needed for the creation of disposable plastic water bottles, as well as extensive energy and materials for packaging and transportation.
According to the Container Recycling Institute, while most water bottles are recyclable, more than 85 percent of plastic water bottles become garbage or litter. Like tap water, water bottle filling stations have a smaller environmental footprint and represents substantial savings to consumers.
The county ordinance would apply to new buildings, additions to buildings, and instances where building permits are required to change the occupancy of a building (for example, from a barn to a reception facility). The ordinance would only apply to commercial buildings or buildings in unincorporated Santa Clara County where the existing California Building code requires the installation of drinking fountains.
"Under the new ordinance, bottle water filling stations will be installed at a ratio of one water bottle filling station per each floor applicable to construction projects required by the California Building Code to install drinking fountains," said Nash Gonzalez, director of the Department of Planning and Development. "Our goal is to support those involved in new commercial projects or renovations to ensure they install stations that are highly visible and accessible."
Bottle filing stations are usually installed using one of two design options: Either as a stand-alone station or a station integrated together with a drinking fountain. The product and installation costs for bottle filling station will depend upon the design type (from stand-alone to integrated fountain/water bottle filling), location (water piping extensions might be required) and features, such as filtration cooling systems, which will require ongoing maintenance associated with routine replacement of filters.
The county's Facilities and Fleet Department has already begun incorporating hydration units in county facilities remodeling projects.
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STRING THEORY -- SO WRONG
IT'S NOT EVEN WRONG!
by Nick Schweitzer, guest contributor.
[December 1, 2006]
This theory, which has excited many and dumbfounded even more, is known
as String Theory, Super String Theory, or M-Theory, depending on the version
you are studying.
Even Wrong attempts to make the unpopular case that string theory,
and its more recent derivatives, is failed science and should be abandoned
so that scarce resources can be devoted to other more promising theories.
that a theory can not only be wrong, but "isn't even wrong" was popularized
by the physicist Wolfgang
Pauli, to describe that an idea that isn't just wrong, it doesn't actually
make any predictions which are either verifiable, or falsifiable, and thus
provides nothing of value.
To some brave physicists who are willing
to espouse such views, string theory would seem to fall into this category.
is definitely not for the faint of heart in terms of communicating complicated
math and physics. I had to read through the first half of the book twice
in order to get a decent understanding of the ideas being thrown out.
Much of this first half is a history lesson of theoretical particle physics,
but with some technical elements easy to get lost in. It describes
in some detail the major breakthroughs that occurred pre- and post-WWII
that culminated in the development of the Standard Model, and different
versions of quantum theory.
this history lesson is nothing more than a listing of important events,
without much context as to why it's important to the central theme of the
book. After finishing the entire text, it is now obvious that the
entire point of the first half of the book was to layout the case (a case
which many would say should need no explanation) that physics should be
based on experimentally proved facts, and not on hopes and grand ideas
that can't be proved.
This laundry list of experimental evidence
is left in stark contrast the lack of evidence that string theory has to
back it up.
half of the book contains the major dissection of string theory. The central argument is that string theory it really isn't a theory at
all, but more a framework that many hope will one day lead to a theory. We find that string theory, and its later derivatives, don't actually posit
anything which is falsifiable. In what the author views as an act
of desperation, this fact is now considered to be an advantage, and could
(or already has) led to a detrimental shift in how physics is studied.
The universe is now a "multiverse."
to solve string theory equations, if one equation doesn't result in something
which agrees with experimentally proved fact, than it is said that this
must apply to another universe, and another version would surely work in
The only proof that is provided behind this idea is the anthropic
principle. This basically means that since we're here and alive,
there must be a version of the equations which work. However, so
many assumptions are made in the theory that this is more of a leap of
faith than science. And since any version could be true, string theory
loses all predictive power in our universe, and so one is left to wonder
what use it has.
the author is not afraid to go after the current direction of physics,
and point out what he thinks is wrong, he also shows much praise to those
who are espousing these wrong views. He goes to some length to explain
the new directions and discoveries that have been made in advanced mathematics
that have come as a direct result of investigating string theory.
Although he feels that string theory itself if a bust, much of the math
that has come about attempting to prove string theory could lead to new
discoveries in and of itself. This may be the saving grace that string
theory has in the annals of history.
chapters attempt to explain why so many scientists refuse to accept that
string theory is a failed idea. The author provides some very interesting
insight into the current state of academic achievement, grant programs,
and peer pressure. Like the old gambler who constantly loses at the
poker tables, and is told that the tables in the city are rigged, many
physicists continue to examine string theory because they say "it's the
only game in town."
because so many people have invested in it with their careers and their
pride, many are simply passing the buck, and waiting for someone else to
explore new waters. A few theories are trying to make their way into
the fold, and Woit briefly explains a few of them, but only about one chapter
is devoted to the subject.
What he does provide throughout the book
however, are the names of other well known books in each subject he discusses
for those who want even more in-depth knowledge than he is willing to provide
Even Wrong gives an interesting counterpoint to several other books
that have made string theory accessible and popular in the public mind,
including Brian Greene's The
Elegant Universe. The first half of the book can be hard to understand,
but that doesn't detract from the overall theme of the book, though it
can make it a difficult read at times.
Copyright 2006 by Nick Schweitzer.
Tell Us What YOU Think -- On Our Message
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Tamid 33 - Midos 34 - 37 - Niddah 3
The Miraculous Door
In the Beis Hamikdash there were seven gates opening into the azarah courtyard. The doors of all of them were made of gold except for the doors of Niknor which were made of bronze, and stood at the eastern end of the main part of the courtyard where everyone entered from the Ezras Nashim to the Ezras Yisrael.
What was so special about these doors that they were placed in such an important place and remained in their original form, uncovered by gold?
In Mesechta Yoma (38a) we find that the answer is because miracles happened to these doors of Niknor. What were those miracles?
Niknor traveled to the Egyptian city of Alexandria in order to bring two special doors for the Beis Hamikdash. On the sea journey back with the doors, a storm threatened to sink the ship he was on. In a desperate effort to lighten the ship's load the sailors threw one of his doors overboard. As the storm continued to rage they wanted to also throw the second door into the raging sea. Niknor tied himself to the remaining door and insisted that if it goes overboard he goes along with it.
At that moment the storm came to a halt and the door was saved. But Niknor was distressed at having lost the other one. When they reached the Port of Akko the missing door suddenly appeared at the bottom of the boat. Another version is that a giant sea creature had swallowed it and spit it out on shore.
Since Heaven had so miraculously interceded to save the doors of Niknor, they were considered special enough to occupy a place of honor in their original state and to bear the name of the hero who was ready to sacrifice his life to preserve them.
The Magician's Office
One of the six offices in the azarah courtyard of the Beis Hamikdash had the interesting name of Beis Haparveh. It served as the site for salting the skins of animals which had been sacrificed, and on its roof was the mikveh used by the Kohen Gadol for his immersion on Yom Kippur each time he switched from his golden priestly garments to the special white ones he wore while performing the Yom Kippur service.
But why was it called by this strange name?
The Gemara (Mesechta Yoma 35a) informs us that Parveh was the name of a sorcerer. There are two different explanations as to why the name of this mysterious sorcerer became attached to this office.
Rashi says that Parveh built this office through magic and it is therefore called by his name. Other commentaries such as Rabbeinu Chananel and Rambam provide a radically different and dramatic explanation.
This sorcerer Parveh was extremely curious to see the Kohen Gadol as he entered the Holy of Holies on Yom Kippur to offer incense. He knew that no one was permitted to enter that area, so he dug a tunnel from somewhere in Jerusalem to underneath the Temple Mount in order to achieve his treacherous purpose. The point at which he was discovered and put to death was where this office was located and this incident which so dramatically highlighted the sanctity of the Beis Hamikdash was considered significant enough to memorialize it by calling the office by his name.
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The downside to electric cars is both cost and driving range. Cost simply takes time and adoption; as has been shown in every technology from agriculture to computers, it only gets affordable for the masses after enough rich people have uptake. Driving range is a show-stopper for many, though. The stories in Silicon Valley of 'charge rage', where employees at companies are firing off angry emails at each other over available plugs rather than working, have made fewer companies want to install charging stations at all. But without them, many people can't get home.
Though manufacturers won't like reading it, a new paper by Zhenhong Lin, a senior R&D staff member at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory of Knoxville, in the Articles in Advance section of Transportation Science, finds that until batteries fall below $100 per kilowatt hour, from a cost effectiveness point of view, the majority of U.S. consumers are better off with short driving ranges, even if that means they will remain a luxury for wealthy elites who can afford a commuter vehicle.
Tesla is popular with wealthy elites in California, but for mass uptake a cheap car, which means a cheaper battery and shorter driving range, is the way to go. However, if you have the means, this $109,000 Tesla Roadster goes from 0 to 60 mph in 3.9 seconds and has a 200 mile range. Credit: Tesla
Before the introduction of the Nissan Leaf (officially, a 73 mile electric range, in the real world, often less) in December 2010, many in the public incorrectly assumed ranges were already between 150 and 200 miles, but 8 out of the 10 products on the US market are much shorter range.
For that reason, the new paper argues that the goal should be to make short-range batteries as cheap as possible right now, rather than have R&D focus on developing new batteries that will make electric cars comparable to combustion engines, which have a much higher energy density. If the cars are cheap enough, people will start adjusting around the limitations, but they will still be part of that marketplace and so more charging infrastructure would be added.
The electric driving range of an electric is optimized separately for each of the 36,664 sample drivers who represent U.S. new car drivers. It is based on their individual driving pattern and household vehicle flexibility.
Key results are the distribution of optimized electric car range among US consumers and the change of such a distribution in response to battery cost reduction and charging infrastructure improvement.
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The Road Not Taken by Robert Frost
"The Road Not Taken" is a poem written by Robert Frost. In this poem, Frost is talking about how he could have went both ways instead of choosing only one. He would spend time traveling through one path and then go back through the other "just as fair". What is he talking about? Is he speaking about his life?
This poem consists of four stanzas with five lines in each. They are rhymed as ABAAB.
The Road Not Taken Two roads diverged in a yellow wood, And sorry I could not travel both And be one traveler, long I stood And looked down one as far as I could To where it bent in the undergrowth. Then took the other, as just as fair, And having perhaps the better claim, Because it was grassy and wanted wear; Though as for that the passing there Had worn them really about the same. And both that morning equally lay In leaves no step had trodden black. Oh, I kept the first for another day! Yet knowing how way leads on to way, I doubted if I should ever come back. I shall be telling this with a sigh Somewhere ages and ages hence: Two roads diverged in a wood, and I-- I took the one less traveled by, And that has made all the difference.
Next: Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening
Find out more information about this poem and read others like it.
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Pink eye, (also known as conjunctivitis) is a highly contagious virus. It can easily be spread through person to person if the infected person is not washing their hands thoroughly after touching their effected eye. Pink eye is not painful but can be very itchy and irritating.
People are not the only ones that can get pink eye, but certain pets as well. There are some precautions that you can take to make sure it does not spread around your home. Be sure to keep hands away from the infected eye and if you do touch it, wash hands thoroughly. Also be sure to sanitize your home often and if your child has it be sure they keep their hands clean as well.
If your cat is infected be sure not to touch the infected area unless you are prepared to wash your hands immediately afterwards, since cats can give people pink eye.
Can I Give My Cat Pink Eye? Answer: Unlikely
A cat can catch pink eye through a contaminated person if you are not careful. However there are ways that you can help your cat stay pink eye free when it is spreading in your home. In a way, cats are like children, they do not know when they should stay away, what not to get into, and if they do become infected they do not know how to make it better. Like a child your cat will look to you to fix the problem.
Pink eye is not usually a dangerous virus. However if the virus is left untreated it could cause damage to the cat’s eyes and could lead to blindness. This is not a common symptom of pink eye.
How To Avoid Infecting Your Cat
There are several ways you can prevent infecting your cat with pink eye. If you or someone you live with has it they should not touch the cat. Unless the hands of the infected person has been cleaned thoroughly. Do not touch the cat in the face, and keep the out of your face.
Pets do like to sleep with their owners, and it can be hard trying to keep them out or your bedroom. But, it can be okay for you cat to sleep with you as long as you keep the cat off the pillow you have been laying on and keep them at the foot of the bed.
What Causes The Infection
Although cats can catch pink eye through people, people can also catch pink eye from cats. If your cat gets it don’t blame yourself, it may not be your fault they may have even scratched their eye causing damage and pink eye. The infection could be from certain bacterias such as viral and bacterial infections.
Pink eye could also be caused by allergies, and certain irritants such as smoke and dust. So, if you smoke in your home try going outside for and see if there is an improvement. Other common causes is objects getting into the eye like grass and eyelashes. If you are concerned about your pet visit the veterinarian and see if it needs any medication.
Symptoms Of Pink Eye In Your Cat
If you or a loved one has pink eye keep a close eye on your cat and watch for a few symptoms or signs that may show whether or not your cat is infected. Check your cat’s eyes for a red swollen conjunctiva, and clear, water or thick discharge which may contain mucus or pus. Watch your cat and see if they are pawing or scratching at the eye, blinking or squinting more than usual, and if they are sneezing or have and discharge of the nasal.
It is important to be sure your cat does not become infected and if they do it is important to see a vet for a diagnosis and medication.
How To Treat Your Cat’s Pink Eye
Treatment will depend on how severe your cat’s case is. If the cat caught pink eye through you or a family member than its probably a mild case and should only need some flushing and a saline solution. Purulent conjunctivitis will require some eye irritants, and warm soaks in order to loosen crusted eyelids.
For bacteria in the eye the cat will need antibiotics, eye ointment, or antiviral eye medication. If your cat has pink eye because of an allergy they will need a anti inflammatory to help with the problem. In the best case scenario your cat has an object such as an eyelash in the eye and it will need to be flushed out for removal and should be fine.
Pink Eye And Your Cat
You can give your cat pink eye, so you should be careful when interacting with your pet if you are infected. If a friend or relative comes to your home with pink eye be sure to keep the cat away and sterilize (just like you would for a baby or child) door knobs, spray disinfectant around, and be sure to keep your hands clean to be sure you and your family do not catch the infection as well.
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Brian C. Williams
An inventor who is skilled at constructing innovative designs is distinguished, not just by the first principles he knows, but by the way he uses these principles and how he focusses the search for novel devices among an overwhelming space of possibilities. We propose that an appropriate focus for design is the network of qualitative interactions between quantities, (called an interaction topology), used by a device to achieve its desired behavior. We present an approach, called interaction-based invention, which views design as a process of building interaction topologies - in this paper directly from first principles. The program Ibis, which embodies this approach, designs simple hydro-mechanical regulators, analogous to devices that were fundamental to the development of feedback control theory.
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Western saddles have a number of different parts that make the saddle both functional and effective. It is important for riders to know the parts of the saddle in order to determine the correct saddle size they need and learn how to tell the different types of western saddles apart.
Horn: Western saddles are most easily identified by their horns. The horn is positioned on top of the pommel on the front of the saddle. The traditional purpose of the horn is to provide extra support for the rider as well as for use as place for lassos and other equipment.
Pommel: Also known as the swell, the pommel is the location where the bars of the saddle's tree come together at the front of the saddle. It serves as a base for the saddle horn on a Western saddle.
Cantle: Structurally, the cantle provides an anchor position for the tree in the rear of the saddle. It also forms the back of the seat.
Seat: The seat of a Western saddle is the part that the rider sits on while mounted. It is located directly over the saddle tree.
Jockey: Most western saddles have two jockeys, one in the front and one towards the rear. They are pieces of leather that separate the rigging and the seat of the saddle. The jockey's basic function is to keep the rider's body from coming into contact with the saddle's rigging while riding.
Rigging: The rigging on your Western saddle includes the cinch, dee rings, billets and cinch straps. These pieces are used to hold the saddle on the horse along with the girth.
Skirt: The skirt of the saddle goes around its base to create a flat base that allows the saddle to sit comfortably and evenly on a horse's back.
Saddle Tree: The saddle tree is composed by the bars of the saddle and the gullet. It is the frame that the saddle's structure is based on. The size of the saddle's tree determines how it fits the horse.
Gullet: The gullet of the saddle keeps the saddle from sitting directly on top of the spine.
Fender: The fenders are leather panels that connect the stirrup to the main part of the saddle.
Stirrup: The stirrup is a triangular structure where the rider's foot rests while riding. The stirrups help provide support for the rider's leg and help the rider hold proper riding position.
Above image can relase under Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 4.0
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Sucrose vs Glucose
Glucose and sucrose are categorized as carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are a group of compounds which are defined as “polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones or substances that hydrolyze to yield polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones.” Carbohydrates are the most abundant type of organic molecules on the earth. They are the source of chemical energy for living organisms. Not only this, they serve as important constituents of tissues. Carbohydrate can be again categorized into three as monosaccharide, disaccharides and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrate type. Monosaccharides are classified according to,
- The number of carbon atoms present in the molecule
- Whether they contain an aldehyde or keto group
Therefore, a monosaccharide with six carbon atoms is called a hexose. If there are five carbon atoms, then it is a pentose. Further, if the monosaccharide has an aldehyde group, it is called as aldose. A monosaccharide with a keto group is called a ketose.
Sucrose is a disaccharide. It is made up of combining glucose and a fructose molecule via a glycosidic bond. During this reaction, a water molecule is eliminated from the two molecules. Sucrose can be hydrolyzed back into the starting molecules when needed. This is a disaccharide, which we find commonly in plants. Glucose, which is produced from the photosynthesis in leaves, should be distributed to other growing and storing parts of the plant. And sucrose is the form of transporting. Therefore, in plants glucose is converted to sucrose in order to distribute them. We are familiar with sucrose in our day to day lives, as we are using that as table sugar. Sucrose is a white crystalline solid. It has a sweet taste, and it is readily soluble in water.
Glucose is a monosaccharide that contains six carbon atoms and an aldehyde group. Therefore, it is a hexose and an aldose. It has four hydroxyl groups and has the following structure.
Though it is shown as a linear structure, glucose can be present as a cyclic structure too. In fact, in a solution, majority of the molecules are in the cyclic structure. When a cyclic structure is forming, the -OH on carbon 5 is converted into the ether linkage, to close the ring with carbon 1. This forms a six member ring structure. The ring is also called a hemiacetal ring, due to the presence of carbon that has both an ether oxygen and an alcohol group. Because of the free aldehyde group, glucose can be reduced. Thus, it is called a reducing sugar. Further, glucose is also known as dextrose because, it rotates plane polarized light to the right.
When there is sunlight, in plant, chloroplasts glucose is synthesized using water and carbon dioxide. This glucose is stored and used as a source for energy. Animals and human obtain glucose from plant sources. Glucose level in human blood is regulated by homeostasis mechanism. Insulin and glucagon hormones are involving in the mechanism. When there is high glucose level in blood, it is called a diabetic condition. The measurement of blood sugar level measures the glucose level in blood. There are various means to measure the blood glucose level.
What is the difference between Sucrose and Glucose?
• Glucose is a monosaccharide and sucrose is a disaccharide.
• Glucose is participating in making sucrose by combining with a fructose.
• Molecular weight of sucrose is higher than that of glucose.
• Chemical formula of glucose is C6H12O6. Chemical formula of sucrose is C12H22O11.
• Glucose is a reducing sugar where as sucrose is a non reducing sugar.
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Memorial Day Tribute to War Dogs
Having served in the Marine Corps and being an avid dog lover, I am elated to have the opportunity to write an article on how dogs have been utilized by the military for thousands of years. And, to pay tribute to the many dogs who have faithfully and honorably given up their own lives as a sacrifice so that their human partners could safely return home to their families.
I hope you will please take a moment, with Memorial Day coming up, to read this memorial and share your thoughts and experiences with us.
History Of War Dogs
You probably haven’t seen much T.V. coverage or read much history on dogs being used in battle; but our canine companions have been instrumental in military victories for thousands of years. Dating back to 18th Century B.C. in the invasion of Egypt by the Hyksos many dog breeds have been used for different purposes based on their specific abilities. Some of those roles historically have been:
- Fighting or Attack Dogs – Larger breeds such as a mastiff or molosser type breeds would be sent into battle ahead of the troops as a first line of attack. It wasn’t uncommon for those dogs to wear armor and large spiked collars.
- Logistics & Communication – Dogs have been used in everything from pulling carts, sniffing out the wounded and dragging them to safety, passing messages in bottles back and forth, and in present day collecting intel via video cameras and microphones that are attached to them.
- Detection & Tracking – Due to their heightened sense of smell dogs, of course, make excellent trackers and have been used to track fugitives and can even uncover and detect mines.
- Sentries – From the beginning, sentry or guard dogs have been used to protect camps and bases and are still used today. It’s estimated that these sentry dogs saved over 10,000 US lives in Vietnam alone.
Current Uses of War Dogs
War dogs are used more, today than they ever have been. Training has progressed and their uses have evolved; presently they have even more roles in our military than ever before. Some of these r-*oles are things you’d expect such as police work, drug and explosive detection but they have also been used as tools of intimidation during interrogations. This practice was short lived, however, and has been prohibited.
Famous War Dogs
Chips The War Dog: Chips is the most decorated war dog from World War II. Owned by Edward Wren of NY Chips was a German Shepherd-Collie-Siberian Husky Mix. During his service Chip’s handler was Pvt. John P Rowell.
In 1943 during the invasion of Sicily, Chips and his handler got themselves pinned down on the beach by an Italian machine gun team. Breaking free from his handler, Chips proceeded to jump into the pillbox attacking the gunners forcing them out and leading to their surrender.
Sustaining several injuries during this incident Chips was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross, Silver Star, and Purple Heart; which was later revoked due to the army preventing the commendation of animals. Disney thought Chips deserved some recognition, however, and made a movie about him in 1990. Chips was able to retire and return to the Wren family in 1945.
Nemo The War Dog: Nemo was the first dog to return from the Vietnam war. Nemo was purchased in 1964 and shipped off to Lackland Air Force Base in Texas where he received his serial number A534 which was tattooed in his left ear. Shortly after, he was sent to Vietnam.
Acting as a sentry, Nemo and his handler would patrol an area at the perimeter of the base every night and were the first line of defense against any Vietcong intruders. In early morning hours of Dec 3rd 1966, 2 Vietcong units made an attempt to infiltrate the base. Thanks to Nemo and the other sentry dogs’ security teams were alerted and after 7hrs of hard fighting the invasion was thwarted. Unfortunately, this battle cost three other war dogs and their handlers their lives.
The following night Nemo and his handler were on patrol looking for any stragglers from the previous night’s attempted infiltration; during that patrol Nemo sensed danger and before his handler could even radio in the threat he was shot in the shoulder and Nemo was shot in the muzzle. The bullet entered under his right eye and exited through his mouth. Not one to quit without a fight, however, Nemo proceeded to attack the 4 Vietcong who had shot him, with no regard for his own life. This gave his handler time to radio in for help.
Once back at base, Nemo received emergency medical care including skin grafts and a tracheotomy but still ended up losing his right eye. These wounds proved to be enough to keep Nemo from returning to duty and he was flown back to Lackland where he spent the rest of his retirement years as an example of a great war dog.This Video Is Slow To Load But Has A Bunch of Great Info
The Famous Cairo: The war dog that you have probably heard of is, Cairo. In fact, he’s probably the only member of SEAL Team 6 you’ll ever know by name. Cairo, a tracking dog, and 23 other SEALS flew into Pakistan where they had been tasked with finding Osama Bin Laden and apprehending or killing him. Their mission was of course successful.
Adopting A War Dog
Effective November 6th 2000 because of H.R. 5314 civilians are now able to adopt a retiring military working dog. Since that time many war dogs have gone to wonderful and loving forever homes. Once a dog is declared “excess” after their active duty time is up, they can go up for adoption. Prior to this, they are given a complete medical screening and assessment of temperament to make sure the dogs are suited for a civilian home. Potential owners are also diligently screened to make sure they can handle one of these highly trained war dogs.
About 300 of these dogs are put up for adoption each year but just recently interested adopting parties has dramatically spiked. There is no cost or adoption fee for adopting one of these heroes but the new family is responsible for travel fees (which can be up to $2000 depending on if they are located oversees). Find out more about Adopting a Military Working Dog.
A Big Thanks To All War Dogs!
Not only are they man’s best friend but they are also a big part of the reason that we have freedom, and live in the greatest country in the world. With Memorial Day upon us, it’s a great time to reflect on the men and women who have served our country to give us the freedoms we enjoy but this year take a little extra time to remember the war dogs who have been instrumental in saving countless lives and making a lasting impact on the handlers they served.
In honor of all of our fallen war dogs, which you can view here on the K9 Wall of Honor, we will be donating $500 to the Military Working Dogs organization who go to great lengths to help retiring dogs find their forever homes. (Read follow up here on Allan The CMWD that found a home because of this donation)
We would encourage you to support their cause as well!
If you have enjoyed this post and want to help us get the word out about war dogs and these great organizations that help find them forever homes feel free to link to this from your site or share with your friends on Facebook and Twitter.
Another great way to help the military working dogs is to visit the ASPCA site and complete a message to send to your Congressmen. There is currently a bill that will change a military dog’s classification from equipment to actual members of the armed forces. This would entitle them to added benefits they do not currently receive such as travel back from overseas bases if they retire at a base outside the states and medical care post retirement.
A Salute To Military Working Dogs & Their Handlers
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Max Dupain, Opera House and Harbour Bridge, circa 1973. Sydney was modern.
Modernist photography by m crawford
Harold Cazneaux Sydney Bridge c1934
From approximately 1920 to 1970
Modernism sought to build a better future in
the aftermath of World War I.
As an international movement, modernism
encapsulated the possibilities of the 20th
century. It celebrated the romance of cities, the
healthy body and the ideals of abstraction and
functionalism in design.
Modernist Photography is not simply a style but
more of an attitude, a determination to break
with the past and free the artist from the rules
of convention and etiquette.
To better understand the Modernist approach to photography…
Let’s first look at examples of modernist
abstract art from around the world.
Artists such as:
• Piet Mondrian
• Wassily Kandinsky
• Kasmir Malevich
• Vladimir Tatlin
• Robert Delaunay
Le manege de cochons
Óleo sobre lienzo
250 x 250 cm
Musee National d'Art Moderne, Centre Georges Pompidou, París
Composition IV 1911 (170 Kb); Oil on canvas, 159.5 x 250.5 cm (62 7/8 x 98 5/8 in); Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfallen, Dusseldorf
An Englishman in Moscow
Oil on canvas, 88 x 57 cm
Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam
Tatlin’s Tower or The Monument to the Third
International was a grand monumental
building envisioned by the Russian artist.
Life with Gingerpot 2, 1912, oil on canvas.
Modernism in Australia
Roland Wakelin, New Zealand/Australia 1887-1971
The Bridge under construction 1928 -29
Oil on composition board
Grace Cossington Smith
The Bridge in-curve, 1930
Tempera on Cardboard
The curve of the bridge, 1928-29
Oil on Cardboard
• After World War 1, the photographic scene in
Australia was shaped by modernist influences
from abroad (Europe and later America).
• The world was changing.
• The goal was to express a
modern life, a modern city.
Max Dupain, Building the Opera House, Sydney 1962
Morning Rush Hour, Sydney Harbour Bridge, 1938
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Here was my transcript outline when I filmed the FOOD Bites video on pre and post workout meals. In case you didn’t catch what I said, you can read it.
Link to video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H0POjup6fOY
THE BASIC FACTS:
- A workout may last an hour or two, however dieting is 24 hours a day.
- Eat 4 or 5 meals per day. A good breakfast, lunch and dinner, with one to two snacks.
- Don’t starve! Not giving your body the nutrients it needs is going to cause your body to start shutting down, and this will cause it to stop burning fat b/c it thinks it is in survival mode.
- Eating before working out: settles the stomach, reduces hunger, gives your muscles the energy needed to exercise
- Eating after exercising and drinking plenty of fluid can help to replace glycogen (energy to workout) that is lost during exercise. Glycogen is comprised of sugars that come from the protein and carbohydrates in your diet.
WHAT IS A CARB? WHAT IS A PROTEIN?
They are macronutrients! Nutrients that your body needs a lot of. This includes carbohydrates, fats, and protein. Micronutrients are vitamins and minerals.
CARBS: USDA recommends that 45% – 65% of our calories should come from carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are the body’s main source of fuel. Carbohydrates are easily used by the body for energy. They are mainly found in starchy foods (like grain and potatoes), fruits, milk, and yogurt.
PROTEIN: USDA recommends that 10% – 35% of our calories should come from protein. Most Americans get plenty of protein, and easily meet this need by consuming a balanced diet. We need protein for growth (especially important for children, teens, and pregnant women), tissue repair, energy when carbohydrate is not available, preserving lean muscle mass. Protein is found in meats, poultry, fish, meat substitutes, cheese, milk, nuts, legumes
PRE WORKOUT MEAL:
- Glucose is the preferred energy source for exercise, so eat something high in carbs and that’s easy to digest.
- In general, the closer you get to your workout start time, the fewer calories you should eat. It’s important to winnow down the protein and fat content of your meal or snack as you get closer to exercise.
- The nutrients that make up those calories should also shift. Because it takes the body: 4-6 hrs to digest fat, 3 hrs to digest protein, and 2 hrs to digest carbohydrates.
- You’re not going to want to eat a plate of french fries two hours before working out, because the blood is going to rush to your stomach to digest that while it’s also trying to rush to your exercising muscles.
Example Pre Workout Foods…
- Bananas and apples. These are good choices for an energizing snack. Bananas are packed with potassium, which aids in maintaining proper nerve and muscle function aka no cramps.
- Oatmeal. Oats are full of fiber and therefore the carbohydrates from them are released into your bloodstream gradually, keeping your energy levels constant during your workout.
- Yogurt & fruit
- Trail mix/unsalted nuts
- Fruit & yogurt smoothie
- Sweet potato, yam
POST WORKOUT MEAL:
- This meal is probably the most important meal you can eat. (And breakfast of course)
- Your post-workout meal serves to give you the energy to recover from your workout and replace what was lost as result of training.
- After you train your natural metabolism is burning red hot and can take much more nutrients at once and still not store it as fat.
- The first nutritional priority after exercise is to replace any fluid lost during exercise.
- Research is clear that eating carbs and protein within 15-60 minutes of your workout will help speed up your recovery time by replenishing glycogen stores and increasing protein synthesis (aka building lean muscle).
Example Post Workout Meal…
Chobani strawberry greek yogurt: 14 g protein, 20 g carbs. Yogurt is also EASILY DIGESTABLE so your body will soak up the nutrients immediately.
WHAT HAPPENS IF YOU DON’T EAT BEFORE AND AFTER YOU WORKOUT?
You’ll burn fat. But be very fatigued.
PRE-MEAL: If you exercise for a long time without eating, you’ll limit your ability to burn calories and maintain intensity. You won’t burn more of anything if you can’t muster the enthusiasm to master your toughest sets.
POST-MEAL: And if you don’t feed your muscles and replenish your energy stores after exercise, you won’t have the necessary building blocks for recovery.
SAMPLE MEAL PLAN:
- cereal w/ nonfat plain soymilk
- oatmeal with apple & raisins
- veggie omelet (egg white or whole)
- Sweet potato
Post workout meal…
- Chobani greek yogurt w/ fruit
- Deli sliced turkey with hummus and baby carrots
- Chicken salad with tomatoes, bell peppers, onions, spinach, lettuce. Rasp. vinagrette dressing
- Baked salmon w/ steamed asparagus or green beans
- Tofu with mushrooms and broccoli
- Any veggie and a lean protein (like chicken or fish)
Macronutrients: the Importance of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Fat.http://www.mckinley.illinois.edu/Handouts/macronutrients.htm
Eating to Win. http://www.womenfitness.net/eating_towin.htm
Figure Competition Diet. http://www.modelsobserver.com/training.html
Bikini Diet: http://dustinmaherfitness.com/tag/bikini-diet/
What to eat before and after workouts to lose weight?http://www.livestrong.com/article/195384-what-to-eat-before-and-after-work-outs-to-lose-weight/#ixzz1C1V7D5O1
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In this investigation, you are challenged to make mobile phone
numbers which are easy to remember. What happens if you make a
sequence adding 2 each time?
EWWNP means Exploring Wild and Wonderful Number Patterns Created by Yourself! Investigate what happens if we create number patterns using some simple rules.
Find the next number in this pattern: 3, 7, 19, 55 ...
Can you work out how many flowers there will be on the Amazing Splitting Plant after it has been growing for six weeks?
Susie took cherries out of a bowl by following a certain pattern.
How many cherries had there been in the bowl to start with if she
was left with 14 single ones?
These sixteen children are standing in four lines of four, one
behind the other. They are each holding a card with a number on it.
Can you work out the missing numbers?
Look on the back of any modern book and you will find an ISBN code. Take this code and calculate this sum in the way shown. Can you see what the answers always have in common?
Ben’s class were cutting up number tracks. First they cut them into twos and added up the numbers on each piece. What patterns could they see?
On a calculator, make 15 by using only the 2 key and any of the
four operations keys. How many ways can you find to do it?
If the numbers 5, 7 and 4 go into this function machine, what
numbers will come out?
Find another number that is one short of a square number and when
you double it and add 1, the result is also a square number.
We can arrange dots in a similar way to the 5 on a dice and they
usually sit quite well into a rectangular shape. How many
altogether in this 3 by 5? What happens for other sizes?
The clockmaker's wife cut up his birthday cake to look like a clock
face. Can you work out who received each piece?
Can you make square numbers by adding two prime numbers together?
Where can you draw a line on a clock face so that the numbers on
both sides have the same total?
There were chews for 2p, mini eggs for 3p, Chocko bars for 5p and
lollypops for 7p in the sweet shop. What could each of the children
buy with their money?
You have 5 darts and your target score is 44. How many different
ways could you score 44?
Winifred Wytsh bought a box each of jelly babies, milk jelly bears,
yellow jelly bees and jelly belly beans. In how many different ways
could she make a jolly jelly feast with 32 legs?
Add the sum of the squares of four numbers between 10 and 20 to the
sum of the squares of three numbers less than 6 to make the square
of another, larger, number.
This problem is based on the story of the Pied Piper of Hamelin. Investigate the different numbers of people and rats there could have been if you know how many legs there are altogether!
Find out what a Deca Tree is and then work out how many leaves
there will be after the woodcutter has cut off a trunk, a branch, a
twig and a leaf.
Investigate what happens when you add house numbers along a street
in different ways.
Annie cut this numbered cake into 3 pieces with 3 cuts so that the
numbers on each piece added to the same total. Where were the cuts
and what fraction of the whole cake was each piece?
I throw three dice and get 5, 3 and 2. Add the scores on the three
dice. What do you get? Now multiply the scores. What do you notice?
The Scot, John Napier, invented these strips about 400 years ago to
help calculate multiplication and division. Can you work out how to
use Napier's bones to find the answer to these multiplications?
Here are the prices for 1st and 2nd class mail within the UK. You have an unlimited number of each of these stamps. Which stamps would you need to post a parcel weighing 825g?
What is happening at each box in these machines?
There is a clock-face where the numbers have become all mixed up. Can you find out where all the numbers have got to from these ten statements?
There are 4 jugs which hold 9 litres, 7 litres, 4 litres and 2
litres. Find a way to pour 9 litres of drink from one jug to
another until you are left with exactly 3 litres in three of the
Katie had a pack of 20 cards numbered from 1 to 20. She arranged
the cards into 6 unequal piles where each pile added to the same
total. What was the total and how could this be done?
How could you put eight beanbags in the hoops so that there are
four in the blue hoop, five in the red and six in the yellow? Can
you find all the ways of doing this?
Find at least one way to put in some operation signs (+ - x ÷)
to make these digits come to 100.
On the planet Vuv there are two sorts of creatures. The Zios have 3 legs and the Zepts have 7 legs. The great planetary explorer Nico counted 52 legs. How many Zios and how many Zepts were there?
Write the numbers up to 64 in an interesting way so that the shape they make at the end is interesting, different, more exciting ... than just a square.
The value of the circle changes in each of the following problems. Can you discover its value in each problem?
Can you score 100 by throwing rings on this board? Is there more
than way to do it?
There were 22 legs creeping across the web. How many flies? How many spiders?
Arrange the numbers 1 to 6 in each set of circles below. The sum of each side of the triangle should equal the number in its centre.
Woof is a big dog. Yap is a little dog.
Emma has 16 dog biscuits to give to the two dogs.
She gave Woof 4 more biscuits than Yap.
How many biscuits did each dog get?
Ten cards are put into five envelopes so that there are two cards in each envelope. The sum of the numbers inside it is written on each envelope. What numbers could be inside the envelopes?
Well now, what would happen if we lost all the nines in our number
system? Have a go at writing the numbers out in this way and have a
look at the multiplications table.
There are three baskets, a brown one, a red one and a pink one, holding a total of 10 eggs. Can you use the information given to find out how many eggs are in each basket?
Tell your friends that you have a strange calculator that turns
numbers backwards. What secret number do you have to enter to make
141 414 turn around?
A game for 2 people. Use your skills of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division to blast the asteroids.
Explore Alex's number plumber. What questions would you like to ask? What do you think is happening to the numbers?
Skippy and Anna are locked in a room in a large castle. The key to that room, and all the other rooms, is a number. The numbers are locked away in a problem. Can you help them to get out?
Tom and Ben visited Numberland. Use the maps to work out the number
of points each of their routes scores.
What happens when you add the digits of a number then multiply the
result by 2 and you keep doing this? You could try for different
numbers and different rules.
Can you find which shapes you need to put into the grid to make the
totals at the end of each row and the bottom of each column?
This group activity will encourage you to share calculation
strategies and to think about which strategy might be the most
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The Unfinished Revolution: Voices from the Global Fight for Women's Rights
Foreword by Christiane Amanpour"Women's rights are human rights" became a rallying call for women's equality and freedom in a series of UN conferences in the 1990s, when prospects for women leading lives of dignity and equality finally seemed within reach. Since then, how far have women in the world progressed? In Africa, HIV/AIDS kills more women and girls than men and boys. In many countries, women are legally considered second-class citizens, and in others, religion, custom, and traditions—from "honor killings" to denial of property, labor and economic rights—block basic freedoms such as the right to work or study, and access to health care. Around the world, women and girls are trafficked into forced labor and sex slavery; rape is used as a weapon of war in conflict zones from the Congo to Kyrgyzstan, and women still face major obstacles to education and reproductive freedom.
This anthology outlines the recent history of legal and political battles to secure basic rights for women and girls. Writers from around the world tackle some of the toughest questions about improving the lives of women, and explain why we need fresh approaches in analyzing what works for the most vexing issues. Top policymakers, human rights experts, writers and artists with unique perspectives will address topics from violence against women to property rights to the role of international institutions. Perhaps most important, readers will hear from women who have been victims of human rights abuses and others who have fought such abuses, in their own voices.
Ending abuses of women and girls could change the game for human rights worldwide. This book sets out how and why we should act.
Read an excerpt on Issuu here
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In recent years, it has become clear to many scientists that the universe appears as if it were specifically designed for the existence and well-being of human beings. This phenomenon, which has attracted considerable scientific attention, has become known as the "Anthropic Principle" -- from the Greek word anthropis, meaning "man."
The Anthropic Principle expresses itself in two ways:
- even very slight changes in the laws of nature would have made it impossible for life to exist, and
- human life would not have been possible were it not for the occurrence in the past of a large number of highly improbable events.
Whereas the secular scientist sees such a sequence of occurrences as mere "lucky accidents," the believing Jew sees in them the guiding hand of the Creator.
Let us look at some of them.
Because of the extreme conditions present in the interior of the sun, a proton may occasionally transform spontaneously into a neutron, which like the proton is a fundamental particle of nature. The resulting neutron can combine with another proton to form a composite particle known as a deuteron. These deuterons "burn" via a thermonuclear reaction and this "burning" provides the intense heat and brilliant light of the sun. Thus, deuterons constitute the solar fuel that generates the energy of the sun which enables life to exist on earth. A very important feature of solar "burning" is that it occurs very gradually.
The possibility of proton-neutron combination and the impossibility of proton-proton combination both depend on the strength of the "nuclear force," one of the fundamental forces in nature. (The other fundamental forces include the familiar force of gravity and the electromagnetic force.) Detailed calculations of the nuclear force have demonstrated the following results:
- If the nuclear force were only a few percent weaker, then a proton could not combine with a neutron to form a deuteron. If this were the case, no deuterons would be formed in the sun and hence no solar fuel would exist. As a result, the sun would not shine ("burn"), but would merely be a cold ball of inert gas -- precluding the possibility of life on earth.
- If the nuclear force were only a few percent stronger, then each proton would rapidly combine with another proton with explosive results. If this were the case, the sun would soon explode and thus cease to "burn," once again precluding the possibility of life on earth.
It is an extraordinary fact that the strength of the nuclear force just happens to lie in the narrow range in which neither of these two catastrophes occurs.
WATER AND AIR ON OUR PLANET
It is not necessary to elaborate on the necessity of water and air for the existence of life. The earth has an abundant supply of both, permitting life to flourish here, while our two neighboring planets, Venus and Mars, are both devoid of water and air, and hence are devoid of life. These facts may not seem particularly noteworthy, but we shall see just how remarkable they really are.
Our neighboring planets, Venus and Mars, are both devoid of water and air, and hence are devoid of life.
It was recently discovered that, shortly after they were formed, all three planets -- Earth, Venus and Mars -- had large amounts of surface water. The deep channels that are observed today on the surface of Mars were carved out long ago by the copious fast-flowing Martian primordial surface waters. Similarly, Venus was once covered by deep oceans which contained the equivalent of a layer of water three kilometers deep over its entire surface.
However, in the course of time, all surface waters on Mars and Venus disappeared. How did earth escape this catastrophe?
The answer is that earth escaped this catastrophe by sheer "accident!"
Earth just happens to be sufficiently distant from the sun that our surface water neither evaporated nor decomposed, as happened on Venus. Moreover, earth just happens to be sufficiently near the sun that the temperature remains high enough to prevent all the oceans from freezing permanently, as happened on Mars.
The same balance rules the earth’s atmosphere.
Recent studies of the carbonate-silicate geo-chemical cycle have shown that the planetary atmosphere involves the subtle interplay of many factors. This interplay is so delicate that if the earth were only a little closer to the sun, surface temperatures would be far higher than the boiling point of water, precluding all possibility of a life-sustaining atmosphere.
Similarly, if earth were only a little farther from the sun, the concentration of carbon dioxide would become so high that the atmosphere would not be breathable by human beings. Fortunately, the orbit of our planet just happens to lie at the crucial distance from the sun that permits the formation of a life-sustaining atmosphere.
This remarkably fortunate coincidence is known among scientists as "the Goldilocks problem of climatology." Recall the children's story in which Goldilocks found the various items of Baby Bear to be "not too hot and not too cold, not too hard and not too soft, but just right." In that vein, scientists refer to the existence of water and air on earth as another example of the Anthropic Principle.
THE DESTRUCTION OF THE DINOSAURS
After being the undisputed masters of our planet, all the dinosaurs worldwide suddenly became extinct. This sudden destruction of all the dinosaurs, together with most other animal species, is the most famous of a number of such mass extinctions that have occurred periodically in the history of our planet, each time abruptly wiping out the majority of animal species.
The sudden disappearance of the dinosaurs has baffled scientists for many years. What could have caused the abrupt demise of these extremely successfully animals after they had enjoyed such a long period of dominance? What occurred to suddenly wipe them out?
After years of debate, the riddle of what caused the sudden and total destruction of the dinosaurs was finally solved in 1980 by Nobel laureate Luis Alvarez and his son Walter. The two showed that a giant meteor from outer space had collided with the earth, causing a worldwide catastrophe. This explanation for this and other mass extinctions -- that is, the impact of meteors or comets colliding with the earth -- has become known as the "impact theory." The scientific evidence in favor of the impact theory accumulated rapidly, and by 1987, Professor Alvarez could point to 15 different pieces of scientific data that supported the theory.
In recent years, it has become clear to many scientists that the universe appears as if it were specifically designed for the existence and well-being of human beings.
The point of central importance to our discussion is that the collision between a meteor and the earth was a matter of sheer luck. This has been repeatedly stressed by the leading paleontologists. For example, Professor David Raup, past president of the American Paleontological Society, has taken precisely this point as the central theme of his famous article (since expanded into a book with same title), "Extinctions: Bad Genes or Bad Luck?" Raup emphasizes the role played by "luck" in mass extinctions:
The extinction of a given species or higher group is more bad luck than bad genes. Pure chance would favor some biologic groups over others.
Professor David Jablonski of the University of Chicago, a world authority on the subject of mass extinctions, echoes this opinion:
When a mass extinction strikes, it is not the "most fit" species that survive; it is the most fortunate. Species that had been barely hanging on ... inherit the earth.
These leading paleontologists are emphasizing that if a giant meteor suddenly falls from the sky and wipes out some species, while permitting other species to survive and ultimately to flourish, then the latter species were blessed with good luck -- the occurrence of an extremely improbable and totally unexpected event.
The Darwinian principle of "the survival of the fittest" is irrelevant in such a process.
THE DINOSAURS AND MAN
Why is the sudden destruction of all the dinosaurs worldwide a dramatic example of the Anthropic Principle?
As long as the dinosaurs dominated the earth, there was no possibility for mammals to exist. Only after the dinosaurs were wiped out could the mammals flourish and become the dominant fauna.
This intimate connection between human beings and the dinosaurs was emphasized by Professor Alvarez, who ends his article about the abrupt destruction of all the world's dinosaurs, with the following stirring words:
From our human point of view, that impact [of a meteor] was one of the most important single events in the history of our planet. Had it not taken place, the largest mammals alive today might still resemble the rat-like creatures that were then scurrying around trying to avoid bring devoured by dinosaurs.
But there is even more to the story. For human beings to exist today, it was not sufficient merely that such an impact with the meteor occurred. The impact had to have occurred with the right strength.
As Professor Alvarez explains:
If the impact had been weaker, no species would have become extinct; the mammals would be subordinate to the dinosaurs, and I wouldn't be writing this article. If the impact had been stronger, all life on this planet would have ceased, and again, I wouldn't be writing this article. That tells me that the impact must have been of just the right strength [to ensure that] the mammals survived, while the dinosaurs didn't.
A few years ago, I wrote a book on Biblical creation and science, titled "In the Beginning," showing that current scientific evidence is in remarkable agreement with the Biblical account of the origin and development of the universe. My book has enjoyed a measure of success, and has been reprinted ten times and translated into Hebrew, Russian, French, Spanish,Portuguese and Norwegian.
However, the book was not to everyone's taste. Professor Raphael Falk, a geneticist at the Hebrew University and a militant secularist, was so outraged by my book that he published a 10-page article devoted solely to attacking both my book and me personally.
It is important to explain what is wrong with Falk's argument, because his error is not immediately obvious and, in fact, has been repeated by many other writers.
A rare, extremely improbable event occurs if one defines the conditions before knowing what will happen.
For example, he writes: "I pull a $1 note from my wallet and observe its serial number to be G65538608D ... [probability for occurrence] was less than 1 in 10 billion. Thus, undeniably, I am faced here with an extremely rare event ... but I am not surprised. What is essential is to make the crucial distinction between improbable events that are genuinely surprising and those that are not..."
What is wrong with this reasoning?
There was a probability was not 1 in 10 billion but 100 percent that the dollar note pulled from the wallet had G65538608D for its serial number! Why? Because this number was chosen by looking at the serial number on the $1 note. In other words, one was simply asking, "What is the probability that the serial number on the note is the serial number on the note?" And the answer to this question, clearly, is 100 percent. Since the event was not improbable at all -- but certain -- there is no reason whatever to be surprised by its occurrence...
A rare, extremely improbable event occurs if one defines the conditions before knowing what will happen.
For example, if one chooses a serial number before pulling the $1 note from the wallet, and then find that the number chosen is exactly the same as the number on the note, we would all be absolutely astonished -- and with good reason!
PLAYING THE LOTTO
Among the popular national lotteries in Israel is "Lotto." Say, for example, that one million people buy a Lotto ticket each week. If I am informed that this week's winner is Chaim Cohen from Afula, I will certainly not get very excited about it. But why not? The chances that Chaim Cohen would be the winner were only 1 in 1 million -- and it happened!
The reason for my lack of excitement is the following. I could not care less if the Lotto winner is Chaim Cohen from Afula, Sarah Levi from Beer Sheva, or Shmerel Berel from Ramat Gan. In other words, each of the 1 million Lotto players is completely equivalent in my eyes to Chaim Cohen from Afula. (The technical term for this in statistics is "equivalent microstates.")Although the chances were only 1 in 1 million that the winner would be Chaim Cohen from Afula, there exist 1 million "equivalent" Chaim Cohens. Therefore, the substance of what I heard is that someone won the Lotto this week. And the chances for that event happening -- someone winning -- are 100 percent. Hence, I have no reason to be surprised.
Now consider a slightly different scenario. If I were informed the following week that Chaim Cohen from Afula again won the Lotto, I would most certainly be amazed, and so would anyone else. But why? The chances of Chaim Cohen winning Lotto the second week were exactly the same as his chances of winning the first week. The answer is that the context is entirely different.
In the first week, Chaim Cohen was just 1 out of 1 million equivalent Lotto players. But in the second week, he has become a unique individual -- the fellow who won last week. In other words, in the second week, there exists only one Chaim Cohen -- only one previous week's winner. When such a rare event occurs, we are all genuinely surprised.
Finally, if we were to learn that Chaim Cohen from Afula had again won the Lotto for the third consecutive week, it is clear that suspicion, not surprise, would be the natural reaction. Indeed, there is little doubt that the fraud division of the police department would soon be paying Chaim Cohen a visit to discuss with him just how it happen that Chaim won the Lotto for three consecutive weeks.
But why? The chances of Chaim Cohen winning Lotto in the third week were exactly the same as his chances of winning first week. The answer again lies in the context of the event. In the third week, Chaim Cohen is an extremely unusual individual -- the fellow who has already won the Lotto for two weeks running. The chances that same person will win the Lotto again are easily shown to be one in a million-millions. Such events so rare that they simply do not occur. Therefore, the police department directly suspects that a guiding hand behind Chaim Cohen's triple win.
A guiding hand in the creation of the universe means the intercession of Almighty, but a guiding hand in "determination of the Lotto winner" means five years in prison!
We shall next consider card games, beginning our discussion with the game poker -- in particular, five-card poke without a draw. In this game, each player is dealt five cards from the deck and these cards form a combination (such as a pair, three-of-a- kind, a flush, etc.). Each combination has an agreed ranking, and the game is won by player whose cards form the highest-ranking combination.
The highest-ranking combination cards in poker is the straight flush. A straight flush is so rare that one can play poker all day, every day of his life, and never see one. And if a poker player should ever get a straight flush, he will never forget it. It's the dream of every poker player!
We now turn to a different card game: bridge. In this game, each player is dealt 13 cards, but we will consider only the first five cards to enable us to make a comparison with poker. If a bridge player's first five cards were to be the combination that constitutes a straight flush in poker, he would probably not even be aware of it because, in bridge, a "straight flush" has no value or meaning whatever.
A "straight flush" -- prized in poker -- is meaningless in bridge.
This combination of cards is not even defined in bridge, hence I put quotation marks around the words "straight flush." Thus, we see that the exact same combination of cards is considered a wondrous combination in poker because of its rarity and value,but is considered a meaningless combination in bridge, despite its rarity, because it has no value.
The preceding examples and discussion pave the way for the answer to our central question: What conclusions may one draw from the Anthropic Principle?
The answer depends on one's views regarding the significance of human beings. In our example about poker and bridge, we explained why the extremely rare straight flush is a wondrous event in a poker game, but a meaningless event in a bridge game. In other words, the same rare event can be either wondrous or meaningless: it all depends on the importance that one attributes to the event itself.
Returning to the subject of our article -- human beings -- we saw that many extremely unlikely events ("a staggeringly improbable series of events ... quite unrepeatable" in the words of Stephen Jay Gould) had to "occur" to make possible the appearance of human beings on earth.
Thus, the extreme rarity of the events leading to human existence is well established. Indeed, that is the scientific content of the Anthropic Principle. But before we can decide on the meaning of these events, we must first decide on the meaning of the end product -- human beings.
If humans are assumed to be just another species in the animal kingdom (as the secularists believe), not more important than any other of the approximately two million species discovered so far, then the Anthropic Principle has no meaning. We have seen that rarity by itself is not significant. It is a "straight flush" in bridge, rare and interesting, but without any meaning.
If, however, one believes that human beings are the most important species in the world and that humanity is the entire reason for the creation of the universe -- as the Torah and the Sages of the Talmud repeatedly emphasize -- then the Anthropic Principle is of the utmost significance. It is a straight flush in poker, the most meaningful of occurrences.
In summary, the scientists have discovered that, in the existence of human beings, the universe has dealt out the extremely rare straight flush. Everyone agrees with that -- the Anthropic Principle has become a scientifically established fact.
If a non-believer is "playing bridge," the Anthropic Principle means nothing to him.
By contrast, the believing Jew is "playing poker" and therefore the Anthropic Principle is yet another example of the harmony that exists between modern science and words of the Torah.
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Though water levels had started to subside, the Australian city of Rockhampton was still inundated when the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) on NASA’s Terra satellite took this image on January 7, 2011. The image includes both infrared and visible light to increase the contrast between muddy floodwater and brown earth. Reflective surfaces on buildings make the city shine white against a background of plant-covered land (which shows up as red). Sediment-loaded water is brown, while clearer water is black.
The top image provides a wider view of the swollen Fitzroy River, which surrounds the western half of the city. The closer view shown in the lower image reveals the extent of the flooding in the city itself. Brown water covers rectangular blocks, particularly in southern Rockhampton. Tiny white flecks within the flooded area are buildings. Approximately 300 homes are believed to be flooded, reported the Australia Broadcasting Corporation.
The river has isolated Rockhampton both by land and air. The airport is flooded, with one runway dry and the other underwater. Airport buildings appear to be surrounded by the flood. The Bruce Highway leaving the city to the south is also under water.
According to the Australian Bureau of Meteorology, the Fitzroy River was at 9.15 meters (30 feet) on Friday, January 7, 2.15 meters (7 feet) above flood stage. The river peaked at 9.2 meters (30.2 feet) on Wednesday, and forecasters expect the river to recede very slowly over the next week.
- Bureau of Meteorology. (2011, January 7). Flood warning for the Fitzroy River Basin. Australian Government. Accessed January 7, 2011.
- Edwards, M. (2011, January 7). Rockhampton prepares for more rain. Australian Broadcasting Corporation News. Accessed January 7, 2011.
NASA Earth Observatory image created by Jesse Allen, using data provided courtesy of NASA/GSFC/METI/ERSDAC/JAROS, and U.S./Japan ASTER Science Team. Caption by Holli Riebeek.
- Terra - ASTER
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Since timezone abbreviations are not well standardized, PostgreSQL provides a means to customize the set of abbreviations accepted by the server. The timezone_abbreviations run-time parameter determines the active set of abbreviations. While this parameter can be altered by any database user, the possible values for it are under the control of the database administrator - they are in fact names of configuration files stored in .../share/timezonesets/ of the installation directory. By adding or altering files in that directory, the administrator can set local policy for timezone abbreviations.
timezone_abbreviations can be set to any file name found in .../share/timezonesets/, if the file's name is entirely alphabetic. (The prohibition against non-alphabetic characters in timezone_abbreviations prevents reading files outside the intended directory, as well as reading editor backup files and other extraneous files.)
A timezone abbreviation file can contain blank lines and comments beginning with #. Non-comment lines must have one of these formats:
time_zone_name offset time_zone_name offset D @INCLUDE file_name @OVERRIDE
A time_zone_name is just the abbreviation being defined. The offset is the zone's offset in seconds from UTC, positive being east from Greenwich and negative being west. For example, -18000 would be five hours west of Greenwich, or North American east coast standard time. D indicates that the zone name represents local daylight-savings time rather than standard time. Since all known time zone offsets are on 15 minute boundaries, the number of seconds has to be a multiple of 900.
The @INCLUDE syntax allows inclusion of another file in the .../share/timezonesets/ directory. Inclusion can be nested, to a limited depth.
The @OVERRIDE syntax indicates that subsequent entries in the file can override previous entries (i.e., entries obtained from included files). Without this, conflicting definitions of the same timezone abbreviation are considered an error.
In an unmodified installation, the file Default contains all the non-conflicting time zone abbreviations for most of the world. Additional files Australia and India are provided for those regions: these files first include the Default file and then add or modify timezones as needed.
For reference purposes, a standard installation also contains files Africa.txt, America.txt, etc, containing information about every time zone abbreviation known to be in use according to the zoneinfo timezone database. The zone name definitions found in these files can be copied and pasted into a custom configuration file as needed. Note that these files cannot be directly referenced as timezone_abbreviations settings, because of the dot embedded in their names.
Note: If an error occurs while reading the time zone data sets, no new value is applied but the old set is kept. If the error occurs while starting the database, startup fails.
Time zone abbreviations defined in the configuration file override non-timezone meanings built into PostgreSQL. For example, the Australia configuration file defines SAT (for South Australian Standard Time). When this file is active, SAT will not be recognized as an abbreviation for Saturday.
If you modify files in .../share/timezonesets/, it is up to you to make backups - a normal database dump will not include this directory.
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The archaeological Bab al-Hawa site has an economic and commercial importance, in addition to its archaeological and historical significance since it constitutes a crossing point for commercial convoys from and to Turkey and the world.
The site's importance came also from being opposite to an ancient roman road connecting Aleppo with Antakya.Bab al-Hawa is located north-west Idlib, about 35 km on the road connecting Sarmada village with Aleppo city.
The site's location near the Syrian-Turkish borders and the beauty of the natural scenes in the area, in addition to its archaeological importance made it a tourist destination for the Syrian, Arab and foreign tourists, particularly at Spring.
Head of Idlib Antiquities Department Nicola Kabbad said Bab al-Hawa site covers an estimated area of 8,500 square meters. It is divided by a paved road into two parts connected by a semi-circular arch called 'Bab al-Hawa Arch'. It is 6,80 m high and 4,20 m wide. The arch is one of the main characteristics of the site. It consists of 14 rows of large stones.
Kabbad added that the northern part of the site encompasses archaeological monuments which reflect its economic significance as several pillars of old doors still exist.
Chairman of the Archaeological Excavation and Studies and the Restoration Departments at Idlib Antiquities Anas Zidan said the southern part of the site was a worship place like a church according to the construction shape. It consists of several rooms; one of them is 2,5m long and 20m wide. Its north-east side extends along the paved road of 20m long and 7m wide.
Zidan pointed out that the northern facade is intermediated by a door topped by a lintel of 2,5m high and 2,5m wide, while the eastern facade is topped by a semi-circular arch of 3,5 diameter, asserting that the southwest facade is modeled as a platform contains four stone columns.
Zidan said that the location of Bab al-Hawa near to several archaeological sites gave it an archaeological and historical significance.
For more interesting topics related to archaeology, visit archaeology excavations.
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Individual differences |
Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology |
Biological: Behavioural genetics · Evolutionary psychology · Neuroanatomy · Neurochemistry · Neuroendocrinology · Neuroscience · Psychoneuroimmunology · Physiological Psychology · Psychopharmacology (Index, Outline)
The facial motor nucleus is a collection of neurons in the brainstem that belong to the facial nerve (cranial nerve VII). These lower motor neurons innervate the muscles of facial expression and the stapedius.
The nucleus is situated in the caudal portion of the ventrolateral pontine tegmentum. Its axons take an anusual course, traveling dorsally and looping around the abducens nucleus, then traveling ventrally to exit the ventral pons medial to the spinal trigeminal nucleus. These axons form the motor component of the facial nerve, with parasympathetic and sensory components forming the nervus intermedius.
The nucleus has a dorsal and ventral region, with neurons in the dorsal region innervating muscles of the upper face and neurons in the ventral region innervating muscles of the lower face.
Because it innervates muscles derived from pharyngeal arches, the facial motor nucleus is considered part of the special visceral efferent (SVE) cell column, which also includes the trigeminal motor nucleus, nucleus ambiguus, and (arguably) the spinal accessory nucleus.
The like all lower motor neurons, cells of the facial motor nucleus receive input from the primary motor cortex in the frontal lobe of the brain. Upper motor neurons of the cortex send axons that descend through the internal capsule and synapse on neurons in the facial motor nucleus. This pathway from the cortex to the brainstem is called the corticobulbar tract.
Interestingly, the neurons in the dorsal aspect of the facial motor nucleus receive inputs from both sides of the cortex, while those in the ventral aspect mainly receive contralateral inputs (i.e. from the opposite side of the cortex). The result is that both sides of the brain control the muscles of the upper face, while the right side of the brain controls the lower left side of the face, and the left side of the brain controls the lower right side of the face.
Effects of lesionsEdit
As a result of the corticobulbar input to the facial motor nucleus, an upper motor neuron lesion to fibers innervating the facial motor nucleus results in central seven. The syndrome is characterized by flaccid paralysis of the contralateral lower face. For example, a left corticobulbar lesion results in paralysis of the muscles that control the lower right quadrant of the face.
By contrast, a lower motor neuron lesion to the facial motor nucleus results in paralysis of facial muscles on the same side of the injury.
Brain: rhombencephalon (hindbrain)
|This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).|
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Evening dress, 'Delphos', womens, pleated silk, Mariano Fortuny, Venice, Italy, 1910-1920
Mariano Fortuny (1871-1949) was a Spanish artist and designer who registered many extraordinary inventions. His most successful patent was for the 'Delphos' gown, which he first designed in 1907. The finely pleated silk gown represented the classic, ideal form. It freed women from the constraints of the corset and now epitomises Fortuny's style.
The 'Delphos' gown was worn in the early twentieth century by some of the most avant-garde women in Europe and America. Fortuny was to repeat it, with only subtle variations, over the next forty years. Fortuny also designed exquisite gowns of printed and stencilled velvet with panels of finely pleated silk. He saw himself as an artist and had no aspiration to be part of high fashion with its constant change. He blended his love for medieval history and classical Greece with a fascination for technology and the skills of the craftsman. Working closely with his wife, Henriette, their work combined the ideals of the Aesthetic Movement and Modernism.
Henriette assisted Fortuny in the manufacture of unusual dyes and pigments and also made up the garments. They devised unique printing and stencilling techniques for the exquisite silks and velvets. Only the tiny Venetian glass beads threaded onto silk cord at the neck and armholes were made elsewhere. 'Delphos' gowns were dyed individually in a wide range of unusual colours. Delicate silk was processed on porcelain rollers to create fine, uneven pleats, one of his many innovations. The dresses were finally rolled up into a tightly twisted ball and presented in a small silk bag, perfect for travelling.
The production process took place at the Palazzo Orfei, the palace in Venice where Fortuny spent the most creative period of his life. His family had moved there when he was eighteen to relieve his allergy to horses.
In 1927 an American interior designer, Elsie McNeill, discovered Fortuny's work and asked if she could sell his goods in America. This venture proved highly successful until the second world war made imports impossible.
After Fortuny's death in 1949, Henriette persuaded Elsie to manufacture the Delphos gowns again and a revival occurred. Following an exhibition held in the Los Angeles County Museum in 1967, Fortuny's style re-emerged. His work was featured in fashion magazines and soon became among the most highly valued collectable garments at international auctions, a status they still hold today.
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Machu Picchu TownAguas Calientes
Machu Picchu Town is a district of province of Urubamba. Is located 2,300 meters above sea level (7,546 ft.), at 112 Km. (70 miles) from Cuzco city, in the Urubamba valley in the lowest part of the Sacred Valley of the Incas in a area of direct access to the upper jungle.
All travelers to and from Machu Picchu Inca Citadel must pass through here. Is 6 kilometers (3.7 mi) away, about 1.5 hours walking to archaeological area.
Originally settled by a few farm families in 1901, the tiny settlement was transformed into a busy railway worker's camp, called Camp Maquinachayoq, during the construction of the railroad through there in the late 1920s. The town was the central hub for worker lodging and their equipment up until the railway was finished in 1931.
Aguas Calientes is the colloquial name for Machu Picchu Pueblo. It is best known as the closest access point to the sacred Incan city of Machu Picchu. Is an unplanned city, is a little town, there are no airport, no taxis, no cars and all are to a walking distance. In Machu Picchu town, is located the train station that leaves to Cuzco and the mini-bus station that can be boarded to be transported to the high part of the mountain and visit the archaeological complex.
The climate is relatively mild all year- round, with heavy rains from November to March, and dry and hot weather from April to October, which is a recommendable time to visit. The annual minimal temperature runs from 8° to 11.2°C. In the months of June, July and August the temperature can often fall below zero. The annual maximum temperature varies from 20.4° to 26.6°C. The terrain is fairly jagged, with many gullies and streams fed by glaciers which eventually pour into the Urubamba river, which crosses the area forming a deep valley which runs through the granite base of Vilcabamba for more than 40 Km through a variety of ecosystems.
Lodging in Machu Picchu - Hotels in Machu Picchu
There are some alternatives, a 3 stars luxury hotel located in Machu Picchu's citadel, in the high part of the mountain. In the Machu Picchu Town you can found 5, 4 and 3 stars hotels, hostels, lodgings and tent campsites.
Tourist services in the town:
There are banks offices and ATM machines, Machu Picchu ticket office, police station, iPeru office, post office, drug stores, small medical center (Centro de Salud), restaurants, cybercafés, public telephones, souvenir and gift stores and Indian market close to train station.
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Physlets are small scriptable java applets meant to be used for educational illustrations and simulations. There are applets covering physics topics from mechanics and E&M through quantum physics and relativity. There are also a wide range of tools for input and display of information. Examples of the educational use of Physlets are available from users around the world.
Please note that this resource requires
at least version 1.1 of
%0 Electronic Source %A Christian, Wolfgang %T Physlets %V 2016 %N 24 June 2016 %9 application/java %U http://webphysics.davidson.edu/Applets/Applets.html
Disclaimer: ComPADRE offers citation styles as a guide only. We cannot offer interpretations about citations as this is an automated procedure. Please refer to the style manuals in the Citation Source Information area for clarifications.
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Right Triangle Proof
Date: 11/19/2004 at 10:26:03 From: Kaustav Subject: Inscribed Circle In right triangle ABC, let CD be the altitude to the hypotenuse. If r1,r2,r3 are radii of the incircles of triangles ABC, ADC, and BDC, respectively, prove CD = r1 + r2 + r3. I'm not sure how to approach it. I have considered using areas. If I can prove the ratio of radii to the sides, I think it can be solved. Any hints?
Date: 11/19/2004 at 12:36:46 From: Doctor Schwa Subject: Re: Inscribed Circle Hi Kaustav, By cutting each triangle into three, you can prove that the area of each triangle = 1/2 * radius of inscribed circle * perimeter of triangle. So: Area ABC = 1/2 * r1 * (AB + BC + AC) Area ADC = 1/2 * r2 * (AD + DC + AC) Area BDC = 1/2 * r3 * (BD + DC + BC) and since area ABC = area ADC + area BDC, r1*AB + r1*BC + r1*AC = r2*AD + r2*DC + r2*AC + r3*BD + r3*DC + r3*BC which is some progress, since now we know DC = (r1*AB + r1*BC + r1*AC - r2*AD - r2*AC - r3*BD - r3*BC)/(r2 + r3) but this still looks pretty ugly. In my argument, though, I never used the fact that the triangle was right! So, what else do we get? Area ABC = 1/2 * AC * BC and also some nice proportions like AD/DC = AC/CB = DC/DB. There's some other nice facts, too, like because tangent segments to a circle must be equal, r1 = (AC + BC - AB)/2 (do you see how to prove this fact?) and analogous relationships in the smaller triangles as well. I think this last idea is VERY promising ... try writing down the expressions for r2 and r3 that you get by this same method and see if you can find that r1 + r2 + r3 = CD! - Doctor Schwa, The Math Forum http://mathforum.org/dr.math/
Search the Dr. Math Library:
Ask Dr. MathTM
© 1994-2015 The Math Forum
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Tradition of the Koskimo.
(Recorded by George Hunt.)
The ancestors of the Koskimo were living at Winter-Place, and they had a chief whose name was Centre. He was really treated like a chief by his tribe; for, as soon as the tribe would fish halibut, and (as soon as) two halibut were caught, one was given to the chief; and when the harpooneers went out to hunt sea-otters, when four were caught, they would give two to their chief, Centre. One-half of everything was divided between him and his tribe. Centre had a princess, Woman-receiving-Half; and Woman-receiving-Half named her father Pet; and Woman-receiving-Half had for her husband Born-to-be-Fool, the prince of Copper-Body. Now the chief felt really happy because he was well treated.
One fine day everybody went out to fish halibut; and when evening came, those who had been out fishing
halibut came back home. Then one man did not give any halibut to the chief. Then the chief became really angry on account of what (that man) had done. In the morning, when day came, Centre took his stone axe and went down to the beach to the north end of the village, and he broke the [really] beautiful canoes of the ancestors of the Koskimo; and he came along towards the place where the hunting-canoe of Born-to-be-Fool was; and Born-to-be-Fool supposed that the chief would not break it, for the chief was his father-in-law. Born-to-be-Fool was standing all the time in the doorway of his house. Centre came along, and reached (the canoe), and he broke the hunting-canoe. Then Born-to-be-Fool became angry on account of his hunting-canoe.
He spoke to his wife, Woman-receiving-Half, and said, "Oh, my dear! I am angry with your father because he has broken my canoe." Thus he said, took his bone club, and left. He was going to kill him. Centre, who is now dead was sitting in the canoe, and was breaking it with his stone axe; and he had on his head a large chief's hat. Then Born-to-be-Fool went up to the chief from behind. He got up to him, and then Born-to-be-Fool spoke to his father-in-law. He said, "O father-in-law! why do you spoil my hunting-canoe?" Thus he said, while he struck his father-in-law with his bone club. Now that great ugly Centre was dead. Woman-receiving-Half was told that her father had been killed by her husband. Then Woman-receiving-Half went into the woods and wailed for her father. Night came, and Woman-receiving-Half just continued to wail. In the morning, when day came, she never stopped. For four days she kept on wailing. Then she heard her name being called.
voice) said, "Woman-receiving-Half, I come to invite you to the Ghosts-showing-Mouth-on-Ground." Immediately Woman-receiving-Half went and followed the inviter. Woman-receiving-Half entered the house. Then one person who was sitting in the house spoke, and said, "Come, grandchild, and eat, for it is evidently a long time since you have [not] eaten." Thus said the man to Woman-receiving-Half. Then a woman was ready. She opened a basket containing dry salmon. When the woman began to roast the dry salmon, a man came into the house and stood in the doorway. He spoke, and said, "Woman-receiving-Half, I invite you for Centre-Dwelling-Place-of-the-Ghosts." Thus said the man before he left.
Then Woman-receiving-Half was sent to follow the man. Woman-receiving-Half arose from the floor of the house and went, following him. However, she had not gone far when she entered a house,--a large, beautiful house. Then an old gray-headed man who was sitting in the house spoke, and said, "Beware of the floor of the house, great-grandchild! Sit down there!" Thus he said, pointing to the rear of the house. Then Woman-receiving-Half sat down in the middle of the rear of the house, and a woman was ready to give something to eat to Woman-receiving-Half. As soon as the woman began to roast dry salmon, again a man came into the house; and he again called Woman-receiving-Half. He said, "I come to invite you, Woman-receiving-Half, to the Charcoal-Ghosts." Thus he said.
Then Woman -receiving-Half was just sent (after him). Woman-receiving-Half again arose from the floor of the house and followed the man. She went to the doorway
of her house and entered. Then a handsome middle-aged man spoke, and said, "Come, beware of the floor of the house, uncle!" Thus he said, while he called Woman-receiving-Half to go and sit down at his right-hand side. Then a woman was ready to open a basket of dry salmon; and she was trying to roast the dry salmon when a man came in, and said, "I invite you, Woman-receiving-Half, for, the chief, Making-Satiated-on-the-Other-Side-of-the-World-Ghosts." Thus said a wee little man. Then the owner of the house also spoke, and Woman-receiving-Half was just sent to follow the little man.
Then Woman-receiving-Half again went and followed the little man. They had not gone far when they arrived at a large house. They entered it. As soon as they entered the doorway of the house, she saw her father sitting on a mat. He had a double-headed serpent face back-rest. As soon as Centre saw his princess, he spoke, and said, "Oh, my dear! why did you conic to this lower world? Come, sit down here!" Thus he said, pointing to his right-hand side. Immediately Woman-receiving-Half went to the place referred to by her father, and sat down.
Then Centre spoke again, and said to his wife, "Oh, my dear! go on, and get something to eat for our child, for she is really hungry." Thus said Centre to her. Then the woman took dry salmon and roasted it; she
broke it up and placed it on a food-mat. Then she put it in front of the place where Woman-receiving-Half was sitting. For a long time she did not take and eat of the dry salmon. Then Centre spoke, and said, "Go on, my dear! don't hesitate! Go on, and take some and eat, my dear!" Thus said Centre to Woman-receiving-Half. Then Woman-receiving-Half began to eat of the dry salmon; and after she had eaten what she had been given, the woman took also something like fresh kelp-fish. Then she took a cooking-box and poured water into it. Then she took tongs and picked up stones and put them into the cooking-box. Then the water began to boil; and the woman took a basket and put the fresh kelp-fish into it. Then she put the basket into the cooking-box, and it was not long before they were done. Then she took them out of the water, and she took a bone strainer and put it into the eating-dish. Then she went and put it down at the place where Woman-receiving-Half was sitting. Then the woman took a spoon and gave it to Woman-receiving-Half. Then she ate with the spoon.
After she had finished, Centre spoke to his daughter, and said, "Oh, my dear! you shall stay at the place to which I have come to be chief, else there will be nobody who will be treated like a chief by our tribe. I will invite our tribe, to come and try to restore you to life, that you may go home to our house." Thus said Chief Centre to Woman-receiving-Half. Then he sent the little man, that the little one should go and invite the Ghosts. He started; and he had not been away long when all the Ghosts came into the large house. As soon as they were all in, Centre arose in the house, and spoke. He said,
[paragraph continues] "O tribe! my daughter here has come, but I don't want her here yet. I Wish your wise men to speak, for I wish her to go back to her house in the upper world." Thus he said to his tribe.
When the great one had finished speaking, an old wise man spoke, and said, "Go on, Ghosts, take the batons and the beating-boards and the chamber-vessels, and sing out loud, Ghosts." Thus he said. Then the batons and the beating-boards and the chamber-vessels were taken. Then the wise man spoke again, said, "Now go and get a mat--a twilled mat--for Woman-receiving-Half to sit on." Thus he said. Then they went after the mat. They brought it, and spread out the mat in the middle of the rear of the house. Then four men went and lifted up Woman-receiving-Half and placed her on the mat. Then the wise men sat down on either side of Woman-receiving-Half. Then the wise men of the Ghosts began to sing. (This has come down to our time, the means of restoring to life the present Koskimo when they are touched by a Ghost and the words of this song are the way of speaking of the Ghosts.)
Then an old man arose and spoke. He said, "O Ghosts! listen to me! It is an important thing, what we are going to do. This is the way you can go back when you come, to the Ghosts-showing-Mouths-on-Ground when a person is dead in the upper world; and again, when you come to our middle dwelling-place of the Ghosts, a dead one who comes from the upper world can go back; and nearer
to us is Charcoal-Ghosts, that is the place where the coal of the fires of the houses of our upper world come and stay; and a man who comes to this place also stays." Thus he said. "Now this dear one of our chief came here to our house, which is named Making-Satiated-on-the-Other-Side-of-the-World-Ghosts. That is what I mean, that whoever comes to this our Ghost house can never go back. Now we will try to sing for the dear one of our chief." Thus he said.
Then he took the chamber-vessel and sprinkled the face of Woman-receiving-Half. After he had done so, he told the Ghosts to go ahead and sing. Then the Ghosts beat time, and they began to sing; and this is their song:
"Ya, xa, xa, ma, ma, xa, ma, maê! Ya, xa, xa, ma, ma, xa, ma, maê!
I invite you, the only one, the son of the Ghosts, the son of the Ghosts, the son of the Ghosts.
Don't feel sorry, the only one, the son of the Ghosts, the son of the Ghosts, the son of the Ghosts.
Don't fear to die, the only one, the son of the Ghosts, the son of the Ghosts, the son of the Ghosts.
Behold! you will not die, the only one, the son of the Ghosts, the son of the Ghosts, the son of the Ghosts: you will go and dance in the house of the friend of the begging-dancer."
After the Ghosts had finished singing for Woman-receiving-Half, she was alive, and she was going to be taken back to our world. Then a man spoke, and said, "O chief! now our dear one will change her name, and her name will be World-Maker-Woman.--Come, Ghosts, and let us take our friend to the upper world!" Thus he said. Then they came and showed themselves behind the village, and she was alive. Then her song was taught
to her tribe. That is the reason the Koskimo know the ways [words] of the Ghosts. That is the end.
|
<urn:uuid:ef156a0d-820a-4989-8e04-6ee77e8c68bc>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://sacred-texts.com/nam/nw/kt/kt65.htm
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00002-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.987322
| 2,756
| 3.46875
| 3
|
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