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AndersWoodruff
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Evolution_Essay_Trump

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[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Among the great and fertile scientific conceptions which have either originated or become firmly established during the nineteenth century, the theory of evolution, if not the greatest of them all, will certainly take its place in the front rank. As a partial explanation (...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "The “continuity” of physical phenomena, as illustrated by the late Sir William Grove in 1866, has the same general meaning, but evolution implies more than mere continuity or succession—something like growth or definite change from form to form under the action of unchange...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "If we say it is, we cannot think it out, since all infinity, however it may be stated in words, is really unthinkable. If we say there is a limit—the ultimate atom—then, as all size is comparative, we can imagine a being to whom this atom seems as large as an apple or even...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE IDEA OF EVOLUTION \nIf we trace, however briefly, the gradual development of knowledge and speculation on this subject, we shall perhaps appreciate more fully the advance we have really made during the present century. The first speculations on...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Munro, of Trinity College, Cambridge. Lucretius had a very clear idea of the indestructibility of matter. He argues that things cannot have come out of nothing, and he says: “A thing never returns to nothing, but all things, after disruption, go back into the first bodies ...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "He thus anticipated the main ideas as to atoms and the universe which have been held by most materialistic thinkers down to our own times. Lucretius was an absolute materialist, for though he did not deny the existence of the gods he refused them any share in the construct...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "The first human infants he supposes to have been formed at some very remote time in the manner following: “For much heat and moisture would then abound in the fields; and therefore wherever a suitable spot offered wombs would grow, attached to the earth by roots; and when ...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "As leading to the next great step in theories of evolution, we must note the life-long observations by Tycho Brahe of the apparent motions of the planets; the grand discovery of Kepler that all these apparently erratic motions were due to their revolution round the sun in ...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Under the law of gravitation this would lead to outer rings being left behind by the contraction of the central mass, which rings would at a later period become drawn together at some point of initial greater density and thus form planets. The whole process is admitted to ...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH’S CRUST \nAlthough Pythagoras (500 B. C.) believed that sea and land must often have changed places, and a few other observers at different epochs came to the same conclusion, yet, till quite recent times, the earth was generally supposed to have bee...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "He showed how rain and rivers, frost and snow, wind and heat disintegrated the hardest rocks and would in time excavate the deepest valleys; while earthquakes, however small an elevation any one of them might produce, would in time raise the sea-bottom sufficiently high to...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "His _Principles of Geology_ was first published in 1830, and successive editions, revised and often greatly extended, continued to appear till the author’s death, forty-five years later. As this work affords a fine example of the application of the principles of evolution ...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "It never appeals to known causes, but again and again assumes forces to be at work for which no evidence is adduced and which are totally at variance with what we see in the world to-day. A few examples justifying these statements must be here given. Cuvier shows that he w...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Instead of assuming hastily that modern causes were totally inadequate, and appealing constantly to purely imaginary and often inconceivable catastrophes, Lyell investigated these causes with painstaking accuracy, applying the tests of survey and time measurement, so as in...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Not only have all the chief modifications during an almost unimaginable period of time been clearly depicted, but they have in almost every case been shown to be the inevitable results of real and comparatively well-known causes, such as we now see at work around us. The g...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Other objections, such as that the internal forces were greater when the earth was hotter, and that tidal effects must have been more powerful when the moon was nearer the earth, are altogether beside the question until we can obtain more definite measures of past time tha...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "ORGANIC EVOLUTION, ITS LAWS AND CAUSES \nWe now come to that branch of the subject which is the most important and distinctive of our age, and which, in popular estimation, alone constitutes evolution—the mode of origin of the innumerable species of animal and plant life w...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Either the problem was not referred to at all, or the theological doctrine of a special creation was held to be the only possible one. But in the middle of the eighteenth century the great French naturalist, Buffon, published his very important work, _Histoire Naturelle_, ...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "He says: “The horse, for example—what can at first sight seem more unlike mankind? Yet when we compare man and horse, point by point and detail by detail, our wonder is excited rather by the resemblances than by the differences between them.” He then shows that all the par...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "He has been showing how variable are many animals, and how changes of food, climate, and general surroundings influence both their forms and their habits; and then he exclaims: \n“What cannot nature effect with such means at her disposal? She can do all except either creat...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Thus he remarks: “It may be said that the movement of nature turns upon two immovable pivots—one, the illimitable fecundity which she has given to all species; the other, the innumerable difficulties which reduce the results of that fecundity and leave throughout time near...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "It was, therefore, a theory of evolution; but it was very unsatisfactory, inasmuch as it in no way accounted for the wonderful variety of the floral organs, or indicated any purpose served by the most prominent and conspicuous part of the flower, the highly colored and oft...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Butler gives copious quotations in three chapters of his _Evolution Old and New_; and any one who is not acquainted with the original work of Lamarck should read these two authors in order to understand how wide was his knowledge, how ingenious his explanations, and in how...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "“Secondly. That these gains or losses of organic development, due to use or disuse, are transmitted to offspring, provided they have been common to both sexes, or to the animals from which the offspring have descended.” \nThe whole force of this argument depends upon the s...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Between the periods of Lamarck and Darwin many advances were made which clearly pointed to a general law of evolution in nature. Such were Sir William Grove’s lectures on the “Correlation of the Physical Forces,” in 1842; Helmholtz on the “Conservation of Energy,” in 1847;...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "This difficulty was met by Darwin’s theory of _The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection_, published in 1859, and the series of works that succeeded it; and to a brief sketch of this theory the remainder of our space must be devoted. THE THEORY OF “NATURAL SELECT...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "L. Blomefield, that he now saw the way in which new varieties become exquisitely adapted to the external conditions of life and to other surrounding beings, and he adds: “I am a bold man to lay myself open to being thought a complete fool, and a most deliberate one.” It is...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Now, these two facts were recognized by Buffon, but though, of course, known to all subsequent writers, were fully appreciated or thought out to their logical results by none of them. Lamarck, so far as I can ascertain, took no notice of them whatever. Darwin has given ill...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "The powers of increase of all creatures are so great that if there is in any country room and food for a larger number of any species they will be produced in a year or two. It is impossible, therefore, to believe that, in a state of nature, where all kinds of animals and ...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "This terrible yearly destruction is an absolutely certain fact, as well as an inevitable result of the two preceding facts, and it is said to be due to the struggle for existence. This struggle is manifold in its nature. Individuals of the same species struggle together fo...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Darwin calls this process of extermination one of “natural selection”—that is, by this process nature weeds out the weak, the unhealthy, the unadapted, the imperfect in any way. Of course, what may be called chance or accident produces many deaths of individuals otherwise ...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "The first is the preservation of each species in the highest state of adaptation to the conditions of its existence; and, therefore, so long as these conditions remained unchanged, the effect of natural selection is to keep each well-adapted species also unchanged. The sec...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Of late years, and chiefly since Darwin’s works were written, the variability of animals and plants in a state of nature has been carefully studied, by actual comparison and measurement of scores, hundreds, and even thousands of individuals of many common, that is, abundan...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Now, as the weeding-out process is so severe, only from one in ten to one in a hundred of those born surviving to produce young, the above proportion of variations affords ample scope for the selection of any variation needed in order to modify the species so as to bring i...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "All of these have, I believe, been fully answered either by Darwin or myself, many of the most recent having been discussed in review articles. Suffice it to say here that this theory of natural selection—meaning the elimination of the least fit, and therefore the ultimate...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Although the philosophical writers of classical times obtained a few glimpses of the action of law in nature regulating its successive changes, nothing satisfactory could be effected till the actual facts had been better ascertained by the whole body of workers who, during...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE. CHEMISTRY \n\nThe progress of the science of chemistry forms one phase of the progress of human thought. While at first mankind was contented to observe certain phenomena, and to utilize them for industrial purposes, if they were found suitable, “phi...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "He laid down the definition of the modern meaning of the word “element”; he declined to accept the current view that the properties of matter could be modified by its assimilating the qualities of fire, air, earth, or water, and he defined an element as the _constituent_ o...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "The important part which gases play in the constitution of many chemical compounds was accordingly overlooked; and, indeed, it appeared to be almost as striking a feat of necromancy to produce a quantity of a gas of great volume from a small pinch of solid powder as for a ...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "This earth, when heated with substances rich in phlogiston, such as coal, wood, flour, and similar bodies, recovered the phlogiston, which it had lost on burning, and, with the added phlogiston, its metallic character. Other substances, such as phosphorus and sulphur, gave...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "The discovery that air is in the main a mixture of nitrogen, an inert gas, and oxygen, an active one, together with a small proportion of carbonic “acid” (or, as it is now termed, anhydride)—a discovery perfected by Rutherford, Black, and Cavendish—and that water is a comp...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Born in Cornwall in 1778, he began the study of chemistry, self-taught, in 1796; and in 1799 he became director of the “Pneumatic Institution,” an undertaking founded by Dr. Beddoes, at Bristol, for the purpose of experiments on the curative effects of gases in general. He...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "In 1807 Davy applied his galvanic battery to the decomposition of damp caustic potash and soda, using platinum poles. He was rewarded by seeing globules of metal, resembling mercury in appearance, at the negative pole; and he subsequently proved that these globules, when b...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "The alkali metals, potassium and sodium, were found to attack glass, liberating “the basis of the silex,” to which the name silicon has since been given. Thus nearly the last of the “earths” had been decomposed. It was proved that not merely were the “calces” of iron, copp...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "To Davy, too, belongs the merit of having dethroned oxygen from its central position among the elements. Lavoisier gave to this important gas the name “oxygen,” because he imagined it to be the constituent of all acids. He renamed the common compounds of oxygen in such a m...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "This he did by passing chlorine over white-hot carbon—a substance eminently suited to deprive oxy-compounds of their oxygen—and proving that no oxide of carbon is thereby produced; by acting on certain chlorides, such as those of tin or phosphorus with ammonia, and showing...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "The difficulty of isolating fluorine is due to its extraordinary chemical energy; for there are few substances, elementary or compound, which resist the action of this pale yellow, suffocating gas. In 1811 iodine, separated by Courtois from the ashes of sea-plants, was sho...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "The names _monoxalate_ and _binoxalate_ of potash were applied to these compounds, to indicate the respective proportions of the ingredients. Dalton conceived the happy idea that by applying the ancient Greek conception of atoms to such facts the relative weights of the at...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Similarly the symbols ◍○, and ○◍○ were given to the two compounds of carbon with oxygen. So water was assigned the symbol ◉○, for Dalton imagined it to be a compound of one atom of hydrogen with one of oxygen. Compounds containing only two atoms were termed by him “binary”...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Thus, NaO signified a compound of an atom of sodium (natrium), weighing twenty-three times as much as a similar atom of hydrogen, with an atom of oxygen, possessing eight times the weight of an atom of hydrogen. Therefore, thirty-one pounds of soda should consist of twenty...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "The determination of these “Constants of Nature” was at once followed out by many chemists, Thomson among the first. But chief among the chemists who have pursued this branch of work was Jacob Berzelius, a Swede, who devoted his long life (1779–1848) to the manufacture of ...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "In 1815 two papers were published in the _Annals of Philosophy_ by Dr. Prout, which have had much influence on the progress of chemistry. They dealt with the figures which were being obtained by Thomson, Berzelius, and others, at that time supposed to represent the “atomic...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "But about the year 1840 Dumas discovered an error in the number (12.12) given by Berzelius as the atomic weight of carbon; and with his collaborator, Stas, undertook the redetermination of the atomic weights of the commoner elements—for example, carbon, oxygen, chlorine, a...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "In conjunction with Alexander von Humboldt, Gay-Lussac had rediscovered about three years before what had previously been established by Cavendish—namely, that, as nearly as possible, two volumes of hydrogen combine with one volume of oxygen to form water, the gases having...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "The assumption that equal volumes of gases contain equal numbers of particles, or, as they were termed by him, _molécules intégrantes_, was made in 1811 by Avogadro, professor of physics at Turin (1776–1856). This theory, which has proved of the utmost importance to the sc...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Thus we have two cubic inches containing, of uncombined gases, twice as many particles as is contained in that volume, after combination. Avogadro’s hypothesis solved the difficulty. By premising two different orders of particles, now termed _atoms_ and _molecules_, the so...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Thus two cubic inches of hydrogen chloride consist of a definite number of molecules, equal in number to those contained in a cubic inch of hydrogen, plus those contained in a cubic inch of chlorine. The case is precisely similar, if other compounds of gases be considered....
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "It will be advisable to revert to this hypothesis at a later point, and to consider other guides for the determination of atomic weights. In 1819, Dulong (1785–1838), director of the Ecole Polytechnique at Paris, and Petit (1791–1820), professor of physics there, made the ...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "is approximately 6.2; it varies between 5.7 and 6.6 in actual part. This affords a means of determining the true value of the atomic weight of an element, as the following example will show: The analysis of the only compound of zinc and chlorine shows that it contains 47.4...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Applying Avogadro’s hypothesis, one molecule of hydrogen and one molecule of chlorine react to yield two molecules of hydrogen chloride; and as each molecule is supposed to consist in this case of two atoms, hydrogen chloride consists of one atom of each of its constituent...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Inasmuch as the relative weight of a molecule of hydrogen is 2 (that of an atom being 1), zinc chloride in the gaseous state should be 136.4 ÷ 2 = 68.2 times that of hydrogen, measured at the same temperature and pressure. This has been found, experimentally, to be the cas...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "W. Hofmann (1868); and a third, preferable for its simplicity and ease of execution, is due to Victor Meyer (1881). In 1858, as already remarked, Cannizzaro showed the connection between these known facts, and for the first time attention was called to the true atomic weig...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "It was found by Weber that at high temperatures the specific heats of these elements are higher, and the atomic heats approximate to the number of 6.2; but this behavior is not peculiar to these elements, for it appears that the specific heat of all elements increases with...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "In other instances the gradual decrease in density with rise of temperature can be followed, as with chloral hydrate, the products of which are chloral and water. It was recognized by St. Claire Deville (1857) that the decrease in density of such mixtures of gases was due,...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "To take the above instance of ammonium chloride, its abnormal density is due to its dissociation into ammonia and hydrogen chloride; and the gas which is obtained on raising its temperature consists, not of gaseous ammonium chloride, but of a mixture of ammonia and hydroge...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "A striking support is lent to this chain of reasoning by the facts discovered by Thomas Graham (1805–1869), professor at University College, London, and subsequently master of the Royal Mint. Graham discovered that the rate of diffusion of gases into each other is inversel...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Now, 4 = √16; and as these masses are relatively 1 and 16, and their temperatures are equal, the square of their velocities are respectively 1 and 16. The question of the molecular complexity of gases being thus disposed of, it remains to be considered what are the relativ...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "While the researches of which a short account has now been given have led to knowledge regarding the nature of molecules, the structure of the molecule has excited interest since the early years of the century, and its investigation has led to important results. The fact o...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Combination, therefore, according to Davy, is concurrent with the equalization of potentials. In 1812 Berzelius brought forward an electro-chemical theory which for the following twenty years was generally accepted. His primary assumption was that the atoms of elements, or...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Thus sulphate of magnesium and potassium was to be regarded as composed of electro-positive potassium sulphate in combination with electro-negative magnesium sulphate; the former in its turn consisted of electro-negative sulphur trioxide (SO3) in combination with electro-p...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "For Davy had proved the elementary nature of chlorine; and hydrochloric acid, one of the strongest, was thus seen to contain no oxygen, and Davy expressed the view, founded on his observation, that iodic “acid,” I2O5, was devoid of acid properties until dissolved in water,...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Now, if Berzelius’s theory be true, the products should be SO3 and K2O, but if the opposite view be correct, then K2 is liberated first and by its subsequent action on water it yields potash and its equivalent of hydrogen. This was pointed out first by Daniell, professor a...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "But the quantity of water necessary was not then considered essential; Graham, however, showed that there exist three series of salts—one set derived from P2O5,3H2O, one from P2O5,2H2O, and a third from P2O5,H2O. His way of stating the fact was that water could play the pa...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Similarly the group (P2O7) was characteristic of pyrophosphates and (PO3) of metaphosphates, for P2O5,2H2O=(P2O7)H4; and P2O5,H2O=2(PO3)H. The first clear ideas of the structure of the molecule were, however, gained from the study of the compounds of carbon. It was difficu...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "The discovery of “isomeric compounds,” _i.e._, of compounds which possess the same ultimate formula and yet differ entirely in their properties, forced upon chemists the necessity of attending to the structure of the molecule; for only by such a supposition could the diffe...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "They termed this group, benzoyl, a “compound element” or a “radical.” This research was followed by one by Robert Bunsen, professor at Heidelberg, born in 1811, and recently (1899) dead, which bore reference to cacodyl, a compound of arsenic, carbon and hydrogen, in which ...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "In 1849 Wurtz, professor in Paris (1817–1884), and Hofmann, then professor in the College of Chemistry in London, afterwards at Berlin (1818–1892), discovered a series of compounds allied to ammonia, NH3, in which one or more atoms of hydrogen were replaced by a group or r...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "H.; CH3. O. H.; CH3. O. CH3; and NH3; NH2; H3; NH(CH3)2; and N(CH3)3; the first representing compounds following the water type, the latter the ammonia type. This suggestion had been previously made by Laurent, in 1846." } ]
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "This suggestion had been previously made by Laurent, in 1846. But Williamson extended his views to inorganic compounds; thus, sulphuric acid was represented as constructed on the double water type—HO. SO2. OH, being derived from H. O. (H." } ]
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "(H. H) O. H, the two hydrogen atoms enclosed in brackets being replaced by the radical SO2. To these types Gerhardt added the hydrogen and hydrogen chloride types, H.H. and H.Cl; and, later, Kekulé, professor in Bonn (1829), added the marsh gas type C(H)4. The next importa...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "The next important step was taken by Frankland, professor in the Royal School of Mines, London; his work, however, had been anticipated by Cunn Brown, professor at Edinburgh University, in a pamphlet even yet little known. It was to attribute to elements one or more powers...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "This is evident from inspection of the formulas of their compounds with hydrogen, thus: \n H H H / \\ / H——Cl; H——O——H; H——N ; C \\ / \\ H H H...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "In certain cases the atoms of carbon are arranged in “chains,” as, for example, in pentyl alcohol: \n H3C——C——C——C——C——O——H H2 H2 H2 H2 \neach atom being tetrad, and its “affinities,” or powers of combination, saturated either with hydrogen or with those of neig...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Such formulas, however, can evidently not represent the true constitution of matter, inasmuch as the atoms are imagined to lie on a plane, whereas it is evident that they must occupy space of three dimensions and possess the attributes of solidity. The conception which led...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "These observations remained unexplained, until LeBel and Van’t Hoff, in 1874, simultaneously and independently devised a theory which has, up till now, stood the test of research. It is briefly this: Imagine two regular tetrahedra, or three-sided pyramids, standing each on...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "This represents the solid or _stereochemical_ formula of methane or marsh gas. Now, suppose one of the atoms of hydrogen in each of these structures to be replaced by chlorine, the group (OH), or any other monovalent element or group. It is evident that if not exactly simi...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "This hypothesis of LeBel’s and Van’t Hoff’s has had an enormous influence on the progress of organic chemistry. By its means Fischer, now professor at Berlin, has explained the reason of the existence of the enormous number of bodies analogous to grape and cane sugar, and ...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "It has been observed by Raoult, professor at Grenoble, that the freezing-point of a solvent as a general rule is lowered to the same extent if there be dissolved in it quantities of substances proportional to their molecular weights. Thus, supposing 1.80 grams of grape-sug...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "But ordinary salts, such as sodium chloride, potassium nitrate, etc., dissolved in water, give too great a depression of the freezing-point and too high a boiling-point. Next, it has been observed by botanists, Devries, Pfeffer, and others, who had examined the ascent of s...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Van’t Hoff pointed out that the total pressure registered is proportional to the amount of substance in solution, and that it is proportional to the absolute temperature, and he showed, besides, that the pressure exerted by the sugar molecules is the same as that which wou...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "The conductivity of such solutions becomes greater, per unit of dissolved salt, the weaker the solution, until finally a limit is reached, after which further dilution no longer increases conductivity. Now Van’t Hoff united all these isolated observations and showed their ...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "He pointed out further that the exceptions to this behavior, noticed in the case of dissolved salts, are due to their “electric dissociation,” or “ionization,” as it is now termed; and that in a sufficiently dilute solution of potassium nitrate, for example, the osmotic pr...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Thus the phenomenon of electrolysis, so long a mysterious process, finds a simple explanation. The course of ordinary chemical reactions is also readily realized when viewed in the light of this theory. Take, for example, the ordinary equation: \n AgNO3.Aq + NaCl.Ag = AgC...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "One more application of the principle may be given. Many observers—Andrews, Favre, and Silbermann, but especially Julius Thomsen, of Copenhagen, and M. Berthelot, of Paris—have devoted much labor and time to the measurement of the heat evolved during chemical reactions. No...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "It finds its explanation as follows: These acids and bases are ionized in solution as shown in the equation: \n + − + − + − H.Aq + Cl.Aq. + Na.Aq + OH.Aq = H.OH + Na.Aq + Cl.Aq. Water is the only compound formed; and it is produced b...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "It has been termed the “Periodic Arrangement of the Elements.” \nIn 1864 Newlands, of London, and Lothar Meyer, late of Tübingen, found that by arranging the elements in the order of their atomic weights certain regularities were to be observed between each element, and in...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Mendeléef, professor at St. Petersburg, in 1869 amplified and extended these relations; and he and Meyer pointed out that the volume occupied by equal numbers of atoms of such elements underwent a periodic variation when the elements are classified as above. The prediction...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Dyad. Triad. Tetrad. Triad and Pentad. OH2 FH Ne—— SO3 Cl(OH)O3 A—— Dyad and Hexad. Monad and Heptad." } ]
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "Monad and Heptad. No valency. The elements of no valency are of recent discovery. In 1894 Lord Rayleigh had determined the density of the nitrogen of the atmosphere, having separated from it the oxygen and carbon dioxide which is mixed with nitrogen in air. He found it to ...
[ { "role": "assistant", "content": "In conjunction with Ramsay he investigated atmospheric nitrogen; it was absorbed either by a method devised by Cavendish, or by making it combine with magnesium at a red heat. They found that the unabsorbable residue possessed an unknown spectrum, and that its density was ...

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