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by Burt Jones and Maurine Shimlock
At 55, Jerry Allen is almost as fit as he was when he was the shortest player on his high school football team. His dark eyes are twinkling now as he watches me scan his list. It is hard to believe that he identified every fish we saw, but for nearly thirty years, ever since he left the University of Hawaii doctorate in hand, and boarded a sailboat bound for the South Pacific, Jerry has been counting fish. Jerry and his wife Connie made their way south to the Great Barrier Reef in the early 1970's. After they reached Australia, Connie vowed never to set foot on a sailboat again and Jerry took a post at the Western Museum in Perth. Since 1974 he has been the Senior Curator of Aquatic Zoology, but Jerry spends most of his time in the field surveying tropical marine life, racing to record it all before pollution and destructive fishing practices demolish the world's tropical reef fish population. Here in Komodo Jerry believes he has found the mother-lode: Perhaps the most extraordinary assemblage of tropical marine species yet discovered.
As soon as we both dry off I ask him about the survey's progress. "A few years ago I devised a technique for assessing and comparing fish diversity for sites strung out across the vast Indo-Pacific region. My method essentially consists of comparing species totals for key indicator groups: butterflyfishes, angelfishes, damselfishes, wrasses, parrotfishes, and surgeonfishes. So far Komodo's total for these groups, 284 species, ranks second on a lengthy list of the world's richest localities. And I believe that although the comparisons are based only on fishes, we can expect to find a similar wealth of other marine organisms within Komodo National Park."
Because of its remote location and lack of facilities for divers, marine scientists are just beginning to explore the water-filled laboratories that hover beneath Komodo's waves. In 1994 Allen visited Komodo with an international team trained to undertake the initial underwater survey of Komodo. The team recorded over 800 different fish species in less than two weeks. Both corals and fish were found to be most abundant in the warm tropical Pacific waters surrounding northern Komodo. Sessile, flamboyantly-colored invertebrate life, particularly echinoderms, sponges, and tunicates, dominate the cooler Indian Ocean waters of southern Komodo.
After he returned home from his first Komodo survey, Allen thought a great deal about why Indonesia in general and Komodo in particular supported such an extraordinary variety of marine life. The answer he devised is complex and based on a unique combination of past and present biological and physical factors.
Indonesia is an insular region that forms an archipelago which spans more than five thousand kilometers across forty-six degrees of longitude. Species diverge whenever they are isolated from their ancestral populations and Indonesia's vast distances and sheer number of islands have aided greatly in the fragmentation process. Every time that a small chunk of land broke away from a larger land mass and formed its own island, or the earth spewed out a bit of new land from its molten core, Indonesia's species, even the ocean-dwelling ones, slowly evolved separate biological identities from their original populations.
Sea level fluctuations in past geological ages have caused radical changes in island topography. Huge sea level drops during the Pleistocene epoch linked the southeast Asian mainland with Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, and some of the Lesser Sunda Islands. This land bridge formed a significant barrier to dispersal and further fragmentation of marine populations. Indonesia also straddles the Pacific's notorious "ring of fire", a volcano-plagued boundary between oceanic and continental plates. Volcanism has no doubt caused local extinctions in some areas, but it also created new foundations where marine life flourished eventually. Furthermore, marine habitats of every description abound throughout the Indonesian archipelago and have created myriad opportunities for evolution.
Few dive destinations can match Komodo for sheer adventure, adrenaline-charged excitement, and the thrill of discovery. Most sport divers will not risk diving in Komodo's strong currents and wildly fluctuating water temperatures, yet it is exactly these inhospitable elements that bring Jerry Allen to Komodo again and again. The sea surrounding the northern side of the islands is invariably warm, between 78 and 82 degrees Fahrenheit, as it should be within 10 degrees latitude of the equator. But only twenty miles away around the southern perimeter of the park, upwellings of cold water from the abyss make frequent and unscheduled appearances. "My most vivid recollection of Komodo's unusual temperature ranges involves a dive I made during the 1994 survey while wearing my usual eighth-inch tropical suit. The dive plan called for a quick descent to 120 feet and then a leisurely swim back up the slope to record all the encountered fish. The water felt unusually chilly, in the low 70's, at the beginning of the dive, but it was not uncomfortable. The deeper I went, the cooler I felt until I began shivering uncontrollably at a depth of 100 feet. I suddenly encountered a clearly visible thermocline--a pronounced blurring that marks the collision of two water masses with radically different temperatures. I tentatively extended my hand into the blurry water, abruptly withdrawing it. I couldn't believe how frigid that water was; an astounding 55 degrees Fahrenheit, or about as cold as the Southern Ocean around southwestern Australia during middle of winter."
The low water temperatures in particular have very interesting biological implications because Komodo's cool waters draw in organisms usually restricted to temperate seas well outside the park's tropical boundaries. Jerry first encountered the surgeonfish, Prionurus, while snorkeling on Komodo's western shore. "I could scarcely believe my eyes. Only a handful of Prionurus species are known, recorded from far-flung cool-water areas including Japan, south-eastern Australia, and the Galapagos. Seeing this animal so near the equator made me feel like one of the make-believe scientists visiting Hollywood's Jurassic Park.
The Prionurus, which is new to science and still lacks a Latin species name, survives in tropical Komodo because of the frigid upwellings carried in by Komodo's ferocious currents. The seas surrounding other islands in the Lesser Sunda Group, as well as the much larger islands of Java and Sumatra also host strong currents that bring in colder-than-normal water. Oceanographic studies have revealed a consistent sea level difference between the northern (Pacific) and southern (Indian Ocean) shores of the islands. Even though the difference is small (8 to 15 inches), it is just enough to generate a gross downhill flow into the Indian Ocean Basin, especially when tides and winds are favorable. The archipelago's southern tier of islands acts like a dam and holds back the warmer Pacific waters which are forcibly discharged through numerous narrow straits or "spillways" into the Indian Ocean.
The net result is horrendous currents that literally rip through the restricted land gaps. Even casual observers with little or no interest in the mechanics of oceanography are awe-struck when they first see this phenomenon. Running at speeds of five to six knots in every direction, currents are totally unpredictable. Tongues of opposing water collide frequently and form spectacular surface whirlpools. The channel between Sumbawa and Komodo often whirls and foams like a massive twenty-kilometer-wide washing machine.
These unrelenting currents are responsible in part for Komodo's amazing variety of sessile encrusting organisms. The strong surface currents which run predominantly from north to south form a "wake" effect on the southern or lee side of the islands. Surface waters are forcibly pushed out into the Indian Ocean and create a pressure void along the rocky southern shores. Cold water rises up from the abyss and rushes in to replace water removed by surface currents. A by-product of the upwelling phenomenon is greatly increased production of phytoplankton, a nutritional boon for southern Komodo's bottom-dwelling filter-feeders.
Phytoplankton production has far-reaching biological effects. These microscopic single-celled plants constitute a vital first step in the food chain. Upwellings transport dissolved nutrients, the product of bacterial decomposition of organic detritus, to the surface. These nutrients act like fertilizer and cause rich blooms of phytoplankton. Most of the organic material that sustains life in the sea is synthesized by the endless varieties of phytoplankton within the shallow, well-lighted surface layers of the ocean. They provide food for herbivorous zooplankton and some small fishes, which in turn support a succession of actively swimming predators. In the rocky shallows additional food also is available from the growth of larger fixed plants and from land drainage.
The increased productivity evident at Komodo is responsible for unusual population explosions of several organisms, some rarely seen elsewhere, that are difficult to study because they thrive in hazardous currents. "Jerry is really an intrepid explorer, says Kal Muller, author of Underwater Indonesia. We were planning a dive at a spectacular site situated midway along the western coast at Pulau Tukohlehokgebah, Pulau Tuk for short, and Jerry really wanted to get in the water and count "sea apples", a holothurian (Pseudocolchirus violaceus) that's quite brilliantly colored and normally hard to find. But by the time we finished gearing up minor swirls of water on the surface had turned into spinning whirlpools and the current was running out of control. In hindsight we should have aborted the dive, but we ignored our better judgment and jumped in."
Muller and Allen quickly realized that the current was pulling them out into blue water away from the protection of the reef and that they were sinking much too quickly. Their bubbles were going straight down past them instead of streaming up toward the surface. Crashing into the bottom at 120', they pulled themselves across the rocky substrate and caught their breath beneath the protection of a coral ledge, and then watched the parade of marine life jet past. The water literally teemed with small mid-water swimming fishes, including thousands of Scalefin Anthias (Pseudanthias squamipinnis), while peculiar bright blue phallic-like sea squirt colonies (Neptheis fascicularis) and blazing red, blue, and yellow sea apples clustered helter-skelter on the rocky bottom.
Along the west side of Gilimota Island there is a site named the "Apple Orchard" in honor of its profusion of these seldom-seen marine oddities. After Jerry's experience at Pulau Tuk, we decide to dive Gilimota at exact slack tide. Harry and Anton, two sturdy deck hands who hail from the island of Flores on the park's western boundary, set the anchor. We enter the cool transparent water and leave topside Komodo's baking hot primeval landscape behind. Drifting easily down a volcanic slope flamboyantly adorned with crinoids, filter feeding relatives of sea stars that have long feathery arms they use to trap microscopic food particles from the water, we slip through undulating masses of transparent fish. And everywhere we look there are sea apples, bushy yellow and white tentacles outstretched, gracefully gleaning bits of trapped plankton from the flowing sea.
The current quickens at the end of our dive, and as we ascend we are pulled into a cloud of plankton. For a moment we forget where we are and just swirl with the water as we try to photograph the tiny larval jellyfish and thimble-sized pelagic tunicates that bob past us almost too fast for our autofocus lenses to keep pace.
Jerry is already dancing on the deck with glee as we swim over to the rusty ladder. "That is what is so wonderful about this place. Diving in Komodo is totally unpredictable. You go down thinking you'll see some sea apples or a few interesting fish species, and the next thing you know you're surrounded by alien beings masquerading as plankton!" After we are back on deck he explains to us that Komodo's raging currents are constantly dispersing pelagic larvae, the fragile ocean-going first stage in the life history of most reef organisms. Jerry tells us to "think of the Komodo area as a gigantic rotary beater thoroughly blending its larval brew. The successful recruitment of a given species at a particular location depends not only on a sufficient supply of larvae, but especially on the whims of the unpredictable current patterns, which virtually transform the colonization of reef organisms at a particular site into a lottery. Because of Komodo's currents, you never know what you might see next!"
Unfortunately our excitement turns to anger and then despair during the next dive. We move the boat over to the southern shore of Rinca Island where Komodo dragons patrol the dark sand shore. Through shared binoculars, we all watch two nine-foot-long adult dragons chase a small juvenile to the water's edge. The youngster escapes by swimming over to a bit of reef that barely breaks the surface, but we scare the dragon off its perch when we start the outboard and head off in the dingy to hunt for poisonous sea urchins. The urchins we are looking for, Asthenosoma varium, are incredibly beautiful animals. Each one is about ten inches in diameter and their constantly-moving spines are lavishly colored purple, yellow, and red. Near Rinca we dive a site where each urchin we find plays host to a pair of symbiotic shrimp (Periclimenes colmani), a crab or two (Zebrida adamsii), and even colonies of pale white wentletrap shells (Luetzenia asthenosomae). We are pleasantly gliding over an underwater meadow of octocoral studded with brightly-colored urchins when we hear the first explosion. The force of the second detonation nearly knocks my regulator out of my mouth, and the third one sends us finning for the surface as fast as we can without risking a decompression accident.
We surface and see a bagan, a local-style fishing boat, motoring away from the dive site. The widespread use of cyanide and explosives for catching aquarium and food fishes has reached plague proportions throughout Southeast Asia. Even the remote reefs of Komodo have not escaped these illegal practices. Deadly home-made bombs are concocted easily with readily available ingredients such as fertilizer and diesel oil. They not only kill huge numbers of fish, but cause serious long-term degradation of the coral reef environment. Reefs that formerly supported lush coral gardens are routinely reduced to rubble. Local fishermen invariably claim that the illegal poachers originate from surrounding islands rather than sparsely populated Komodo. The Indonesian government wants to stop poaching and dynamite fishing, but it is terribly difficult to implement effective controls due to the park's large size and the lack of trained and well-supplied ranger-manned patrol boats.
Although we are depressed over the incident, Jerry believes there is a glimmer of hope for Komodo's reefs. "Komodo's marine fauna is very special; it has a unique blend of animals. The park's marine resources deserve protection as much as the more well-known dragons, and the world scientific community recognizes this fact, especially after the publication of the results of the first survey. One recent positive governmental action was the seaward expansion of the boundaries of Komodo National Park. But I believe that although the marine environment is now officially protected, there still is a genuine need for police or military support because these poachers are frequently armed."
Along with more effective law enforcement, it is hoped that the government will implement a comprehensive conservation-oriented education program specifically aimed at Indonesian youth. The fate of Komodo (and other Indonesian reefs) is really in the hands of the people, and their education process must foster awareness of the very special character of Komodo's marine life and the need to nurture it for future generations. This is a real challenge which should concern all conservationists, not just the few people who are fortunate enough to dive beneath the dragon's realm.
Please follow these links for information about travel to Komodo, Alor, Irian, Indonesia, and beyond:
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Copyright © 1995, 1996, 1997,
1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006
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Free Printable science brain teasers for middle school
Looking for science brain teasers for middle school free printables? You've found them! These printable science brain teasers for middle school are totally free, so print as many as you like! If you can't find the item you are looking for, please suggest an item!
Related Searches: printable witch mask, printable free printable meter stick, printable a draw a line, printable black and white stationary, printable coldplay the scientist piano sheet, printable super mario bros invitations, printable clarinet lady gaga, printable printable homonym worksheet, printable blank stave, printable bath
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|Laying the Foundation for Healthy and Productive Living: Prevention of NCDs in Adolescents and Youth|
What: An interactive discussion on Prevention of Non Communicable Diseases in Adolescents and Youth during the 45th Session of the Commission on Population and Development, United Nations Economic and Social Council ( UN ECOSOC).
This side event is co-sponsored by the Permanent Missions of the Member States of the Caribbean Community, the Permanent Mission of Chile and the United States Mission to the United Nations, in collaboration with the Pan American Health Organization/World Health Organization (PAHO/WHO).
Why: The event aims to draw attention to the importance of the wider health needs of adolescents and youth beyond sexual and reproductive health.
When: Tuesday, 24 April 2012, 1:15 p.m. - 2:45 p.m.
Where: Turkish Center, 821 First Avenue, NYC, 8th Fl.
Light lunch will be served
Today, non communicable diseases (NCDs), specifically diabetes, heart disease/hypertension, chronic respiratory disease and cancer, are the leading causes of death and disability worldwide and account for 75% of all deaths in the region of the Americas. The risk factors for these NCDs are associated with behaviors that are established during adolescence, including 1) harmful use of alcohol, 2) tobacco use, 3) sedentary lifestyle, and 4) an unhealthy diet. During adolescence and young adulthood, individuals are making choices that will affect their future lifestyle—as well as their future health status, health care costs, and longevity. These choices are profoundly shaped by the social and physical environment, and the way we live, learn, play and work.
For more information, please visit the following website: http://tiny.cc/NCDado
Regional Office for the Americas of the World Health Organization
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- Pregnancy & Childbirth
- Attachment Parenting
- Family Nutrition
- Family Wellness
It's fascinating how even children in the same family are so different from one another. A child's individual personality is determined, at least in part, by their inborn temperament, which begins to reveal its self soon after birth. One three-month-old baby may be described as "laid-back," while another three- month-old may need to be constantly entertained. Your job as a parent is to help your child become the best he or she can be. This means nurturing your child in a way that shapes his or her nature to the child's advantage. The toys you select for your child can help you do this. A shy child might benefit from toys that require interaction with other people—games that use the thinking skills she excels in but that are played with a partner. A very active or aggressive child probably should not have an assortment of toy weapons at his disposal. Instead, think sports equipment or skates or balls—toys that channel energy away from violent play. If you feel that an aggressive child needs to learn more about caring for others, your first thought may be to give that child a baby doll or a teddy bear. But will he play with it? Instead try toys that encourage caregiving activities on a heroic scale—equipment to play police officer (minus the gun) or fire fighter.
Avoid the trap of selecting toys for the child you wish you had as a child. If you're using toys to stretch a child in a new direction, think small steps. Giving a doll-loving little girl a tool set probably won't turn her into a construction expert, but building a dollhouse together might be the first step toward a career in architecture.
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Station brings housing boom
This photograph was taken just after Winchmore Hill Station opened in 1871. Before the station opened, Winchmore Hill was a fairly isolated hamlet in north London. The coming of the Enfield branch of the Great Northern Railway changed the area completely.
Growth of Winchmore Hill
By the First World War, Winchmore Hill had become a popular place to live. Many houses were built as a result of the improved transport brought by the railway. The opening of the Piccadilly Line extension in 1933 brought further development to the west.
Winchmore Hill was one of a circle of small settlements in north London including Palmers Green, Colney Hatch, Bowes and Southgate. There were several large estates in the area, including Grovelands. The house at Grovelands was built in 1797 to designs by John Nash for the Quaker brewer, Walker Gray. As housing increased in the area, the Grovelands Estate preserved the surrounding park from over-development in this popular suburb.
Museum number 99.113
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As in COBWEB, AUTOCLASS [ Cheeseman et al., 1988], and other systems [Anderson & Matessa, 1991], we will assume that clusters, , are described probabilistically: each variable value has an associated conditional probability, , which reflects the proportion of observations in that exhibit the value, , along variable . In fact, each variable value is actually associated with the number of observations in the cluster having that value; probabilities are computed `on demand' for purposes of evaluation.
Figure 1: A probabilistic categorization tree.
Probabilistically-described clusters arranged in a tree form a hierarchical clustering known as a probabilistic categorization tree. Each set of sibling clusters partitions the observations covered by the common parent. There is a single root cluster, identical in structure to other clusters, but covering all observations and containing frequency information necessary to compute 's as required by category utility. Figure 1 gives an example of a probablistic categorization tree (i.e., a hierarchical clustering) in which each node is a cluster of observations summarized probabilistically. Observations are at leaves and are described by three variables: Size, Color, and Shape.
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Nearly everyone, at sometime in life, has trouble falling asleep or staying asleep, a condition known as insomnia. Insomnia can be short-term, lasting anywhere from a few nights to a few weeks, or long-term, lasting months or even years. Problems sleeping tend to get worse with age because of changes in sleep patterns. Older people generally get less deep, or non-R-E-M, sleep, and are often taking medications that contribute to sleeplessness. However, troubled sleep may be a sign of an emotional or physical disorder rather than old age. Although sleeping aids such as sedatives can be beneficial, it is easy to become dependent on them, which can cause confusion and memory impairment during waking hours. If you're taking sedatives, you should remember never to mix them with alcohol or other drugs. However, as an alternative to sleeping medications, you may wish to try exercise, relaxation techniques, and limiting your caffeine consumption before bed. For more information about sleeping difficulties, consult a physician.
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The fortifications at Eben-Emael were key to the Belgian delaying operations in front of the Dyle-Breda Line. The German plan to send its Sixth Army around Liège required that the river crossings west of Maastricht be captured intact. The bridges across the Albert Canal at Kanne, Vroenhoven, and Veldwezelt were under the fortress’s guns, and they had to be neutralized for any invasion in this sector to succeed.
Built in 1935, Eben-Emael was thought to be the strongest fort in the world. Its armaments included two 120-mm guns and sixteen 75-mm guns – all of them in armored turrets or casemates. To the northeast, the canal cut’s steep sides rose 40 meters above the canal waters and formed an ideal glacis for protection from attack across the canal. In other directions, antitank trenches, barbed wire, and bunkers provided protection. Machine guns swept the approaches. Defensive positions were linked by tunnels that also linked the underground barracks, storerooms, and hospital. Ventilation was provided through filters which offered protection from poison gas. Twelve hundred men commanded by Major Jean Jottrand were assigned to the fort, although many were billeted in the neighboring villages and hence not permanently within its perimeter.
40 Capture of Fort Eben-Emael
10 May 1940
A French Battlefields “Virtual Battlefield Tour” as described in Fields of War: Fifty Key Battlefields in France and Belgium.
Summary: In the predawn darkness of 10 May, eleven gliders left airfields around Cologne. Their departure was timed for arrival at the fort at 05:30, H-hour for the invasions of Belgium, Holland, and Luxembourg. Towed behind fifty-two Junkers JU 87 transport aircraft, the gliders climbed to an altitude of 2,100 meters before being released 20 km from the Belgium frontier. Two of the attack gliders became lost during the flight, including that of the assault commander, Oberleutnant Witzig.
Major Jottrand had alerted his troops at approximately 03:00, when he received reports of German troop movements toward the border. The confusion caused by the silent approach of the gliders and small arms fire from the direction of the canal bridges, however, had prevented the fortress from firing. Antiaircraft gunners hesitated to fire against aircraft that they could not definitely identify as hostile.
View Capture of Fort d’Eben-Emael – A Virtual Battlefield Tour by French Battlefields (www.frenchbattlefields.com) in a larger map
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What is a Veterinarian?
A veterinarian is a physician who has been educated and trained to diagnose and treat diseases and injuries in animals. Most veterinarians care for companion animals (e.g., dogs, cats, birds, ferrets, rabbits). They may specialize in care for horses (both pleasure and performance), production animals (e.g., dairy and beef cattle, sheep, pigs, poultry), aquatic, and zoo animals. Veterinarians vaccinate, attend births, administer medication, perform surgeries, and provide general health care.
Veterinarians may perform biomedical research (i.e., genomics, cellular mechanisms, cancer biology) and/or serve as faculty at colleges or universities. They also play a role in public health, preventing the spread of animal diseases to humans, ensuring the safety of the food supply, and performing livestock health inspections.Board Certification
The board certification process includes the following components:Education
- Experience working with animals prior to applying to a veterinary program is desirable.
- Completion of undergraduate prerequisite courses. Requirements vary, but on average, 2-3 years of undergraduate study is required for admission. Most veterinary students have a baccalaureate degree and some earn advanced degrees prior to enrolling in a veterinary program.
- Completion of a 4-year program leading to a doctor of veterinary medicine (DVM or VMD) degree.
There are 27 accredited veterinary colleges or universities in the United States. The veterinary curriculum focuses on biomedical science, including anatomy, physiology, bacteriology, virology, medicine, and surgery. Programs also include coursework in topics such as professional development, practice management, and client relations.
Most programs are divided into a preclinical and a clinical phase. The first phase is primarily concerned with classroom study and laboratory work. The second, clinical, phase allows students to learn medical and surgical principles through hands-on experience. Students are trained to treat many animal species and later may focus on certain groups, such as companion animals, production animals, and horses.Certification
Following graduation, veterinarians must pass the North American Veterinary Licensing Examination (NAVLE). State licensing boards set eligibility requirements; candidates must apply for NAVLE certification through their state boards. Graduates may continue clinical training through an internship or residency and must obtain state board approval before opening a clinical practice.
An extended period of formal study is required for board certification in a specialty, such as surgery, ophthalmology, pathology, radiology, and medicine. Medical subspecialties include cardiology, oncology, and neurology.Additional Accreditation
In addition to accreditation by the NAVLE, veterinarians interested in working with federal and state animal health officials may also seek accreditation by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), Veterinary Services (VS). The National Veterinary Accreditation Program (NVAP) is administered by APHIS. Although the program is voluntary, more than 80% of veterinarians in the United States are accredited by NVAP.
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Erin Marie Blasco, Public Programs Coordinator, Smithsonian National Postal Museum
This month, the U.S. Postal Service announced that living figures would be considered for commemoration on postage stamps. Its invitation to suggest names of living individuals in sports, entertainment, and other professions to the Citizens’ Stamp Advisory Committee elicited all-caps cries for a stamp portraying Lady Gaga, or perhaps Bruce Springsteen.
As an educator at the Smithsonian's National Postal Museum, it’s exciting to see people energized about postage stamps. People online and in the museum debate the merit of honoring one American figure over another and discuss what it actually means to have one’s face on a stamp. I’ll have to un-memorize my answer to frequently asked questions such as, “Why isn’t President Obama on a stamp yet?” and “When will there be a George Lucas stamp?”
In the past, I’d answer these questions by explaining that figures on U.S. stamps have to be deceased for at least five years. U.S. presidents are the only exception; they only need to be dead for a year before appearing on a stamp. Fictional figures like Mickey Mouse, Bart Simpson, and Miss Piggy stand outside the rule, of course. Now that the policy has changed, we have the opportunity to reflect on what it means to be on a stamp and which names are coming up most frequently for consideration.
This isn’t the first time the living/dead discussion has occurred. In 1945, for example a stamp (above) was issued honoring American achievements during World War II. A large group of soldiers is depicted with the Arc de Triomphe in the background. In the stamp, which is drawn from a black-and-white photograph, some of the soldiers in the front row are recognizable as individuals. But the stamp doesn’t break the “dead for five years” rule because it commemorates an event using a group, not individuals.
A number of countries don’t hesitate to issue stamps featuring living figures. Some do this to turn a profit from collectors, while others routinely put their living leaders on postage. Interested in who has already been commemorated on U.S. postage? Browse the Postal Museum’s virtual vault to see high-resolution images of stamps celebrating figures from George Washington (the first face on a U.S. postage stamp) to Zasu Pitts.
Geri Provost Lyons, Youth & Family Program Coordinator, National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution
The conversation about living figures on stamps is somewhat familiar for the Smithsonian’s National Portrait Gallery, which for many years collected only portraits of Americans who had been dead at least ten years, with the exception of U.S. presidents.
In 2001, the museum’s board of Commissioners agreed to change the bylaws to eliminate the “ten-year” rule. Since that time, the Portrait Gallery has actively collected portraits of living sitters in all mediums—photographs, time-based media, drawings, prints, paintings, sculpture, and mixed media.
The rule change also allowed for the commissioning and acquisition of contemporary portraits of living sitters, from many backgrounds and disciplines. For example, the first commission of a living sitter was of Eunice Kennedy Shriver by artist David Lenz; the second was of Bill and Melinda Gates by Jon Friedman. NPG has also collected portraits of such well-known Americans such as Martha Stewart, Yo Yo Ma, Norman Mineta, and Michelle Obama, to just name a few.
As an educator for the Portrait Gallery, I am thrilled when visitors can make a connection with a portrait of a living sitter. As of October 2011, 361 living Americans are represented in the National Portrait Gallery’s permanent collection, according to a recent database search. Use our online database to view portraits of living Americans in our permanent collection. Some of the living sitters may have more than one portrait in our collection, but only one has been selected. We hope you enjoy looking at these images!
In the stamp commemorating the Cosby Show, none of the characters appeared. Instead, the family's living room was pictured.
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With so many bacteria becoming antibiotic resistant it is necessary to use not just drugs, but natural means of maintaining health. The article discusses some simple natural things that anyone can do to improve their health. For example, Grandma's chicken soup and hot tea are important and legitimate medical treatments, because they help the cilia of the nose and bronchial passages move quickly so they can defend the respiratory system against contaigons. Sometimes just increasing the intake of warm tea, to assure proper hydration of the body, can make a major difference in healing. (You don't need medical technology to check if you are hydrated - just keep drinking until your urine turns light yellow to clear.) My patients' favorite prescription is breakfast in bed. This can be an effective cure for even persistent, difficult-to-treat morning sneezing and coughing. The sneezing and coughing are often caused by a sensitivity of the body to cold before activity, so a warm breakfast under blankets really gets to the root of the problem.
Perhaps the most important example of helping the body's natural defenses is the 3000 year old yogic practice of sniffing salt water. This is helpful for fighting and preventing sinus infections, although we have vastly improved on this technique by developing pulsatile nasal irrigation. The pulsating action has been shown in clinical studies to improve the function of the nasal cilia, your body's most important defense against nasal infections. Anyone, even a 5 year old, can perform this treatment at home quickly and easily. (Be sure to use a pulsatile irrigatin device, one which is purpose-built to deliver the correct pressure, for safe irrigation.) Ear, Nose, and Throat specialists see patients all the time who have been medicated for weeks with the latest antibiotics without benefit, yet who show obvious improvement with pulsatile irrigation.
These natural procedures are a help not only to the occaisonal infection, but also to longer term asthma and allergy sufferers. Asthma and allergy specialists recognize the importance of clearing sinus infections in their patients. The less sinus drainage, the less the asthma. Pulsatile nasal irrigation enables patients to stop their drainage themselves. In some cases, antibiotics have been effective and have indeed saved lives, but adding the chicken soup and hot tea helps restore the body's natural defenses: by improviing the function of cilia, which prevent contaigons from entering the body, by improving the motion of disease-fighting white blood cells, which helps fight infection more effectively, and in numerous other ways.
By using the natural healing aids discussed in the article, both preventatively and as a response to symptoms, in many cases, antibiotics can be avoided. You health will improve, and you won't become immune to antibiotics, if you just give your body's own defenses a little help (with the techniques discussed in the article).
© 1999,2003 Dr. Murray Grossan
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Nanotechnology: Novel Coatings Show Great Promise as Flame Retardants in Polyurethane Foam
Gram for gram, novel carbon nanofiber-filled coatings devised by researchers from the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and Texas A&M University outperformed conventional flame retardants used in the polyurethane foam of upholstered furniture and mattresses by at least 160 percent and perhaps by as much as 1,130 percent.
The impressive test results, reported in the journal Polymer,* suggest that significant fire-safety advantages can be gained by coating polyurethane foam (PUF) with a club-sandwich-like arrangement of thin layers containing carbon nanofibers and polymers. The upshot, says NIST researcher Rick Davis, is that the experimental coating seems to create the equivalent of a "fire-resistant armor" on the porous foam.
Ignition of soft furnishings account for about 5 percent of residential fires, and the consequences are disproportionately high. These fires are responsible for a third of fire-caused deaths of civilians and 11 percent of property losses due to fires in homes.
The flammability of mattresses is regulated by federal law. A complementary rule to regulate the flammability of upholstered furniture has been proposed recently.
Several organizations, however, have challenged the health and safety of some flame retardants designed to protect against soft furnishing fires. And, a bill pending in California would ban the use of certain halogenated flame retardants in that state.
Today, recipes for making PUFs result in foams in which fire retardants are embedded in the interior. In contrast, the experimental technology uses the carbon nanofiber fire retardant as a coating that covers all the nooks and crannies on the sponge-like PUF surface. The new approach, says Davis, should be attractive to PUF manufacturers because the surface treatment has the potential to deliver a low flammability PUF without major change to the foam manufacturing process, thus saving time and money.
The NIST-Texas A&M team coated square samples of commercially available PUF with four bilayers of a carbon nanofiber-polymer combination.** The average thickness of the coating was about 360 nanometers, increasing the mass of the foam by only 3 percent. By themselves, the carbon nanofibers accounted for 1.6 percent of the foam mass. Since the carbon nanofibers are only in the coating, all the carbon nanofibers are clumped like matted whiskers within the top 360 nanometers of the surface—assembled into the fire-blocking armor.
The team used a standard benchtop fire test to measure the fire performance of coated and uncoated PUF. The carbon nanofiber coatings reduced PUF flammability (measured as the peak heat release rate from an ignited specimen) by 40 percent. That result was more than 3 times better than achieved by putting the same carbon nanofibers in the foam (part of the foam recipe).
When compared at the same concentrations, the carbon nanofiber coating significantly outperforms three classes of commercially available flame retardants commonly used in PUF. Reductions in flammability achieved with the coating, according to the researchers, were 158 percent better than the reduction calculated for nonhalogens, 288 percent better than halogens, and 1,138 percent better than halogen-phosphorous flame retardants.
Additionally, the experimental coating "prevents the formation of a melt pool of burning foam, which in a real fire scenario, may further reduce the resulting fire threat of burning soft furnishings," the authors write.
Source: NIST – 02.08.2011.
* Y.S. Kim, R. Davis, A.A. Cain and J.C. Grunlan, Development of layer-by-layer assembled carbon nanofiber-filled coatings to reduce polyurethane foam flammability. Polymer. Vol. 52, Issue 13, June 8, 2011.
Investigated and edited by:Dr.-Ing. Christoph Konetschny, Materials Consultant, Owner of Materialsgate
The investigation and editing of this document was performed with best care and attention. For the accuracy, validity, availability and applicability of the given information, we take no liability. Please discuss the suitability concerning your specific application with the experts of the named company or organization.
You want additional material or technology investigations concerning this subject?Materialsgate is leading in material consulting and material investigation.
Feel free to use our established consulting services
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Provided by Annie Reisewitz and Jessica Carilli, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego
Shared by Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras, the Mesoamerican Reef spans over 1,000 km, making it the largest continuous reef in the Western Hemisphere. Portions of the Mesoamerican Reef are World Heritage sites and more than two million people in four countries benefit from the ecosystem services the reef provides, which include productive fishing grounds and the attraction of millions of tourists.12
However, agricultural runoff from more than 300,000 hectares of cropland in the region is a prime threat tothe reef’s health.3 Other local stresses to the reef include coastal development and overfishing. Two recent scientific studies have shown that these local stresses negatively impact the reef’s ability to recover from climate-related threats, such as coral bleaching.
In 1998, a mass coral bleaching caused significant coral death on the Mesoamerican Reef. A study conducted in Belize and Honduras showed that in areas with clean waters and healthy reefs, mountainous star corals (Montastraea faveolata) were able to recover and grow normally within two to three years after the bleaching. In comparison, corals living with excessive human pressures, such as pollution, coastal development, and runoff, had not recovered even eight years after the event.4
The fast-recovering corals were located far offshore, at Turneffe Atolland Cayos Cochinos.. The corals that took longer to recover were located in areas with significant land-based runoff and heavily populated and developed coastlines – the Sapodilla Cayes in southern Belize and reefs near Utila Island in Honduras, respectively.
A related study compared a century-long record of thermal stress on the Mesoamerican Reef with a century-long record of bleaching events. Surprisingly, although temperatures in the region were much warmer in the 1950s than in recent years, no bleaching occurred during that decade—suggesting that recent mass bleaching events appear to stem from the coupling of mild warming and local stress.5
These findings suggest that by protecting reefs from local threats, bleached corals will be able to bounce back to normal growth rates more quickly after natural disturbances—and that protecting reefs from local threats will foster coral resilience in the face of rising sea temperatures.
ICRAN. ICRAN-MAR Project: Terminal Report. (Mesoamerican Reef Alliance, 2007). ↩
Burke, L. & Sugg, Z. Hydrologic Modeling of Watersheds Discharging Adjacent to the Mesoamerican Reef. (World Resources Institute, Washington, DC, 2006). ↩
Carilli, J., Norris, R., Black, B., Walsh, S. & McField, M. Local stressors reduce coral resilience to bleaching. PLoS One 4, e6324 (2009). ↩
Carilli, J., Norris, R. D., Black, B., Walsh, S. & McField, M. Century-scale records of coral growth rates indicate that local stressors reduce coral thermal tolerance threshold. Global Change Biology 10, 1365-2486 (2009). ↩
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19 May 2011: Report
Using CO2 to Make Fuel:
A Long Shot for Green Energy
What if the ever-increasing amounts of carbon dioxide that are heating up the atmosphere could be used to produce an abundant supply of liquid fuels? The U.S. government and private labs are pursuing that Holy Grail of renewable energy — but for now the cost of large-scale production is prohibitive.
A novel experiment is taking place in the Princeton University lab of chemist Andrew Bocarsly
. Like a battery, the experimental device has two poles of charged materials resting in a bath of chemical-laced water. A small tube bubbles carbon dioxide into the device, called a cell. The CO2 interacts with the charged metal coating one of the poles and, with the help of a special catalyst, begins to form bigger molecules that combine carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.
These bigger molecules have a more common name: hydrocarbons, the molecules that make up the fuels that power the modern world — coal, natural gas and oil. And what Bocarsly and his colleagues have done is essentially reverse combustion: they have taken the byproduct of burning fossil fuels — CO2, the greenhouse gas most responsible for climate change — and transformed it back into a fuel suitable for burning.
“The dominant thinking 10 years ago was that we should bury the CO2,” Bocarsly says. “If you could efficiently convert CO2 into something that was useful you wouldn’t have to spend all that money and energy to put it into the ground. You could sort of recycle it.”
Princeton’s Andrew Bocarsly has developed a method to convert CO2 into a fuel suitable for burning.
The experiment in Bocarsly’s lab is part of an intensifying research effort to transform the copious energy from sunlight into liquid fuels by improving upon the work of plants, which, using only energy from the sun, take CO2, fuse it with hydrogen split from water, and make molecules to fuel growth. These ambitious energy projects would recycle CO2 emissions by allowing CO2 molecules to switch back and forth between byproducts of burning and building blocks of new fuel. It’s a potentially revolutionary technology, and the problem is not so much in pulling off the transformation — at least four different approaches to carry out “reverse combustion” either exist commercially or have been demonstrated in laboratories — but the high cost of doing so.
“Since the sun provides enough energy for our needs, our goal is to make a fuel using CO2 and sunlight — and maybe water — as feedstocks to produce the chemical fuel that can store the sun’s energy in a form that we can use where and when we need,” writes chemist Michael Berman of the U.S. Air Force Office of Scientific Research
, which is funding much of the research. “We hope that this is something that can be done in an economically viable way.”
Attaining that goal remains a distant prospect. But the potential payoff of these long-shot experiments is potentially so great that the U.S. government, various labs, and some start-up companies are pumping sizeable amounts of money into the research. The technologies include producing methanol in a lab, harnessing microbes found in extreme environments to produce fuels, replicating the process of photosynthesis itself, and using sunlight to forge a synthetic fuel made of hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
Creating liquid light
In 2003, chemist Emily Barton took up a discarded experimental device that had been languishing in her mentor’s Princeton lab for more than a decade. She was searching for a novel solution to the growing problem of CO2 piling up in the atmosphere and changing the climate. The device — an electrochemical cell that transforms electricity into chemical reactions, or vice versa — employed an electrode made from the silvery white metal known as palladium and a catalyst called pyridinium, a byproduct of oil refining. When Barton’s predecessor and inventor of the device — Lin Chao — applied an electric current, the cell knitted CO2 into methanol, the simplest hydrocarbon.
When Chao had written about the device in 1994
, it was largely ignored. But Barton reasoned that turning CO2 back into a useful product like methanol could provide a solution to the CO2 problem. Even better, she could tweak the device by adding a compound used for thin-film photovoltaic devices — gallium phosphide — and turn the cell into a solar-powered fuel maker.
Although this photovoltaic route is currently prohibitively expensive, venture capitalists have funded a start-up company — dubbed Liquid Light
and based in New Jersey — to try to turn this electrochemical cell into the fuel refinery of the future. The company has replaced the expensive palladium electrode in the original with something cheaper and may not use pyridinium as the catalyst. “The only inputs we need are waste CO2, water and electricity,” says Liquid Light chairman and physicist Nety Krishna, noting the technology’s potential to simultaneously help solve two huge challenges — global warming and satisfying the world’s growing energy needs.
Tapping into ‘extremophiles’
From the various branches of the military to the Department of Energy, the U.S. government has a keen interest in alternatives to oil. In fact, the Advanced Research Projects Agency–Energy
(ARPA-e) has created a program exclusively devoted to producing fuels from CO2.
“For every dollar the price of a barrel of oil goes up, the Navy spends $31 million more for fuel” per year, Secretary of the Navy Ray Mabus told an ARPA–e conference in March
when announcing the military’s new collaborative effort with the fledgling energy agency. “Changing the way we produce and use energy is fundamentally about improving the national security of this country
The ARPA–e program for turning energy inputs into liquid fuel goes by the name of “electrofuels.” The scientists funded by the program attempt to create these electrofuels by harnessing the wonders of extremophiles — microbes that thrive in extreme environments, such as hydrothermal vents
Scientists are attempting to create electrofuels by using extremophiles — microbes that thrive in extreme environments.
at the bottom of the ocean — to convert CO2 into fuels, using either electricity, hydrogen, or even ammonia.
That’s because extremophiles, unlike the vast majority of known life on the planet, make their living without photosynthesis. In fact, in the depths of the ocean, certain microbes rely on the energy in chemicals spewing from volcanic vents, while their extremophile peers more than mile underneath the planet’s surface rely on the slow decay of radioactive elements in the planet’s crust to thrive.
“We have bugs that go all the way,” making fuels from various energy inputs plus CO2, says chemist Eric Toone, deputy director for technology for ARPA–e and the electrofuels program manager. “I know it’s going to quote-unquote work. The interesting question now is: Is it going to matter?” The electrofuels program will only succeed in reducing the world’s oil addiction if it can produce fuels at a cost of roughly $60 per barrel — a price it is nowhere near achieving given the cost of electricity, hydrogen, and ammonia. “You’ve got to make this fuel at such a massive scale and such a low price,” Toone notes.
Another challenge is that the bugs themselves are not necessarily happy with the program. E. coli, Ralstonia eutropha
, and the great microbial groupings of Pyrococcus
, all want to use the extra energy to grow, not to make fuels. To force them to do so requires complex genetic and metabolic manipulation to ensure that as much energy as possible goes into fuel production.
Researchers working outside the biological realm do not face the same constraints as a fuel-making microbiologist, or even a leaf. So the U.S. Department of Energy has hedged its ARPA–e bet by also investing in the Joint Center for Artificial Photosynthesis
(JCAP) at the California Institute of Technology. The goal there is to build a system that works as well as photosynthesis in plants to produce fuel, whether hydrocarbons or just hydrogen.
“Chemical fuels would be the game-changer if you could directly make them efficiently and cost-effectively from sunlight,” says chemist Nathan Lewis, JCAP director.
Artificial systems can move energy as electrical current rather than the relatively chunky molecules that plants must rely upon in photosynthesis. In fact, an artificial system that uses photovoltaic panels to produce electricity, which is then used to split water into hydrogen and oxygen, can turn roughly 10 to 20 percent of incoming sunlight into the hydrogen gas that can fuel a hydrogen fuel cell. The most efficient photosynthetic plants — algae — only manage to turn roughly 3 to 6 percent of incoming sunlight into plant food.
So Lewis and his colleagues will have to build artificial light absorbers, molecule-makers, and even membranes to separate the various products of artificial photosynthesis, just as plants do. All of these components exist but do not necessarily work well together as a system. Within the next five years, JCAP hopes to prove that such a system can be created, and produce some fuel to prove it.
Such a system has long been known by another name: the hydrogen economy. That hydrogen can be recombined with oxygen in a fuel cell to
MIT’s Nocera predicts that enough energy to run a house could come from one drinking water bottle and sunlight.
produce the electricity to drive an electric car or power a home. The problem with the hydrogen economy has always been the second word — the best hydrogen fuel cells rely on expensive platinum, and splitting water relies on expensive machinery. The most expensive cars on the planet are probably the hydrogen fuel cell test vehicles built by the likes of GM and Honda.
But a company called Sun Catalytix
is attempting to make at least splitting water cheap, and thereby provide an inexpensive source of the hydrogen for fuel cells or to make hydrocarbons with CO2. Dropping the metal cobalt and the molecule phosphate into water as a catalyst and then running electricity through it — preferably supplied by the sun via a photovoltaic cell — can split water into hydrogen and oxygen. Chemist Dan Nocera of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, whose team created the new catalyst — an invention somewhat erroneously hailed as an “artificial leaf
” — predicts enough energy to run a house could be derived from one drinking water bottle in less than four hours of sunlight.
If hydrogen becomes cheap, then suddenly programs like electrofuels begin to make a lot more fiscal sense. “If you’ve got something you can drop in water and it evolves hydrogen, that’s pretty damn cool,” says Toone, which is why ARPA–e is also funding Sun Catalytix’s work. “We’ve seen the data and it actually works.”
Building a hydrocarbon
In the New Mexican desert, a six-meter wide dish of mirrors concentrates the sun’s rays on a half-meter-long cylindrical machine shaped like a beer keg. The mirrors focus sunlight through a window in the machine’s side, bathing a dozen, concentric rings in the sun’s heat. Temperatures quickly reach 1,500 degrees Celsius, which drives oxygen out of teeth made of iron oxide (rust) before the teeth rotate back into the dark side of the reactor. There the teeth suck oxygen back out of introduced steam or CO2, leaving behind hydrogen or carbon monoxide. When enough H2 and CO are produced, the mixture forms a very basic fuel known as synthesis gas, which is the building block used by the chemical industry to make hydrocarbons, chemicals, and even plastics.
Sandia National Laboratory
Scientists at Sandia National Laboratory have developed a dish of mirrors that concentrates sunlight on a solar-fuel generator.
Think of this keg-like machine as high-temperature, high-speed reverse rusting — and the expensive parts are not the inputs of CO2 or water, but rather the expense of the mirrors to harness the sun’s heat. “The real feedstocks are not CO2 and water, it’s sunlight,” says chemist James E. Miller of Sandia National Laboratory, co-inventor of the device. “Even though sunlight is free, what costs you most is collecting it and converting it into a useable form.”
Other groups are working on different designs or different materials, but the Sandia team in New Mexico estimates that it could make diesel or jet fuel for roughly $10 per gallon. There is another problem, however, one common to all such efforts to reverse combustion: To replace the more than 20 million barrels of oil consumed each day in the U.S. would require 62.4 trillion moles of pure CO2 per year. “If we go to a scale that is meaningful, where does the carbon come from?” Toone asks. “Learning how to recycle carbon is going to be important.”
Coal plants offer one source, producing roughly 500 pounds of CO2 per second when burning enough coal to generate one gigawatt of electricity, but that still isn’t enough to make a dent in transportation fuel use. Sucking CO2 out of the air remains prohibitively expensive, according to a recent report from the American Physical Society. But pulling CO2 out of seawater, where it is more highly concentrated, might offer one solution, as well as helping remedy the other peril from rising greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere: ocean acidification
Regardless, the first stirrings of a shift away from fossil fuels have started to show. The Princeton lab that gave birth to Liquid Light is now making butanol, the smallest molecule considered a hydrocarbon fuel, via the same process the lab used to make methanol. “We are making that unambiguously,” Bocarsly says. But “we’re in the early stages of understanding this.”
POSTED ON 19 May 2011 IN
Business & Innovation Climate Energy Science & Technology Science & Technology North America North America
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Magnified view, click on image and drag to move.
Japanese military leaders recognized American naval strength as the chief deterrent to war with the United States. Early in 1941, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, Commander of the Japanese Combined Fleet, had initiated planning for a surprise attack on the United States Pacific Fleet at the beginning of any hostilities that the Japanese might undertake. The assumption was that before the United States could recover from a surprise blow, the Japanese would be able to seize all their objectives in the Far East, and could then hold out indefinitely.
By September 1941 the Japanese had practically completed secret plans for a huge assault against Malaya, the Philippines, and the Netherlands East Indies, to be coordinated with a crushing blow on the Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor in the Hawaiian Island of Oahu. Early in November Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo was named commander of the Pearl Harbor Striking Force, which rendezvoused secretly in the Kuriles. The force of some 30 ships included six aircraft carriers with about 430 planes, of which approximately 360 took part in the subsequent attack. At the same time, a Japanese Advance Expeditionary Force of some 20 submarines was assembled at Kure naval base on the west coast of Honshu to cooperate in the attack.
Submarines of the Advance Expeditionary Force began their eastward movement across the Pacific in mid-November, refueled and resupplied in the Marshalls, and arrived near Oahu about December 5 (Hawaiian time). On the night of December 6-7 five midget (two-man) submarines that had been carried "piggy-back" on large submarines cast off and began converging on Pearl Harbor.
Nagumo's task force sailed from the Kuriles on 26 November and arrived, undetected by the Americans, at a point about 200 miles north of Oahu at 0600 hours (Hawaiian time) on December 7, 1941. Beginning at 0600 and ending at 0715, a total of some 360 planes were launched in three waves. These planes rendezvoused to the south and then flew toward Oahu for coordinated attacks.
In Pearl Harbor were 96 vessels, the bulk of the United States Pacific Fleet. Eight battleships of the Fleet were there, but the aircraft carriers were all at sea. The Commander in Chief of the Pacific Fleet (CINCPAC) was Admiral Husband E. Kimmel. Army forces in Hawaii, including the 24th and 25th Infantry Divisions, were under the command of Lt. Gen. Walter C. Short, Commanding General of the Hawaiian Department. On the several airfields were a total of about 390 Navy and Army planes of all types, of which less than 300 were available for combat or observation purposes.
The Japanese air attack on Pearl Harbor and on the airfields of Oahu began at 0755 on December 7, 1941 and ended shortly before 1000. Quickly recovering from the initial shock of surprise, the Americans fought back vigorously with antiaircraft fire. Devastation of the airfields was so quick and thorough that only a few American planes were able to participate in the counterattack. The Japanese were successful in accomplishing their principal mission, which was to cripple the Pacific Fleet. They sunk three battleships, caused another to capsize, and severely damaged the other four.
All together the Japanese sank or severely damaged 18 ships, including the 8 battleships, three light cruisers, and three destroyers. On the airfields the Japanese destroyed 161 American planes (Army 74,Navy 87) and seriously damaged 102 (Army 71, Navy 31).
The Navy and Marine Corps suffered a total of 2,896 casualties of which 2,117 were deaths (Navy 2,008, Marines 109) and 779 wounded (Navy 710, Marines 69). The Army (as of midnight, 10 December) lost 228 killed or died of wounds, 113 seriously wounded and 346 slightly wounded. In addition, at least 57 civilians were killed and nearly as many seriously injured.
The Japanese lost 29 planes over Oahu, one large submarine (on 10 December), and all five of the midget submarines. Their personnel losses (according to Japanese sources) were 55 airmen, nine crewmen on the midget submarines, and an unknown number on the large submarines. The Japanese carrier task force sailed away undetected and unscathed.
On December 8, 1941, within less than an hour after a stirring, six-minute address by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Congress voted, with only one member dissenting, that a state of war existed between the United States and Japan, and empowered the President to wage war with all the resources of the country.
Four days after Pearl Harbor, December 11, 1941, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States. Congress, this time without a dissenting vote, immediately recognized the existence of a state of war with Germany and Italy, and also rescinded an article of the Selective Service Act prohibiting the use of American armed forces beyond the Western Hemisphere.
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The sestina is a strict ordered form of poetry, dating back to twelfth century French troubadours. It
consists of six six-line (sestets) stanzas followed by a three-line envoy. Rather than use a rhyme
scheme, the six ending words of the first stanza are repeated as the ending words of the other five
stanzas in a set pattern. The envoy uses two of the ending words per line, again in a set pattern.
First stanza, ..1 ..2 ..3 ..4 ..5 ..6
Second stanza, ..6 ..1 ..5 .. 2 ..4 ..3
Third stanza, ..3 ..6 ..4 ..1 ..2 ..5
Fourth stanza, ..5 ..3 ..2 ..6 ..1 ..4
Fifth stanza, ..4 ..5 ..1 ..3 ..6 ..2
Sixth stanza, ..2 ..4 ..6 ..5 ..3 ..1
middle of first line ..2, end of first line ..5
middle of second line ..4, end of second line..3
middle if third line ..6, end of third line ..1
Sestina, to the lover's rite
We stand at last upon this eventide, to give
to each our vow. To the lover's rite abide.
Let that which does not end return,
and let no turning days divide us.
I confess I am afraid of what certain mystery
a seasonless sun reveals.
I fear more the solitary life revealed
in Autumn's long spell. Then let it be this life I give
without caution. And let the mystery
rest untouched where sea and land abide.
My soul recalls no still night felled between us.
It seems we were born together, and together return
anew to the whitening day. To the turn
of the sovereign tide. My hands laid bare reveal
another light. And hand to my hand we make a country of us,
my companion of nightlong ways. Let these common lands give
shape to sleeping wiles. Let the bright and pebbled shore abide
the rushing sea. "In country sleep" we'll toil our songstilled mystery.
And will we sing, in furthered seasons, the hearthstone mysteries
of time's greener passion? Love again our tamer glories? If so return
to the hallowed spire of youth. In this gentle fate we'll abide,
for what is our hymn but a child's bedtime refrain? What is revealed
in mystery but the coming breeze we long to breathe and give
to the new? Its buried scent a memory which knows us
again. Then by the sway of winter's solemn flame let us
firm this vow. Though the prophet moon still steadies her mystery
before us, our last will be a greener gold, given
to the one sacrament. And breath by breath return
again to our certain selves, our nightbound promise revealed.
Heart of this heart abide.
Soul of this soul abide.
We were born together, and together let us
pass unknown through porticos of the half-light shadow, revealing
in turn the break of every lasted dawn, and each unsummoned mystery
inspired on a shifting sea. It is the end days return.
The proffered gift we give.
Abide at last, and forever love, the mystery
of us. Bound by time's lasting measure we'll return,
revealing with every breath our souls to give.
Copyright © 2000 Dave Charlon
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Dry ice is solid carbon dioxide. It is commonly used as a versatile cooling agent. Dry ice sublimates, changing directly to a gas at atmospheric pressure. Its sublimation and deposition point is -78.5 °C (-109.3 °F). Its enthalpy of sublimation (ΔHsub) at -78.5 °C (-109.3 °F) is 571 kJ/kg (245.5 BTU/lb). The low temperature and direct sublimation to a gas makes dry ice a very effective coolant, since it is colder than ice and leaves no moisture as it changes state. (Although it can carbonate food that is near).
More about Dry Ice on Wikipedia
and if you’re interested in cooling your CPU with Dry Ice yourself, our in-house guide
will surely be helpful.
Dry Ice is quit easily available and not very expensive. For about 12 Kg Dry Ice I paid 10 euro. You can bench for over an entire day, play with some ice and use a bit the day after. It can be kept in a cool box for about 2 to 3 days.Installation
Dry Ice itself doesn't turn into water. But as it's so cool you'll get condensation. To prevent that you need to insulate (keep away from air that can contain humidity).
I used some foam I cut to the correct size and squeezed around the socket. This is far from perfect, but sufficient for a couple of runs.
Once ready I installed the copper tube on the cpu and poured a bit of acetone in the tube. As Dry Ice pellets themselves don't make good contact with the copper they can't extract the heat very well. Just for information, the Dry Ice doesn't put cold to the tube, but to sublimate (= turn to gas) it needs energy (= heat) from its direct environment. That's how the tube and CPU will get cold. But adding a fluid that's doesn't freeze easily you can make much better contact. Here you see the temperature measured with a k-probe and Fluke thermometer on the bottom of the tube.
The tube installed and cooling down....
Just after adding new Dry Ice there is more energy (heat) in the tube and you see for a few seconds a lot of gas sublimating.
This is what we see in Bios with the processor at default speed and voltage. Once we'll raise the voltage CPU temperature will raise to about -40° C.
On to the results. >>>
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Irrigating efficiently is important for achieving high yield and quality and for minimising effects on the environment.
Under-irrigation will compromise yields while over-irrigation can affect root quality, promote excessive fertiliser use, and possibly result in pollution of groundwater and surface water.
The following sections give guideline crop factors for irrigating specific vegetable crops. This information is derived from Department of Agriculture and Food Research conducted on the sandy soils of the Swan Coastal Plain.
See guidelines for irrigating the following crops:
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This information is for reference purposes only. It was current when produced and may now be outdated. Archive material is no longer maintained, and some links may not work. Persons with disabilities having difficulty accessing this information should contact us at: https://info.ahrq.gov. Let us know the nature of the problem, the Web address of what you want, and your contact information.
Please go to www.ahrq.gov for current information.
Fewer visits to the doctor contribute to the higher mortality rates among black Medicare patients in Tennessee
Elderly black Medicare patients in Tennessee make fewer physician visits than their white counterparts, which significantly contributes to their higher mortality rates, concludes a study supported by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (HS11640). However, the study was not able to determine why black elders avoid primary care.
The researchers examined 5 years of health service use data from Medicare physician billing records and 6.3 years of mortality followup data from the Medicare enrollment database to assess physician-diagnosed health problems (morbidity), health care use, and mortality among 665,887 Tennessee Medicare beneficiaries. They developed models to examine the effects of race, socioeconomic status, morbidity, and physician service use on mortality.
Overall, between 1996 and 2002, 38 percent of blacks died compared to 32 percent of whites, a disparity that resulted in 4,164 excess deaths of black elderly people in Tennessee. These excess deaths were largely attributable to race difference in physician visits. Black elders made an average of 7.5 fewer trips to the doctor than white elders during the study period (31.8 vs. 39.3 visits). However, the Medicare cost for fewer black physician visits was the same as the more numerous white physician visits ($902.2 vs. $903.5). This suggests that black patient physician visits were more often in response to serious illnesses that required greater physician attention (and cost).
Decreased use of primary care may also have contributed to the greater number of trips that black elders made to emergency rooms as compared to white elders (average 2.55 vs. 2.06 trips). For example, blacks who suffered from both diabetes and stroke made nearly 14 fewer visits to the doctor over a 5-year period than whites with both conditions. Controlling for health service use eliminated the racial difference in mortality rates for a wide range of conditions.
More details are in "Explaining race differences in mortality among the Tennessee Medicare elderly: The role of physician services," by Darren E. Sherkat, Ph.D., Barbara S. Kilbourne, Ph.D., Van A. Cain, M.A., and others, in the November 2005 Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved 16, pp. 50-63.
Return to Contents
Proceed to Next Article
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Harbingers - DescriptionSimultaneously with the return to antiquity there set in another reaction against the tendencies of that elegant French art which had held all Europe in its spell; this was the Romantic Movement. Its first manifestations were sporadic and it was only in the 19th century that the movement coalesced and gathered strength. People were growing somewhat weary of the studied refinement and glittering sophistications of that charming but exacting life whose tone was set by the Parisian elite, and there was now much talk of a return to simplicity, to a more naive and primitive way of living. Religious faith had weakened and the much-vaunted pleasures of the intellect were beginning to pall; thus many sought to find compensation in the thrills of the mysterious and terrifying, the dark side of man and nature.
It was in England that two highly original artists, Blake and Fuseli, applied themselves to bodying forth their eerie visions and, drawing as they did on the unconscious, they pointed the way to Surrealism. In Spain, too, at the same time in his paintings and engravings Goya was depicting the monsters and phantasmagoria that obsessed his dreams.
Contributed by Gifford, Katya
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The Romans established a form of government — a republic — that was copied by countries for centuries In fact, the government of the United States is based partly on Rome's model.
It all began when the Romans overthrew their Etruscan conquerors in 509 B.C.E. Centered north of Rome, the Etruscans had ruled over the Romans for hundreds of years.
Once free, the Romans established a republic, a government in which citizens elected representatives to rule on their behalf. A republic is quite different from a democracy, in which every citizen is expected to play an active role in governing the state.
The Roman concept of the citizen evolved during the Roman Republic and changed significantly during the later Roman Empire. After the Romans freed themselves from the Etruscans, they established a republic, and all males over 15 who were descended from the original tribes of Rome became citizens. Citizens of Rome distinguished themselves from slaves and other noncitizens by wearing a toga; most wore a white toga. During the Empire, each emperor wore a purple toga to distinguish himself as the princeps, or "first citizen."
Citizenship varied greatly. The full citizen could vote, marry freeborn persons, and practice commerce. Some citizens were not allowed to vote or hold public office, but maintained the other rights. A third type of citizen could vote and practive commerce, but could not hold office or marry freeborn women.In the late Republic, male slaves who were granted their freedom could become full citizens. Around 90 B.C.E., non-Roman allies of the Republic gained the rights of citizenship, and by 212 C.E, under the Edict of Caracalla, all free people of the Roman Empire could become citizens.
The aristocracy (wealthy class) dominated the early Roman Republic. In Roman society, the aristocrats were known as patricians. The highest positions in the government were held by two consuls, or leaders, who ruled the Roman Republic. A senate composed of patricians elected these consuls. At this time, lower-class citizens, or plebeians, had virtually no say in the government. Both men and women were citizens in the Roman Republic, but only men could vote.
Tradition dictated that patricians and plebeians should be strictly separated; marriage between the two classes was even prohibited. Over time, the plebeians elected their own representatives, called tribunes, who gained the power to veto measures passed by the senate.
Gradually, the plebeians obtained even more power and eventually could hold the position of consul. Despite these changes, though, the patricians were still able to use their wealth to buy control and influence over elected leaders.
The history of the Roman Senate goes as far back as the history of Rome itself. It was first created as a 100-member advisory group for the Roman kings. Later kings expanded the group to 300 members. When the kings were expelled from Rome and the Republic was formed, the Senate became the most powerful governing body. Instead of advising the head of state, it elected the chief executives, called consuls.
Senators were, for centuries, strictly from the patrician class. They practiced the skills of rhetoric and oratory to persuade other members of the ruling body. The Senate convened and passed laws in the curia, a large building on the grounds of the Roman Forum. Much later, Julius Caesar built a larger curia for an expanded Senate.
By the 3rd century B.C.E., Rome had conquered vast territories, and the powerful senators sent armies, negotiated terms of treaties, and had total control over the financial matters of the Republic.Senatorial control was eventually challenged by Dictator Sulla around 82 B.C.E. Sulla had hundreds of senators murdered, increased the Senate's membership to 600, and installed many nonpatricians as senators. Julius Caesar raised the number to 900 (it was reduced after his assassination). After the creation of the Roman Empire in 27 B.C.E., the Senate became weakened under strong emperors who often forcefully coerced this ruling body. Although it survived until the fall of Rome, the Roman Senate had become merely a ceremonial body of wealthy, intelligent men with no power to rule.
Occasionally, an emergency situation (such as a war) arose that required the decisive leadership of one individual. Under these circumstances, the Senate and the consuls could appoint a temporary dictator to rule for a limited time until the crisis was resolved. The position of dictator was very undemocratic in nature. Indeed, a dictator had all the power, made decisions without any approval, and had full control over the military.
The best example of an ideal dictator was a Roman citizen named Cincinnatus. During a severe military emergency, the Roman Senate called Cincinnatus from his farm to serve as dictator and to lead the Roman army. When Cincinnatus stepped down from the dictatorship and returned to his farm only 15 days after he successfully defeated Rome's enemies, the republican leaders resumed control over Rome.
One of the innovations of the Roman Republic was the notion of equality under the law. In 449 B.C.E., government leaders carved some of Rome's most important laws into 12 great tablets. The Twelve Tables, as they came to be known, were the first Roman laws put in writing. Although the laws were rather harsh by today's standards, they did guarantee every citizen equal treatment under the law.
With respect to the law and citizenship, the Romans took a unique approach to the lands that they conquered. Rather than rule those people as conquered subjects, the Romans invited them to become citizens. These people then became a part of Rome, rather than enemies fighting against it. Naturally, these new citizens received the same legal rights as everyone else.
The early Roman Republic often found itself in a state of constant warfare with its surrounding neighbors. In one instance, when the Romans were fighting the Carthaginians, Rome was nearly conquered. The people of Carthage (a city in what is today Tunisia in north Africa) were a successful trading civilization whose interests began to conflict with those of the Romans.
The two sides fought three bloody wars, known as the Punic Wars (264-146 B.C.E.), over the control of trade in the western Mediterranean Sea. In the second war, Hannibal, a Carthaginian general, successfully invaded Italy by leading an army — complete with elephants — across the Alps. He handed the Roman army a crushing defeat but was unable to sack the city of Rome itself. After occupying and ravaging Italy for more than a decade, Hannibal was finally defeated by the Roman general Scipio at the Battle of Zama in 202 B.C.E.
By the Third Punic War, Rome was ready to end the Carthaginian threat for good. After a successful several-year siege of Carthage, the Romans burned the city to the ground. Legend has it that the Romans then poured salt into the soil so that nothing would ever grow there again. Carthage was finally defeated, and the Roman Republic was safe.
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Women's Moderation Union
The Women's Moderation Union, founded and headed by M. Louise Gross, helped belie the Women's Christian Temperance Union's insistence that it spoke for American women. The president of the WCTU president had shouted in testimony before Congress that she spoke for all American women in an effort to enhance her political power and that of her lobbying organization. Gross decided that those women who sought the repeal of National Prohibition needed a vehicle through which their voice of opposition could be heard. She also wanted to help politicians realize that many women opposed Prohibition.
The Women's Moderation Union promoted individual responsibility and accountability for the moderate consumption of alcoholic beverages. It opposed the increasing intrusion of the federal and state governments into the private lives and liberties of American citizens. Members believed that illegal behaviors should be punished but that merely drinking an alcoholic beverage should not be illegal per se.
Although the libertarian orientation of the Women's Moderation Union did not motivate large numbers of women to becoming members of the group, Gross' organization was successful in mobilizing and giving visibility to many women who opposed National Prohibition.
The Women's Moderation Union, as did the WCTU and other groups, helped give respectability to women who participated in political action, especially to those who opposed National Prohibition. It could no longer be assumed that all women favored enforced abstinence from alcohol.
Many people, both men and women, had welcomed National Prohibition in the belief that it would improve life. However, with the passage of time most people came to realize that that Prohibition could not be adequately enforced. A large proportion of the population had come to oppose it and many were both contemptuous of it and took pride in violating and flaunting it. On the other hand, there was enormous profit to be made by those who illegally produced and sold alcohol. The large profits led to widespread corruption of law enforcement and elected officials. And Prohibition promoted organized crime, gangsterism and violence, most victims of which were entirely innocent.
Attempting to enforce Prohibition cost two-thirds of of the entire amount of money the federal government spent on law enforcement. That did not include the enormous costs faced by state and local governments.
Finally, 74% of American voters called for the repeal of the failed experiment in social engineering. Surprisingly, in spite of the abysmal and undeniable failure of Prohibition, many people and organizations today support neo-prohibition ideas and strongly defend the many vestiges of Prohibition that continue to remain.
Resources on the Women's Moderation Union:
- Gross., M Louise. M. Louise Gross papers, ca. 1898-1939. Papers of M. Louise Gross in connection with the Molly Pitcher Club, the Women's Committee for Modification of the Volstead Act, the Women's Committee for Repeal of the 18th Amendment and the Women's Moderation Union. NY: New York Public Library.
- Gross, M. Louise. Survey of Scandinavian Liquor Control Systems including the Bratt System in Sweden, Also England and Poland. Harrison, NY: Women's Moderation Union, 1930.
- Gross, M. Louise. Speech Delivered by M. Louise Gross, Chairman of the Women's Moderation Union, before the Tenth Congress of the International League Against Prohibition, held in Copenhagen, Denmark, June 27th to 29th, 1929. Harrison, NY: Women's Moderation Union, 1929.
- Kyvig, David E. Repealing National Prohibition. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2000.
- Root, Grace C. Women and Repeal: The Story of the Women's Organization for National Prohibition Reform. NY: Harper & Brothers, 1934.
- Rose, Kenneth D. American Women and the Repeal of Prohibition. NY: New York University Press, 1996.
- Time. Torrid Talk. Time, February 24, 1930. Quotes from M. Louise Gross' testimony on Prohibition before the House Judiciary Committee as head of the Women's Moderation Union.
filed under: Prohibition
Need help with an alcohol or drug problem?
Someone at the highly effective St. Jude program can help you.
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I just want to remind people of some things on the web that may help with really understanding this material.
First, don’t forget the online lectures, especially for these chapters:
They contain some interesting video segments. Easy to find. We saw some of them in class. In particular, I hope you take a look at the part where Robert Ader is interviewed, talking about conditioned immunosuppression in rats.
Second, if you think you want more more more of Phil Zimbardo, the whole Discovering Psychology series is available here.
Also — and apologies that this is a bit late — I had mentioned a video segment about a child who’d brain surgery as a treatment for a debilitating seizure disorder. You can see it (via YouTube) here.
What’s up next
As I hinted about in the announcement on Blackboard, I think that this research showing a transfer effect from working-memory training to crystallized intelligence is a pretty big deal. Once more, the online lecturehas lots of good advice, especially about how to tackle your first journal article.
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View your list of saved words. (You can log in using Facebook.)
Time required for the Earth to travel once around the Sun, slightly less than 365 days. This fractional number makes necessary the periodic adjustment of days in any calendar that is to be kept in step with the seasons. In the Gregorian calendar, a common year contains 365 days, and every fourth year is a leap year of 366 days except for any year that is divisible by 100 but not divisible by 400 (e.g., 1900 was not a leap year).
This entry comes from Encyclopædia Britannica Concise. For the full entry on year, visit Britannica.com.
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| 0.931822
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| 3
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Can you tell an unborn baby's gender from the heartbeat?
I hear this question every day in my practice. If only it were simply a matter of whether the unborn baby's heartbeat was fast or slow to indicate the gender! Believe it or not, there really is a range of fetal heart rate that is different for boys versus girls. Perhaps this is the source of this myth. But the ranges overlap to such a degree that it can't be used at all to tell gender.
Generally, fetal heart rate is dependent on how big the unborn baby is. The smaller (the earlier in gestation), the faster; the bigger, the slower. This holds for all mammals. For example, an elephant's heart rate is about 12 a minute, but a mouse's will be in the hundreds. Because of the fuzzy overlapping ranges between the genders, along with affect of the unborn baby's size on the heartbeat, relying on the heartbeat to indicate gender is about as reliable as the a coin toss.
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Francesco FoscariArticle Free Pass
Francesco Foscari, (born c. 1373—died October 31/November 1, 1457, Venice [Italy]), doge of Venice who led the city in a long and ruinous series of wars against Milan. His life story is the subject of the tragedy The Two Foscari by Lord Byron and of an opera by Giuseppe Verdi.
Belonging to a prominent Venetian family, Foscari headed the Council of Forty (1401) and the Council of Ten (1405–13), Venice’s ruling bodies, during the city’s wars for territorial expansion. Soon after his election as doge in 1423, he made an alliance with Florence and began a war against the duke of Milan, Filippo Maria Visconti. The Venetians won Brescia in 1426, and a peace was reached in 1427. War resumed in 1431, and the subsequent Peace of Ferrara (1433) failed to settle the balance of power. A war with Bologna ended in a treaty in 1441 that increased Venetian territory, to which Ravenna was added shortly thereafter.
In 1443 he resumed the war with Milan. Even after Filippo Maria died, Foscari pursued the war. The greater part of northern Italy was ravaged, and no member of its complex system of alliances emerged as a clear victor. Finally, in 1454 the Peace of Lodi ended the hostilities, and the Italian League, including Venice, Florence, and Milan, was formed.
In the meantime, Constantinople had fallen to the Turks (1453). His attention on his Italian wars, Foscari had failed to prevent losses of Venice’s eastern territory to the Turks.
After such blows to Venice’s trade with the Orient, Foscari’s enemies sought to depose him. They accused him, probably unjustly, of the murder of the Venetian admiral Piero Loredan. This accusation, together with the banishment of his son for suspected treason, forced Foscari’s resignation on the formal demand of the Council of Ten (October 23, 1457). Eight days later he was dead.
What made you want to look up "Francesco Foscari"? Please share what surprised you most...
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Leon Cooper (1930-Present)
Leon Cooper shared the 1972 Nobel Prize in Physics with John Bardeen and Robert Schrieffer, with whom he developed the first widely accepted theory of superconductivity. Termed the BCS theory, an acronym formed from the initial letters of its originators surnames, it is heavily based on a phenomenon known as Cooper pairing. According to the theory, the electrons in a superconducting material form associated pairs that together act as a single system. Unless the movement of all pairs is halted simultaneously, the current flowing through a superconductor meets no resistance, and will continue ad infinitum.
Cooper was born on February 28, 1930, in New York City. After graduating from the Bronx High School of Science, he began studies at Columbia University. He received a B.A., M.A. and Ph.D. there, formally completing his education in 1954. Cooper worked briefly at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, the University of Illinois, and Ohio State University before accepting a position at Brown University, where he still teaches. Cooper has advanced through the faculty ranks, being appointed Henry Ledyard Goddard University Professor in 1966 and Thomas J. Watson, Sr. Professor of Science in 1974.
Cooper was a research assistant at the University of Illinois when he participated in the theoretical explanation of superconductivity, which had been largely shrouded in mystery since its discovery in 1911 by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes. The BCS theory was announced in 1957, when Cooper was still in his twenties. It applies only to low temperature superconductors; when the temperature of these materials increases too far above absolute zero, Cooper pairs break down.
In addition to the Nobel Prize, Cooper has received many other honors, including the Comstock Prize, the Award of Excellence, the Descartes Medal, the John Jay Award and numerous honorary degrees. He has also accepted several fellowships and is a member of many prestigious scientific societies and organizations. He is on the governing board and executive committee of the International Neural Network Society. This work reflects Cooper’s longtime interest in neuroscience, a field to which he has actively contributed throughout his career at Brown. Cooper has served as the first director of the university's Center for Neural Science.
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Here in 1846 an oppressed people fleeing from a vengeful mob found a haven in the wilderness. Winter Quarters, established under the direction of the Mormon leader Brigham Young, sheltered more than 3,000 people during the winter of 1846-1847. Housed in log cabins, sod houses and dugouts, they lacked adequate provisions. When spring arrived more than six hundred of the faithful lay buried in the cemetery on the hill. Winter Quarters became the administration center of a great religious movement.
In the spring of 1847 a pioneer band left Winter Quarters to cross the Plains to the Great Salt Lake Valley. Thousands of other followed this trail. In 1855, Young was forced to utilize handcarts for transportation. The first company, comprising about five hundred persons, left here on July 17 and reached the Valley on September 26, 1856.
The town of Florence, established in 1854, was built upon the site of Winter Quarters. James C. Mitchell and Associates of the Florence Land Company established a thriving community. The Bank of Florence, built in 1856, stands today as a symbol of our historical past.
Florence Historical Foundation
Historical Land Mark Council
US 73-75, Florence Park, Omaha
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Device: Science is one step closer to producing drugs in the right place at the right time in the body, avoiding the collateral damage of untargeted treatments. Researchers led by Daniel Anderson at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology have designed nanoparticles that can be stimulated via UV light to produce proteins on demand in vivo.
The new method, which involves packaging the molecular machinery for making proteins into a membraned capsule, allows the researchers to spatially and temporally regulate protein production, said Zhen Gu, who also researches nanoparticle drug delivery at North Carolina State and University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, but did not participate in the research. “They can control generation of a protein at any time with a trigger of light.”
The scientists created the nano-sized “protein factories” by using lipids to encapsulate polymerase and other machinery necessary for protein production from E. coli, along with a DNA plasmid containing a gene of interest. To block transcription until the right moment, they added a DNA “photo-labile cage” to the plasmid—a small chemical that inhibits transcription but is cleaved by exposure to UV light.
To test the principle in vivo, the researchers used luciferase as the reporter protein and injected mice with the nanovesicles. After zapping them with UV light at the site of injection, they were able to measure a local burst of luminescence.
What’s new: Protein expression in liposomes has been possible for at least 10 years, said Mitchel Doktycz, a synthetic biologist at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee. What is new, said Doktycz, who did not participate in the research, is being able to control the timing of protein expression in an animal. “They can do it remotely,” he said.
And that switch is not limited to UV light, added Gu, but will likely work with other wavelengths using different chemical ligands.
Importance: Many life-saving drugs, such as chemotherapy, can have nasty and toxic effects outside the tissues they’re designed to treat. The goal of remotely-controlled factories like Anderson’s is to produce a drug in a specific place (such as a tumor) at a specific time (after enough particles have accumulated to produce a therapeutic effect). Anderson’s group is “trying to deliver a payload, [and] activate [it] in a specific spot, so they’re not dosing everywhere,” Doktycz explained—which has the potential to minimize side effects while maximizing therapeutic benefit.
Needs improvement: “We have a long way to go still before we have a drug factory that will land in a target tissue to produce a drug of interest,” noted Anderson. The study has proved the principle of the first step—getting the protein expressed on signal—but future research will need to ensure that the nanoparticles and the proteins they produce aren’t toxic in the wrong place, and that they get to the right location. Targeting the nanoparticles to the appropriate tissues might be achieved by “decorating” the surface of the vesicles with specific proteins, said Gu.
Furthermore, although most of the materials in the current particles are probably safe, some are microorganism-derived, Anderson pointed out, and most likely need to be switched to human alternatives. Finally, getting the drug expressed is also just one part of the problem, said Doktycz. So far the system has no way to re-cage the DNA to halt protein production when it’s no longer needed. “Turning on is one thing, but turning off is another,” he said.
A. Schroeder et al., “Remotely activated protein-producing nanoparticles,” Nano Letters, 12:2685-89, 2012.
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The American Clean Energy and Security Act, which will set in place the nation's first cap-and-trade regulation to reduce carbon dioxide, will go only part way toward solving a second serious, and less well-appreciated problem (other than global warming). That problem: Ocean acidification, which is caused by the massive uptake of carbon dioxide by oceans.
Here's what Oceana had to say about the House passage of the bill:
"Oceana is pleased that the House of Representatives passed the American Clean Energy and Security Act. This legislation is a landmark step towards addressing climate, energy and jobs and provides hope for the already imperiled ocean ecosystems that are on the brink of collapse. The Act marks the beginning of a new approach to regulating global warming pollution which is necessary to achieve the critically needed shift to a clean energy economy.
"Only a major shift away from our addiction to fossil fuels and toward carbon-free energy sources -- such as wind and solar -- will achieve the change we need to prevent continued acidification of our oceans. While our oceans have absorbed roughly a third of the carbon dioxide released, thus providing a much-needed service in slowing climate change, it is making them sick.
"Carbon dioxide causes a destructive chemical reaction that reduces the availability of calcium carbonate, an essential compound needed by many marine animals to survive. Corals, lobsters, oysters, clams, crabs and mussels, to name just a few, are all commercially important and enhance our quality of life. But they all need calcium carbonate to build their shells and skeletons. A continued 'business-as-usual' approach will cause a mass extinction of corals, according to respected scientists. It will also make it harder for other animals, dependent on coral, or on calcium carbonate, to survive. We need almost a total shift to carbon-free energy sources by 2050 and a nearer-term reduction of 25 to 40 percent of carbon dioxide releases by 2020.
"While their ability to absorb carbon dioxide is declining, our oceans will continue to provide solutions to climate change by helping to produce clean energy through the establishment of offshore wind production. According to the Department of Energy, wind could provide 20 percent of our energy needs by 2030, and offshore wind can be a major contributor. On the other hand, offshore oil drilling should not be expanded as it promises no relief in gas prices, and only threatens to contaminate our beaches and marine wildlife while continuing our destructive fossil fuel addiction.
"Although the American Clean Energy and Security Act is a terrific start, it needs to go farther to protect our oceans from acidification and the worst impacts of climate change. Therefore, while Oceana applauds the House of Representatives for initiating this important process, it is essential for the Senate to strengthen this bill to ensure that it includes the reductions needed to protect our oceans and marine wildlife."
Enter your city or zip code to get your local temperature and air quality and find local green food and recycling resources near you.
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American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition
- adv. About where; in, at, or near what location: Whereabouts do you live?
- n. Approximate location: Her whereabouts are still unknown.
Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia
- n. the general location where something is
- whereabout + -s (Wiktionary)
“Anyone with information about his whereabouts is asked to call Plainfield Detective Edwin Maldonado at (908) 753-3415 or Detective Manny Rivera at (908) 753-3008.”
“Of course, her only lead to its whereabouts is given her by Thomas Oscar Morrow, who we learn for the first time (I never heard it anyway) here is not his real name.”
“Meanwhile, a businessman desperate to find his missing two-year-old grandson in "Suicide Watch" must determine whether the horrifying tale his junky son tells him about the boys whereabouts is a confession or a sick test.”
“Leaving the state unattended for five days when nobody knows your whereabouts is deriliction of duty.”
“Not providing the 2nd in charge with his 24/7 whereabouts is a State Security Issue that needs to be dealt with by the state legis.”
“Keeping track of its whereabouts is what worried me more than the weight: early Anheiser's.”
“(This deus ex machina solution to the problem of the pearl's whereabouts is among the boldest examples of coincidence, and there are many from which to choose, in London's fiction.)”
“Maybe the best way to find her whereabouts is to contact the foreign doctors who might have contact with the Chinese doctors.”
“I know I can look it up, but whereabouts is Mexhapati?”
“A man's vigilance over his partner's whereabouts is likely to be a key signal of violence against her.”
These user-created lists contain the word ‘whereabouts’.
Nouns that are common in plural form but are non-existent or rarely used in singular form.
Listening to this as an audio book for the second time. Tim O'Brien uses simple words and phrases to great effect. Very few unfamilar and big words . The writing style reminds me of words from Joh...
Words from a 2007 'St. Trinian's' film.
Where words go to die.
The opposite of the ABC list (prompted by my recent discovery of the awesome word ecballium)
Looking for tweets for whereabouts.
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What Do Warm Marches Tell Us About the Date of the Final Spring Frost?
One of the most extraordinary warm spells in Minnesota's modern climate record is slowly moderating. In terms of the magnitude of the temperature anomaly, the duration of the episode, and the geographic extent; this spell of weather has had few peers in the record books.
Over a 15-day period from March 10 through March 24, the Twin Cities set 18 new temperature records. Eight new daily maximum high temperature records were set and ten new daily maximum low temperature records were established. The mean temperature over the two-week period averaged an astonishing 27 degrees above normal. Additionally, eight new all-time daily high dew point temperature records were set. Details can be found through our article about this mild March .
While these records reference the Twin Cities, similar patterns emerge when reviewing data from nearly any Minnesota recording station. In fact, the same could be said for much of the eastern two-thirds of the United States.
The abnormally warm March temperatures have rapidly advanced spring phenology and hastened early-spring agricultural field work at a pace seldom seen at this time of year. Two questions arise ... 1) What will be the impact of spring frosts when they inevitably occur? and 2) Do exceptionally warm Marches foreshadow earlier-than-average last spring frost dates? The answer to question #1 is of course highly dependent on the nature of the impacted landscape. However, the answer to question #2 can be addressed using historical climate data.
Using the past as our window to the future, it is apparent that a warm March offers us no obvious indication about when the final spring frost will occur. 139 years of Twin Cities temperature data were reviewed. Keeping in mind that much of the latter portion of the record is influenced by the urban heat island affect, the long-term median (half of all years before - half of all years after) date of the final frost (minimum temperature less than or equal to 32 degrees) of the spring is April 28th. Here are the final spring frost dates following the ten warmest Marches in the Twin Cities record:
Rank Year Final Spring Frost Date ---------------------------------- 1 1910 April 25 2 1878 April 6 3 1946 May 12 4 2000 April 21 5 2010 May 9 6 1973 May 17 7 1945 May 10 8 1918 April 30 9 1968 May 5 10 1987 April 23
The table indicates that the final spring frost date following warm Marches has been very early (April 6, 1878), very late (May 17, 1873), and everything in between. Although the table was created using data from the metropolitan area, it is reasonable to extrapolate the large degree of variation around the median, and thus uncertainty about the future, to other Minnesota reporting locations. Median frost dates for various locales for the period 1948 to 2005 can be found at: http://climate.umn.edu/text/historical/frost.txt .
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Today, remembering the story of the shuttle. The University of Houston presents this series about the machines that make our civilization run, and the people whose ingenuity created them.
The space shuttles fly no more. Fraught with exceptional achievement and equally exceptional tragedy, the shuttle era has come to an end. Nearly everyone has seen pictures of NASA Space shuttles flying piggy-back over various cities on their way to their final resting places. Places where generations to come are able to view and explore these flawed but great machines. Machines that have a longer history than you might realize.
Final flight of the Space Shuttle Endeavour in Houston
As NASA was preparing to land men on the moon, visionaries were already thinking up the next generation of space ships. There was no shortage of ideas, of course, but one concept that became very common was that of a re-usable space vehicle. The rockets used to send men to the moon were big and powerful, but also almost completely thrown away after every launch. Only a small fraction of a vehicle that started out nearly 400 feet tall would come back to earth. So if we were to conquer space travel, we would need vehicles that were far less wasteful and more like an airliner. So the theory went.
Early designs of a re-usable space vehicle bore little resemblance to The Space Shuttle. One concept had what looked like two airplanes stacked onto one another. Another idea even had helicopter rotor blades for landing.
Not to be left out was Warner Von Braun — father of the American space program. Von Braun had his own ideas for a space transportation system way back in the 1950’s. His idea of a re-usable space plane was mostly seen as science fiction at the time. But just a decade later his general concepts would be taken very seriously.
That would be another design called the Dyna-Soar. A ship that would dynamically soar through the atmosphere. This was the first of the re-useable space vehicle concepts. And it somewhat resembled the shuttle design. It was never built. But the Dyna-Soar can be considered the first real attempt at building a winged spaceship.
X-20 Dyna-Soar concept
NASA did go on to build several other oddly shaped airplanes. These were used to simulate flying a shuttle like vehicle. If you watched the old TV show, “Six million Dollar man”, then you’ve seen the crash of one of them in the opening credits. Just like the TV show, its test pilot miraculously survived. These tests also proved the viability of flying an unpowered aircraft from orbit to a controlled landing. And by the early 1970s, the design that would eventually become The Space Shuttle was chosen.
This Shuttle was not meant to be the final word on the re-usable space vehicle concept. The next generation of shuttles were to be something called single stage to orbit. This means that the spacecraft would actually take off like an airplane and fly into space using sophisticated engine technology. Most of those designs never really left the drawing board. Though, one was nearly completed just before being cancelled.
X-33 single-stage-to-orbit shuttle concept
For better or worse, the Space Shuttle remains one of the great engineering feats of the 20th century. The shuttle era is over. Long live the shuttle!
I’m Fitz Walker on behalf of the University of Houston, interested in the way inventive minds work.
Houston's final look at Space Shuttle Endeavour
Both Space Shuttle Endeavour photos are courtesy of Dr. John Lienhard.
Second image courtesy of http://epizodsspace.no-ip.org/bibl/spaceflight/23/sp.html
X-33 VentureStar image courtesy of nasa.gov.
Harland, David M. The Story of the Space Shuttle. Springer, 2004. Print.
This episode was first aired on November 16, 2012
The Engines of Our Ingenuity is
Copyright © 1988-2012 by John H. Lienhard.
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From Uncyclopedia, the content-free encyclopedia
Abraham Lincoln (February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) was the 16th President of the United States, serving from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. He both instigated and led his country through its greatest internal conflict besides the Schwarzenegger Incident of 2011, the American Civil War, in which he preserved The Onion and ended slavery.
Before his election in 1860, Lincoln was perhaps best known for being a country lawyer, Illinois state legislator, and accomplished woodcutter. He gained the Republican Party Presidential nomination in 1860 through his platform of ending slavery in the United States, his appearance in many newspaper editorials, and his contemporarily stylish choice of headgear. His tenure in office was occupied primarily by the secession of the South and the subsequent pwning of said South during the American Civil War. He introduced measures that resulted in the abolition of slavery, which resulted in slavery being noticeably frowned upon by all member States of the Union, and he eventually championed the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. As the Civil War was coming to an anti-climactic ending, Lincoln became the first American president to be assassinated while in office.
Lincoln closely supervised the victorious U.S. Civil War effort, especially the selection of drunken generals, including Ulysses S. Grant, who were only slightly more of a danger to their own troops than their enemy. Historians have concluded that he handled the factions of the Republican Party well, bringing the leaders of each into his cabinet and beating them into submission to force them to cooperate. Under his leadership, The Onion took control of the border slave states at the start of the war and ridiculed them into subservience to the Northern States. Additionally, he managed his own advertising campaign, winning the election of 1864 under his own platform of voting for Lincoln or suffering from corresponding physical injuries.
Copperhead Snakes, political opponents, cowardly pacifist hippies, and other opponents of the war criticized Lincoln for refusing to compromise on the slavery issue. Conversely, the Radical Republicans, an abolitionist faction of the Republican Party, criticized him for moving too slowly on the slavery issue. Even with these opponents, Lincoln successfully rallied public opinion through his rhetoric, speeches, frequent physical manhandling of political opponents, and eloquent diction. His trademark speech and finishing move, the Gettysburg Address and the Lincoln Lock respectively, both became iconic symbols of the nation's duty and a painful maneuvers feared by both political and other opponents. At the close of the war, Lincoln held a moderate view of Reconstruction, seeking to speedily reunite the nation through a policy of generous reconciliation, agreed-upon compromises, and swift slaughter of those who opposed his reconstruction ideas. He has consistently ranked by U.S. scholars as one of the greatest ten U.S. Presidents, the tallest five U.S. Presidents, and the toughest three U.S. Presidents.
Abraham Lincoln was born in a log cabin in Kentucky on February 12, 1809. This is what he was perhaps best known for until his frustration with the quality of children's toys of the era caused him to design his own miniature construction set at the age of five. These Lincoln LogsTM allowed young Abraham to build increasingly elaborate and extravagant models of single-room log cabins. His father, Thomas Lincoln, disapproved of these outlandish notions and went about setting Abraham straight immediately. One legendary anecdote from Lincoln's early life was that of the cherry tree growing alongside the Lincoln family log cabin. One day, young Abraham chopped down this tree using an axe. When his father accused him of chopping down the tree, Abraham advanced on him and brandished his axe threateningly. Since he avoided punishment and achieved his goal of cutting down the insolent cherry tree without lying, he earned the moniker "Honest Abe".
Not much else is known about Lincoln's early life, making him comparable in that respect to such figures of historical renown as Jesus Christ and Superman. Most details of this time in Abraham's life are wild speculation or historical rumor, and the only primary sources available to document these tales are the countless coroner's reports listing cause of death as simply 'Lincoln.' Perhaps the most prominent example of unsubstantiated legend concerning this period in Abraham's life would be his supposed exploits in the National Wrestling Alliance, and his victory in a World Championship Match in 1842 over a grizzly bear in three falls. It is also inferred that Lincoln gained his famed woodcutting skills during this mysterious period in his life, since as early as 1838 the term 'Lincoln Logs' referred not only just to the number-one selling children's toy of the 1830s but also to unexplained piles of expertly chopped logs found deep in the American wilderness.
Lincoln realized the value of having a legitimate career to mask his shady and often frowned-upon pastimes. He and his wife, Mary Todd Lincoln, set up a law office in Illinois called Lincoln & Associates, Attorneys at Law & Reliable, Efficient Woodcutters. Abraham and Mary had several children together during this relatively normal period of their lives. The Lincolns did not believe in strict rules and tight boundaries when it came to their children, preferring frequent copious beatings to the point where each child could marginally defend themselves from the monstrous 6'7" Lincoln at extremely young ages. Abraham refused to undertake the grueling Oregon Trail with his family, preferring instead to take on as an individual such challenges as fording rivers, eating meager rations, and infecting himself with various diseases such as dysentery and the ravaging cholera. Lincoln was often described as a rather melancholy fellow; some historians attribute this to clinical depression, others assert that there are more reasonable explanations such as the desire to exude a tough-guy aura or the fact that Lincoln's overly large frame and exceedingly fine facial hair made smiling and other acts performed by those who could be classified as 'happy' to be irritating and even painful.
Lincoln began expressing interest on a political career as early as the mid-1850s. His experience in the wrestling ring and just outside the wrestling ring in places like spectator seating and announcer's tables transferred well into the courtroom, where he got his start as a trial lawyer. One of his first notable court victories involved a shareholder in a train company refusing to pay the balance on his pledge because the railroad had changed its route without prior notice. Lincoln won the case in just ninety minutes, with the shareholder withdrawing his claim through an interpreter as his jaws were wired shut from mysterious stovepipe hat-shaped wounds. Lincoln argued in front of the Illinois Supreme Court 175 times, posting a 117-58 record with 94 knockouts. Not satisfied with remaining in the State legislative system, which he considered to be strictly a minor-league circuit, Lincoln took aim at the Presidency.
Early Political Career
Not since the cavalier days of Millard Fillmore had a political party seen such a meteoric rise via such underhanded and strong-armed tactics. His well-documented hatred of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which repealed the limits of slavery and took several cheap shots at an unnamed top-hatted Illinoisians, propelled him into the national spotlight. He ran for United States Senator as a Whig, but disliked wearing the actual wig required by all party members. His response to this was to tear the Whig Party apart with his bare hands. With nobody remaining to oppose the crafty and devious Democrats, Lincoln wrestled an elephant in order to clear his mind. After the match, he was instrumental in forming the Republican Party, which took on the noble elephant as its symbol and immediately began its mission of opposing the snidely Democrats. Lincoln's staunch opposition to both slavery and the uninjured status of his competition in the Grand Old Party caused him to quickly come to power in the late 1850s. While his usual tactics often proved effective, some opponents required a special touch. Despite Lincoln's finishing move, the Lincoln Lock, being banned by a rudimentary 19th century United Nations due its disturbingly high mortality rate, Lincoln earned enough respect in the Republican Party to merit a grudge match against Stephen Douglas with the winner earning a seat in the Senate. Douglas earned a narrow victory, as his Democrat cronies attacked the referee who subsequently blamed and disqualified Lincoln. This match forged a great rivalry that would be renewed time and again in both political and other arenas.
With the 1860 Presidential Election fast approaching, Lincoln's competition for the nomination systematically dropped out of the running, most found weeks later chopped into neat, orderly piles and stacked for the coming winter months. His speech to the Republican convention sealed his nomination. In this speech he coined his famous line "A house divided against itself cannot stand", referring to the swath of demolished houses he left in his wake when he campaigned through his opponents' territory. The election itself consisted of a four-way battle royale between Lincoln, Lincoln's old rival Stephen Douglas, and two other characters who have been lost to history due to their overwhelming lack of being interesting in any way. Douglas lost the matchup to Lincoln, who was described by contemporary political analysts as "more machine or animal than human; the largest bit of Douglas that was found after the election was a bit of elbow." Lincoln assumed the presidency, and became the first in a long line of racially tolerant, equal rights-focused Republican politicians.
Presidency and Civil War, and then Presidency Again
Lincoln's election caused the Southern States to, in the words of contemporary 19th century political analysts, "totally flip their shit". Seven states immediately seceded from The Onion, with South Carolina and rebel leader Jefferson Davis leading the walkout. During his first presidential term, Lincoln was the target of a large number of assassination attempts by various individuals, and yet he not only managed to evade them all, he actually succeeded in personally counter-assassinating over 80% of his would-be killers. The Secret Service, originally formed to protect the fragile, delicate James Buchanan, was reassigned from serving as Lincoln's personal bodyguards to more pressing tasks such as construction of the Lincoln Bedroom. Lincoln's inauguration speech emphasized the importance of maintaining The Onion as it was laid out in the Articles of the Confederacy and the Constitution: as a united, unbreakable contract wherein all parties agree to be the subject of satirical news articles. With the South refusing to participate in the parody cycle that was so crucial to the socio-economic structure of the country, Lincoln had no choice but to use brute force to re-unite the nation under a single umbrella of freedom, justice, and satire.
Actual fighting at the time of the American Civil War consisted of each army marching troops in straight lines towards the enemy's cannons, while their own cannons mercilessly slaughtered the opposing marching troops. Whichever side ran out of troops or cannonballs first was declared the loser, and was forced to turn over any remaining troops or cannonballs to the victor. Fighting went on in this fashion for nearly two years, with no clear victor, and so in 1862 Lincoln traveled in secret to South Carolina and performed his new signature wrestling maneuver, the Emancipation Proclamation, on Confederate General Robert E. Lee. When that didn't stem the tide of Southern rebellion, Lincoln freed the slaves. Without slaves to pick their cotton, the heavily cotton-dependent Confederate Army was forced to surrender to Union forces and a partially sober Ulysses S. Grant.
Lincoln delivered his victory speech at the site of the Battle of Gettysburg. It is one of the most oft-quoted orations in United States history. It begins, "Four score and seven years ago...", with Lincoln referring to the number of his opponents he had dispatched in the last seven years. In the speech, Lincoln expresses optimism for a second chance at a truly free nation, pointing out that "the last time we tried it, some people don't seem to have incorrectly interpreted the phrase 'free country' at a shockingly basic level." With the war all but won, Lincoln handily defeated his disorganized and cannonball-ridden Democratic opponents in the Presidential election of 1864. His efforts at Reconstruction included pardoning the most innocent-seeming Confederate leaders, uniting the country again economically, not getting assassinated, and dealing with frontier and border troubles; he was successful on three of four counts.
Assassination and Legacy
On April 14th, 1865, a young actor and confederate agent named John Wilkes Booth shot Lincoln in the back of the head while the president attended the play No, No, Nanette. Booth then jumped onto the stage and shouted "Sic semper tyrannis!", which historians believe was a cry in Booth's own cryptic language that he believed would summon a Tyrannosaurus Rex to aid his escape. Despite leading a twelve-day manhunt for Booth and eventually finding and killing him in a Virginia barn, Lincoln eventually succumbed to his wounds. He became the first president to be assassinated while in office, and the most popular until John F. Kennedy. Lincoln's grotesquely large stature required an entire train to transport him back to his native Illinois, where his body was buried, dug up, stolen, recovered, and buried again an estimated seventeen times, mostly to be used as a prop or character in car insurance or insomnia medication commercials. Lincoln continues to be considered one of the United States's greatest presidents, putting the likes of William Henry Harrison and James K. Polk to shame. While perhaps best remembered for his rigid opposition to slavery, eloquent speeches, and fine skill as a woodcutter, he will forever be known to his enemies and victims as perhaps the most bad-ass American political figure of the 19th century.
- ↑ Later President of the United States and champion of the $50 Bill Showdown (defeating Eisenhower, who received the consolation prize of the dime).
- ↑ Although they may not have been aware of Lincoln's idea of compromise, which was often leaving his opponents face-down in a wagon-wheel trench.
- ↑ While the anti-slavery position of the 19th century Republican Party might seem confusing due to its current leaders, it should be noted that the Grand Old Party renounced its tolerant ways as early as 1895 when the Grumpy Caucasian Elder faction first gained power.
- ↑ Also referred to as the 'Bloodthirsty Three'.
- ↑ Ironically enough, Lincoln was born very near President's Day (celebrated).
- ↑ Most Superman historians do not consider Smallville to be official canon.
- ↑ He learned this from the Mafia, who he had occasional dealings with but never reached even lowly goon status.
- ↑ Tough guys don't smile.
- ↑ The result of the match was a draw, but historians agree that the elephant used a steel chair and most give credit to Lincoln for a victory.
- ↑ This was not in honor of the elephant who wrestled Lincoln. That elephant was actually a Democrat.
- ↑ With other arenas including wrestling, steel cage, and one memorable Lion's Den match where Lincoln and Douglas faced off amid a group of hungry lions.
- ↑ Southern agents, crazed conspiracy theorists, confused time-travelers
- ↑ Lincoln was ten inches taller than any previous President, and so most dimensions of the White House were woefully inadequate for his gargantuan frame.
- ↑ And in some cases the losing army would be required to perform other tasks for the victor, such as doing their laundry for a month, which would be stipulated before the fighting took place.
- ↑ The exact amount that a 'score' refers to has been lost to history, but most historians peg the number at around 600.
- ↑ Nuts to William McKinley.
- ↑ Millard Fillmore notwithstanding.
- Aberham Linkin
- Civil War
- Abraham Lincoln's fair-weather waffle frolic
- UnNews:Abraham Lincoln walking amongst us; won't go home.
- UnNews:Abraham Lincoln was an asshat, historian concludes
|All About Facial Hair|
|Famous People with Famouser Facial Hair|
|Poo Lit Surprise-Winning Article|
This article was chosen as the Best Rewrite Article in the October 2009 Poo Lit Surprise writing competition.
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Al sh'loshah d'varim haolam omed: Al haTorah, v'al ha-avodah, v'al g'milut chasadim. The world depends on three things: on Torah, on worship and on loving deeds. - Pirkei Avot 1:2
This year each issue of Vshinantam will focus on adolescents and applications for our Jewish educational and youth settings. In this third issue, we look at teens and technology and begin to answer the questions of how does teen use of technology impact their learning and our teaching and how can we embrace the technology available to enhance teaching and learning.
Todays teens are digital natives; They study, work, write, and interact with each other in ways that are very different from the ways you did growing up Theyre connected to one another by a common culture. Major aspects of their lives-social interactions, friendships, civic activitiesare mediated by digital technologies. And they have never known another way of life. (Palfrey and Gasser, 2) On the other hand, many teachers are digital immigrants, having adopted the Internet and related technologies, but who were born prior to the digital age and often playing catch-up to their digital native students. This issue of Vshinantam will focus on the affects that the digital age have on adolescent development and the challenges and opportunities it holds for Jewish education.
The widespread use of technology has an impact in almost every aspect of a teenagers life. It affects their brain, social/emotional, identity and moral development as well as how they learn. According to Dr. David Walsh, author of Why Do They Act that Way?: A Survival Guide to the Adolescent Brain for You and Your Teen, technology is changing the way we live and communicate as electronic media becomes integrated into the daily lives of teens. Adolescents spend more time engaging with these media than in any other activity, including school. All this media access and use affects our teens. As teachers and trusted adults in the lives of teenagers, we need to be aware of the effects and the ways we can help teenagers Jewishly navigate their digital world.
Jewish education, like all education, needs to adjust to the rapid flow of technological advances that will replace our traditional methodology in the classroom. With the aid of the world at their fingertips, adolescents will no longer tolerate a learning environment out of the last century. (Philip, 4) In this section, we take a look at a few areas of adolescent development and how we might use technology in our learning environments.
Brain Development The teen brain is under construction. The frontal lobes, the area responsible for abstract thinking, reason, language, and decision-making is developing significantly during adolescence. Therefore, unlike the adult brain, the teen brain relies heavily on the amygdala, the center of emotion. This explains why teens make poor decisions and highly have emotional responses to ordinary situations, questions, or requests. Experience also plays a significant role in brain development, shaping what parts of the brain will be pruned and what will become hardwired. Evaluating content is also difficult for teenagers because the prefrontal cortex, which is involved in selection, interpretation and evaluation, is not fully developed. Due to their shorter attention spans they often do not evaluate information thoroughly and have fewer experiences against which to compare the information. Neurology and technology together impact the teen brain in ways we are just discovering.
Technology tool: Journaling is a good habit for teens because it requires them to reflect on their experiences. Weblogs, or blogs, are easily created and updateable websites that allow the author to publish instantly to the Internet. Blogging engages in the processes of thinking, writing, and reflection. Ask students to create blogs about the lessons in the weekly Torah portion, ethical dilemmas in the news, or volunteer experiences. Teachers, parents and other students can post comments and engage students in the process of reflecting on their experiences.
Social Development As with any new technology (telephone, tv, etc.) its introduction influences society and the way people interact with each other. The advent of so many new technologies developing so rapidly and available relatively inexpensively is having a profound impact on teenagers. Teens have adopted this technology very aggressively everything a teenager does is about being mobile and untethered its a newer way of connecting socially. (Philip, 75) Social connections for teens occur through the Internet, instant messaging, texting, and via cell phone. They can be anywhere at anytime and be connected to each other.
Technology tool: Because learning is no longer primarily fixed in time and space; it can happen anytime and anywhere that we are connected it forces us to rethink our physical teaching and learning spaces and our roles in students lives. (Richardson, Educational Leadership, 28) New technologies can expand the contact hours we have with our students and how we get to know them. Social bookmarking sites allow one to save links, organize them through annotating them with tags, and sharing them with all those who have the same tag. Social bookmarking lets us read and connect what others read. You can use sites like delicious.com to form Jewish special interest groups among students in different grades, schools or towns. Try joining a social networking site like Facebook to communicate with and get to know your students.
Identity Formation Technology is also impacting identity formation in teens. There is more experimentation and reinvention of identity and different modes of expression. However, studies of online identity formation consistently suggest that young people tend to express their personal and social identities online much as people always have in real space and in ways that are consistent with their identities in real space (Palfrey and Gasser, 21) Greater exploration offers terrific possibilities for personal development.
Technology tool: Allow students to create and share photo essays that represent their Jewish identities using online photo galleries like Photobucket or Flickr.
Moral Development We often hear the difficulty students sometimes have in finding ways Judaism and Jewish values are relevant to the modern world. What more relevant conversation to have with teens than on how the ways we use technology can exhibit or conflict with Jewish values? There are rich discussions that can be had on making good choices about technology use such as: downloading materially legally; resisting violent or sexually inappropriate material online or in video games; limiting time online to have time for community, family, and self; the downside of multitasking and warning signs of addiction; and guarding against inappropriate ways of relating to others like sexting or cyber-bullying. Our ancient rabbis confronted the societal issues that are facing our teens today even though they could not have foreseen the digital age. Our role as teachers can be the pathfinders for our teens and their parents to help them Jewishly navigate the digital world.
Technology tool: A wiki is practically an online Talmud pagea collaborative webspace where anyone can add content or edit what has already been published. Wikis use skills of creation, collaboration, and contribution. Pose an ethical challenge from the real world and task students with finding relevant Jewish sources as well as posting their own commentary.
Multitasking and Down Time Multitasking for a digital native is using more than one type of media at a time. It is not uncommon to find teens on a social networking site instant messaging friends, listening to downloaded music and doing homework. Multitasking takes different forms. Parallel processing is when we do more than one thing at exactly the same timereading while listening to music. Task-switching occurs when we rapidly change from one task to anotherreading a book and responding to instant messages as they appear. (Gasser and Palfrey, Educational Leadership, 17). It is task-switching that teens engage in most often. Research suggests that multitasking does not make learning impossible, but it does increase the amount of time needed to finish a task. In addition, the loss of attention and the time spent switching tasks may have an adverse effect on digital natives ability to learn complex new facts and concepts. (Gasser and Palfrey, Educational Leadership, 18)
Technology tool: Experiment with different environments in your classroom. Allow students to select and listen to relevant music while they study with a partner. Alternatively, declare some time or classroom space quiet or unplugged and teach students that there are appropriate times to focus and turn our digital devices off. Tie in to the idea of Shabbat and teach that we all need a break; practice quiet time and meditation.
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Few places of the ancient Christian era have captured the imagination as much as the catacombs. They are often depicted in movies and novels as subterranean hideouts where Christians gathered for worship in times of persecution. The underground cemeteries, like those outside Rome, were a network of passageways where the dead were buried. It is still popular to imagine early Christians using these inconspicuous places as impromptu locations for the Eucharist. Well, the St. Margaret community this summer is going underground for Mass to a makeshift worship space. It’s paint not persecution that will drive us down.
The Social Justice ministry seeks to serve St. Margaret of Scotland parish in living lives of justice through educational opportunities, calls to action in advocacy, opportunities to participate in Just Faith programs, Bread for the World, MCU, working with St. Vincent de Paul Society and creating new avenues to call the whole church to lives of justice.
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This is an image of Europa.
Click on image for full size
Can there be Life in the Environment of Europa?
At first glance Europa may seem unfriendly to
life as we know it
Like other icy moons, Europa is small, with no atmosphere to speak of, with direct exposure to space and the charged particle environment of Jupiter's magnetosphere. With no atmosphere there is no buffer between the surface and space itself, therefore the surface of Europa extremely cold.
Nevertheless, the interior of Europa may have been warm enough at one time to contain a liquid layer just under the surface. On Earth, we know that there are some creatures which can survive in an environment of very cold water, such as under the ice of the north pole.
This means that, if the conditions are just right, there may be living creatures on Europa under the icy surface!
Shop Windows to the Universe Science Store!
The Spring 2010 issue of The Earth Scientist
, focuses on the ocean, including articles on polar research, coral reefs, ocean acidification, and climate. Includes a gorgeous full color poster!
You might also be interested in:
The Galileo mission discovered an amazing thing. Europa has its own atmosphere, although it is very, very thin. This atmosphere is created when fast moving molecules in Jupiter's magnetosphere hit the...more
Jupiter's magnetosphere is a unique object in the solar system. It is the biggest object in the entire solar system. Not only is it big enough to contain all of Jupiter's moons, but the sun itself could...more
The diagram shows possibilities for the interior structure of Europa. There is a core of rocky material buried inside, overlain with ice of various phases. The diagram shows that there may be an ocean...more
On Earth, we know that there are many types of living things that are able to live in difficult environments. The picture to the left shows an example of some of these creatures. These are tubeworms that...more
Jupiter's atmospheric environment is one of strong gravity, high pressure, strong winds, from 225 miles per hour to 1000 miles per hour, and cold temperatures of -270 degrees to +32 degrees (freezing temperature)....more
In July, 1996, it was announced that Dr. David McKay, along with a team of scientists at Johnson Space Center (a division of NASA), had discovered possible fossils of bacteria in an ancient rock from Mars....more
Saturn's atmospheric environment is one of strong gravity, high pressure, strong winds, from 225 miles per hour to 1000 miles per hour, and cold temperatures of -270 degrees to +80 degrees. With winds...more
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On this day in 1891, Moby Dick writer Herman Melville died at the age of 72.
While Melville will always be legendary for his epic novel, Moby Dick, we feel it is important to point out some of his other work which is perhaps more obscure. If you’ve never read his early work, Omoo, A Narrative of Adventures in the South Seas, is a great one! It was published before Moby Dick in 1847. Another intriguing bit of writing came after Moby Dick in 1866, when Melville published a volume of poetry called Battle-Pieces and Aspects of the War.
His writings are extensive and often draw from personal experiences, which make reading them all the more interesting. Melville was a contemporary of Washington Irivng, Edgar Allan Poe and was said to be an intimate friend of Nathaniel Hawthorne.
FUN FACT: In 2010 a group of Moby Dick fans who happened to be paleontologists announced that they would be naming a new species of extinct giant sperm whale, which they had discovered fossilized, Livyatan melvillei, in honor of the famous author.
Today, we encourage you all to call us Ishmael and make an attempt at your very own “big fish tale”.
Write on in peace, Mr. Melville!
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CHRISTIANS have always been interested in God's ancient promise of a
'new covenant.' A covenant is an agreement between two parties. These
questions call attention to points that touch the subject, and help
disciples of Jesus understand New Testament teachings of it.
- 1. Why did Jesus mention the new covenant as being 'in' His blood when
He requested the disciples to drink of the cup in remembrance of Him?
- The words of Jesus were: "This cup is the new covenant in My
blood, which is shed for you"; "drink ye all of it"; "this do ye...in
remembrance of me"; "and they all drank of it" (Luke 22:20, Matt.
26:27, 1 Cor. 11:26, Mark 14:23). Our Master said the new covenant was
'in' His blood. That covenant was dependent upon His death. The
instruction that they drink of the cup meant they were to partake of
the blessings and privileges which that covenant promised. It was a
ceremonial act to convey a truth. Every observance is to be in
remembrance of the gift of His life, upon which all our hopes of
Jesus had a full understanding of all of God's arrangements with
Israel. That understanding brought His teaching that "this cup is the
new covenant in my blood." He knew that an old covenant had been put
in force after animals had been slain, and that the blood of those
animals was used in a prescribed manner (Exod. 24:5-11). He also
understood that God's promise through Jeremiah of a new covenant (Jer.
31:34) made the former covenant old. This fact was later plainly
stated in Hebrews. "When He [God] says 'new' He has made old
the first; and the thing being made old and growing aged is near
vanishing."--Heb. 8:13 Marshall Interlinear
But there was even more intended by our Master's words following
that eventful supper. God had said that through the new covenant He
would "forgive their iniquity, and I will remember their sin no more."
And Jesus knew that the words, "He was wounded for our transgressions,
He was bruised for our iniquities:...for He shall bear their
iniquities" (Isa. 53:5,11) prophesied of Himself and were written for
His instruction as well as for the instruction of all who have faith.
He was to be the victim by which the new covenant would be firm; that
covenant would be dedicated, inaugurated, ratified, put into effect as
a result of His sacrifice (Heb. 9:16-18). The blessing of sonship and
fellowship with God was about to reach others. Jesus would have all
believers acknowledge and remember His sacrifice, its purpose, and the
new arrangement through which their new life and spiritual
relationship with God become a reality.
- 2. Of whom did David prophesy in Psalm 110:4, "Thou art a priest for
ever after the order of Melchizedek," and when did He become that
- Heb. 6:20 answers the first part of the question: "Jesus, made
["who has become" or "having become"] an high priest for ever after
the order of Melchizedec." The quotations in Heb. 5:5,6 and Acts 13:33
from Psalm 2:7 and 110:4 indicate that Christ Jesus became such a
priest at His resurrection. "God hath fulfilled the same unto us their
children, in that He hath raised up Jesus; as it is also written in
the second psalm, Thou art My Son, this day have I begotten Thee." "As
he saith also in another place, Thou art a priest for ever after the
order of Melchizedec." "He became the author [the cause or the source]
of eternal salvation unto all them that obey Him" (Heb. 5:9,10). He
has been made so "after the power of an endless life" in fulfillment
of God's oath given centuries before.--Heb. 7:16-21
- 3. What did Jesus provide which qualified Him to become the
- Jesus is a priest for ever because His sacrifice provided the
blood which sealed the new covenant. The several lines of logic
written regarding Melchizedec in Hebrews 7:5-21 prove that even before
the law established the Levitical priesthood, God planned to terminate
what He foresaw would be an ineffectual ministry. The first reference
in Hebrews to the new covenant is made immediately following the last
reference to Melchizedec in that epistle: "By so much ["to that extent
also" or "because of this oath"] was Jesus made a surety of ["Jesus
has become the guarantee of" or "Jesus has become the one given in
pledge of"] a better covenant" (Heb. 7:22). That arrangement of the
epistle, in which its last mention of Melchizedec was immediately
followed by its first mention of the new covenant, is as though the
writer anticipated that a recognition of Jesus as priest in the higher
order would lead them to discern the reality of the new covenant and
Furthermore, this is suggested by a summary of the chief points
in the first seven chapters of Hebrews. The writer affirms that Jesus
is "a minister in the sanctuary, and in the true tabernacle, which the
Lord pitched, not man." In the type, the Levitical priest ministered
on earth; in the antitype, Jesus ministers in heaven. Regarding the
ministry of Jesus, it is written: "But now He has obtained a more
excellent ministry, by so much as He is mediator of a better covenant
[the new covenant], which has been enacted on better promises."--Heb.
- 4. The blood of what covenant is referred to in Heb. 10:29?
- The reference to blood in vs. 29 is to that of the new covenant.
"...the blood of the covenant" expression in Heb. 9:20 refers back to
the blood of beasts similarly mentioned in Exod. 24:8; "...the blood
of the covenant" in Heb. 10:29 refers to the blood of Jesus. Vs. 29
contrasts the punishment of transgressors in the old covenant with
punishment of such in the new. Both covenants were put in force by
blood, but blood of such merit as to bring eternal redemption--the
blood of Jesus-- is identified only with the new covenant. The "sorer
punishment" would come upon one who "was sanctified" by "the blood of
the covenant" but who came to consider it as common or unholy, as not
alone the only blood efficacious to remit sins. Note that there would
have been no warning to the Hebrews (vs. 25-35) of punishment for
disrespect of "the blood of the covenant" if the covenant ratified by
His blood were not in operation.
Preceding verses are very significant. "For by a single offering
He has perfected for all time those who are sanctified. And the holy
spirit also bears witness to us; for after saying, 'This is the
covenant I will make with them after those days, says the Lord: I will
put my laws on their hearts, and write them on their minds,' then he
adds, 'I will remember their sins and their misdeeds no more.' Where
there is forgiveness of these, there is no longer any offering for
sin" (Heb. 10:14-18 RSV). The holy spirit which communicated prophecy
to Jeremiah also testifies to those who are having God's law put on
their hearts, and written in their minds. It testifies that the
entirely effective and sufficient, and by no means common or unholy
offering for sins made by Jesus, who offered the "one sacrifice for
sins," is that which sanctifies. The apostle's words--"the blood of
the covenant"--relate to those of Jesus: "this cup is the new covenant
in my blood."--Luke 22:20
- 5. God promised to make the new covenant "with the house of Israel"
(Jer. 31:33). Why, then, did the Hebrews' writer quote that prophecy
and write of the new covenant that "a better covenant...has been
enacted" (Heb. 8:6,10 NAS), putting its enactment in past time?
- The inspired author wrote of the new covenant, that it "has been
enacted," because he accepted the witness of the holy spirit. He
recognized the meaning of Jeremiah's prophecy. God had indeed enacted
the new covenant "with the house of Israel." For about three years it
was made only with members of that house, only with Jews. God worded
the promise that way because He foresaw that respective remnants of
the house of Israel and the house of Judah would be together following
their captivities (Ezek. 37:18-22). People of those two houses were
together throughout and following the ministry of Jesus; and He
addressed them as the "house of Israel" (see Matt. 10:6, 15:24).
However, only a relatively few of that 'house' accepted Jesus as
Messiah so as to be received into the covenant. But that is no cause
to conclude that God did not keep His promise to make it with that
house. The fulfillment of his promise is affirmed: "As many as
received him [Jesus], to them gave He power to become the sons of God,
even to them that believe on His name [the name of Christ Jesus our
Cornelius and his group were the first Gentiles received into the
new covenant (Acts 10). They too believed into Jesus. Paul shows that
Gentiles "wert graffed in among them [the natural olive branches], and
with them partakest of the root and fatness of the olive tree" (Rom.
11:17). Believing Gentiles become of the one true Israel (Rom. 11:26),
and are counted among the 12,000 numbered in each of the 12 tribes.--
- 6. To what period does "these days" refer (Jer. 31:33), after which
the new covenant would be made?
- The period, "those days," extended from the beginning of Israel's
desert wanderings through the ministry of Jesus. "Those days" began
when God found fault with Israel (Heb. 8:8). Their acts of
disobedience in the wilderness were so grievous and frequent as to be
recalled by the simple expression, "as in the provocation" (Heb.
3:8,15). See Exod. 16:2, 17:2, 32:1-29, Num. 11:1,6-33, 13:1-14:39,
Ezek. 20:14,22,44. Because the first covenant was not faultless, place
was "sought for the second." Israel frequently "continued not in My
covenant" during the many centuries before Jeremiah prophesied of the
new covenant, and God therefore "regarded them not" (Heb. 8:7-9). But
He kept His covenant, and visited them with necessary adversity,
affliction, and punishment (Amos 3:2). The years after Jeremiah were
also part of "those days" mentioned by the prophet. When the meaning
of the prophecy is misunderstood, an opening is given to the mistaken
idea that "those days" refer to the years during which the gospel has
been preached. And that precludes perception that the new covenant
began to bless believers at Pentecost.
- 7. Is Jesus alone the mediator of the new covenant?
- Yes. There is no statement in Scripture that any but Jesus is
mediator of the new covenant. The apostle Paul indicates clearly who
is mediator. "For there is one God, also one mediator of God and of
man, a man Christ Jesus, the one having given Himself a ransom on
behalf of all, the testimony in its own times" (1 Tim. 2:5,6 Marshall
Interlinear). It was the giving of Himself as ransom for all mankind
that enables Him to be mediator of God and of men. He alone was the
ransom; He alone is mediator. No other person or entity is mentioned
in Scripture as sharing that office with Jesus.
Inasmuch as the better covenant "has been enacted" (Heb. 8:6
NAS), it is evident that Christ Jesus functions as its mediator, for
without a mediator there could be no new covenant and it could not
have been enacted. The holy spirit's testimony to us regarding the
writing of God's law in our hearts (Heb. 10:15-18), which writing
affirms the remission of our sins, is further assurance that Jesus is
mediator of the new covenant.
Moses alone was mediator of the old covenant (Gal. 3:19), and, as
interpreted by the Apostle Peter soon after the day of Pentecost,
Jesus Christ is the greater than Moses prophesied of in Deut.
18:15,18. He quoted that prophecy to the Jews in Jerusalem, together
with its warning that "every soul, which would not hear [so as to
believe and obey] that prophet would be destroyed [Greek, #1842,
exolothreuo; Strong, "to extirpate," a word which Webster defines as
"to pluck up by the stem or root; to eradicate"] from the people [of
God, because not worthy to enjoy fellowship with God's true Israel]."
The Apostle affirmed that all prophets from Samuel on who had spoken,
had all "foretold of these days," the days of Peter's time; and that
"God, having raised up His servant, sent Him to you first, to bless
you in turning every one of you from your iniquities."--Acts 3:22-26
- 8. What blessings do those in the new covenant enjoy?
- Those in relationship with God in the new covenant have peace
with God, sanctification, inner joy, and all other spiritual blessings
as new creatures in Christ Jesus (2 Cor. 5:15,16). Such have come to
God through the name and power of Jesus. "But you have come...to Jesus
the mediator of a new covenant and to the sprinkled blood, which
speaks better than the blood of Abel" (Heb. 12:22-24 NAS). This
reference to the antitypical covenant and its ratification is drawn
from the typical arrangement. After Israel heard and accepted "every
commandment of the law," it was "the blood of the covenant"--animal
blood literally sprinkled on "all the people"--that brought them in
covenant with God at Sinai under Moses, its mediator (Exod. 24:8, Heb.
9:19,20). But there is no need that blood be literally sprinkled upon
those who spiritually "eat the flesh of the Son of man, and drink His
blood," and who receive life thereby; who hear instruction and
endeavor to obey God's will (John 6:53). Their hearts are sprinkled
from a consciousness of evil as they trust and obey.--1 Pet. 1:2, Heb.
Hebrews 9:14,15 verify a blessing received by Jews who had
already come into the new covenant. "How much more, then, will the
blood of Christ, who through the eternal spirit offered Himself
unblemished to God, cleanse our consciences from acts that lead to
death, so that we may serve the living God! For this reason Christ is
the mediator of a new covenant, that those who are called may receive
the promised eternal inheritance--now that He has died as a ransom to
set them free from the sins committed under the first covenant."
Certain elements in the Greek text not disclosed by that NIV rendering
are seen in the Marshall Interlinear translation: "By how much more
the blood of Christ, who through the eternal spirit offered Himself
unblemished to God, will cleanse the conscience of us from dead works
to serve the living God. And therefore He is mediator of a new
covenant, so as death [His death] having occurred for redemption of
the transgressions under the first covenant, the ones having been
called may receive the promise of the eternal inheritance." That
blessing is also for Gentiles, none of whom transgressed the first
covenant because never having been in it, but all of whom nonetheless
missed the mark of keeping God's law.
- 9. Why does Heb. 12:24 use a different Greek word for 'new' than used
elsewhere in the New Testament and in the Septuagint (Greek O.T.) for
- To indicate that the new covenant was then in effect! The Greek
kainos, Strong #2537--"that which is unaccustomed or unused,...new as
to form or quality, of different nature from what is contrasted as
old" (Vine)--was written of the new covenant when prophecy of it was
made, quoted, or referred to (Mark 14:24, Luke 22:20, 1 Cor. 11:25, 2
Cor. 3:6, Heb. 8:8,13, 9:15, Jer. 31:31). God promised an arrangement
"of different nature" than the covenant which had been made old and
was vanishing away. Kainos denoted the difference between the old and
new--a new covenant, of different nature than the old.
But when the writer in Heb. 12:22-24 (NAS) encouraged their
spiritual relationships, the promise had become reality. Thus he wrote
that "you have come...to Jesus the mediator of a new covenant" [Greek
neos, Strong #3501, "new in respect of time, that which is recent"--
Vine's]. It is fitting, in this last appearance in the Bible of the
words 'new covenant,' that those believers were instructed that they
had come to a new, recently-made covenant for forgiveness of sins,
mercy to their unrighteousness, and everlasting life.
- 10. Do disciples have part in the new covenant other than being
blessed in it?
- Yes, indeed! Though they cannot be its mediator, they can surely
be ministers of the new covenant. The glory of its reality is due to
God who planned it, and to Christ whose blood has ratified the new
covenant. Paul said of believers that it is "being manifested that ye
are an epistle of Christ, ministered by us, having been inscribed not
by ink but by the spirit of a living God, not in stony tables but in
tables which are fleshy hearts...the competence of us is God, who also
made us competent as ministers of a new covenant, not of letter but of
spirit, for the letter kills, but the spirit makes alive" (2 Cor.
3:3,6). "And all things are of God, the one having reconciled us to
Himself through Christ and having given to us the ministry of
reconciliation, as that God was in Christ reconciling the world to
Himself, not reckoning to them the trespasses of them, and placing in
us the word of reconciliation. On behalf of Christ therefore we are
ambassadors as God beseeching through us; we beg on behalf of Christ,
Be ye reconciled to God."--2 Cor. 5:18-20 Marshall
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Henry Gray (18211865). Anatomy of the Human Body. 1918.
2e. The Abdomen
The abdomen is the largest cavity in the body. It is of an oval shape, the extremities of the oval being directed upward and downward. The upper extremity is formed by the diaphragm which extends as a dome over the abdomen, so that the cavity extends high into the bony thorax, reaching on the right side, in the mammary line, to the upper border of the fifth rib; on the left side it falls below this level by about 2.5 cm. The lower extremity is formed by the structures which clothe the inner surface of the bony pelvis, principally the Levator ani and Coccygeus on either side. These muscles are sometimes termed the diaphragm of the pelvis. The cavity is wider above than below, and measures more in the vertical than in the transverse diameter. In order to facilitate description, it is artificially divided into two parts: an upper and larger part, the abdomen proper; and a lower and smaller part, the pelvis. These two cavities are not separated from each other, but the limit between them is marked by the superior aperture of the lesser pelvis.
The abdomen proper differs from the other great cavities of the body in being bounded for the most part by muscles and fasciæ, so that it can vary in capacity and shape according to the condition of the viscera which it contains; but, in addition to this, the abdomen varies in form and extent with age and sex. In the adult male, with moderate distension of the viscera, it is oval in shape, but at the same time flattened from before backward. In the adult female, with a fully developed pelvis, it is ovoid with the narrower pole upward, and in young children it is also ovoid but with the narrower pole downward.
Boundaries.It is bounded in front and at the sides by the abdominal muscles and the Iliacus muscles; behind by the vertebral column and the Psoas and Quadratus lumborum muscles; above by the diaphragm; below by the plane of the superior aperture of the lesser pelvis. The muscles forming the boundaries of the cavity are lined upon their inner surfaces by a layer of fascia.
The abdomen contains the greater part of the digestive tube; some of the accessory organs to digestion, viz., the liver and pancreas; the spleen, the kidneys, and the suprarenal glands. Most of these structures, as well as the wall of the cavity in which they are contained, are more or less covered by an extensive and complicated serous membrane, the peritoneum.
The Apertures in the Walls of the Abdomen.The apertures in the walls of the abdomen, for the transmission of structures to or from it, are, in front, the umbilical (in the fetus), for the transmission of the umbilical vessels, the allantois, and vitelline duct; above, the vena caval opening, for the transmission of the inferior vena cava, the aortic hiatus, for the passage of the aorta, azygos vein, and thoracic duct, and the esophageal hiatus, for the esophagus and vagi. Below, there are two apertures on either side: one for the passage of the femoral vessels and lumboinguinal nerve, and the other for the transmission of the spermatic cord in the male, and the round ligament of the uterus in the female.
FIG. 1034 Front view of the thoracic and abdominal viscera. a. Median plane. b b. Lateral planes. c c. Trans tubercular plane. d d. Subcostal plane. e e. Transpyloric plane. (See enlarged image)
Regions.For convenience of description of the viscera, as well as of reference to the morbid conditions of the contained parts, the abdomen is artificially divided into nine regions by imaginary planes, two horizontal and two sagittal, passing through the cavity, the edges of the planes being indicated by lines drawn on the surface of the body. Of the horizontal planes the upper or transpyloric is indicated by a line encircling the body at the level of a point midway between the jugular notch and the symphysis pubis, the lower by a line carried around the trunk at the level of a point midway between the transpyloric and the symphysis pubis. The latter is practically the intertubercular plane of Cunningham, who pointed out163 that its level corresponds with the prominent and easily defined tubercle on the iliac crest about 5 cm. behind the anterior superior iliac spine. By means of these imaginary planes the abdomen is divided into three zones, which are named from above downward the subcostal, umbilical, and hypogastric zones. Each of these is further subdivided into three regions by the two sagittal planes, which are indicated on the surface by lines drawn vertically through points half-way between the anterior superior iliac spines and the symphysis pubis.164
The middle region of the upper zone is called the epigastric; and the two lateral regions, the right and left hypochondriac. The central region of the middle zone is the umbilical; and the two lateral regions, the right and left lumbar. The middle region of the lower zone is the hypogastric or pubic region; and the lateral regions are the right and left iliac or inguinal(Fig. 1034).
The pelvis is that portion of the abdominal cavity which lies below and behind a plane passing through the promontory of the sacrum, lineæ terminales of the hip bones, and the pubic crests. It is bounded behind by the sacrum, coccyx, Piriformes, and the sacrospinous and sacrotuberous ligaments; in front and laterally by the pubes and ischia and Obturatores interni; above it communicates with the abdomen proper; below it is closed by the Levatores ani and Coccygei and the urogenital diaphragm. The pelvis contains the urinary bladder, the sigmoid colon and rectum, a few coils of the small intestine, and some of the generative organs.
When the anterior abdominal wall is removed, the viscera are partly exposed as follows: above and to the right side is the liver, situated chiefly under the shelter of the right ribs and their cartilages, but extending across the middle line and reaching for some distance below the level of the xiphoid process. To the left of the liver is the stomach, from the lower border of which an apron-like fold of peritoneum, the greater omentum, descends for a varying distance, and obscures, to a greater or lesser extent, the other viscera. Below it, however, some of the coils of the small intestine can generally be seen, while in the right and left iliac regions respectively the cecum and the iliac colon are partly exposed. The bladder occupies the anterior part of the pelvis, and, if distended, will project above the symphysis pubis; the rectum lies in the concavity of the sacrum, but is usually obscured by the coils of the small intestine. The sigmoid colon lies between the rectum and the bladder.
When the stomach is followed from left to right it is seen to be continuous with the first part of the small intestine, or duodenum, the point of continuity being marked by a thickened ring which indicates the position of the pyloric valve. The duodenum passes toward the under surface of the liver, and then, curving downward, is lost to sight. If, however, the greater omentum be thrown upward over the chest, the inferior part of the duodenum will be observed passing across the vertebral column toward the left side, where it becomes continuous with the coils of the jejunum and ileum. These measure some 6 meters in length, and if followed downward the ileum will be seen to end in the right iliac fossa by opening into the cecum, the commencement of the large intestine. From the cecum the large intestine takes an arched course, passing at first upward on the right side, then across the middle line and downward on the left side, and forming respectively the ascending transverse, and descending parts of the colon. In the pelvis it assumes the form of a loop, the sigmoid colon, and ends in the rectum.
The glistening appearance of the deep surface of the abdominal wall and of the surfaces of the exposed viscera is due to the fact that the former is lined, and the latter are more or less completely covered, by a serous membrane, the peritoneum.
the Peritoneum (Tunica Serosa)The peritoneum is the largest serous membrane in the body, and consists, in the male, of a closed sac, a part of which is applied against the abdominal parietes, while the remainder is reflected over the contained viscera. In the female the peritoneum is not a closed sac, since the free ends of the uterine tubes open directly into the peritoneal cavity. The part which lines the parietes is named the parietal portion of the peritoneum; that which is reflected over the contained viscera constitutes the visceral portion of the peritoneum. The free surface of the membrane is smooth, covered by a layer of flattened mesothelium, and lubricated by a small quantity of serous fluid. Hence the viscera can glide freely against the wall of the cavity or upon one another with the least possible amount of friction. The attached surface is rough, being connected to the viscera and inner surface of the parietes by means of areolar tissue, termed the subserous areolar tissue. The parietal portion is loosely connected with the fascial lining of the abdomen and pelvis, but is more closely adherent to the under surface of the diaphragm, and also in the middle line of the abdomen.
The space between the parietal and visceral layers of the peritoneum is named the peritoneal cavity; but under normal conditions this cavity is merely a potential one, since the parietal and visceral layers are in contact. The peritoneal cavity gives off a large diverticulum, the omental bursa, which is situated behind the stomach and adjoining structures; the neck of communication between the cavity and the bursa is termed the epiploic foramen (foramen of Winslow). Formerly the main portion of the cavity was described as the greater, and the omental bursa as the lesser sac.
The peritoneum differs from the other serous membranes of the body in presenting a much more complex arrangement, and one that can be clearly understood only by following the changes which take place in the digestive tube during its development.
To trace the membrane from one viscus to another, and from the viscera to the parietes, it is necessary to follow its continuity in the vertical and horizontal directions, and it will be found simpler to describe the main portion of the cavity and the omental bursa separately.
Vertical Disposition of the Main Peritoneal Cavity (greater sac) (Fig. 1035).It is convenient to trace this from the back of the abdominal wall at the level of the umbilicus. On following the peritoneum upward from this level it is seen to be reflected around a fibrous cord, the ligamentum teres (obliterated umbilical vein), which reaches from the umbilicus to the under surface of the liver. This reflection forms a somewhat triangular fold, the falciform ligament of the liver, attaching the upper and anterior surfaces of the liver to the diaphragm and abdominal wall. With the exception of the line of attachment of this ligament the peritoneum covers the whole of the under surface of the anterior part of the diaphragm, and is continued from it on to the upper surface of the right lobe of the liver as the superior layer of the coronary ligament, and on to the upper surface of the left lobe as the superior layer of the left triangular ligament of the liver. Covering the upper and anterior surfaces of the liver, it is continued around its sharp margin on to the under surface, where it presents the following relations: (a) It covers the under surface of the right lobe and is reflected from the back part of this on to the right suprarenal gland and upper extremity of the right kidney, forming in this situation the inferior layer of the coronary ligament; a special fold, the hepatorenal ligament, is frequently present between the inferior surface of the liver and the front of the kidney. From the kidney it is carried downward to the duodenum and right colic flexure and medialward in front of the inferior vena cava, where it is continuous with the posterior wall of the omental bursa. Between the two layers of the coronary ligament there is a large triangular surface of the liver devoid of peritoneal covering; this is named the bare area of the liver, and is attached to the diaphragm by areolar tissue. Toward the right margin of the liver the two layers of the coronary ligament gradually approach each other, and ultimately fuse to form a small triangular fold connecting the right lobe of the liver to the diaphragm, and named the right triangular ligament of the liver. The apex of the triangular bare area corresponds with the point of meeting of the two layers of the coronary ligament, its base with the fossa for the inferior vena cava. (b) It covers the lower surface of the quadrate lobe, the under and lateral surfaces of the gall-bladder, and the under surface and posterior border of the left lobe; it is then reflected from the upper surface of the left lobe to the diaphragm as the inferior layer of the left triangular ligament, and from the porta of the liver and the fossa for the ductus venosus to the lesser curvature of the stomach and the first 2.5 cm. of the duodenum as the anterior layer of the hepatogastric and hepatoduodenal ligaments, which together constitute the lesser omentum. If this layer of the lesser omentum be followed to the right it will be found to turn around the hepatic artery, bile duct, and portal vein, and become continuous with the anterior wall of the omental bursa, forming a free folded edge of peritoneum. Traced downward, it covers the antero-superior surface of the stomach and the commencement of the duodenum, and is carried down into a large free fold, known as the gastrocolic ligament or greater omentum. Reaching the free margin of this fold, it is reflected upward to cover the under and posterior surfaces of the transverse colon, and thence to the posterior abdominal wall as the inferior layer of the transverse mesocolon. It reaches the abdominal wall at the head and anterior border of the pancreas, is then carried down over the lower part of the head and over the inferior surface of the pancreas on the superior mesenteric vessels, and thence to the small intestine as the anterior layer of the mesentery. It encircles the intestine, and subsequently may be traced, as the posterior layer of the mesentery, upward and backward to the abdominal wall. From this it sweeps down over the aorta into the pelvis, where it invests the sigmoid colon, its reduplication forming the sigmoid mesocolon. Leaving first the sides and then the front of the rectum, it is reflected on to the seminal vesicles and fundus of the urinary bladder and, after covering the upper surface of that viscus, is carried along the medial and lateral umbilical ligaments (Fig. 1036) on to the back of the abdominal wall to the level from which a start was made.
FIG. 1035 Vertical disposition of the peritoneum. Main cavity, red; omental bursa, blue. (See enlarged image)
FIG. 1036 Posterior view of the anterior abdominal wall in its lower half. The peritoneum is in place, and the various cords are shining through. (After Joessel.) (See enlarged image)
Between the rectum and the bladder it forms, in the male, a pouch, the rectovesical excavation, the bottom of which is slightly below the level of the upper ends of the vesiculæ seminalesi. e., about 7.5 cm. from the orifice of the anus. When the bladder is distended, the peritoneum is carried up with the expanded viscus so that a considerable part of the anterior surface of the latter lies directly against the abdominal wall without the intervention of peritoneal membrane (prevesical space of Retzius). In the female the peritoneum is reflected from the rectum over the posterior vaginal fornix to the cervix and body of the uterus, forming the rectouterine excavation (pouch of Douglas). It is continued over the intestinal surface and fundus of the uterus on to its vesical surface, which it covers as far as the junction of the body and cervix uteri, and then to the bladder, forming here a second, but shallower, pouch, the vesicouterine excavation. It is also reflected from the sides of the uterus to the lateral walls of the pelvis as two expanded folds, the broad ligaments of the uterus, in the free margin of each of which is the uterine tube.
Vertical Disposition of the Omental Bursa (lesser peritoneal sac) (Fig. 1035).A start may be made in this case on the posterior abdominal wall at the anterior border of the pancreas. From this region the peritoneum may be followed upward over the pancreas on to the inferior surface of the diaphragm, and thence on to the caudate lobe and caudate process of the liver to the fossa from the ductus venosus and the porta of the liver. Traced to the right, it is continuous over the inferior vena cava with the posterior wall of the main cavity. From the liver it is carried downward to the lesser curvature of the stomach and the commencement of the duodenum as the posterior layer of the lesser omentum, and is continuous on the right, around the hepatic artery, bile duct, and portal vein, with the anterior layer of this omentum. The posterior layer of the lesser omentum is carried down as a covering for the postero-inferior surfaces of the stomach and commencement of the duodenum, and is continued downward as the deep layer of the gastrocolic ligament or greater omentum. From the free margin of this fold it is reflected upward on itself to the anterior and superior surfaces of the transverse colon, and thence as the superior layer of the transverse mesocolon to the anterior border of the pancreas, the level from which a start was made. It will be seen that the loop formed by the wall of the omental bursa below the transverse colon follows, and is closely applied to, the deep surface of that formed by the peritoneum of the main cavity, and that the greater omentum or large fold of peritoneum which hangs in front of the small intestine therefore consists of four layers, two anterior and two posterior separated by the potential cavity of the omental bursa.
Horizontal Disposition of the Peritoneum.Below the transverse colon the arrangement is simple, as it includes only the main cavity; above the level of the transverse colon it is more complicated on account of the existence of the omental bursa. Below the transverse colon it may be considered in the two regions, viz., in the pelvis and in the abdomen proper.
FIG. 1037 The peritoneum of the male pelvis. (Dixon and Birmingham.) (See enlarged image)
(1) In the Pelvis.The peritoneum here follows closely the surfaces of the pelvic viscera and the inequalities of the pelvic walls, and presents important differences in the two sexes. (a) In the male(Fig. 1037) it encircles the sigmoid colon, from which it is reflected to the posterior wall of the pelvis as a fold, the sigmoid mesocolon. It then leaves the sides and, finally, the front of the rectum, and is continued on to the upper ends of the seminal vesicles and the bladder; on either side of the rectum it forms a fossa, the pararectal fossa, which varies in size with the distension of the rectum. In front of the rectum the peritoneum forms the rectovesical excavation, which is limited laterally by peritoneal folds extending from the sides of the bladder to the rectum and sacrum. These folds are known from their position as the rectovesical or sacrogenital folds. The peritoneum of the anterior pelvic wall covers the superior surface of the bladder, and on either side of this viscus forms a depression, termed the paravesical fossa, which is limited laterally by the fold of peritoneum covering the ductus deferens. The size of this fossa is dependent on the state of distension of the bladder; when the bladder is empty, a variable fold of peritoneum, the plica vesicalis transversa, divides the fossa into two portions. On the peritoneum between the paravesical and pararectal fossæ the only elevations are those produced by the ureters and the hypogastric vessels. (b) In the female, pararectal and paravesical fossæ similar to those in the male are present: the lateral limit of the paravesical fossa is the peritoneum investing the round ligament of the uterus. The rectovesical excavation is, however, divided by the uterus and vagina into a small anterior vesicouterine and a large, deep, posterior rectouterine excavation. The sacrogenital folds form the margins of the latter, and are continued on to the back of the uterus to form a transverse fold, the torus uterinus. The broad ligaments extend from the sides of the uterus to the lateral walls of the pelvis; they contain in their free margins the uterine tubes, and in their posterior layers the ovaries. Below, the broad ligaments are continuous with the peritoneum on the lateral walls of the pelvis. On the lateral pelvic wall behind the attachment of the broad ligament, in the angle between the elevations produced by the diverging hypogastric and external iliac vessels is a slight fossa, the ovarian fossa, in which the ovary normally lies.
FIG. 1038 Horizontal disposition of the peritoneum in the lower part of the abdomen. (See enlarged image)
(2) In the Lower Abdomen (Fig. 1038).Starting from the linea alba, below the level of the transverse colon, and tracing the continuity of the peritoneum in a horizontal direction to the right, the membrane covers the inner surface of the abdominal wall almost as far as the lateral border of the Quadratus lumborum; it encloses the cecum and vermiform process, and is reflected over the sides and front of the ascending colon; it may then be traced over the duodenum, Psoas major, and inferior vena cava toward the middle line, whence it passes along the mesenteric vessels to invest the small intestine, and back again to the large vessels in front of the vertebral column, forming the mesentery, between the layers of which are contained the mesenteric bloodvessels, lacteals, and glands. It is then continued over the left Psoas; it covers the sides and front of the descending colon, and, reaching the abdominal wall, is carried on it to the middle line.
FIG. 1039 Horizontal disposition of the peritoneum in the upper part of the abdomen. (See enlarged image)
(3) In the Upper Abdomen (Fig. 1039).Above the transverse colon the omental bursa is superadded to the general sac, and the communication of the two cavities with one another through the epiploic foramen can be demonstrated.
(a) Main Cavity.Commencing on the posterior abdominal wall at the inferior vena cava, the peritoneum may be followed to the right over the front of the suprarenal gland and upper part of the right kidney on to the antero-lateral abdominal wall. From the middle line of the anterior wall a backwardly directed fold encircles the obliterated umbilical vein and forms the falciform ligament of the liver. Continuing to the left, the peritoneum lines the antero-lateral abdominal wall and covers the lateral part of the front of the left kidney, and is reflected to the posterior border of the hilus of the spleen as the posterior layer of the phrenicolienal ligament. It can then be traced around the surface of the spleen to the front of the hilus, and thence to the cardiac end of the greater curvature of the stomach as the anterior layer of the gastrolienal ligament. It covers the antero-superior surfaces of the stomach and commencement of the duodenum, and extends up from the lesser curvature of the stomach to the liver as the anterior layer of the lesser omentum.
(b) Omental Bursa (bursa omentalis; lesser peritoneal sac).On the posterior abdominal wall the peritoneum of the general cavity is continuous with that of the omental bursa in front of the inferior vena cava. Starting from here, the bursa may be traced across the aorta and over the medial part of the front of the left kidney and diaphragm to the hilus of the spleen as the anterior layer of the phrenicolienal ligament. From the spleen it is reflected to the stomach as the posterior layer of the gastrosplenic ligament. It covers the postero-inferior surfaces of the stomach and commencement of the duodenum, and extends upward to the liver as the posterior layer of the lesser omentum; the right margin of this layer is continuous around the hepatic artery, bile duct, and portal vein, with the wall of the general cavity.
The epiploic foramen (foramen epiploicum; foramen of Winslow) is the passage of communication between the general cavity and the omental bursa. It is bounded in front by the free border of the lesser omentum, with the common bile duct, hepatic artery, and portal vein between its two layers; behind by the peritoneum covering the inferior vena cava; above by the peritoneum on the caudate process of the liver, and below by the peritoneum covering the commencement of the duodenum and the hepatic artery, the latter passing forward below the foramen before ascending between the two layers of the lesser omentum.
The boundaries of the omental bursa will now be evident. It is bounded in front, from above downward, by the caudate lobe of the liver, the lesser omentum, the stomach, and the anterior two layers of the greater omentum. Behind, it is limited, from below upward, by the two posterior layers of the greater omentum, the transverse colon, and the ascending layer of the transverse mesocolon, the upper surface of the pancreas, the left suprarenal gland, and the upper end of the left kidney. To the right of the esophageal opening of the stomach it is formed by that part of the diaphragm which supports the caudate lobe of the liver. Laterally, the bursa extends from the epiploic foramen to the spleen, where it is limited by the phrenicolienal and gastrolienal ligaments.
The omental bursa, therefore, consists of a series of pouches or recesses to which the following terms are applied: (1) the vestibule, a narrow channel continued from the epiploic foramen, over the head of the pancreas to the gastropancreatic fold; this fold extends from the omental tuberosity of the pancreas to the right side of the fundus of the stomach, and contains the left gastric artery and coronary vein; (2) the superior omental recess, between the caudate lobe of the liver and the diaphragm; (3) the lienal recess, between the spleen and the stomach; (4) the inferior omental recess, which comprises the remainder of the bursa.
In the fetus the bursa reaches as low as the free margin of the greater omentum, but in the adult its vertical extent is usually more limited owing to adhesions between the layers of the omentum. During a considerable part of fetal life the transverse colon is suspended from the posterior abdominal wall by a mesentery of its own, the two posterior layers of the greater omentum passing at this stage in front of the colon. This condition occasionally persists throughout life, but as a rule adhesion occurs between the mesentery of the transverse colon and the posterior layer of the greater omentum, with the result that the colon appears to receive its peritoneal covering by the splitting of the two posterior layers of the latter fold. In the adult the omental bursa intervenes between the stomach and the structures on which that viscus lies, and performs therefore the functions of a serous bursa for the stomach.
Numerous peritoneal folds extend between the various organs or connect them to the parietes; they serve to hold the viscera in position, and, at the same time, enclose the vessels and nerves proceeding to them. They are grouped under the three headings of ligaments, omenta, and mesenteries.
The lesser omentum (omentum minus; small omentum; gastrohepatic omentum) is the duplicature which extends to the liver from the lesser curvature of the stomach and the commencement of the duodenum. It is extremely thin, and is continuous with the two layers of peritoneum which cover respectively the antero-superior and postero-inferior surfaces of the stomach and first part of the duodenum. When these two layers reach the lesser curvature of the stomach and the upper border of the duodenum, they join together and ascend as a double fold to the porta of the liver; to the left of the porta the fold is attached to the bottom of the fossa for the ductus venosus, along which it is carried to the diaphragm, where the two layers separate to embrace the end of the esophagus. At the right border of the omentum the two layers are continuous, and form a free margin which constitutes the anterior boundary of the epiploic foramen. The portion of the lesser omentum extending between the liver and stomach is termed the hepatogastric ligament, while that between the liver and duodenum is the hepatoduodenal ligament. Between the two layers of the lesser omentum, close to the right free margin, are the hepatic artery, the common bile duct, the portal vein, lymphatics, and the hepatic plexus of nervesall these structures being enclosed in a fibrous capsule (Glissons capsule). Between the layers of the lesser omentum, where they are attached to the stomach, run the right and left gastric vessels.
The greater omentum (omentum majus; great omentum; gastrocolic omentum) is the largest peritoneal fold. It consists of a double sheet of peritoneum, folded on itself so that it is made up of four layers. The two layers which descend from the stomach and commencement of the duodenum pass in front of the small intestines, sometimes as low down as the pelvis; they then turn upon themselves, and ascend again as far as the transverse colon, where they separate and enclose that part of the intestine. These individual layers may be easily demonstrated in the young subject, but in the adult they are more or less inseparably blended. The left border of the greater omentum is continuous with the gastrolienal ligament; its right border extends as far as the commencement of the duodenum. The greater omentum is usually thin, presents a cribriform appearance, and always contains some adipose tissue, which in fat people accumulates in considerable quantity. Between its two anterior layers, a short distance from the greater curvature of the stomach, is the anastomosis between the right and left gastroepiploic vessels.
The mesentery proper (mesenterium) is the broad, fan-shaped fold of peritoneum which connects the convolutions of the jejunum and ileum with the posterior wall of the abdomen. Its rootthe part connected with the structures in front of the vertebral columnis narrow, about 15 cm. long, and is directed obliquely from the duodenojejunal flexure at the left side of the second lumbar vertebra to the right sacroiliac articulation (Fig. 1040). Its intestinal border is about 6 metres long; and here the two layers separate to enclose the intestine, and form its peritoneal coat. It is narrow above, but widens rapidly to about 20 cm., and is thrown into numerous plaits or folds. It suspends the small intestine, and contains between its layers the intestinal branches of the superior mesenteric artery, with their accompanying veins and plexuses of nerves, the lacteal vessels, and mesenteric lymph glands.
The transverse mesocolon (mesocolon transversum) is a broad fold, which connects the transverse colon to the posterior wall of the abdomen. It is continuous with the two posterior layers of the greater omentum, which, after separating to surround the transverse colon, join behind it, and are continued backward to the vertebral column, where they diverge in front of the anterior border of the pancreas. This fold contains between its layers the vessels which supply the transverse colon.
The sigmoid mesocolon (mesocolon sigmoideum) is the fold of peritoneum which retains the sigmoid colon in connection with the pelvic wall. Its line of attachment forms a V-shaped curve, the apex of the curve being placed about the point of division of the left common iliac artery. The curve beings on the medial side of the left Psoas major, and runs upward and backward to the apex, from which it bends sharply downward, and ends in the median plane at the level of the third sacral vertebra. The sigmoid and superior hemorrhoidal vessels run between the two layers of this fold.
In most cases the peritoneum covers only the front and sides of the ascending and descending parts of the colon. Sometimes, however, these are surrounded by the serous membrane and attached to the posterior abdominal wall by an ascending and a descending mesocolon respectively. A fold of peritoneum, the phrenicocolic ligament, is continued from the left colic flexure to the diaphragm opposite the tenth and eleventh ribs; it passes below and serves to support the spleen, and therefore has received the name of sustentaculum lienis.
FIG. 1040 Diagram devised by Delépine to show the lines along which the peritoneum leaves the wall of the abdomen to invest the viscera. (See enlarged image)
The appendices epiploicæ are small pouches of the peritoneum filled with fat and situated along the colon and upper part of the rectum. They are chiefly appended to the transverse and sigmoid parts of the colon.
Peritoneal Recesses or Fossæ (retroperitoneal fossæ).In certain parts of the abdominal cavity there are recesses of peritoneum forming culs-de-sac or pouches, which are of surgical interest in connection with the possibility of the occurrence of retroperitoneal herniæ. The largest of these is the omental bursa (already described), but several others, of smaller size, require mention, and may be divided into three groups, viz.: duodenal, cecal, and intersigmoid.
1. Duodenal Fossæ (Figs. 1041,1042).Three are fairly constant, viz.: (a) The inferior duodenal fossa, present in from 70 to 75 per cent. of cases, is situated opposite the third lumbar vertebra on the left side of the ascending portion of the duodenum. Its opening is directed upward, and is bounded by a thin sharp fold of peritoneum with a concave margin, called the duodenomesocolic fold. The tip of the index finger introduced into the fossa under the fold passes some little distance behind the ascending portion of the duodenum. (b) The superior duodenal fossa, present in from 40 to 50 per cent. of cases, often coexists with the inferior one, and its orifice looks downward. It lies on the left of the ascending portion of the duodenum, in front of the second lumbar vertebra, and behind a sickle-shaped fold of peritoneum, the duodenojejunal fold, and has a depth of about 2 cm. (c) The duodenojejunal fossa exists in from 15 to 20 per cent. of cases, but has never yet been found in conjunction with the other forms of duodenal fossæ it can be seen by pulling the jejunum downward and to the right, after the transverse colon has been pulled upward. It is bounded above by the pancreas, to the right by the aorta, and to the left by the kidney; beneath is the left renal vein. It has a depth of from 2 to 3 cm., and its orifice, directed downward and to the right, is nearly circular and will admit the tip of the little finger.
FIG. 1044 Inferior ileocecal fossa. The cecum and ascending colon have been drawn lateralward and downward, the ileum upward and backward, and the vermiform process downward. (Poirier and Charpy.) (See enlarged image)
2. Cecal Fossæ (pericecal folds or fossæ).There are three principal pouches or recesses in the neighborhood of the cecum (Figs. 1043to 1045): (a) The superior ileocecal fossa is formed by a fold of peritoneum, arching over the branch of the ileocolic artery which supplies the ileocolic junction. The fossa is a narrow chink situated between the mesentery of the small intestine, the ileum, and the small portion of the cecum behind. (b) The inferior ileocecal fossa is situated behind the angle of junction of the ileum and cecum. It is formed by the ileocecal fold of peritoneum (bloodless fold of Treves), the upper border of which is fixed to the ileum, opposite its mesenteric attachment, while the lower border, passing over the ileocecal junction, joins the mesenteriole of the vermiform process, and sometimes the process itself. Between this fold and the mesenteriole of the vermiform process is the inferior ileocecal fossa. It is bounded above by the posterior surface of the ileum and the mesentery; in front and below by the ileocecal fold, and behind by the upper part of the mesenteriole of the vermiform process. (c) The cecal fossa is situated immediately behind the cecum, which has to be raised to bring it into view. It varies much in size and extent. In some cases it is sufficiently large to admit the index finger, and extends upward behind the ascending colon in the direction of the kidney; in others it is merely a shallow depression. It is bounded on the right by the cecal fold, which is attached by one edge to the abdominal wall from the lower border of the kidney to the iliac fossa and by the other to the postero-lateral aspect of the colon. In some instances additional fossæ, the retrocecal fossæ, are present.
3. The intersigmoid fossa (recessus intersigmoideus) is constant in the fetus and during infancy, but disappears in a certain percentage of cases as age advances. Upon drawing the sigmoid colon upward, the left surface of the sigmoid mesocolon is exposed, and on it will be seen a funnel-shaped recess of the peritoneum, lying on the external iliac vessels, in the interspace between the Psoas and Iliacus muscles. This is the orifice leading to the intersigmoid fossa, which lies behind the sigmoid mesocolon, and in front of the parietal peritoneum. The fossa varies in size; in some instances it is a mere dimple, whereas in others it will admit the whole of the index finger.165
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Kathleen.Archer at MAIL.CC.TRINCOLL.EDU
Mon May 12 08:25:14 EST 1997
Thanks to all who replied with ideas on how to reduce water condensate on
the underside of Petri lids. For anyone else out there who may also have
this problem and is interested in possible solutions, here is a summmary.
1.Don Igelsrud wrote: " ...germinate seeds in petri dishes with a layer of
2.Anne Heise wrote: "Petri dishes in microbiology are typically
incubated upside down so that condensation that forms on the lid won't
drop and spatter onto the colonies."
3. Elaine R. Radwanski wrote: "A colleague of mine suffered from the same
problem when growing Arabidopsis on plates under high light conditions. She
tried a number of solutions, and I believe that keeping the petri plates in
trays with a bit of water in
the bottom (to cool the plates) worked, as did placing the plates on an
open gridwork support as opposed to a solid dark colored one."
4. Janice M. Glime wrote: "If you can afford the reduction in light, a neat
trick is to put an empty petri plate on top. We use used plastic plates.
It puts the
greenhouse effect in the top plate instead of the culture plate."
5. Ross Koning wrote: "The only way I know of to prevent this would be to have a
cold shelf under the dishes. One way to do that is to use a
shelf from an old upright freezer (with refrigeration tubing
welded to the wires) and run cool water through the coil.
You could leave the water running from a faucet, but you
could also circulate water from a bucket with a suitable
pump. A cheap humidifier could be used as the bucket as it
works like a "swamp cooler" to chill the water inside.
A sheet of aluminum flashing under your dishes will make the
cooling more uniform under the dishes."
More information about the Plant-ed
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Drugs A - Z
Generic Name: cyanocobalamin | Brand Name: Neuroforte-R
CategoryHerbs & Supplements
B-12, B Complex, B Complex Vitamin, bedumil, cobalamin, cobalamins, cobamin, cyanocobalamin, cyanocobalaminum, cycobemin, hydroxocobalamin, hydroxocobalaminum, hydroxocobemine, idrossocobalamina, methylcobalamin, vitadurin, vitamin B-12.
Vitamin B12 is an essential water-soluble vitamin that is commonly found in a variety of foods such as fish, shellfish, meat, and dairy products. Vitamin B12 is frequently used in combination with other B vitamins in a vitamin B complex formulation. It helps maintain healthy nerve cells and red blood cells and is also needed to make DNA, the genetic material in all cells. Vitamin B12 is bound to the protein in food. Hydrochloric acid in the stomach releases B12 from protein during digestion. Once released, B12 combines with a substance called intrinsic factor (IF) before it is absorbed into the bloodstream.
The human body stores several years' worth of vitamin B12, so nutritional deficiency of this vitamin is extremely rare. Elderly are the most at risk. However, deficiency can result from being unable to use vitamin B12. Inability to absorb vitamin B12 from the intestinal tract can be caused by a disease known as pernicious anemia. Additionally, strict vegetarians or vegans who are not taking in proper amounts of B12 are also prone to a deficiency state.
A day's supply of vitamin B12 can be obtained by eating 1 chicken breast plus 1 hard-boiled egg plus 1 cup plain low-fat yogurt, or 1 cup milk plus 1 cup raisin bran.
EvidenceDISCLAIMER: These uses have been tested in humans or animals. Safety and effectiveness have not always been proven. Some of these conditions are potentially serious, and should be evaluated by a qualified healthcare provider.
Megaloblastic anemia - due to vitamin B12 deficiency:
Vitamin B12 deficiency is a cause of megaloblastic anemia. In this type of anemia, red blood cells are larger than normal and the ratio of nucleus size to cell cytoplasm is increased. There are other potential causes of megaloblastic anemia, including folate deficiency or various inborn metabolic disorders. If the cause is B12 deficiency, then treatment with B12 is the standard approach. Patients with anemia should be evaluated by a physician in order to diagnose and address the underlying cause.
Pernicious anemia (blood abnormality) is a form of anemia that occurs when there is an absence of intrinsic factor, a substance normally present in the stomach. Vitamin B12 binds with intrinsic factor before it is absorbed and used by the body. An absence of intrinsic factor prevents normal absorption of B12 and may result in pernicious anemia. Pernicious anemia treatment is usually lifelong; supplemental vitamin B12 given intramuscularly, intranasally, or by mouth.
Vitamin B12 deficiency:
Studies have shown that a deficiency of vitamin B12 can lead to abnormal neurologic and psychiatric symptoms. These symptoms may include: ataxia (shaky movements and unsteady gait), muscle weakness, spasticity, incontinence, hypotension (low blood pressure), vision problems, dementia, psychoses, and mood disturbances. Researchers report that these symptoms may occur when vitamin B12 levels are just slightly lower than normal and are considerably above the levels normally associated with anemia. People at risk for vitamin B12 deficiency include strict vegetarians, elderly people, breastfed infants, and people with increased vitamin B12 requirements associated with pregnancy, thyrotoxicosis, hemolytic anemia, hemorrhage, malignancy, liver or kidney disease.
Administering vitamin B12 orally, intramuscularly, or intranasally is effective for preventing and treating dietary vitamin B12 deficiency.
Some patients diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease have been found to have abnormally low vitamin B12 levels in their blood. However, vitamin B12 deficiency itself often causes disorientation and confusion and thus mimics some of the prominent symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. Well-designed clinical trials are needed before a strong recommendation can be made.
Some evidence suggests that folic acid plus vitamin B12 and pyridoxine daily can decrease the rate of restenosis in patients treated with balloon angioplasty. But this combination does not seem to be as effective for reducing restenosis in patients after coronary stenting. Due to the lack of evidence of benefit and potential for harm, this combination of vitamins should not be recommended for patients receiving coronary stents.
Researchers at Johns Hopkins University report that women with breast cancer tend to have lower vitamin B12 levels in their blood serum than do women without breast cancer. In a subsequent review of these findings, it was hypothesized that vitamin B12 deficiency may lead to breast cancer because it could result in less folate being available to ensure proper DNA replication and repair. Higher dietary folate intake is associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer. The risk may be further reduced in women who also consume high amounts of dietary vitamin B12 in combination with dietary pyridoxine (vitamin B6) and methionine. However, there is no evidence that dietary vitamin B12 alone reduces the risk of breast cancer.
Hyperhomocysteinemia (high homocysteine levels in the blood) is a risk factor for coronary, cerebral, and peripheral atherosclerosis, recurrent thromboembolism, deep vein thrombosis, myocardial infarction (heart attack), and ischemic stroke. Elevated homocysteine levels may be a marker instead of a cause of vascular disease. However, it is not clear if lowering homocysteine levels results in reduced cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Folic acid, pyridoxine (vitamin B6), and vitamin B12 supplementation can reduce total homocysteine levels; however, this reduction does not seem to help with secondary prevention of death or cardiovascular events such as stroke or myocardial infarction in people with prior stroke. More evidence is needed to fully explain the association of total homocysteine levels with vascular risk and the potential use of vitamin supplementation.
There is some evidence that intramuscular injections of vitamin B12 given twice per week might improve the general well-being and happiness of patients complaining of tiredness or fatigue. However, fatigue has many potential causes. Well-designed clinical trials are needed before a recommendation can be made.
Some evidence suggests that vitamin B12 in combination with fish oil might be superior to fish oil alone when used daily to reduce total serum cholesterol and triglycerides. Well-designed clinical trials of vitamin B12 supplementation alone are needed before a conclusion can be drawn.
Administering vitamin B12 intramuscularly seems to be effective for treating familial selective vitamin B12 malabsorption (Imerslund-Grasbeck disease). Further research is needed to confirm these results.
Preliminary clinical reports show that cyanocobalamin may help relieve tremor associated with shaky-leg syndrome. Further research is needed to confirm these results.
Sickle cell disease:
One study suggests that a practical daily combination may include folic acid, vitamin B12, and vitamin B6. This combination may be a simple and relatively inexpensive way to reduce these patients' inherently high risk of endothelial damage. Further research is needed to confirm these results.
Circadian rhythm sleep disorders:
Taking vitamin B12 orally, in methylcobalamin form, does not seem to be effective for treating delayed sleep phase syndrome. Supplemental methylcobalamin, with or without bright light therapy, does not seem to help people with primary circadian rhythm sleep disorders.
Preliminary evidence suggests that there is no relationship between vitamin B12 status and lung cancer.
In people with a history of stroke, neither high dose vitamin B12 combinations containing pyridoxine, vitamin B12, and folic acid nor low dose combinations containing pyridoxine, vitamin B12, and folic acid seem to affect risk of recurring stroke.
Vitamin B12 is contraindicated in early Leber's disease, which is a hereditary optic nerve atrophy.
TraditionWARNING: DISCLAIMER: The below uses are based on tradition, scientific theories, or limited research. They often have not been thoroughly tested in humans, and safety and effectiveness have not always been proven. Some of these conditions are potentially serious, and should be evaluated by a qualified healthcare provider. There may be other proposed uses that are not listed below.
Aging, AIDS, allergies, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, asthma, autism, chronic fatigue syndrome, cognitive function, depression, depressive disorder (major), diabetes, diabetic peripheral neuropathy, energy level enhancement, growth disorders (failure to thrive), hemorrhage, immunosuppression, improving concentration, inflammatory bowel disease, kidney disease, liver disease, male infertility, malignant tumors, memory loss, mood (elevate), mouth and throat inflammation (atrophic glossitis), multiple sclerosis, myoclonic disorders (spinal myoclonus), neural tube defects, osteoporosis, periodontal disease, poisoning (cyanide), protection from tobacco smoke, psychiatric disorders, seborrheic dermatitis, seizure disorders (West syndrome), tendonitis, thrombosis, thyrotoxicosis / thyroid storm (adjunct iodides), tinnitus, tremor, vitiligo.
Adults (over 18 years old)
Recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) are 2.4 micrograms per day for adults and adolescents aged 14 years and older, 2.6 micrograms per day for adult and adolescent pregnant females, and 2.8 micrograms per day for adult and adolescent lactating females. Because 10-30% of older people do not absorb food-bound vitamin B12 efficiently, those over 50 years of age should meet the RDA by eating foods fortified with B12 or by taking a vitamin B12 supplement. Supplementation of 25-100 micrograms per day has been used to maintain vitamin B12 levels in older people. A doctor and pharmacist should be consulted for use in other indications. Vitamin B12 has been taken by mouth and given by intramuscular (IM) injection by healthcare professionals. One clinical trial tested patients' acceptance of intranasal vitamin B12 replacement therapy (500 micrograms per week).
Children (under 18 years old)
Recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) have not been established for all pediatric age groups; therefore Adequate Intake (AI) levels have been used instead. The RDA and AI of vitamin B12 are: infants 0-6 months, 0.4 micrograms (AI); infants 7-12 months, 0.5 micrograms (AI); children 1-3 years, 0.9 micrograms; children 4-8 years, 1.2 micrograms; and children 9-13 years, 1.8 micrograms.
SafetyDISCLAIMER: Many complementary techniques are practiced by healthcare professionals with formal training, in accordance with the standards of national organizations. However, this is not universally the case, and adverse effects are possible. Due to limited research, in some cases only limited safety information is available.
Vitamin B12 supplements should be avoided in people sensitive or allergic to cobalamin, cobalt, or any other product ingredients.
Side Effects and Warnings
Caution should be used in patients undergoing angioplasty since an intravenous loading dose of folic acid, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12 followed by oral administration taken daily after coronary stenting might actually increase restenosis rates. Due to the potential for harm, this combination of vitamins should not be recommended for patients receiving coronary stents.
Itching, rash, transitory exanthema, and urticaria have been reported. Vitamin B12 and pyridoxine has been associated with cases of rosacea fulminans, characterized by intense erythema with nodules, papules, and pustules. Symptoms may persist for up to four months after the supplement is stopped, and may require treatment with systemic corticosteroids and topical therapy.
Diarrhea has been reported.
Peripheral vascular thrombosis has been reported. Treatment of vitamin B12 deficiency can unmask polycythemia vera, which is characterized by an increase in blood volume and the number of red blood cells. The correction of megaloblastic anemia with vitamin B12 can result in fatal hypokalemia and gout in susceptible individuals, and it can obscure folate deficiency in megaloblastic anemia. Caution is warranted.
Pregnancy and Breastfeeding
Vitamin B12 is likely safe when used orally in amounts that do not exceed the recommended dietary allowance (RDA).
There is insufficient reliable information available about the safety of larger amounts of vitamin B12 during pregnancy.
Interactions with Drugs
Excessive alcohol intake lasting longer than two weeks can decrease vitamin B12 absorption from the gastrointestinal tract.
Aminosalicylic acid can reduce oral vitamin B12 absorption, possibly by as much as 55%, as part of a general malabsorption syndrome. Megaloblastic changes, and occasional cases of symptomatic anemia, have occurred. Vitamin B12 levels should be monitored in people taking aminosalicylic acid for more than one month.
An increased bacterial load can bind significant amounts of vitamin B12 in the gut, preventing its absorption. In people with bacterial overgrowth of the small bowel, antibiotics such as metronidazole (Flagyl®) can actually improve vitamin B12 status. The effects of most antibiotics on gastrointestinal bacteria are unlikely to have clinically significant effects on vitamin B12 levels.
The data regarding the effects of oral contraceptives on vitamin B12 serum levels are conflicting. Some studies have found reduced serum levels in birth control pill users, but others have found no effect despite the use of birth control pills for up to six months. When birth control pill use is stopped, normalization of vitamin B12 levels usually occurs. Lower vitamin B12 serum levels seen with birth control pills probably are not clinically significant.
Limited case reports suggest that chloramphenicol can delay or interrupt the reticulocyte response to supplemental vitamin B12 in some patients. Blood counts should be monitored closely if this combination cannot be avoided.
Cobalt irradiation of the small bowel can decrease gastrointestinal (GI) absorption of vitamin B12.
Colchicine can disrupt normal intestinal mucosal function, leading to malabsorption of several nutrients, including vitamin B12. Lower doses do not seem to have a significant effect on vitamin B12 absorption after three years of colchicine therapy. The significance of this interaction is unclear. Vitamin B12 levels should be monitored in people taking large doses of colchicine for prolonged periods.
Colestipol (Colestid®) and Cholestyramine (Questran®) resins can decrease gastrointestinal (GI) absorption of vitamin B12. It is unlikely that this interaction will deplete body stores of vitamin B12 unless there are other factors contributing to deficiency. In a group of children treated with cholestyramine for up to 2.5 years, there was not any change in serum vitamin B12 levels. Routine supplements are not necessary.
H2-blockers include cimetidine (Tagamet®), famotidine (Pepcid®), nizatidine (Axid®), and ranitidine (Zantac®). Reduced secretion of gastric acid and pepsin produced by H2-blockers can reduce absorption of protein-bound (dietary) vitamin B12, but not of supplemental vitamin B12. Gastric acid is needed to release vitamin B12 from protein for absorption. Clinically significant vitamin B12 deficiency and megaloblastic anemia are unlikely, unless H2-blocker therapy is prolonged (two years or more) or the person's diet is poor. It is also more likely if the person is rendered achlorhydric (lacking hydrochloric stomach acid), which occurs more frequently with proton pump inhibitors than H2-blockers. Vitamin B12 levels should be monitored in people taking high doses of H2 blockers for prolonged periods.
Metformin may reduce serum folic acid and vitamin B12 levels. These changes can lead to hyperhomocysteinemia (abnormally large levels of homocysteine in the blood), adding to the risk of cardiovascular disease in people with diabetes. There are also rare reports of megaloblastic anemia in people who have taken metformin for five years or more. Reduced serum levels of vitamin B12 occur in up to 30% of people taking metformin chronically. However, clinically significant deficiency is not likely to develop if dietary intake of vitamin B12 is adequate. Deficiency can be corrected with vitamin B12 supplements even if metformin is continued. The metformin-induced malabsorption of vitamin B12 is reversible by oral calcium supplementation. A multivitamin preparation may also be valuable for some patients. Patients should be monitored for signs and symptoms of vitamin B12 and folic acid deficiency. People taking metformin chronically should be advised to include adequate amounts of vitamin B12 in their diet, and have their serum vitamin B12 and homocysteine levels checked annually.
Nicotine can reduce serum vitamin B12 levels. The need for vitamin B12 supplementation has not been adequately studied.
Nitrous oxide inactivates the cobalamin form of vitamin B12 by oxidation. Symptoms of vitamin B12 deficiency, including sensory neuropathy, myelopathy, and encephalopathy can occur within days or weeks of exposure to nitrous oxide anesthesia in people with subclinical vitamin B12 deficiency. Symptoms are treated with high doses of vitamin B12, but recovery can be slow and incomplete. People with normal vitamin B12 levels have sufficient vitamin B12 stores to make the effects of nitrous oxide insignificant, unless exposure is repeated and prolonged (nitrous oxide abuse). Vitamin B12 levels should be checked in people with risk factors for vitamin B12 deficiency prior to using nitrous oxide anesthesia.
Phenytoin (Dilantin®), phenobarbital, and primidone (Mysoline®) anticonvulsants have been associated with reduced vitamin B12 absorption and reduced serum and cerebrospinal fluid levels in some patients. This may contribute to the megaloblastic anemia, primarily caused by folate deficiency, associated with these drugs. It has also been suggested that reduced vitamin B12 levels may contribute to the neuropsychiatric side effects of these drugs. Patients should be encouraged to maintain adequate dietary vitamin B12 intake. Folate and vitamin B12 status should be checked if symptoms of anemia develop.
Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) include omeprazole (Prilosec®, Losec®), lansoprazole (Prevacid®), rabeprazole (Aciphex®), pantoprazole (Protonix®, Pantoloc®), and esomeprazole (Nexium®). The reduced secretion of gastric acid and pepsin produced by PPIs can reduce absorption of protein-bound (dietary) vitamin B12, but not supplemental vitamin B12. Gastric acid is needed to release vitamin B12 from protein for absorption. Reduced vitamin B12 levels may be more common with PPIs than with H2-blockers, because they are more likely to produce achlorhydria (complete absence of gastric acid secretion). However, clinically significant vitamin B12 deficiency is unlikely, unless PPI therapy is prolonged (two years or more) or dietary vitamin intake is low. Vitamin B12 levels should be monitored in people taking high doses of PPIs for prolonged periods.
Reduced serum vitamin B12 levels may occur when zidovudine (AZT, Combivir®, Retrovir®) therapy is started. This adds to other factors that cause low vitamin B12 levels in people with HIV and might contribute to the hematological toxicity associated with zidovudine. However, data suggests vitamin B12 supplements are not helpful for people taking zidovudine.
Interactions with Herbs and Dietary Supplements
Folic acid, particularly in large doses, can mask vitamin B12 deficiency. In vitamin B12 deficiency, folic acid can produce hematologic improvement in megaloblastic anemia, while allowing potentially irreversible neurological damage to progress. Vitamin B12 status should be determined before folic acid is given as a monotherapy.
Potassium supplements can reduce absorption of vitamin B12 in some people. This effect has been reported with potassium chloride and, to a lesser extent, with potassium citrate. Potassium might contribute to vitamin B12 deficiency in some people with other risk factors, but routine supplements are not necessary.
Preliminary evidence suggests that vitamin C supplements can destroy dietary vitamin B12. However, other components of food, such as iron and nitrates, might counteract this effect. Clinical significance is unknown, and it can likely be avoided if vitamin C supplements are taken at least two hours after meals.
This information is based on a systematic review of scientific literature and consensus statements edited and peer-reviewed by contributors to the Natural Standard Research Collaboration (www.naturalstandard.com): Ethan Basch, MD (Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center); Dawn Costa, BA, BS (Natural Standard Research Collaboration); Jill M. Grimes Serrano, PhD (Natural Standard Research Collaboration); Jenna Hollenstein, MS, RD (Natural Standard Research Collaboration); Shaina Tanguay-Colucci, BS (Natural Standard Research Collaboration); Catherine Ulbricht, PharmD (Massachusetts College of Pharmacy); Christine Ulbricht, PharmD (University of Massachusetts); Wendy Weissner, BA (Natural Standard Research Collaboration).
BibliographyDISCLAIMER: Natural Standard developed the above evidence-based information based on a thorough systematic review of the available scientific articles. For comprehensive information about alternative and complementary therapies on the professional level, go to www.naturalstandard.com. Selected references are listed below.
Albert CM, Cook NR, Gaziano JM, et al. Effect of folic acid and B vitamins on risk of cardiovascular events and total mortality among women at high risk for cardiovascular disease: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2008 May 7;299(17):2027-36.
Andres E, Kurtz JE, Perrin AE, et al. Oral cobalamin therapy for the treatment of patients with food-cobalamin malabsorption. Am J Med 2001;111:126-9.
Bjørke-Monsen AL, Torsvik I, Saetran H, et al. Common metabolic profile in infants indicating impaired cobalamin status responds to cobalamin supplementation. Pediatrics 2008 Jul;122(1):83-91.
Erol I, Alehan F, Gümüs A. West syndrome in an infant with vitamin B12 deficiency in the absence of macrocytic anaemia. Dev Med Child Neurol 2007 Oct;49(10):774-6.
Eussen SJ, de Groot LC, Clarke R, et al. Oral cyanocobalamin supplementation in older people with vitamin B12 deficiency: a dose-finding trial. Arch Intern Med 2005 May 23;165(10):1167-72.
Force RW, Meeker AD, Cady PS, et al. Increased vitamin B12 requirement associated with chronic acid suppression therapy. Ann Pharmacother 2003;37:490-3.
Haggarty P, McCallum H, McBain H, Effect of B vitamins and genetics on success of in-vitro fertilisation: prospective cohort study. Lancet 2006 May 6;367(9521):1513-9.
Lehman JS, Bruce AJ, Rogers RS. Atrophic glossitis from vitamin B12 deficiency: a case misdiagnosed as burning mouth disorder. J Periodontol 2006 Dec;77(12):2090-2.
Malouf R, Grimley Evans J. Folic acid with or without vitamin B12 for the prevention and treatment of healthy elderly and demented people. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008 Oct 8;(4):CD004514.
Molloy AM, Kirke PN, Brody LC, et al. Effects of folate and vitamin B12 deficiencies during pregnancy on fetal, infant, and child development. Food Nutr Bull 2008 Jun;29(2 Suppl):S101-11; discussion S112-5.
Ryan-Harshman M, Aldoori W. Vitamin B12 and health. Can Fam Physician 2008 Apr;54(4):536-41.
Seal EC, Metz J, Flicker L, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of oral vitamin B12 supplementation in older patients with subnormal or borderline serum vitamin B12 concentrations. J Am Geriatr Soc 2002;50:146-51.
Suzuki DM, Alagiakrishnan K, Masaki KH, et al. Patient acceptance of intranasal cobalamin gel for vitamin B12 replacement therapy. Hawaii Med J 2006 Nov;65(11):311-4.
Toole JF, Malinow MR, Chambless LE, et al. Lowering homocysteine in patients with ischemic stroke to prevent recurrent stroke, myocardial infarction, and death: the Vitamin Intervention for Stroke Prevention (VISP) randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2004;291:565-75.
Yajnik CS, Lubree HG, Thuse NV, et al. Oral vitamin B12 supplementation reduces plasma total homocysteine concentration in women in India. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 2007;16(1):103-9.
Remember, keep this and all other medicines out of the reach of children, never share your medicines with others, and use this medication only for the indication prescribed.
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Jennifer M. Bean
C LIT 397
Varying topics relating to film in social contexts. Offered by resident or visiting faculty.
ECO-CINEMA: FILMING THE ETHICS AND AESTHETICS OF WASTE
Overview The effect of modern culture on the environment and on our bodies is everywhere evident. We have reached an age when human advances in science and industrialism are damaging the planet’s basic life support systems, generating waste that the environment can no longer tolerate. To add injury to insult, the human mind that made such advances possible in the first place turns out to have a mouth through which it is fed. And it is eating garbage.
The paradoxes of the present age have become the subject of a 21st century film and media movement ranging from CNN sponsored television programs on renewable energy, to animated allegories produced by PIXAR, through science-fiction fantasies of future catastrophe and documentary filmmakers who take their own bodies as “visible evidence” of environmental and physical crisis. While this recent representational movement forms a substantial component of this course, any informed conception of cinematic “aesthetics and ethics” in moments of perceived social crisis demands a historical purview. Due to the rhetorical potency of filmmaking as a tool for public education and advocacy, for instance, the form has frequently served as a powerful instrument of rationality, harnessed to the manufacture of social consent in a tradition that reaches back to ethnographic and adventure films of the 1920s and “New Deal-era” propaganda and animated comedies of the 1930s. At the same time, alternative rhetorical and ethical ends that have shaped cinema’s engagement with social concerns in recent years, in some cases by rendering disaster or waste “sublime,” draws from a tradition reaching back through cold war films of the 1950s and the innovations of filmmakers such as Stanley Kubrick and Werner Herzog. We will pay particular attention to films that forcibly demonstrate the unraveling of certainty in the visible field and play with cinematic techniques—editing tempos, camera angles, lighting, framing devices, time-lapse photography, extreme close or long shots, mobile or still cameras, etc.—in order to question conventional models of perception and knowledge.
Student learning goals
General method of instruction
Class Structure: Formal Sessions and Film Screenings Given what literary critic William Rueckert termed the First Law of Ecology—“Everything is connected to everything else”—this is a particularly ambitious course. You will learn to employ a set of analytical and critical skills intrinsic to film and media studies that will provide a foundation for our study. But we will also be grappling with an ensemble of interlocking ideas, texts, people, and institutions—a sprawling formation within which environmental discourse historically has attained intellectual, popular and legal status. Approximately 12 films will form our primary focus and another 30 films and media texts will be considered in short clips and excerpts; readings will include work by sociologists, historians, film critics, philosophers, and natural scientists among others. Regular class sessions meet twice a week (M/W). An additional two sessions (T/Th) will be designated for film screenings. You are highly encouraged to attend all regular screenings in the assigned classroom, but in cases of scheduling conflict you may also watch these films on your own in the Media Center on campus (2nd floor, Suzallo Library) where all titles will be on reserve, or via NetFlix, etc, if those services are available to you. .
Class assignments and grading
Regular Assignments and Final Project: In the first half of the quarter assignments include weekly exercises such as go-post responses to materials, film segmentation analyses, and oral presentations on relevant materials. A mid-term exam will be administered in week five. Through these foundational assignments you will develop research skills and the critical tools necessary to mount a final project. For that project, you will have the option of writing a research paper that incorporates film frames from the texts you are studying and analyzing; another option will be to produce a short film (approximately 15-20 minutes maximum) that directly reflects the concerns of the class. In order to accomplish these goals an adventurous and inquisitive spirit, as well as a mind open to opinions and perspectives that might differ from your own is absolutely necessary. No prior filmmaking or film studies experience required.
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Haemophilus species are a common cause of community-acquired pneumonia; however, their significance in posttraumatic pneumonia is unclear.
University hospital, level I trauma center.
Two hundred fifty-seven consecutive patients with blunt and penetrating trauma treated for pneumonia.
Main Outcome Measures:
Length of stay in the intensive care unit, duration of ventilatory support, rate of recurrent or persistent pneumonia, and mortality.
Ninety-six (37%) of 257 patients treated for pneumonia had a Haemophilus species isolated on sputum culture. Of these 96 patients, 49 (51%) had only Haemophilus species, while 33 (34%) had associated gram-positive organisms and 14 (15%) had gram-negative organisms. Seventeen pure cultures (29%) and seven mixed cultures (15%) (P<.05) were β-lactamase—positive trains. Compared with patients who had pneumonia caused by other bacteria, patients with Haemophilus species were younger (mean±SE, 35±1.7 vs 42±1.6 years; P<.05) and more severely injured (Injury Severity Score, 20.7±1.1 vs 17.5±0.9; P<.05). There were no differences in any outcome variables between the two groups. Only one (1%) of 96 patients had persistent Haemophilus species on sputum cultures after 7 days of treatment.
Haemophilus species are a frequent cause of pneumonia following traumatic injury. This occurs primarily in the early postinjury phase and therefore should be included in the differential diagnosis of early posttraumatic pulmonary insufficiency.(Arch Surg. 1995;130:1228-1232)
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California’s top attorney, Kamala Harris, announced the launch of the Department of Justice’s Privacy Enforcement and Protection Unit, being formed to guard the privacy of Californians by prosecuting violators of state and federal laws. The press release says “The Privacy Unit will police the privacy practices of individuals and organizations to hold accountable those who misuse technology to invade the privacy of others.” The new department, with six veteran prosecutors, will wield broad enforcement powers over cyber privacy, health privacy, financial privacy, identity theft, government records and data breaches. It will operate within the eCrime Unit that Harris created in 2011.
Category Archives: Childrens Privacy / COPPA
The social networking and gaming site RockYou.com was hacked in December 2009 and suffered a severe data breach, which exposed personal information including email addresses, passwords and photos of 32 million users. Of that 32 million, 179,000 were children. The situation went from bad to worse for RockYou when the hacker posted on the Internet a snippet of the data he obtained, showing that RockYou’s user account data were stored in plain text in its database and not encrypted. Unencrypted personal information is basically like catnip to a hacker and from a risk perspective, the company was in deep trouble. Compounding its problems, RockYou handled the communication to its users and the public horribly and this incident was a public relations disaster for the company.
The takeaways? This is a story about the consequences of a company’s deceptive business practices, failed data security program and clearly a lack of preparedness when faced with a large scale data breach. Aside from the $250,000 fine and attorneys’ fees the company must pay, the other economic costs here are lost business costs and the widespread damage to RockYou’s reputation and brand caused by this catastrophic breach.
Welcome to Privacy Matters, a Nolo blog devoted to information privacy and data security issues as they relate to small businesses and consumers. Information privacy covers the rules that apply to the gathering and handling of “personal information” — in other words information that can be traced to a particular individual, like geolocation information, credit information, or health records.
Privacy law varies by industry, state, country, transaction and customer and is complicated. Through blog posts and an ongoing series of Nolo primer articles, I hope to provide general, useful information about fundamental privacy principles and best practices that Internet, technology and bricks and mortar businesses need to be aware of, as this area of law can be a field of landmines for the unknowing.
Class action lawsuits and Federal Trade Commission enforcement actions against tech titans like Facebook and Google, and high-profile data breaches jeopardizing that private data of millions of individuals and tarnishing the reputations of scores of companies like Sony, Heartland Payments Systems and RSA Security — have thrust privacy onto the front pages. It’s important for small business owners to recognize that the same rules that have gotten large companies into trouble apply to small businesses as well. When it comes to privacy, an once of prevention is, in fact, worth a pound of cure.
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McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle
|USAF F-15C during an Operation Noble Eagle patrol|
|Role||Air superiority fighter|
Boeing Defense, Space & Security
|First flight||27 July 1972|
|Introduction||9 January 1976|
|Primary users||United States Air Force
Japan Air Self-Defense Force
Royal Saudi Air Force
Israeli Air Force
|Number built||F-15A/B/C/D/J/DJ: 1,198|
|Unit cost||F-15A/B: US$28 million (1998)
F-15C/D: US$30 million (1998)
|Variants||McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle
McDonnell Douglas F-15 STOL/MTD
Boeing F-15SE Silent Eagle
The McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) F-15 Eagle is a twin-engine, all-weather tactical fighter designed by McDonnell Douglas to gain and maintain air superiority in aerial combat. It is considered among the most successful modern fighters, with over 100 aerial combat victories with no losses in dogfights. Following reviews of proposals, the United States Air Force selected McDonnell Douglas' design in 1967 to meet the service's need for a dedicated air superiority fighter. The Eagle first flew in July 1972, and entered service in 1976.
Since the 1970s, the Eagle has been exported to Israel, Japan, Saudi Arabia, and other nations. The F-15 was originally envisioned as a pure air superiority aircraft. Its design included a secondary ground-attack capability that was largely unused. The design proved flexible enough that an all-weather strike derivative, the F-15E Strike Eagle, was later developed, and entered service in 1989. The F-15 Eagle is expected to be in service with the U.S. Air Force past 2025.
Following studies in 1964–1965, the U.S. Air Force developed requirements for an air superiority fighter in October 1965. Then on 8 December 1965, the service issued a request for proposals (RFP) for the new fighter. The request called for both air-to-air and air-to-ground capabilities. Eight companies responded with proposals. In the following study phase, four of these companies developed some 500 design concepts. Typical designs featured variable-sweep wings, weighed over 60,000 lb (27,200 kg), included a top speed of Mach 2.7 and a thrust-to-weight ratio of 0.75. The designs were not accepted by the Air Force as they compromised fighter qualities for ground attack qualities. Acceptance of the Energy-Maneuverability (E-M) theory by the Air Force led to a change in requirements for improved maneuverability by the spring 1967. The design mission weight was reduced to 40,000 lb (18,100 kg), top speed reduced to Mach 2.3–2.5 and thrust-to-weight ratio increased to 0.97.
In 1967 U.S. intelligence was surprised to find that the Soviet Union was producing a large fighter aircraft, the MiG-25 'Foxbat'. It was not known in the West at the time that the MiG-25 was designed as a high-speed interceptor, not an air superiority fighter, so its primary asset was speed, not maneuverability. The MiG-25's huge tailplanes and vertical stabilizers (tail fins) hinted at a very maneuverable aircraft, which worried the Air Force that its performance might be better than its U.S. counterparts. In reality, the MiG's large fins and stabilators were necessary to prevent the aircraft from encountering inertia coupling in high-speed, high-altitude flight.
The McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II of the USAF, U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps was the only fighter with enough power, range, and maneuverability to be given the primary task of dealing with the threat of Soviet fighters while flying with visual engagement rules. As a matter of policy, the Phantoms could not engage targets without positive visual identification, so they could not engage targets at long ranges, as designed. Medium-range AIM-7 Sparrow missiles, and to a lesser degree even the AIM-9 Sidewinder, were often unreliable and ineffective at close ranges where it was found that guns were often the only effective weapon. The Phantom did not originally have any guns or cannons, but experience in Vietnam led to the addition of an internally mounted cannon in later versions.
F-X program
There was a clear need for a new fighter that overcame the close-range limitation of the Phantom while retaining long-range air superiority. After rejecting the U.S. Navy VFX program (which led to the F-14 Tomcat) as being unsuited to its needs, the U.S. Air Force issued its own requirements for the F-X (read as Fighter-Unknown, sometimes referred to as Fighter-Experimental), a specification for a relatively lightweight air superiority fighter. The requirements called for single-seat fighter having a maximum take-off weight of 40,000 lb (18,100 kg) for the air-to-air role with a maximum speed of Mach 2.5 and a thrust to weight ratio of nearly 1 at mission weight. Four companies submitted proposals, with the Air Force eliminating General Dynamics and awarding contracts to Fairchild Republic, North American Rockwell, and McDonnell Douglas for the definition phase in December 1968. The companies submitted technical proposals by June 1969. The Air Force announced the selection of McDonnell Douglas on 23 December 1969. The winning design resembled the twin-tailed F-14, but with fixed wings. It would not be significantly lighter or smaller than the F-4 that it would replace.
The Eagle's initial versions were the F-15 single-seat variant and TF-15 twin-seat variant. (After the F-15C was first flown in 1980 the designations were changed to "F-15A" and "F-15B"). These versions would be powered by new Pratt & Whitney F100 engines to achieve a combat thrust-to-weight ratio in excess of 1. A proposed 25 mm Ford-Philco GAU-7 cannon with caseless ammunition suffered development problems. It was dropped in favor of the standard M61 Vulcan gun. The F-15 used conformal carriage of four Sparrow missiles like the Phantom. The fixed wing was put onto a flat, wide fuselage that also provided an effective lifting surface. The first F-15A flight was made in July 1972 with the first flight of the two-seat F-15B following in July 1973.
The F-15 has a "look-down/shoot-down" radar that can distinguish low-flying moving targets from ground clutter. The F-15 would use computer technology with new controls and displays to lower pilot workload and require only one pilot to save weight. Unlike the F-14 or F-4, the F-15 has only a single canopy frame with clear vision forward. The USAF introduced the F-15 as "the first dedicated USAF air superiority fighter since the North American F-86 Sabre."
The F-15 was favored by customers such as the Israel and Japan air arms. Criticism from the fighter mafia that the F-15 was too large to be a dedicated dogfighter, and too expensive to procure in large numbers, led to the Lightweight Fighter (LWF) program, which led to the USAF General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon and the middle-weight Navy McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet.
Further development
The single-seat F-15C and two-seat F-15D models entered production in 1978 and conducted their first flights in February and June of that year. These models were fitted with the Production Eagle Package (PEP 2000), which included 2,000 lb (900 kg) of additional internal fuel, provisions for carrying exterior conformal fuel tanks, and an increased maximum takeoff weight of up to 68,000 lb (30,700 kg). The increased takeoff weight allows internal fuel, a full weapons load, conformal fuel tanks, and three external fuel tanks to be carried. The APG-63 radar uses a programmable signal processor (PSP), enabling the radar to be reprogrammable for additional purposes such as the addition of new armaments and equipment. The PSP was the first of its kind in the world, and the upgraded APG-63 radar was the first radar to use it. Other improvements on the C and D models included strengthened landing gear, a new digital central computer, and an overload warning system, which allows the pilot to fly the fighter to 9 g at all weights.
The F-15 Multistage Improvement Program (MSIP) was initiated in February 1983 with the first production MSIP F-15C produced in 1985. Improvements included an upgraded central computer; a Programmable Armament Control Set, allowing for advanced versions of the AIM-7, AIM-9, and AIM-120A missiles; and an expanded Tactical Electronic Warfare System that provides improvements to the ALR-56C radar warning receiver and ALQ-135 countermeasure set. The final 43 F-15Cs included the enhanced-capability Hughes APG-70 radar, which was developed for the F-15E. These 43 F-15Cs with APG-70 radar are sometimes referred as Enhanced Eagles. Earlier MSIP F-15Cs with the APG-63 were upgraded to the APG-63(V)1 to significantly improve maintainability and enable performance similar to the APG-70. Existing F-15s were retrofitted with these improvements.
In 1979, McDonnell Douglas and F-15 radar manufacturer, Hughes, teamed to privately develop a strike fighter version of the F-15. This version competed in the Air Force's Dual-Role Fighter competition starting in 1982. The Boeing F-15E strike variant was selected for production in 1984. Beginning in 1985, F-15C and D models were equipped with the improved P&W F100-220 engine and digital engine controls, providing quicker throttle response, reduced wear, and lower fuel consumption. Starting in 1997, original F100-100 engines were upgraded to a similar configuration with the designation F100-220E starting.
Beginning in 2007, 178 USAF F-15Cs were retrofitted with the AN/APG-63(V)3 Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar. A significant number of F-15s are to be equipped with the Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System (JHMCS). Lockheed Martin is working on an IRST system for the F-15C. A follow-on upgrade called the Eagle passive/active warning survivability system (EPAWSS) was planned but remained unfunded.
The F-15 has an all-metal semi-monocoque fuselage with a large cantilever shoulder-mounted wing. The empennage is metal and composite construction, with twin aluminum/composite honeycomb fins with boron-composite skins, resulting in an exceptionally thin tailplane and rudders with all-moving composite horizontal tail surfaces outboard of the fins. The F-15 has a spine-mounted air brake and retractable tricycle landing gear. It is powered by two Pratt & Whitney F100 axial-flow turbofan engines with afterburners mounted side-by-side in the fuselage. The cockpit is mounted high in the forward fuselage with a one-piece windscreen and large canopy to increase visibility.
The F-15's maneuverability is derived from low wing loading (weight to wing area ratio) with a high thrust-to-weight ratio enabling the aircraft to turn tightly without losing airspeed. The F-15 can climb to 30,000 ft (10,000 m) in around 60 seconds. The thrust output of the dual engines is greater than the aircraft's weight, thus giving it the ability to accelerate in a vertical climb. The weapons and flight control systems are designed so that one person can safely and effectively perform air-to-air combat. The A and C-models are single-seat variants that make up the bulk of F-15 production. B and D-models add a second seat behind the pilot for training. E-models use the second seat for a bombardier/navigator. Visibly, the F-15 has a unique feature vis a vis other modern fighter aircraft in that it does not have the distinctive turkey feather aerodynamic exhaust petals covering its engine nozzles. This is because the petal design on the F-15 was problematic and could fall off in flight; therefore they were removed, resulting in a 3% drag increase.
A multi-mission avionics system includes a heads-up display (HUD), advanced radar, inertial guidance system (INS), flight instruments, ultra high frequency (UHF) communications, and Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN) and Instrument Landing System (ILS) receivers. It also has an internally mounted, tactical electronic-warfare system, identification, friend or foe (IFF) system, electronic countermeasures suite and a central digital computer.
The heads-up display projects, through a combiner, all essential flight information gathered by the integrated avionics system. This display, visible in any light condition, provides the pilot information necessary to track and destroy an enemy aircraft without having to look down at cockpit instruments.
The F-15's versatile APG-63/70 pulse-Doppler radar system can look up at high-flying targets and down at low-flying targets without being confused by ground clutter. It can detect and track aircraft and small high-speed targets at distances beyond visual range (the maximum being 120 nautical miles (220 km) away) down to close range, and at altitudes down to treetop level. The radar feeds target information into the central computer for effective weapons delivery. The capability of locking onto targets as far as 50 nautical miles (90 km) with an AIM-120 AMRAAM missile enables true beyond visual range (BVR) engagement of targets. For close-in dogfights, the radar automatically acquires enemy aircraft, and this information is projected on the heads-up display. The F-15's electronic warfare system provides both threat warning and automatic countermeasures against selected threats.
Weaponry and external stores
A variety of air-to-air weaponry can be carried by the F-15. An automated weapon system enables the pilot to perform aerial combat safely and effectively, using the head-up display and the avionics and weapons controls located on the engine throttles or control stick. When the pilot changes from one weapon system to another, visual guidance for the required weapon automatically appears on the head-up display.
The Eagle can be armed with combinations of four different air-to-air weapons: AIM-7F/M Sparrow missiles or AIM-120 AMRAAM advanced medium range air-to-air missiles on its lower fuselage corners, AIM-9L/M Sidewinder or AIM-120 AMRAAM missiles on two pylons under the wings, and an internal M61A1 20 mm Gatling gun in the right wing root.
Low-drag conformal fuel tanks (CFTs) were developed for the F-15C and D models. They can be attached to the sides of the engine air intake trunks under each wing and are designed to the same load factors and airspeed limits as the basic aircraft. They degrade performance by increasing drag and cannot be jettisoned in-flight (unlike conventional external tanks). Each conformal fuel tank can hold 750 U.S. gallons (2,840 L) of fuel. These tanks increase range and reduce the need for in-flight refueling. All external stations for munitions remain available with the tanks in use. Moreover, Sparrow or AMRAAM missiles can be attached to the corners of the conformal fuel tanks. The 57 FIS based at Keflavik NAS, Iceland was the only C-model squadron to use CFTs on a regular basis due to its extended operations over the North Atlantic. With the closure of the 57 FIS, the F-15E is the only variant to carry them on a routine basis. CFTs have also been sold to Israel and Saudi Arabia.
The F-15E Strike Eagle is a two-seat, dual-role, totally integrated fighter for all-weather, air-to-air and deep interdiction missions. The rear cockpit is upgraded to include four multi-purpose CRT displays for aircraft systems and weapons management. The digital, triple-redundant Lear Siegler flight control system permits coupled automatic terrain following, enhanced by a ring-laser gyro inertial navigation system. For low-altitude, high-speed penetration and precision attack on tactical targets at night or in adverse weather, the F-15E carries a high-resolution APG-70 radar and LANTIRN pods to provide thermal imagery.
The APG-63(V)2 Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar has been retrofitted to 18 U.S. Air Force F-15C aircraft. This upgrade includes most of the new hardware from the APG-63(V)1, but adds an AESA to provide increased pilot situational awareness. The AESA radar has an exceptionally agile beam, providing nearly instantaneous track updates and enhanced multi-target tracking capability. The APG-63(V)2 is compatible with current F-15C weapon loads and enables pilots to take full advantage of AIM-120 capabilities, simultaneously guiding multiple missiles to several targets widely spaced in azimuth, elevation, or range.
Operational history
Introduction and early service
The largest operator of the F-15 is the United States Air Force. The first Eagle (F-15B) was delivered 13 November 1974. In January 1976, the first Eagle destined for a combat squadron, the 555th TFS, was delivered. These initial aircraft carried the Hughes Aircraft (now Raytheon) APG-63 radar.
The first F-15 kill was scored by Israeli Air Force (IAF) ace Moshe Melnik in 1979. In 1979–81, during Israeli raids against Palestinian factions based in Lebanon, F-15As downed 13 Syrian MiG-21 "Fishbeds" and two Syrian MiG-25 "Foxbats", the latter being the aircraft the F-15 was designed to kill. Israeli F-15As and Bs participated as escorts in Operation Opera and served during the 1982 Lebanon War. During the latter, Israeli F-15s shot down 40 Syrian jet fighters (23 MiG-21 "Fishbeds" and 17 MiG-23 "Floggers") and one Syrian SA.342L Gazelle helicopter. Later during 1985, IAF Eagles, in Operation Wooden Leg, bombed the PLO headquarters in Tunisia. This was one of the few times air superiority F-15s (A/B/C/D models) were used in tactical strike missions. The air to ground role for the air superiority variants became more frequently used in Israeli service starting from the opening years of the new century with the integration of GPS guided bombs.
Anti-satellite trials
The ASM-135 missile was designed to be a standoff anti-satellite (ASAT) weapon, with the F-15 acting as a first stage. The Soviet Union could correlate a U.S. rocket launch with a spy satellite loss, but an F-15 carrying an ASAT would blend in among hundreds of F-15 flights. From January 1984 to September 1986, two F-15As were used as launch platforms for the ASAT missile. The F-15As were modified to carry one ASM-135 on the centerline station with extra equipment within a special centerline pylon. The launch aircraft executed a Mach 1.22, 3.8 g climb at 65° to release the ASAT missile at an altitude of 38,100 ft (11,600 m). The flight computer was updated to control the zoom-climb and missile release.
The third test flight involved a retired P78-1 solar observatory satellite in a 345-mile (555 km) orbit, which was destroyed by kinetic energy. The pilot, USAF Major Wilbert D. "Doug" Pearson, became the only pilot to destroy a satellite. The ASAT program involved five test launches. The program was officially terminated in 1988.
Gulf War and aftermath
The USAF began deploying F-15C, D and E model aircraft to the Persian Gulf region in August 1990 for Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm. During Gulf War combat against Iraqi forces, they accounted for 36 of the 39 Air Force air-to-air victories. F-15Es were operated mainly at night, hunting modified SCUD missile launchers and artillery sites using the LANTIRN system. According to the USAF, its F-15Cs had 34 confirmed kills of Iraqi aircraft during the 1991 Gulf War, mostly by missile fire: five MiG-29 "Fulcrums", two MiG-25 "Foxbats", eight MiG-23 "Floggers", two MiG-21 "Fishbeds", two Su-25 "Frogfoots", four Su-22 "Fitters", one Su-7, six Mirage F1s, one Il-76 cargo plane, one Pilatus PC-9 trainer, and two Mi-8 helicopters. Air superiority was achieved in the first three days of the conflict; many of the later kills were reportedly of Iraqi aircraft fleeing to Iran, rather than trying to engage U.S. aircraft. The single-seat F-15C was used for air superiority, and the F-15E was heavily used in air-to-ground attacks. An F-15E achieved an aerial kill of another Iraqi Mi-8 helicopter using a laser-guided bomb during the air war. The F-15E sustained two losses to ground fire in the Gulf War in 1991. Another one was damaged on the ground by a SCUD strike on Dhahran air base.
They have since been deployed to support Operation Southern Watch, the patrolling of the No-Fly Zone in Southern Iraq; Operation Provide Comfort in Turkey; in support of NATO operations in Bosnia, and recent air expeditionary force deployments. In 1994, two U.S. Army Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawks were mistakenly downed by USAF F-15Cs in northern Iraq in a friendly fire incident. USAF F-15Cs shot down four Yugoslav MiG-29s using AIM-120 missiles during NATO's 1999 intervention in Kosovo, Operation Allied Force.
Structural defects
All F-15 aircraft were grounded by the US Air Force after a Missouri Air National Guard F-15C came apart in flight and crashed on 2 November 2007. The newer F-15E fleet was later cleared for continued operations. The US Air Force reported on 28 November 2007 that a critical location in the upper longerons on the F-15C model was suspected of causing the failure, causing the fuselage forward of the air intakes, including the cockpit and radome, to separate from the airframe.
F-15A through D-model aircraft were ordered grounded until the location received more detailed inspections and repairs as needed. The grounding of F-15s received media attention as it began to place strains on the nation's air defense efforts. The grounding forced some states to rely on their neighboring states' fighters for air defense protection, and Alaska to depend on Canadian Forces' fighter support.
On 8 January 2008, the USAF Air Combat Command (ACC) cleared a portion of its F-15A through D-model fleet for return to flying status. It also recommended a limited return to flight for units worldwide using the affected models. The accident review board report was released on 10 January 2008. The report stated that analysis of the F-15C wreckage determined that the longeron did not meet drawing specifications, which led to fatigue cracks and finally a catastrophic failure of the remaining support structures and breakup of the aircraft in flight. In a report released on 10 January 2008, nine other F-15s were identified to have similar problems in the longeron. As a result of these problems, General John D. W. Corley stated that "the long-term future of the F-15 is in question." On 15 February 2008, ACC cleared all its grounded F-15A/B/C/D fighters for flight pending inspections, engineering reviews and any needed repairs. ACC also recommended release of other U.S. F-15A/B/C/D aircraft.
Recent service
Indian Air Force (IAF) Su-30MKs, MiG-29s and other fighters achieved success in air combat exercises against U.S. Air Force (USAF) F-15Cs during "Cope India" in February 2004. The U.S. agreed not to use beyond visual range AIM-120 missiles on its fighters. During the USAF's Red Flag advanced combat training exercises in 2008, American F-15Cs, F-16Cs, and F-22s bested Indian Su-30MKIs. The Su-30s operated with their radars in training mode to keep their signals secret.
The F-15 in all air forces had a combined air-to-air combat record of 104 kills to 0 losses as of February 2008. No air superiority versions of the F-15 (A/B/C/D models) have been shot down by enemy forces. Over half of F-15 kills were achieved by Israeli Air Force pilots.
With the retirement of the F-15A and B models, the F-15C and D models are being supplemented in U.S. service by the F-22 Raptor. As of 2013, Regular Air Force F-15C and F-15D fighters are based overseas with the Pacific Air Forces (PACAF) at Kadena AB in Japan and with the U.S. Air Forces in Europe (USAFE) at RAF Lakenheath in the United Kingdom. Other Regular Air Force F-15s are operated by Air Combat Command as adversary/aggressor platforms at Nellis AFB, Nevada, and by Air Force Material Command in test and evaluation roles at Edwards AFB, California and Eglin AFB, Florida. All remaining combat coded F-15Cs and F-15Ds are operated by the Air National Guard.
USAF is upgrading 178 F-15C/Ds with the AN/APG-63(V)3 AESA radar, and upgrade other F-15s with the Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System. The Air Force plans to keep 178 F-15C/Ds along with 224 F-15Es in service beyond 2025. The F-15E will remain in service for years to come because of the model's primary air-to-ground role and the lower number of hours on the F-15E airframes.
Basic models
- Single-seat all-weather air-superiority fighter version, 384 built 1972–1979.
- Two-seat training version, formerly designated TF-15A, 61 built 1972–1979.
- Improved single-seat all-weather air-superiority fighter version, 483 built 1979–1985. The last 43 F-15Cs are being upgraded with AN/APG-70 radar.
- Two-seat training version, 92 built 1979–1985.
- Single-seat all-weather air-superiority fighter version for the Japan Air Self-Defense Force 139 built under license in Japan by Mitsubishi 1981–1997, two built in St. Louis.
- Two-seat training version for the Japan Air Self-Defense Force. 12 built in St. Louis, and 25 built under license in Japan by Mitsubishi during 1981–1997.
- F-15N Sea Eagle
- The F-15N was a carrier-capable variant proposed in the early 1970s to the U.S. Navy as an alternative to the heavier and, at the time, considered as "riskier" technology program: Grumman F-14 Tomcat. The F-15N-PHX was another proposed naval version capable of carrying the AIM-54 Phoenix missile. These featured folding wingtips, reinforced landing gear and a stronger tailhook for shipboard operation.
- F-15E Strike Eagle
- See McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle for F-15E, F-15I, F-15S, F-15K, F-15SG, and other F-15E-based variants.
- F-15SE Silent Eagle
- See Boeing F-15SE Silent Eagle for a recent proposed F-15E variant with a reduced radar signature.
Twelve prototypes were built and were used for trials by the F-15 Joint Test Force at Edwards Air Force Base using McDonnell Douglas and United States Air Force personnel. Many of the prototypes were later used by NASA for trials and experiments.
- F-15A-1, AF Ser. No. 71-0280
- Was the first F-15 to fly on 11 July 1972 from Edwards Air Force Base, it was used as a trial aircraft for exploring the flight envelope, general handling and testing the carriage of external stores.
- F-15A-1, AF Ser. No. 71-0281
- The second prototype first flew on 26 September 1972 and was used to test the F100 engine.
- F-15A-2, AF Ser. No. 71-0282
- First flew on 4 November 1972 and was used to test the APG-62 radar and avionics.
- F-15A-2, AF Ser. No. 71-0283
- First flew on 13 January 1973 and was used as a structural test aircraft, it was the first aircraft to have the smaller wingtips to clear a severe buffet problem found on earlier aircraft.
- F-15A-2, AF Ser. No. 71-0284
- First flew on 7 March 1973 it was used for armament development and was the first aircraft fitted with an internal cannon.
- F-15A-3, AF Ser. No. 71-0285
- First flew on 23 May 1973 and was used to test the missile fire control system and other avionics.
- F-15A-3, AF Ser. No. 71-0286
- First flew on 14 June 1973 and was used for armament trials and testing external fuel stores.
- F-15A-4, AF Ser. No. 71-0287
- First flew on 25 August 1973 and was used for spin recovery, angle of attack and fuel system testing, it was fitted with an anti-spin recovery parachute. The aircraft was loaned to NASA from 1976 for engine development trials.
- F-15A-4, AF Ser. No. 71-0288
- First flew on 20 October 1973 and was used to test integrated aircraft and engine performance, it was later used by McDonnell Douglas as a test aircraft in the 1990s.
- F-15A-4, AF Ser. No. 71-0289
- First flew on 30 January 1974 and was used for trials on the radar, avionics and electronic warfare systems.
- F-15B-3, AF Ser. No. 71-0290
- The first two-seat prototype originally designated the TF-15A, it first flew on 7 July 1973.
- F-15B-4, AF Ser. No. 71-0291
- First flew on 18 October 1973 as a TF-15A and used as a test and demonstration aircraft. In 1976 it made an overseas sales tour painted in markings to celebrate the bicentenary of the United States.
Research and test
- F-15 Streak Eagle (AF Ser. No.72-0119)
- One stripped of most avionics and unpainted F-15A, demonstrated the fighter's acceleration – broke eight time-to-climb world records between 16 January and 1 February 1975 at Grand Forks AFB, ND. It was delivered to the National Museum of the United States Air Force in December 1980.
- F-15 STOL/MTD (AF Ser. No. 71-0290)
- The first F-15B was converted into a short takeoff and landing, maneuver technology demonstrator aircraft. In the late 1980s it received canard flight surfaces in addition to its usual horizontal tail, along with square thrust-vectoring nozzles. It was used as a short-takeoff/maneuver-technology (SMTD) demonstrator.
- F-15 ACTIVE (AF Ser. No. 71-0290)
- The F-15 S/MTD was later converted into an advanced flight control technology research aircraft with thrust vectoring nozzles.
- F-15 IFCS (AF Ser. No. 71-0290)
- The F-15 ACTIVE was then converted into an intelligent flight control systems research aircraft. F-15B 71-0290 was the oldest F-15 still flying when retired in January 2009.
- F-15 MANX
- Concept name for a tailless variant of the F-15 ACTIVE, but the NASA ACTIVE experimental aircraft was never modified to be tailless.
- F-15 Flight Research Facility (AF Ser. No. 71-0281 and AF Ser. No. 71-0287)
- Two F-15A aircraft were acquired in 1976 for use by NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center for numerous experiments such as: Highly Integrated Digital Electronic Control (HiDEC), Adaptive Engine Control System (ADECS), Self-Repairing and Self-Diagnostic Flight Control System (SRFCS) and Propulsion Controlled Aircraft System (PCA). 71-0281, the second flight-test F-15A, was returned to the Air Force and became a static display at Langley AFB in 1983.
- F-15B Research Testbed (AF Ser. No. 74-0141)
- Acquired in 1993, it was an F-15B modified and used by NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center for flight tests.
- Israeli Air Force has operated F-15s since 1977. The IAF has 43 F-15A/B/C/D (20 F-15A, 6 F-15B, 11 F-15C, and 6 F-15D) aircraft in service as of January 2011.
- Saudi Arabia
- Royal Saudi Air Force has 70 F-15C/D (49 F-15C and 21 F-15D) Eagles in operation as of January 2011.
- United States Air Force operates 254 F-15C/D aircraft (114 Regular Air Force and 140 Air National Guard) as of September 2010.
Notable accidents
- On 1 May 1983, during an Israeli Air Force training dogfight, an F-15D collided with a Douglas A-4 Skyhawk. Unknown to pilot Zivi Nedivi and his copilot, the right wing of the Eagle was sheared off roughly two feet (60 cm) from the fuselage. The A-4 disintegrated and its pilot ejected and parachuted to safety, while the F-15 nosed down and entered a violent roll. Zivi decided to attempt recovery and engaged afterburner to increase speed, allowing him to regain control of the aircraft. The pilot was able to prevent stalling and maintain control because of the lift generated by the large horizontal surface area of the fuselage, the stabilators, and remaining wing areas. The F-15 landed at twice the normal speed to maintain the necessary descent and its tailhook was torn off during the landing. Zivi managed to bring his F-15 to a complete stop approximately 20 ft (6 m) from the end of the runway. He was later quoted as saying "It's highly likely that if I would have seen it clearly, I would have ejected..."; the fuel leak and vapors along the wing had prevented him from seeing what had happened to the wing itself. The aircraft was repaired and saw further combat service.
- On 19 March 1990, an F-15 from the 3rd Wing stationed at Elmendorf AFB, Alaska accidentally fired an AIM-9M Sidewinder missile at another F-15. The damaged aircraft was able to make an emergency landing; it was subsequently repaired and returned to service. This was not in combat, but does mark the first time an F-15 was struck by an air-to-air missile, accident or otherwise.
- On 22 November 1995, during air-intercept training over the Sea of Japan, a Japanese F-15J flown by Lt. Tatsumi Higuchi was shot down by an AIM-9L Sidewinder missile inadvertently fired by his wingman in an accident similar to the one that occurred on 19 March 1990. The pilot ejected safely. Both F-15Js involved were from JASDF 303rd Squadron, Komatsu AFB.
- On 26 March 2001, two US Air Force F-15Cs crashed near the summit of Ben Macdui in the Cairngorms during a low flying training exercise over the Scottish Highlands. Both Lieutenant Colonel Kenneth John Hyvonen and Captain Kirk Jones died in the accident, which resulted in a court martial for an RAF air traffic controller, who was later found not guilty.
- On 2 November 2007, a 27-year-old F-15C (AF Ser. No. 80-0034) of the 131st Fighter Wing, Missouri Air National Guard), crashed during air combat maneuvering training near St. Louis, Missouri. The pilot, Major Stephen W. Stilwell, ejected but suffered serious injuries. The crash was the result of an in-flight breakup due to structural failure. On 3 November 2007, all non-mission critical models of the F-15 were grounded pending the outcome of the crash investigation, and on the following day, grounded non-mission critical F-15s engaged in combat missions in the Middle East. By 13 November 2007, over 1,100 were grounded worldwide after Israel, Japan and Saudi Arabia grounded their aircraft as well. F-15Es were cleared on 15 November 2007 pending aircraft passing inspections. On 8 January 2008, the USAF cleared 60 percent of the F-15A/B/C/D fleet for return to flight. On 10 January 2008, the accident review board released its report stating the 2 November crash was related to the longeron not meeting drawing specifications. The Air Force cleared all its grounded F-15A-D fighters for flight on 15 February 2008 pending inspections, reviews and any needed repairs. In March 2008, Stilwell, the injured pilot, filed a lawsuit against Boeing, the F-15's manufacturer.
- On 20 February 2008, two F-15Cs from the 58th Fighter Squadron, 33rd Fighter Wing at Eglin AFB, Florida, flown by 1st Lt Ali Jivanjee and Capt Tucker Hamilton collided over the Gulf of Mexico during a training mission. Both pilots ejected and were rescued, but one died later from his injuries. The accident investigation report released 25 August 2008 found that the accident was the result of pilot error and not mechanical failure. Both pilots failed to clear their flight paths and anticipate their impending high-aspect, midair impact according to Brig Gen Joseph Reynes Jr., the leader of the investigation team.
Specifications (F-15C)
- Crew: 1: pilot
- Length: 63 ft 9 in (19.43 m)
- Wingspan: 42 ft 10 in (13.05 m)
- Height: 18 ft 6 in (5.63 m)
- Wing area: 608 ft² (56.5 m²)
- Airfoil: NACA 64A006.6 root, NACA 64A203 tip
- Empty weight: 28,000 lb (12,700 kg)
- Loaded weight: 44,500 lb (20,200 kg)
- Max. takeoff weight: 68,000 lb (30,845 kg)
- Powerplant: 2 × Pratt & Whitney F100-100 or −220 afterburning turbofans
- Fuel capacity: 13,455 lb (6,100 kg) internal
- Maximum speed:
- High altitude: Mach 2.5+ (1,650+ mph, 2,665+ km/h)
- Low altitude: Mach 1.2 (900 mph, 1,450 km/h)
- Combat radius: 1,061 nmi (1,222 mi, 1,967 km) for interdiction mission
- Ferry range: 3,450 mi (3,000 nmi, 5,550 km) with conformal fuel tanks and three external fuel tanks
- Service ceiling: 65,000 ft (20,000 m)
- Rate of climb: >50,000 ft/min (254 m/s)
- Wing loading: 73.1 lb/ft² (358 kg/m²)
- Thrust/weight: 1.12 (−220)
- Guns: 1× 20 mm (0.787 in) M61 Vulcan 6-barreled gatling cannon, 940 rounds
- Hardpoints: Total 11 (not including CFTs): two under-wing (each with additional two missile launch rails), four under-fuselage (for semi-recessed carriage of AIM-7 Sparrows) and a single centerline pylon station, optional fuselage pylons (which may include conformal fuel tanks, known initially as Fuel And Sensor Tactical (FAST) pack for use on the C model) with a capacity of 16,000 lb (7,300 kg) and provisions to carry combinations of:
- Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems AN/ALQ-131 electronic countermeasures pod
- Hazeltine AN/APX-76 or Raytheon AN/APX-119 Identify Friend/Foe (IFF) interrogator
- Magnavox AN/ALQ-128 Electronic Warfare Warning Set (EWWS) – part of Tactical Electronic Warfare Systems (TEWS)
- Loral AN/ALR-56 Radar warning receivers (RWR) – part of TEWS
- Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems ALQ-135 Internal Countermeasures System (ICS) – part of TEWS
- Marconi AN/ALE-45 Chaff/Flares dispenser system – part of TEWS
Aircraft on display
Although the F-15 continues to be a front-line fighter, a number of older USAF and IAF models have been retired, with several placed on outdoor display or in museums. These include:
United Kingdom
- 74-0131 - Wings of Liberty Memorial Park, RAF Lakenheath.
- 76-0020 - American Air Museum, Duxford.
United States
- 71-0280 - Lackland AFB, Texas.
- 71-0281 - Langley AFB, Virginia.
- 71-0283 - Defense Supply Center Richmond, Richmond, Virginia.
- 71-0285 - USAF Personnel Recruiting Office, St. Louis, Missouri.
- 71-0286- Octave Chanute Aerospace Museum, Rantoul, Illinois.
- 72-0119 "Streak Eagle" - in storage at the National Museum of the United States Air Force, Wright-Patterson AFB, Dayton, Ohio.
- 73-0085 - Museum of Aviation, Robins AFB, Warner Robins, Georgia.
- 73-0086 - Louisiana Military Museum, Jackson Barracks, New Orleans, Louisiana.
- 73-0099 (Marked as 77-0099) - Robins AFB, Warner Robins, Georgia.
- 74-0081 - Elmendorf AFB, Alaska.
- 74-0084 - Alaska Aviation Heritage Museum, Anchorage, Alaska.
- 74-0095 - Tyndall AFB, Panama City, Florida.
- 74-0114 - Mountain Home AFB, Idaho.
- 74-0117 - Langley AFB, Virginia.
- 74-0118 - Pima Air & Space Museum, Tucson, Arizona.
- 74-0119 - Castle Air Museum, Atwater, California.
- 74-0124 - Air Force Armament Museum, Eglin AFB, Florida.
- 75-0026 - National Warplane Museum, Elmira Corning Regional Airport, New York.
- 75-0045 - USS Alabama Battleship Memorial Park, Mobile, Alabama.
- 76-0008 - March Field Air Museum, Riverside, California.
- 76-0009 - Kingsley Field Air National Guard Base, Klamath Falls, Oregon.
- 76-0014 - Evergreen Aviation Museum, McMinnville, Oregon.
- 76-0024 - Peterson Air and Space Museum, Peterson AFB, Colorado.
- 76-0027 - National Museum of the United States Air Force, Wright-Patterson AFB, Dayton, Ohio.
- 76-0037 - Holloman AFB, New Mexico.
- 76-0040 - USAF Academy, Colorado Springs, Colorado.
- 76-0048 - McChord Air Museum, McChord AFB, Washington.
- 76-0063 - Pacific Aviation Museum, Ford Island, Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam, Hawaii.
- 76-0066 - Portland Air National Guard Base, Oregon.
- 76-0076 (Marked as 85-0125) - roadside park, DeBary, Florida.
- 76-0080 - Jacksonville International Airport, Florida.
- 76-0088 - St. Louis International Airport, Lambert Field, Missouri.
- 76-0108 - Kelly AFB, Texas.
- 76-0110 - gate guard, Mountain Home AFB, Idaho.
- 77-0068 - Arnold AFB, Manchester, Tennessee.
- 77-0090 - Hill Aerospace Museum, Hill AFB, Utah.
- 77-0102 - Pacific Coast Air Museum, Charles M. Schulz-Sonoma County Airport, Santa Rosa, California. One of two Massachusetts Air National Guard 102d Fighter Wing aircraft scrambled in first response to terrorist air attacks on 11 September 2001.
- 77-0146 - Veterans Park, Callaway, Florida.
- 77-0150 - Yanks Air Museum, Chino, California.
- 73-0108 - Luke AFB, Arizona.
- 73-0114 - Air Force Flight Test Center Museum, Edwards AFB, California.
- 77-0161 - Seymour Johnson AFB, Goldsboro, North Carolina.
Notable appearances in media
The F-15 was the subject of the IMAX movie Fighter Pilot: Operation Red Flag, about the RED FLAG exercises. In Tom Clancy's nonfiction book, Fighter Wing (1995), a detailed analysis of the Air Force's premier fighter aircraft, the F-15 Eagle and its capabilities are showcased. Clancy's Red Storm Rising depicts the F-15 as an anti-satellite missile launcher.
The F-15 has also been a popular subject as a toy, and a fictional likeness of an aircraft similar to the F-15 has been used in cartoons, books, video games, animated television series, and animated films. The F-15 was mentioned in a veteran's old war story in the 2005 song Something to Be Proud Of by Montgomery Gentry.
See also
- Related development
- Aircraft of comparable role, configuration and era
- Related lists
- Although several F-15C aircraft were produced with APG-70 radar, all have been retrofitted to the AN/APG-63(V)1 configuration.
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- "F-15 Eagle/73-0098." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/73-0107." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/74-0131." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/76-0020." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/71-0280." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/71-0281." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/71-0283." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/71-0285." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/71-0286." Octave Chanute Aerospace Museum.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/72-0119." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/73-0085." Museum of Aviation.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/73-0086." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/73-0099." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/74-0081." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/74-0084." Alaska Aviation Heritage Museum.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/74-0095." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/74-0114." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/74-0117." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/74-0118." Pima Air & Space Museum.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/74-0119." Castle Air Museum.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/74-0124." Air Force Armament Museum.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/75-0026." National Warplane Museum.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/75-0045." USS Alabama Battleship Memorial Park.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/76-0008." March Field Air Museum.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/76-0009." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/76-0014." Evergreen Aviation Museum.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/76-0024." Peterson Air and Space Museum.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/76-0027." National Museum of the USAF.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/76-0037." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/76-0040." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/76-0048." McChord Air Museum.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/76-0063." Pacific Aviation Museum.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/76-0066." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/76-0076." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/76-0080." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/76-0088." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/76-0108." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/76-0110." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/77-0068." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/77-0090." Hill Aerospace Museum.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/77-0102." Pacific Coast Air Museum.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/77-0146." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/77-0150." Yanks Air Museum.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/73-0108." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/73-0114." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- "F-15 Eagle/77-0161." Warbird Registry.] Retrieved: 26 March 2013.
- Clancy, Tom. Fighter Wing: A Guided Tour of an Air Force Combat Wing. New York: Berkley Books, 1995. ISBN 0-425-14957-9.
- "Something To Be Proud Of: Lyrics." Cowboylyrics.com. Retrieved: 25 March 2012.
- Bowman, Martin W. US Military Aircraft. London: Bison Books, 1980. ISBN 0-89009-292-3.
- Davies, Steve. Boeing F-15E Strike Eagle, All-Weather Attack Aircraft. London: Airlife Publishing, Ltd., 2003. ISBN 1-84037-378-4.
- Davies, Steve. Combat Legend, F-15 Eagle and Strike Eagle. London: Airlife Publishing, Ltd., 2002. ISBN 1-84037-377-6.
- Davies, Steve and Doug Dildy. F-15 Eagle Engaged, The World's Most Successful Jet Fighter. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2007. ISBN 978-1-84603-169-4.
- Eden, Paul and Soph Moeng, eds. The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. London: Amber Books Ltd., 2002. ISBN 0-7607-3432-1.
- Gething, Michael J. F-15 Eagle (Modern Fighting Aircraft). New York: Arco, 1983. ISBN 0-668-05902-8.
- Green, William and Gordon Swanborough. The Complete Book of Fighters. New York: Barnes & Noble Inc., 1988. ISBN 0-7607-0904-1.
- Gunston, Bill. American Warplanes. New York: Crescent Books. 1986. ISBN 0-517-61351-4.
- Huenecke, Klaus. Modern Combat Aircraft Design. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1987. ISBN 0-87021-426-8.
- Jenkins, Dennis R. F/A-18 Hornet: A Navy Success Story, pp. 1–8. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000. ISBN 0-07-134696-1.
- Jenkins, Dennis R. McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle, Supreme Heavy-Weight Fighter. Hinckley, UK: Midland Publishing, 1998. ISBN 1-85780-081-8.
- Lambert, Mark, ed. Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1993–94. Alexandria, Virginia: Jane's Information Group Inc., 1993. ISBN 0-7106-1066-1.
- Scutts, Jerry. Supersonic Aircraft of USAF. New York: Mallard Press, 1989. ISBN 0-7924-5013-2.
- Spick, Mike, ed. The Great Book of Modern Warplanes. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI, 2000. ISBN 0-7603-0893-4.
Further reading
- Braybrook, Roy. F-15 Eagle. London: Osprey Aerospace, 1991. ISBN 1-85532-149-1.
- Crickmore, Paul. McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle (Classic Warplanes series). New York: Smithmark Books, 1992. ISBN 0-8317-1408-5.
- Drendel, Lou. Eagle (Modern Military Aircraft Series). Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1985. ISBN 0-8974-7271-3.
- Drendel, Lou and Don Carson. F-15 Eagle in action. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1976. ISBN 0-89747-023-0.
- Fitzsimons, Bernard. Modern Fighting Aircraft, F-15 Eagle. London: Salamander Books Ltd., 1983. ISBN 0-86101-182-1.
- Gething, Michael J. and Paul Crickmore. F-15 (Combat Aircraft series). New York: Crescent Books, 1992. ISBN 0-517-06734-X.
- Kinzey, Bert. The F-15 Eagle in Detail & Scale (Part 1, Series II). El Paso, Texas: Detail & Scale, Inc., 1978. ISBN 0-8168-5028-3.
- Rininger, Tyson V. F-15 Eagle at War. Minneapolis, USA: Zenith Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0-7603-3350-1.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to: F-15 Eagle|
- F-15 Eagle USAF Fact Sheet
- F-15 Eagle history page on Boeing.com
- McDonnell Douglas F-15A, and F-15C on USAF National Museum web site
- F-15 Eagle in service with Israel
- F-15 page on GlobalSecurity.org
- The McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle page on Vectorsite.net
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Bacteria can organize into structured communities, called biofilms, that protect them from antibiotics and from immune attack by the host. The biofilms are embedded in a matrix containing a complex mixture of macromolecules including exopolysaccharides and proteins. In the February 22 Science, Whitchurch et al. report that extracellular DNA is a major component of the biofilms of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Science 2002, 295:1487). They demonstrate that adding DNase I to P. aeruginosa cultures inhibited biofilm formation and bacterial colonization. The enzyme could also dissolve established biofilms. The extracellular DNA is thought to be derived from membrane vesicles. Whitchurch et al. propose that DNase I treatment may be beneficial to prevent biofilm formation in infection-linked diseases such as cystic fibrosis.
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WHAT PANAMA MEANS
It now becomes apparent why British Columbia was described as the province where East meets West and works out Destiny.
On the other side of the Pacific lies Japan come to the manhood of nationality, demanding recognition as the equal of the white race and room to expand. Behind Japan lies China, an awakened giant, potent for good or ill, of half a billion people, whose commerce under a few years of modern science and mechanics is bound to equal the commerce of half Europe. It may in a decade bring to the ports that have hitherto been the back doors of America an aggregate yearly traffic exceeding the four billion dollars’ worth that yearly leave Atlantic ports for Europe. Canada is now the shortest route to “Cathay”; the railroads across Canada offer shorter route from China to Europe than Suez or Horn, by from two to ten thousand miles. Then there is India, another awakened giant, potent for good or ill, of three hundred million people—two hundred to the square mile—clamoring for recognition as British subjects, clamoring for room to expand.
The question is sometimes asked by Americans: Why does Canada concern herself about foreign problems and dangers? Why does she not rest secure under the aegis of the Monroe Doctrine, which forever forfends foreign conquest of America by an alien power? And Canada answers—because the Monroe Doctrine is not worth the ink in which it was penned without the bayonet to enforce the pen. Belgium’s neutrality did not protect her. The peace that is not a victory is only an armed truce—a let-live by some other nation’s permission. Without power to enforce the Monroe Doctrine, that doctrine is to Canada but a tissue-paper rampart.
To add to the complication involving British Columbia comes the opening of Panama, turning the Pacific Ocean into a parade ground for the world’s fleets both merchantmen and war. Commercially Panama simply turns British Columbia into a front door, instead of a back door. What does this mean?
The Atlantic has hitherto been the Dominion’s front door, and the Canadian section of the Atlantic has four harbors of first rank with an aggregate population of nearly a million. Canada has, besides, three lake harbors subsidiary to ocean traffic with an aggregate population of half a million. One may infer when the Pacific becomes a front door, that Vancouver and Victoria and Port Mann and Westminster and Prince Rupert will soon have an aggregate population of a million.
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: "In the middle ages some poisons were reputed to have been
administered by contact: and there are many stories of poisoned rings
used for such a purpose. These rings were said to be poisoned on the
interior, having a sharp point there, so that when a person grasped the
hand wearing the ring, some of the poison was passed into his body. But
I believe the statement to be altogether without foundation, because
there is no kind of proof that the ancients had such a subtle poison as
is here supposed. We have hardly got such a thing now, and I think it
can scarcely have existed in the Middle Ages."
ring has always been the favourite ornament of the human race, from the
time of the prehistoric cave-dweller to the present day ; from the
plain bronze hoop of prehistoric man to the classic intaglio ring and
the masterpieces of the Renaissance craftsmen. There are signet rings,
papal rings, and memorial rings,—poison rings, and incantation
rings,—symbolical rings, and ceremonial rings,—rings with Egyptian
scarabs, Hebrew inscriptions, Koran texts, and reliquaries. There are
rings oriental, and occidental, of gold, and of silver, of bronze, and
of bone, of amber, and of terra-cotta.
THE EAGLE STONE.
" less precious" which were at one time in favour for wear, as of
supposed mystic properties, the Eagle Stone (no longer recognised by
our leading jewellers) may be taken for a fair instance. " The Eagle Stone (Dr. J. Schroder, Compleat Chymioal Dispensatory, 1669) " is so called because it is found in an eagle's nest, brought thither by an eagle, to help
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Injuries on school grounds are fairly common. One study cited by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) found that 80% of elementary school children visit the nurse because of injuries at school. Some accidents are unavoidable, but some injuries on school grounds are due to unsafe physical conditions or the actions of other students or staff. Read on to learn more.
Injuries Caused by Dangerous Physical Conditions
Schools have the responsibility to maintain a safe environment for students. School officials act in loco parentis, which is just a fancy way of saying "in the place of parents," when children are in their care at school. They have the responsibility to prevent foreseeable dangers from harming students. Dangerous conditions on school premises may include hazards like unsafe playground equipment, frayed electrical wires in classrooms, slippery floors caused by leaking roofs, unsanitary cafeteria conditions, and mold or other toxic materials.
Injuries Caused by Others
Schools must take reasonable steps to keep students from harming one another. At the minimum, this responsibility includes hiring enough staff to supervise the students on the premises. Teachers, recess monitors, hall monitors, bus drivers, and crossing guards serve the purpose of ensuring student safety.
Additionally, schools must use care when hiring teachers, coaches, and other staff. They have a duty not to expose students to dangerous adults. For example, a school could be liable for the sexual abuse of a student if the school knew that the offending school official had a history of molesting children but continued to employ the official.
The Meaning of Premises Liability
A school’s responsibility for injuries occurring on its grounds is a type of "premises liability." In premises liability, the person in control of the property is accountable for certain injuries that happen on the property. There are three basic elements in a premises liability case.
First, the person being sued must be in control of the property where the injury occurred. In school liability cases, the school district has authority over the school grounds.
Second, the person who was hurt must be the type of person that the landowner or possessor expected to be on the property. Schools obviously expect students to be on school property during school hours, so this is never an issue with injuries to students.
Third, the person in charge of the premises must have been negligent. Usually this means that the defendant knew or should have known of a danger but failed to take reasonable steps to protect the people on the premises. In the case of an injury on school grounds, the school may have failed to properly supervise the students or failed to maintain a safe environment for them.
The Importance of Foreseeability
Often cases involving injuries on school grounds turn on whether the injury was foreseeable. Negligence on the part of the school is most apparent in cases where the school knew of a specific danger but failed to take any precautionary measures. For example, a school that knew its monkey bars were structurally unsound but failed to do anything about it could be liable if a child broke an arm while playing on the bars during recess.
Similarly, a school that knew of a notorious bully could be liable if teachers and staff failed to supervise that aggressive student and he beat another student in the cafeteria. Even if a school is unaware of a specific bully, it could be liable for an injured child hurt by a fight on the playground if the school provided no supervision for the children there. The school has a duty to protect its students from foreseeable harm on its premises.
Notable Exceptions to School Liability
Some important exceptions apply to a school’s liability for a student’s injuries.
A school generally will not be liable for injuries that occur on school property outside school hours or outside school-sponsored events. For example, if on a Saturday morning a girl pushes a boy off the top of a school playground slide and the boy is injured, the school will not be liable. It had no responsibility to supervise children on the playground on Saturday morning if it was not sponsoring an event there at that time.
Another important exception to a school’s liability for injuries involves organized sports. If a student twists an ankle while playing football, the parents of the child cannot sue the school for negligence because student athletes assume the normal risks involved in sports activities.
Public School Immunity
In the past, state laws gave public schools immunity from student injury suits because courts considered schools to be performing a governmental role. Now many states have changed the older laws and opened up public schools to suits in certain cases. Presently, state laws regarding public school immunity vary.
Some states hold public schools responsible for student injuries caused by school negligence. Other states allow recovery against public schools only if the schools acted willfully and recklessly. If you are considering bringing a case against a public school, it is important to know whether the law of your state shields the school from liability for the type of injury your child suffered. Whether you can successfully sue the school will depend on the law of your state and the specific facts of your case.
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What causes hurricanes, thunderstorms, and severe weather? How are weather forecasts made? Are weather and climate changing? What type of research is being done currently in the atmospheric sciences? Learn the answers to these and other weather or climate questions AND earn NW credit from a course in ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES:
ATM S 101: Weather (5) NW SLN 10593
MTWTh 10:30-11:20 – Th or F Quiz times vary; KNE 220
General overview of weather, climate, and atmospheric phenomena (clouds, hurricanes, global weather patterns, etc.) Prerequisites: None. Open to all undergraduates Prof. Jerome Patoux, firstname.lastname@example.org
ATM S 111: Global Warming (5) NW SLN 10603
TTh 10:30-12:20 – Th or F Quiz times vary; KNE 210
Scientists predict severe environmental consequences from global warming unless the energy basis of the world’s economy is rapidly and dramatically transformed. This course will examine the scientific basis of those predictions and the role of science in developing policy responses. Prerequisites: None. Open to all undergraduates
Prof. Cecilia Bitz, email@example.com
ATM S 211: Climate Change (5) NW SLN 10612
MTWTh 10:30-11:20 – F Quiz times vary
Intro to the science of climate change and its causes. Suitable for non-science majors. Students with interests in environmental science and/or policy, the life sciences and engineering are encouraged to enroll. Prerequisites: None. Open to all undergraduates. Prof. David Battisti, firstname.lastname@example.org
ATM S 212: Air Pollution (5) NW SLN 19741
MTWThF 10:30-11:20; ATG 310C
Intro to air pollution on local, regional, and global scales. We will focus on the sources, transformation, and dispersion of pollutants responsible for urban smog, acid rain, climate change and the stratospheric ozone hole. We will examine the health and environmental effects of air pollutants, as well as current (or potential) technological solutions and international policy regulations. Prerequisites: None. Open to all undergraduates.
Becky Alexander, email@example.com
Please join us:
Date: Wednesday, December 7th
Time: 4:00pm – 6:00pm
Location: Fishery Sciences Building (FSH) room 107 http://washington.edu/maps/FSH
ESS is offering a new course–being taught at ESS 490 A for winter quarter:
Introduction to Geological GIS with Dr. Steven Walters (No pre-reqs)
PLEASE NOTE: This course will be offered as ESS 420 in future quarters.
There is plenty of space in some of our 100-level ESS courses!
ESS 100 Dinosaurs (2) NW
Biology, behavior, ecology, evolution, and extinction of dinosaurs, and a history of their exploration. With dinosaurs as focal point, course also introduces the student to how hypotheses in geological and paleobiological science are formulated and tested.
ESS 101 Introduction to Geological Sciences (5) NW
After taking this course students will never look at the Earth the same! Students will learn about how the Earth evolved from primordial dust to form the compositionally zoned planet upon which life now exists. Students will learn about the unifying concept of plate tectonics, which will provide them with a framework to understand the why and where of earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain belts, ocean basins and rock types in their surrounding world. Students will become amateur geologists and drive their friends and families crazy with their new-found knowledge. Students will also learn about time and its importance to the geologic record. Students will learn that geologists pay more for their dates than Hollywood’s most elite stars! This course will provide students with important information about geologic hazards, which will perhaps one day save lives or personal property. If students love the outdoors, this course will give them many opportunities to visit spectacular geologic sites around Washington state through the ESS 101 optional weekend field trip program. PLUS: check out an awesome video about ESS 101! http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IkO5qzuizM8&feature=youtu.be
ESS 102 Space and Space Travel (5) NW
Explores powering the sun, making of space weather conditions, observations from space and from Earth, Earth’ s space environment, radiation belts and hazards, plasma storms and auroras, electron beams, spacecraft requirements, tooling up for manned exploration
ESS 103 Minerals and Gems (3) NW
Introduction to the nature of minerals: composition, structure, physical properties, and origins, with emphasis on gem minerals. Focuses on topicsof particular interest in gemology, such as mechanisms of color, history and lore of gems, and uses of gems. Hands-on laboratories using about one hundred representative gems and minerals.
ESS 104 Prehistoric Life (3) NW
Fossils and how they are preserved. What fossils tell us about past life and environments. How the history of life unfolded and what caused the great events in biological evolution. Open to non-science majors, but also lays a foundation for higher-level geobiology courses.
Anyone who enjoyed ESS 101 with Dr. Terry Swanson can take his course this winter:
ESS 315 Environmental Earth Science (5) NW
Analysis of geologic constraints upon human activity and the environmental consequences of such activity. Topics include hillslope processes, fluvial and groundwater processes, earthquake and volcanic hazards, and environmental aspects of deforestation and atmospheric pollution. (Pre-req: ESS 101)
The Environmental Health Research Experience Program (EHREP) is a funded nine week, summer experience for undergraduates with interest in an interdisciplinary field that uses the tools of science to solve human health problems related to the environment. EHREP provides students with hands on experience in laboratories of leading researchers, introduces them to key environmental and occupational health issues while offering research exposure that will help them become competitive for graduate school. Students will work full-time under the supervision of a faculty mentor and will receive a stipend of $5,200.
The program is meant for students underrepresented in the sciences. The deadline for student applications is February 15, 2012.
Program website: http://www.ehrep.washington.edu
EH REP is made possible by a grant from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS). Environmental and occupational health is the study of human health in the environment. The field concerns itself with maintaining a safe supply of food and drinking water; discovering the mechanisms of environmentally related diseases; treating and disposing of solid and toxic wastes; reducing air, water, food, and noise pollution; and controlling workplace hazards.
ATTENTION Ocean Enthusiasts!
Are you interested in helping to engage and inspire the next generation of ocean scientists? Become an Orca Bowl Volunteer!
Please join us for Orca Bowl Orientation on Wednesday, November 30th – 5:30-7:00pm. Where: Marine Sciences Building (MSB) Room 123, University of Washington, Seattle Campus. Prizes will be available!
This orientation aims to provide new volunteers (or those interested in learning more about the competition) with introductory information about the Orca Bowl and an overview of different roles volunteers play during the competition. Come and learn more about how you can get involved and why volunteers like you are key to Orca Bowl’s success!
If you decide to continue with us as a volunteer, this session will count as one of your 2 required trainings for the competition. An interactive campus map can be found at http://www.washington.edu/maps/. Metered street parking is available along Boat Street.
Snacks will be provided. Please RSVP to firstname.lastname@example.org so we know how much food to bring.
Mark your calendars, the Orca Bowl competition is Saturday, March 3, 2012 and will be held at the University of Washington – Seattle Campus.
If you have volunteered for Orca Bowl in the past, please a) let us know you are interested in volunteering again and b) mark your calendar and RSVP for the volunteer practice dates listed at the end of this message (we ask that you attend at least 2 prior to the competition). You do not need to attend the orientation session.
Orca Bowl is March 3, 2012
What is the Orca Bowl, you ask?
Orca Bowl is one of 25 regional components of the National Ocean Sciences Bowl (NOSB). Its Washington’s regional ocean sciences bowl competition for high school students.
When and where is the Orca Bowl in 2012?
Saturday, March 3, 2012 8 a.m. – 5 p.m. at the University of Washington campus, Seattle
Orca Bowl is fun – and it can’t happen without its volunteers – that means YOU!
Your contribution enables high school students from the across the state to demonstrate their knowledge, meet ocean scientists and professionals (you!) and enjoy the activities surrounding the regional competition at the UW.
What do volunteers do?
You may sign up as a competition official or as a general volunteer. General volunteers assist with logistics up to and on the day of the competition. For information on the roles of competition officials, go to: http://www.nosb.org/volunteers/. All volunteers must attend at least TWO training dates (see dates below) and be available on the day of the competition March 3, 2012. New volunteers should attend one Orientation Session and at least one Training Session.
How do I learn more about Orca Bowl?
Check out our website at http://www.wsg.washington.edu/education/events/orca/get_involved.html or contact Maile Sullivan at email@example.com.
How Do I Sign Up?
Just reply to firstname.lastname@example.org. Tell us which volunteer role you’d like, or wait and learn more at the kick off and the first training session before you pick your role. We’ll do our best to accommodate your preference. Scheduled training dates are listed below.
We hope you will join us as a volunteer this year!
Training Session, Wed. January 11 from 5:30-7:30 Location TBD
Training Session, Tues. January 24 from 5:30-7:30 Location TBD
Training Session, Thurs. February 2 from 5:30-7:30 Location TBD
Training Session, Wed. February 15 from 5:30-7:30 Location TBD
Question Review Sessions, required for moderators and science judges: TBD in February 2012.
If you have a few minutes, check out the latest Atmospheric Science Outreach video featuring a cameo by our chair, Dale Durran… This is the third in the series, all are available on the Outreach YouTube Channel (http://www.youtube.com/user/UWAtmosOutreach).
FISH 497 A: Scientific Writing and Communication will provide students with experience reading, writing, and presenting scientific papers. It is designed for undergraduate students early in their careers, and will focus on both the principles and mechanics of scientific communication.
Student learning goals
Read scientific papers in a critical and efficient manner.
Formulate and refine scientific hypotheses.
Write and edit scientific papers, including use of text, tables, figures, and references.
Present scientific information verbally.
Understand ethical issues regarding scientific communication, including acquisition of data, acknowledgement of assistance, and referencing of work done by others.
General method of instruction
Class will involve extensive interactions between the instructor and students, and among the students, including small writing assignments, oral presentations, web searches, extensive use of computers, and peer editing.
Udergraduate standing and a desire to improve communication skills.
Class assignments and grading
Numerous small assignments including writing, editing, web searches, and presentations. Participation and improvement will be emphasized because students may differ in background, command of English, and other attributes related to writing ability. A paper in scientific format and an oral presentation will be major components of the grade.
Interested in environmental education?
Thinking about what to do during Spring Break?
Want to work with amazing young people across the state of Washington?
Apply for Pipeline Project’s 2012 Environmental Alternative Spring Break (EASB) program!
The Pipeline Project is sending two teams of five students to two Washington state schools (Quileute Tribal School, La Push & Brewster Elementary School, Brewster) during UW’s spring break from March 18th-March 23rd to work on an environmental education project. UW students will facilitate environmental science lessons with elementary and middle school students and learn about the local ecology and environmental issues of the region. This project is a part of the larger Pipeline Alternative Spring Break Projects that facilitate literacy/arts projects across the state of Washington.
Environmental ASB members will enroll in a 2-credit EDUC 401 preparation seminar during Winter quarter 2011 (Thursdays from 4:30-5:50 pm) to plan, design and practice an inquiry-based, hands-on environmental science curriculum to be taught during spring break. Students will also explore issues of rural and tribal education in addition to the field of environmental education. In addition, students will tutor in a local environmental education program or classroom during the winter quarter for 2 – 2.5 hours/week.
Interested? Apply now! Applications due on Monday, November 14th at 5:00 pm. Please visit our website for application instructions and materials:
Here is a list of all environmentally related courses of interest appropriate for freshmen and non-majors for Winter Quarter 2012:
- ATM S 101 – Weather (NW)
- ATM S 111 – Global Warming (NW)
- ATM S 211 – Climate Change (NW)
- ATM S 212 – Air Pollution (NW)
- ATM S 220 – Exploring the Atmospheric Sciences Seminar
- CEP 200 – Introduction to Community & Environmental Planning (I&S)
- ENV H 580 – Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Seminar
- ENVIR 100 – Introduction to Environmental Studies (I&S/NW)
- ESRM 100 – Introduction to Environmental Science – online (I&S/NW)
- ESRM 190 – Sustaining Our Environment (I&S/NW)
- ESRM 429 – Water Center Seminar
- ESRM 455 – Wildlife Seminar
- ESS 100 – Dinosaurs (NW)
- ESS 101 – Introduction to Geological Sciences (NW)
- ESS 102 – Space and Space Travel (NW)
- ESS 103 – Minerals and Gems (NW)
- ESS 104 – Prehistoric Life (NW)
- ESS 106 – Living with Volcanoes (I&S/NW)
- FISH 101 – Water And Society (I&S/NW)
- OCEAN 102 – The Changing Oceans (I&S/NW)
- OCEAN 121 – Deep Sea Exploration (NW)
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Performing tasks at shutdown helps your water system remain in good shape and minimizes repairs when it's time to re-open.
Maple trees have started turning color. That means it is about time to shut down seasonal water systems. When you close for the year, inspect your system, clean it and protect it so it will be ready when you reopen the next season. See below for proper steps and precautions for shutting down a seasonal water system. This information is aimed at groundwater systems, but many steps also apply to surface water-based systems.
- Turn off the supply - the well pump or the valve from the spring.
- Drain the tanks first (springbox, storage and/or pressure tanks), then drain the lines, and finally close off the valves.
Drain all water lines.
- Remove any devices that may be damaged by freezing for storage (hydrants? feed pumps?) and cap off the open connection points.
- WELLHOUSE: Look for droppings, chewed papers or nesting materials and figure out how to keep rodents and insects outside and away from the wellhead. Cap all openings on the wellhead itself to prevent insects from crawling in. Check the vent screen. Drain the pressure tank if there's potential for freezing.
- TREATMENT (if applicable): Shut off power to treatment systems. Empty the chlorine solution tank, if applicable. Check expiration dates on chemicals and testing reagents. Make sure all treatment reports were submitted and/or filed for the operating season.
- SECURITY: Lock the pumphouse and protect it from trespassers. Note any needed fencing repairs. Store all chemicals securely at least 100 feet from the well.
- STORAGE TANK: After draining the storage tank, inspect the following: the bottom of the tank for accumulated sediments that will need removal, the tank roof and sides for holes and cracks, and the condition of the coating on the inside and outside of the tank. Lock the tank's access hatch, making sure that insects and spiders cannot get inside the lid. Check that the screens/valves on the overflow pipe and vents are fully intact to keep insects, birds and bats out of the tank.
- DISTRIBUTION LINES: Walk the lines, making sure they are not are exposed. Check your system for leaks. Make sure all valves are shut down at the end of the season.
Look for problems that may need attention or repair during the off-season.
- AFTER CLOSING: Compile your operations and water quality records for the year. Note periods of peak water use and water quality problems. Use this information to plan for next year. Also, the off-season is the time to plan larger improvements to your system. Work other than repair or replacement requires the approval of Drinking Water Services before initiation.
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Haftarah of Parshat
VaYikra - 5761
believe with Perfect Faith that the Creator,
VaYikra brings us to a mysterious set of ideas within Judaism.
These refer to the Temple worship and its heavy involvement with
animal sacrifices. These
sacrifices of animals have to be seen against the backdrop that one of the Seven
Noahide Laws, moral and legal “Commands” inscribed by the Creator
upon the conscience of all of humanity, is “Ever min HaChai,” the
Prohibition against eating a limb torn from a live animal.
It is also directly connected with the central concept within Judaism
that one is prohibited to cause unnecessary pain or cruelty to animals.
This is known as the Prohibition of “Tzaar Baalei Chayim.”
HaRishon,” First Man, together with Chava, the first “First Lady,”
were placed into the Garden of Eden and obligated to live on a vegetarian
diet. After they violated the
“First (and Only) Commandment,” not to eat from the “Tree of
Knowledge,” they were summarily ejected from the Garden.
In an argument over sacrifices (the animal sacrifice was accepted;
the sacrifice of produce was not), the First Murder was committed, by Kayin,
the Older Brother, against Hevel, the Younger.
generations after Adam and Eve (Pirkei
Avot 5:2), the un-civilized world is destroyed by the Great Flood, and
G-d permits Noach and his family, the family that survived on the Ark, to
eat meat (Bereshit 9:3). It is as if G-d has said to Man, “First let’s take care
of your not killing each other; afterwards, you can return to worrying about
the killing of animals.”
the Book of Bereshit, there are occasional references to sacrifices, offered
by the Patriarchs and others with whom they came into contact.
But, in a defining moment, “Akeidat Yitzchak,” the “Binding of
Yitzchak as a Sacrifice,” and events in the immediate aftermath, the Torah
makes clear forever that human sacrifice is abhorrent to its values.
second Book of the Five Books of Moses sees the construction of the “Mishkan,”
the Tabernacle, one of the main purposes of which was to serve as the site
of Divine Worship until the Holy Temple was built. And it is clear that that worship will entail sacrifices,
from the requirement for the Copper Altar and the Gold Altar.
we come to the Book of VaYikra, in which the Torah provides the details of
the many sacrifices. The RAMBAN
explains the Sin-Offering as a gesture of Mercy on the part of G-d.
For if a creature created by G-d, using his free-will, dares to sin
before Him, he should thereby forfeit his own life. But HaShem accepts in place of that, the life of an animal,
life for life, blood for blood.
appears to suggest in “Moreh Nevuchim,” the Guide for the Perplexed, an
aspect of sacrifices that make it seem that they are only for the
purpose of substituting, in the mind of the Jew of ancient times, for
the sacrificial forms of worship of surrounding religions.
But this is clearly not the dominant motif in the RAMBAM’s
thinking, for in the Mishne Torah, he is quite clear that in the time of the
the Third Temple is built, at a time when “Knowledge of the L-d will cover
the earth as the waters cover the seabed,” there will be a resumption of
the full sacrificial worship.
the Book of Devarim, where Moshe reviews the events that occurred at Mt.
Sinai, where HaShem
“revealed Himself,” in Clouds of Glory to the People, he explicitly says
that no visual image was seen by
the People. “Be
exceedingly careful and do not jeopardize your lives by a fatal error, for
you saw no visual representation when HaShem spoke to you out of the fire at
Horev.” (Devarim 4:15)
at the beginning of the Book of Vayikra, in the first Haftarah, the Prophet
Yeshayahu attempts to clarify the relationship between G-d and Man; in
particular, how G-d is to be worshipped, at
a time when the Jewish People seemingly were headed in the wrong
Prophet points out the absurdity and “Chutzpah” of idol worship.
First of all, Man has gotten the relationship backwards.
He is the created being, not G-d.
Talmud says that in general, mockery is forbidden. But one subject is subject to and well deserving of mockery.
That is idol-worship. And
here Yeshayahu indulges in that mockery.
How foolish it is for man to take a log, even of the best timber he
can find, saw it in half and throw that half into his fireplace or into his
oven to bake his bread. And
then to use all of his energy and creative skill to paint and decorate the
other half, set it up on a pedestal, and bow down before it!
Once Man, and especially the Jewish People, stop worshipping the creations of their own hands - be they automobiles, computers or rocket ships, and return their prayerful gaze to where it belongs, the Creator of the Universe, that will set the stage for Redemption. And then will we find occurring the fulfillment of the “passuk,” the verse “for HaShem has redeemed Yaakov, and Yisrael, in whom He takes pride” (Yeshayahu 44:23).
Rabbi Pinchas Frankel
Rabbi Frankel is an Educational Coordinator at the OU
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Anthropologists have not participated extensively in the cognitive science synthesis for a host of reasons, including internal conflicts in the discipline and profound reservations about the ways that cultural differences have been modeled in psychology, neuroscience, and other contributors to cognitive science. This paper proposes a skills-based model for culture that overcomes some of the problems inherent in the treatment of culture as shared information. Athletes offer excellent cases studies for how skill acquisition, like enculturation, affects the human nervous system. In addition, cultural differences in playing styles of the same sport, such as distinctive ways of playing rugby, demonstrate how varying solution strategies to similar athletic problems produce distinctive skill profiles.
Copyright 2009 by the Australasian Society for Cognitive Science. Publisher version archived with the permission of the Editor, ASCS09 : Proceedings of the 9th Conference of the Australasian Society for Cognitive Science. This copy is available for individual, non-commercial use. Permission to reprint/republish this version for other uses must be obtained from the publisher.
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By: Sunita Satyapal, Energy.gov
Recently, the Department of Energy hosted Dr. Tasios Melis, the UC Berkeley scientist behind a Department of Energy funded innovation that promises to triple the productivity of photosynthesis in plants and algae.
If you remember from high school biology class, photosynthesis is the process used by plants and many other organisms to convert sunlight into chemical energy. A molecule called chlorophyll serves to absorb sunlight for use in photosynthesis. Chlorophyll molecules can be stacked in arrays to help plants or algae absorb as much sunlight as possible. By tripling the productivity of photosynthesis, Dr. Melis’ breakthrough will dramatically improve light absorption and utilization, which could yield a 300 percent improvement in the conversion of sunlight to chemical energy. That chemical energy – read “fuel” – which can be harvested from algae, can come in different forms: bulk biomass (plant matter), hydrocarbons (the stuff of fuels like natural gas and petroleum products) or pure hydrogen gas, which fuel cells employ as an efficient way to store and deliver energy.
How did he do it? Dr. Melis, a top researcher in the field of Photobiological Hydrogen Production, identified three unique genetic pathways in algae, which will triple the efficiency in potential fuel production. He found that by decreasing the size of the chlorophyll arrays in algae, he could increase the number of cells that actually catch the sunlight and convert it into chemical energy. Essentially, smaller arrays allowed sunlight to strike deeper, reaching more sunlight-to-fuel conversion machines. This technology is already being employed and improved upon by several industrial and university laboratories around the world, and serves as the platform for further hydrogen production research in the field.
The range of applications for Dr. Melis’ findings goes far beyond coaxing fuel out of algae: Last year, the Melis lab found a way to use photosynthesis to create a different hydrocarbon, the molecule isoprene, which is used in the manufacture of synthetic rubber. That pioneering process serves as a case study in the development of new and promising technologies for renewable biofuels and other useful products that can change the way we use and produce energy.
Sunita Satyapal is the Program Manager for the Fuel Cell Technologies Program.
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What happens to the land and water affects us all.
“We are suffering from drought terribly at this place. Half a crop of wheat, and tobacco, and two-thirds a crop of corn are the most we can expect.” — Thomas Jefferson to Martha Jefferson Randolph, August 31, 1815
For a week now the skies have been overcast, threatening rain. Plump, gray clouds heavy with moisture loom overhead. Instinctively, we reach for our umbrellas before we go outdoors. It seems inconceivable that the heavens will not open and release a torrential downpour. And yet the heavens do not. There is not even a sprinkle. The clouds move on sluggishly to taunt others, and blue skies return.
As we drive through rural Monroe County, Illinois, the air buzzing with the hum of locusts, we pass rows of sweet corn withering on the stalk. Since the spring, the St. Louis area has experienced two brief periods of precipitation, one lasted a few hours, the other a few minutes. Mr. Kruze, a family farmer from nearby Columbia, Illinois, from whom we buy heirloom tomatoes and freestone peaches at the Soulard Farmer’s Market (est. 1779), has not seen a drop. The Kruzes farm some of the best cropland in the valley, the rich, black bottomland beneath the Mississippi River bluffs. From his fields, situated farther west than downtown St. Louis, you can see on a clear day the Gateway Arch to the north.
The Kruzes have been watering their fields daily with Columbia city water, which they purchase by the gallon. Some crops require more care than others. “I’ve got a soaker hose on the tomatoes 24 hours a day,” Mr. Kruze says. Each day the drought drags on his profit margin shrinks. Others are finding creative ways to address the lack of rainfall. Mr. Kruze’s sister, who owns the farm next door, has an old well with water high in nitrates. The water is undrinkable, but it can be salvaged to water root crops like carrots and potatoes.
Those of us with a weak connection to the soil and watersheds scarcely notice the drought, save those suburbanites who have had to run the sprinklers continually to keep their lawns fresh and green (in some subdivisions, a brown lawn can result in a steep fine for homeowners) and have noticed an extra zero on the water bill. Those who work with the land or on the water, however, have felt it profoundly. Soon we will all feel it at the checkout line of our local grocery store. We may think we have lost our connection to farming, but we are deluding ourselves. “Eating is an agricultural act,” the poet Wendell Berry reminds us.
THE DROUGHT HAS slowed commerce on the nearby Mississippi, Illinois, and Missouri rivers as barge operators have had to reduce cargo loads. Every one inch loss of water decreases the carrying capacity of a barge by 17 tons, according to the American Waterways Operators. Some barges have stopped running altogether. Some end up on sandbars stalling river traffic. This too increases costs to farmers.
All of this will mean higher prices for us urban-dwellers. Such things used to be common knowledge, back when we were only one or two generations removed from the land. What happens to the land and water affects us all. This summer we are having to relearn this.
A man of faith in a godless age is hitting Americans where it hurts.
Mr. and Mrs. American Spectator Reader, let P.J. O’Rourke talk sense to your kids.
In Britain, defending your property can get you life.
The debacle of this president’s administration is both a cause and a symptom of the decline of American values. Unless Congress impeaches him, that decline will go on unchecked. An eminent jurist surveys the damage and assesses the chances for the recovery of our culture.
It won’t take long for conservatives to scratch this presidential wannabe off their 2008 scorecard.
The American Christmas, like the songs that celebrate it, makes room for everybody under the rainbow. Is that why so many people seem to be hostile to it?
Was the President done in by the economy, or by the politics of the economy?
H/T to National Review Online
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The following info from a Eurocentric weblog shows the uselessness of arguing over haplotypes and genetics without physical anthropological foundations:
“A back migration from Asia to Africa took place around 15,000 years ago, with a group of R1b1* people moving to Egypt, Sudan and spreading in different directions inside Africa to Rwanda, South Africa, Namibia, Angola, Congo, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon, Nigeria, Ivory Coast, Guinea-Bissau. The hotspot is Cameroon. R1b1* was observed at a frequency of up to 95% in some tribes of northern Cameroon (like the Kirdi), and about 15% nationwide. It is probably where the early R1b people first settled, then spread south and east along the coast.”
The problem a lot of people are unaware that most Cromagnon and paleolithic, mesolithic and neolithic people around the Mediteranean including in North Africa were not biologically or not closely affiliated represented by modern Europeans. 15,000 years ago the majority of people in North africa were Mechtoids and other “Cro-Magnon” type people with craniofacial traits that were strongly tropical. These people had very little direct connection to modern European peoples or those called “Eurasian in the Middle East. in fact they were closer to modern sub-Saharan Africans.
This has been known for many decades by anthropologists and modern physical anthropologists using genetic based traits have basically confirmed the earlier conclusions. Thus, the study done by Brace and several other reputable physical anthropological specialists who wrote and edited the paper proving the unrelatedness of most modern Europeans with ancient pre- Bronze Age Europeans showed very strong tropical and “Negroid” traits well into the neolithic. It also concluded many Bronze Age people were apparently not closely connected genetically to modern Europeans based on 24 well-tested craniofacila traits including the Mahalonobis statistic. “The surprise is that the Neolithic peoples of Europe and their Bronze Age successors are not closely related to the modern inhabitants, although the prehistoric/modern ties are somewhat more apparent in southern Europe. It is a further surprise that the Epipalaeolithic Natufian of Israel from whom the Neolithic realm was assumed to arise has a clear link to Sub-Saharan Africa.”
However the unrelatedness of ancient stone age Europeans to modern Europeans has long been known thus we hear from the following specialists earlier. Professor Willis Boughton in 1896, The History of Ancient Peoples 334-337: “Archeologists have found remains of three races in Europe. Two of these are generally classed as blacks, may be known as the Constant and the Cro-Magnon Race.”
“The discoveries of abundant prehistoric remains all over Europe particularly France. These with one accord tended to show that European aborigines of the Stone age were not Mongoloid like the Lapps, after all but the exact opposite. In every detail they resembled rather the dolicocecephalic Negoes of Africa.”” William Z. Ripley, Races of Europe p. 436
“The importance of the skeleton of the Cro- Magnon type is that in stature, prognathousm and shape of the orbits they exhibit approximation to the negro type more than any other which have been found in Europe.” P. 96 in Isaac Taylor, The Origin of the Aryans, first published 1889.
And in 2005 the Brace paper asserts – “If this analysis shows nothing else it demonstrates that the oft repeated European feeling that the Cro-Magnons are ‘us’ is more a product of anthropological folklore than the result of the metric data available from the skeletal remains.” see “The Questionable contribution of the Neolithic and Bronze Age to European Craniofacial form”, Loring Brace, Noriko Seguchi, Conrad B. Quintyn, Sherry C. Fox, A. Russell Nelson, Sotiris K. Manolis, by the National Academy of Sciences, which basically shows how weak the physical link is between modern Europeans and most ancient Europeans including pre-Bronze Age Eurasiatic, regardless of what haplotype or other dna traits went where. This is due to the prevalence of African looking people in Europe and Asia until the neolithic. Something that early specialists before pseudoanthropological musings of Coon. (And even he classified the bulk of the small “Mediterranean Neolithic people as noticeably “Negroid” in craniofacial character.)
Brace’s study found that only a couple of populations in neolithic Germany to have some connection to the modern Europeans and Middle Easterners, including the modern Gaunches and Basques, and northward Berber speakers (also mainly mesocranic and brachycephalic peoples) unlike ancient Africans and modern Africans and ancient paleolithic and most neolithic Europeans and Eurasians.
In addition, recent studies have again shown as Lepsius had in the past that ancient Egyptians had essentially tropical traits.
Thus we read in another recent article, “The raw values in Table 6 suggest that Egyptians had the “super-Negroid” body plan described by Robins (1983).. This pattern is supported by Figure 7 (a plot of population mean femoral and tibial lengths; data from Ruff, 1994), which indicates that the Egyptians generally have tropical body plans. Of the Egyptian samples, only the Badarian and Early Dynastic period populations have shorter tibiae than predicted from femoral length. Despite these differences, all samples lie relatively clustered together as compared to the other populations.” (Zakrzewski, S.R. (2003). found in “Variation in ancient Egyptian stature and body proportions”. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 121 (3): 219-229.
Finally it should understood that, just because certain haplotypes or other dna traits came to be carried by a variety of modern populations says little about where a modern population or physical type originated. What it does suggest, however, is that many modern Europeans and the affiliated modern Eurasian populations have asorbed previous non-Europoid populations that were present in European, North African and Eurasian regions. The Greeks, Kabyles and other European-like types may be a good example of this.
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Sep. 21, 2011 A new video from NASA's Dawn spacecraft takes us on a flyover journey above the surface of the giant asteroid Vesta.
The data obtained by Dawn's framing camera, used to produce the visualizations, will help scientists determine the processes that formed Vesta's striking features. It will also help Dawn mission fans all over the world visualize this mysterious world, which is the second most massive object in the main asteroid belt.
The video, which shows Vesta as seen from Dawn's perspective, can be viewed at: http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/video/index.cfm?id=1020.
You'll notice in the video that Vesta is not entirely lit up. There is no light in the high northern latitudes because, like Earth, Vesta has seasons. Currently it is northern winter on Vesta, and the northern polar region is in perpetual darkness. When we view Vesta's rotation from above the south pole, half is in darkness simply because half of Vesta is in daylight and half is in the darkness of night .
Another distinct feature seen in the video is a massive circular structure in the south pole region. Scientists were particularly eager to see this area close-up, since NASA's Hubble Space Telescope first detected it years ago. The circular structure, or depression, is several hundreds of miles, or kilometers, wide, with cliffs that are also several miles high. One impressive mountain in the center of the depression rises approximately 9 miles (15 kilometers) above the base of this depression, making it one of the highest elevations on all known bodies with solid surfaces in the solar system.
The collection of images, obtained when Dawn was about 1,700 miles (2,700 kilometers) above Vesta's surface, was used to determine its rotational axis and a system of latitude and longitude coordinates. One of the first tasks tackled by the Dawn science team was to determine the precise orientation of Vesta's rotation axis relative to the celestial sphere.
The zero-longitude, or prime meridian, of Vesta was defined by the science team using a tiny crater about 1,640 feet (500 meters) in diameter, which they named "Claudia," after a Roman woman during the second century B.C. Dawn's craters will be named after the vestal virgins-the priestesses of the goddess Vesta, and famous Roman women, while other features will be named for festivals and towns of that era.
The Dawn mission to Vesta and Ceres is managed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, for NASA's Science Mission Directorate, Washington. Dawn is a project of the directorate's Discovery Program, managed by NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Ala. UCLA is responsible for overall Dawn mission science. Other scientific partners include Planetary Science Institute, Tucson, Ariz.; Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research, Katlenburg-Lindau, Germany; DLR Institute for Planetary Research, Berlin, Germany; Italian National Institute for Astrophysics, Rome; and the Italian Space Agency, Rome. Orbital Sciences Corporation of Dulles, Va., designed and built the Dawn spacecraft.
Other social bookmarking and sharing tools:
Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.
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Prophecy of the Popes
The Prophecy of the Popes (Latin: Prophetia Sancti Malachiae Archiepiscopi, de Summis Pontificibus) is a series of 112 short, cryptic phrases in Latin which purport to predict the Roman Catholic popes (along with a few antipopes), beginning with Pope Celestine II. The alleged prophecies were first published by Benedictine monk Arnold Wion in 1595. Wion attributes the prophecies to Saint Malachy, a 12th‑century Archbishop of Armagh, Ireland.
Given the very accurate description of popes up to 1590 and lack of accuracy after that year, historians generally conclude that the alleged prophecies are a fabrication written shortly before they were published. The Roman Catholic Church also dismisses them as forgery. The prophecies may have been created in an attempt to suggest that Cardinal Girolamo Simoncelli's bid for the papacy in the second conclave of 1590 was divinely ordained.
Many proponents of the prophecies claim that Pope Francis corresponds to "Peter the Roman" the pope described in the final prophecy, whose pontificate will allegedly bring the destruction of the city of Rome and usher in the beginning of the Apocalypse.
The alleged prophecies were first published in 1595 by a Benedictine named Arnold Wion in his Lignum Vitæ, a history of the Benedictine order. Wion attributed the prophecies to Saint Malachy, the 12th‑century Archbishop of Armagh. He explained that the prophecies had not, to his knowledge, ever been printed before, but that many were eager to see them. Wion includes both the alleged original prophecies, consisting of short, cryptic Latin phrases, as well as an interpretation applying the statements to historical popes up to Urban VII (pope for thirteen days in 1590), which Wion attributes to Alphonsus Ciacconius, an attribution which was refuted by Claude-François Menestrier in 1694.
According to an account put forward in 1871 by Abbé Cucherat, Malachy was summoned to Rome in 1139 by Pope Innocent II to receive two wool palliums for the metropolitan sees of Armagh and Cashel. While in Rome, Malachy purportedly experienced a vision of future popes, which he recorded as a sequence of cryptic phrases. This manuscript was then deposited in the Vatican Secret Archives, and forgotten about until its rediscovery in 1590, supposedly just in time for a papal conclave ongoing at the time.
Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, a contemporary biographer of Malachy who recorded the saint's alleged miracles, makes no mention of the prophecies, nor are they mentioned in any record prior to their 1595 publication.
Several historians have concluded that the prophecies are a late 16th‑century forgery. Spanish monk and scholar Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro wrote in his Teatro Crítico Universal (1724–1739), in an entry called Purported prophecies, that the high level of accuracy of the alleged prophecies up until the date they were published, compared with their high level of inaccuracy after that date, is evidence that they were created around the time of publication. The prophecies and explanations given in Wion correspond very closely to a 1557 history of the popes by Onofrio Panvinio (including replication of errors made by Panvinio), which may indicate that the prophecies were written based on that source.
One theory to explain the creation of the prophecies, put forward by 17th-century French priest and encyclopaedist Louis Moréri, among others, is that they were spread by supporters of Cardinal Girolamo Simoncelli in support of his bid to become pope during the 1590 conclave to replace Urban VII. In the prophecies, the pope following Urban VII is given the description "Ex antiquitate Urbis" ("from the old city"), and Simoncelli was from Orvieto, which in Latin is Urbevetanum, old city. The prophecies may, therefore, have been created in an attempt to demonstrate that Simoncelli was destined to be pope. Simoncelli was not elected pope; Urban VII was succeeded by Pope Gregory XIV, born Niccolò Sfondrati.
The interpretation of the prophecies for pre-publication popes provided by Wion involves close correspondences between the mottos and the popes' birthplaces, family names, personal arms, and pre-papal titles. For example, the first motto, Ex castro Tiberis (from a castle on the Tiber), fits Pope Celestine II's birthplace in Città di Castello, on the Tiber.
Efforts to connect the prophecies to historical popes who were elected after its publication have been more strained. For example, Pope Clement XIII is referred to in a prophecy as Rosa Umbriae (the rose of Umbria), but was not from Umbria nor had any but the most marginal connection with the region, having been briefly pontifical governor of Rieti, at the time part of Umbria.
One writer notes that among the post-publication (post-1595) predictions there remain "some surprisingly appropriate phrases," while adding that "it is of course easy to exaggerate the list's accuracy by simply citing its successes," and that "other tags do not fit so neatly." Among the reported 'successes' are 'Religion depopulated' for Benedict XV (1914–22) whose papacy included World War One and the atheistic communist Russian Revolution; 'Light in the sky' for Leo XIII (1878-1903), with a comet in his coat of arms; and 'Flower of flowers' for Paul VI (1963–78), with fleur-de-lys in his coat of arms.
If we were to place the works of those who have repudiated the Prophecies of Malachy on scales and balance them against those who have accepted them, we would probably reach a fair equilibrium; however, the most important factor, namely the popularity of the prophecies, particularly among the ordinary people (as distinct from scholars), makes them as relevant to the second half of the twentieth century as they have ever been.
— Bander 1969, p. 10.
M.J. O'Brien, a Catholic priest who authored an 1880 monograph on the prophecies, provided a more critical assessment:
These prophecies have served no purpose. They are absolutely meaningless. The Latin is bad. It is impossible to attribute such absurd triflings... to any holy source. Those who have written in defence of the prophecy... have brought forward scarcely an argument in their favour. Their attempts at explaining the prophecies after 1590 are, I say with all respect, the sorriest trifling.
— O'Brien 1880, p. 110.
In recent times, some interpreters of prophetic literature have drawn attention to the prophecies due to their imminent conclusion; if the list of descriptions is matched on a one-to-one basis to the list of historic popes since the prophecies' publication, Benedict XVI (2005-2013) would correspond to the second to last of the papal descriptions, Gloria olivae (the glory of the olive).
In persecutione extrema S.R.E. sedebit.
Petrus Romanus, qui pascet oves in multis tribulationibus, quibus transactis civitas septicollis diruetur, & judex tremendus judicabit populum suum. Finis.
This may be translated into English as:
In the final persecution of the Holy Roman Church, there will sit [i.e., as bishop].
Peter the Roman, who will pasture his sheep in many tribulations, and when these things are finished, the city of seven hills [i.e. Rome] will be destroyed, and the dreadful judge will judge his people. The End.
Several historians and interpreters of the prophecies note that they leave open the possibility of unlisted popes between "the glory of the olive" and the final pope, "Peter the Roman". In the Lignum Vitae, the line In persecutione extrema S.R.E. sedebit. forms a separate sentence and paragraph of its own. While often read as part of the "Peter the Roman" prophecy, other interpreters view it as a separate, incomplete sentence explicitly referring to additional popes between "the glory of the olive" and "Peter the Roman".
Popes and corresponding mottos
The list can be divided into two groups; one of the 74 popes and antipopes who reigned prior to the appearance of the prophecies c. 1590, for whom the connection between the motto and the pope is consistently clear. The other is of the 38 mottos attributed to popes who have reigned since 1590, for whom the connection between the motto and the pope is often strained or totally absent and could be viewed as shoehorning or postdiction.
René Thibaut divides the table at a different point, between the 71st and 72nd motto, asserting that there is a change in style at this point. He uses this distinction to put forward the view that the first 71 mottos are post-dated forgeries, while the remainder are genuine. Hildebrand Troll echoes this view, noting that mottos 72-112 use a symbolic language related to the character of the pope and his papacy, in contrast to the more literal mottos for earlier popes.
Popes and antipopes 1143–1590 (pre-publication)
The text on the silver lines below reproduces the original text (including punctuation and orthography) of the 1595 Lignum Vitae, which consisted of three parallel columns for the popes before 1590. The first column contained the motto, the second the name of the pope or antipope to whom it was attached (with occasional errors), and the third an explanation of the motto. There are some indications that both the mottos and explanations were the work of a single 16th century individual. The original list was unnumbered.
|Pre-appearance Popes (1143–1590)|
|Motto No.||Motto (Translation)||Regnal Name (Reign)||Name||Explanation Provided in Lignum Vitae||Coat of Arms|
|Ex caſtro Tiberis.||Cœleſtinus. ij.||Typhernas.|
|1.||From a castle of the Tiber||Celestine II (1143–1144)||Guido de Castello||An inhabitant of Tifernum.
Celestine II was born in Città di Castello (formerly called Tifernum-Tiberinum), on the banks of the Tiber.
|Inimicus expulſus.||Lucius. ij.||De familia Caccianemica.|
|2.||Enemy expelled||Lucius II (1144–1145)||Gherardo Caccianemici del Orso||Of the Caccianemici family.
According to Wion, this motto refers to Lucius II's family name, Caccianemici; in Italian, “Cacciare” means “to drive out” and “nemici” means “enemies”. While he has been traditionally viewed as being part of this family, it is doubtful whether he actually was; moreover, even if he actually belonged to that family, the attribution of the surname Caccianemici is certainly anachronistic.
|Ex magnitudine mõtis.||Eugenius. iij.||Patria Ethruſcus oppido Montis magni.|
|3.||From the great mountain||Eugene III (1145–1153)||Bernardo dei Paganelli di Montemagno||Tuscan by nation, from the town of Montemagno.
According to Wion, the motto refers to Eugene III’s birthplace, “Montemagno”, a village near Pisa. But according to other sources he was born in Pisa in modest family.
|Abbas Suburranus.||Anaſtaſius. iiij.||De familia Suburra.|
|4.||Abbot from Subbura||Anastasius IV (1153–1154)||Corrado di Suburra||From the Suburra family. He was traditionally referred to as abbot of the canon regulars of St. Ruf in Avignon, but modern scholars have established that he actually belonged to the secular clergy.|
|De rure albo.||Adrianus. iiij.||Vilis natus in oppido Sancti Albani.|
|5.||From the white countryside||Adrian IV (1154–1159)||Nicholas Breakspear||Humbly born in the town of St. Albans.
Most likely a reference to Adrian IV's birthplace near St Albans, Hertfordshire.
|Ex tetro carcere.||Victor. iiij.||Fuit Cardinalis S. Nicolai in carcere Tulliano.|
|6.||Out of a loathsome prison.||Victor IV, Antipope (1159–1164)||Ottaviano Monticello||He was a cardinal of St. Nicholas in the Tullian prison.
Victor IV may have held the title San Nicola in Carcere.
|Via Tranſtiberina.||Calliſtus. iij. [sic]||Guido Cremenſis Cardinalis S. Mariæ Tranſtiberim.|
|7.||Road across the Tiber.||Callixtus III, Antipope (1168–1178)||Giovanni di Strumi||Guido of Crema, Cardinal of St. Mary across the Tiber.
Wion reverses the names and order of Antipopes Callixtus III (John of Struma) and Paschal III (Guido of Crema). Paschal, not Callixtus, was born Guido of Crema and held the title of Santa Maria in Trastevere, to which the motto applies.
|De Pannonia Thuſciæ.||Paſchalis. iij. [sic]||Antipapa. Hungarus natione, Epiſcopus Card. Tuſculanus.|
|8.||From Tusculan Hungary.||Paschal III, Antipope (1164–1168)||Guido di Crema||Antipope. A Hungarian by birth, Cardinal Bishop of Tusculum.
As noted above, this motto applies not to Paschal III, but to Callixtus III, who allegedly was Hungarian. However, Callixtus was Cardinal Bishop of Albano, not of Tusculum.
|Ex anſere cuſtode.||Alexander. iij.||De familia Paparona.|
|9.||From the guardian goose||Alexander III (1159–1181)||Rolando (or Orlando) of Siena||Of the Paparoni family.
Alexander III may have been from the Bandinella family, which was afterwards known as the Paparona family, which featured a goose on its coat of arms. There is debate whether Alexander III was in fact of that family.
|Lux in oſtio.||Lucius. iij.||Lucenſis Card. Oſtienſis.|
|10.||A light in the door||Lucius III (1181–1185)||Ubaldo Allucingoli||A Luccan Cardinal of Ostia.
The motto is a wordplay on "Lucius" or "Lucca" and "Ostia".
|Sus in cribro.||Vrbanus. iij.||Mediolanenſis, familia cribella, quæ Suem pro armis gerit.|
|11.||Pig in a sieve||Urban III (1185–1187)||Umberto Crivelli||A Milanese, of the Cribella (Crivelli) family, which bears a pig for arms.
Urban III's family name Crivelli means "a sieve" in Italian; his arms included a sieve and two pigs.
|Enſis Laurentii.||Gregorius. viij.||Card. S. Laurentii in Lucina, cuius inſignia enſes falcati.|
|12.||The sword of Lawrence||Gregory VIII (1187)||Alberto De Morra||Cardinal of St. Lawrence in Lucina, of whom the arms were curved swords.
Gregory VIII was Cardinal of St. Lawrence and his arms featured crossed swords.
|De Schola exiet.||Clemens. iij.||Romanus, domo Scholari.|
|13.||He will come from school||Clement III (1187–1191)||Paolo Scolari||A Roman, of the house of Scolari.
The motto is a play on words on Clement III's surname.
|De rure bouenſi.||Cœleſtinus. iij.||Familia Bouenſi.|
|14.||From cattle country||Celestine III (1191–1198)||Giacinto Bobone||Bovensis family.
The reference to cattle is a wordplay on Celestine III's surname, Bobone.
|Comes Signatus.||Innocentius. iij.||Familia Comitum Signiæ.|
|15.||Designated count||Innocent III (1198–1216)||Lotario dei Conti di Segni||Family of the Counts of Signia (Segni)
The motto is a direct reference to Innocent III's family name.
|Canonicus de latere.||Honorius. iij.||Familia Sabella, Canonicus S. Ioannis Lateranensis.|
|16.||Canon from the side||Honorius III (1216–1227)||Cencio Savelli||Savelli family, canon of St. John Lateran
The claim in Wion that Honorius III was a canon of St. John Lateran is contested by some historians.
|Auis Oſtienſis.||Gregorius. ix.||Familia Comitum Signiæ Epiſcopus Card. Oſtienſis.|
|17.||Bird of Ostia||Gregory IX (1227–1241)||Ugolino dei Conti di Segni||Family of the Counts of Segni, Cardinal Bishop of Ostia.
Before his election to the papacy, Ugolino dei Conti was the Cardinal Bishop of Ostia, and his coat of arms depict an eagle.
|Leo Sabinus.||Cœleſtinus iiij.||Mediolanenſis, cuius inſignia Leo, Epiſcopus Card. Sabinus.|
|18.||Sabine Lion||Celestine IV (1241)||Goffredo Castiglioni||A Milanese, whose arms were a lion, Cardinal Bishop of Sabina.
Celestine IV was Cardinal Bishop of Sabina and his armorial bearing had a lion in it.
|Comes Laurentius.||Innocentius iiij.||domo flisca, Comes Lauaniæ, Cardinalis S. Laurentii in Lucina.|
|19.||Count Lawrence||Innocent IV (1243–1254)||Sinibaldo Fieschi||Of the house of Flisca (Fieschi), Count of Lavagna, Cardinal of St. Lawrence in Lucina.
The motto, as explained in Wion, is a reference to Innocent IV's father, the Count of Lavagna, and his title Cardinal of St. Lawrence in Lucina.
|Signum Oſtienſe.||Alexander iiij.||De comitibus Signiæ, Epiſcopus Card. Oſtienſis.|
|20.||Sign of Ostia||Alexander IV (1254–1261)||Renaldo dei Signori di Ienne||Of the counts of Segni, Cardinal Bishop of Ostia.
The motto refers to Alexander IV's being Cardinal Bishop of Ostia and member of the Conti-Segni family.
|Hieruſalem Campanię.||Vrbanus iiii.||Gallus, Trecenſis in Campania, Patriarcha Hieruſalem.|
|21.||Jerusalem of Champagne||Urban IV (1261–1264)||Jacques Pantaleon||A Frenchman, of Trecae (Troyes) in Champagne, Patriarch of Jerusalem.
The motto refers to Urban IV's birthplace of Troyes, Champagne, and title Patriarch of Jerusalem.
|Draco depreſſus.||Clemens iiii.||cuius inſignia Aquila vnguibus Draconem tenens.|
|22.||Dragon pressed down||Clement IV (1265–1268)||Guido Fulcodi||Whose badge is an eagle holding a dragon in his talons.
According some sources, Clement IV's coat of arms depicted an eagle clawing a dragon. Other sources indicate that it was instead six fleurs-de-lis.
|Anguinus uir.||Gregorius. x.||Mediolanenſis, Familia vicecomitum, quæ anguẽ pro inſigni gerit.|
|23.||Snaky man||Gregory X (1271–1276)||Teobaldo Visconti||A Milanese, of the family of Viscounts (Visconti), which bears a snake for arms.
The Visconti coat of arms had a large serpent devouring a male child feet first; sources conflict as to whether Gregory X used this for his papal arms.
|Concionator Gallus.||Innocentius. v.||Gallus, ordinis Prædicatorum.|
|24.||French Preacher||Innocent V (1276)||Pierre de Tarentaise||A Frenchman, of the Order of Preachers.
Innocent V was born in what is now south-eastern France and was a member of the order of Preachers.
|Bonus Comes.||Adrianus. v.||Ottobonus familia Fliſca ex comitibus Lauaniæ.|
|25.||Good Count||Adrian V (1276)||Ottobono Fieschi||Ottobono, of the Fieschi family, from the counts of Lavagna.
The Fieschi family were counts of Lavagna and a wordplay on "good" can be made with Adrian V's first name, Ottobono.
|Piſcator Thuſcus.||Ioannes. xxi.||antea Ioannes Petrus Epiſcopus Card. Tuſculanus.|
|26.||Tuscan Fisherman||John XXI (1276–1277)||Pedro Julião||Formerly John Peter, Cardinal Bishop of Tusculum.
John XXI had been the Cardinal Bishop of Tusculum, and shared his first name with Saint Peter, a fisherman.
|Roſa compoſita.||Nicolaus. iii.||Familia Vrſina, quæ roſam in inſigni gerit, dictus compoſitus.|
|27.||Composite Rose||Nicholas III (1277–1280)||Giovanni Gaetano Orsini||Of the Ursina (Orsini) family, which bears a rose on its arms, called 'composite'.
Nicholas III bore a rose in his coat of arms.
|Ex teloneo liliacei Martini.||Martinus. iiii.||cuius inſignia lilia, canonicus, & theſaurarius S. Martini Turonen[sis].|
|28.||From the tollhouse of Martin of the lilies||Martin IV (1281–1285)||Simone de Brion||Whose arms were lilies, canon and treasurer of St. Martin of Tours.
Martin IV was Canon and Treasurer at the Church of St. Martin in Tours, France. Wion's assertion that his arms featured lilies is incorrect.
|Ex roſa leonina.||Honorius. iiii.||Familia Sabella inſignia roſa à leonibus geſtata.|
|29.||Out of the leonine rose||Honorius IV (1285–1287)||Giacomo Savelli||Of the Sabella (Savelli) family, arms were a rose carried by lions.
Honorius IV's coat of arms was emblazoned with two lions supporting a rose.
|Picus inter eſcas.||Nicolaus. iiii.||Picenus patria Eſculanus.|
|30.||Woodpecker between food||Nicholas IV (1288–1292)||Girolamo Masci||A Picene by nation, of Asculum (Ascoli).
The motto is likely an obscure wordplay on Nicholas IV's birthplace in Ascoli, in Picenum.
|Ex eremo celſus.||Cœleſtinus. v.||Vocatus Petrus de morrone Eremita.|
|31.||Raised out of the desert||St. Celestine V (1294)||Pietro Di Murrone||Called Peter de Morrone, a hermit.
Prior to his election, Celestine V was a hermit (eremita, literally a dweller in the eremus, or desert).
|Ex undarũ bn̑dictione.||Bonifacius. viii.||Vocatus prius Benedictus, Caetanus, cuius inſignia undæ.|
|32.||From the blessing of the waves||Boniface VIII (1294–1303)||Benedetto Caetani||Previously called Benedict, of Gaeta, whose arms were waves.
Boniface VIII's coat of arms had a wave through it. Also a play on words, referring to the pope's Christian name, "Benedetto."
|Concionator patereus. [sic]||Benedictus. xi.||qui uocabatur Frater Nicolaus, ordinis Prædicatorum.|
|33.||Preacher From Patara||Benedict XI (1303–1304)||Nicholas Boccasini||Who was called Brother Nicholas, of the order of Preachers.
Benedict XI belonged to the Order of Preachers, and his namesake Saint Nicholas was from Patara. O'Brien notes, "Everything leads us to suspect that the author and interpreter of the prophecy is one and the same person. The pretended interpreter who knew that Patare was the birthplace of St. Nicholas forgot that others may not be aware of the fact, and that therefore the explanation would be thrown away on them."
|De feſſis aquitanicis.||Clemens V.||natione aquitanus, cuius inſignia feſſæ erant.|
|34.||From the fesses of Aquitaine||Clement V (1305–1314)||Bertrand de Got||An Aquitanian by birth, whose arms were fesses.
Clement V was Bishop of St-Bertrand-de-Comminges in Aquitaine, and eventually became Archbishop of Bordeaux, also in Aquitaine. His coat of arms displays three horizontal bars, known in heraldry as fesses.
|De ſutore oſſeo.||Ioannes XXII.||Gallus, familia Oſſa, Sutoris filius.|
|35.||From a bony cobbler||John XXII (1316–1334)||Jacques Duese||A Frenchman, of the Ossa family, son of a cobbler.
John XXII's family name was Duèze or D'Euse, the last of which might be back-translated into Latin as Ossa ("bones"), the name Wion gives. The popular legend that his father was a cobbler is dubious.
|Coruus ſchiſmaticus.||Nicolaus V.||qui uocabatur F. Petrus de corbario, contra Ioannem XXII. Antipapa Minorita.|
|36.||Schismatic crow||Nicholas V, Antipope (1328–1330)||Pietro Rainalducci di Corvaro||Who was called Brother Peter of Corbarium (Corvaro), the Minorite antipope opposing John XXII.
The motto is a play on words, referring to Pietro di Corvaro's last name.
|Frigidus Abbas.||Benedictus XII.||Abbas Monaſterii fontis frigidi.|
|37.||Cold abbot||Benedict XII (1334–1342)||Jacques Fournier||Abbot of the monastery of the cold spring.
Benedict XII was an abbot in the monastery of Fontfroide ("cold spring").
|De roſa Attrebatenſi.||Clemens VI.||Epiſcopus Attrebatenſis, cuius inſignia Roſæ.|
|38.||From the rose of Arras||Clement VI (1342–1352)||Pierre Roger||Bishop of Arras, whose arms were roses.
Clement VI was Bishop of Arras (in Latin, Episcopus Attrebatensis) and his armorial bearings were emblazoned with six roses.
|De mõtibus Pãmachii.||Innocentius VI.||Cardinalis SS. Ioannis & Pauli. T. Panmachii, cuius inſignia ſex montes erant.|
|39.||From the mountains of Pammachius||Innocent VI (1352–1362)||Etienne Aubert||Cardinal of Saints John and Paul, Titulus of Pammachius, whose arms were six mountains.
Innocent VI was Cardinal Priest of Pammachius. Wion and Panvinio describe his arms as depicting six mountains, though other sources do not.
|Gallus Vicecomes.||Vrbanus V.||nuncius Apoſtolicus ad Vicecomites Mediolanenſes.|
|40.||French viscount||Urban V (1362–1370)||Guglielmo De Grimoard||Apostolic nuncio to the Viscounts of Milan.
Urban V was French. Wion indicates he was Apostolic Nuncio to the Viscounts of Milan.
|Nouus de uirgine forti.||Gregorius XI.||qui uocabatur Petrus Belfortis, Cardinalis S. Mariæ nouæ.|
|41.||New man from the strong virgin||Gregory XI (1370–1378)||Pierre Roger de Beaufort||Who was called Peter Belfortis (Beaufort), Cardinal of New St. Mary's.
The motto refers to Gregory XI's surname and his title Cardinal of Santa Maria Nuova.
|Decruce Apoſtolica. [sic]||Clemens VII.||qui fuit Preſbyter Cardinalis SS. XII. Apoſtolorũ cuius inſignia Crux.|
|42.||From the apostolic cross||Clement VII, Antipope (1378–1394)||Robert, Count of Geneva||Who was Cardinal Priest of the Twelve Holy Apostles, whose arms were a cross.
Clement VII's coat of arms showed a cross and he held the title Cardinal Priest of the Twelve Holy Apostles.
|Luna Coſmedina.||Benedictus XIII.||antea Petrus de Luna, Diaconus Cardinalis S. Mariæ in Coſmedin.|
|43.||Cosmedine moon.||Benedict XIII, Antipope (1394–1423)||Peter de Luna||Formerly Peter de Luna, Cardinal Deacon of St. Mary in Cosmedin.
The motto refers to Benedict XIII's surname and title.
|Schiſma Barchinoniũ.||Clemens VIII.||Antipapa, qui fuit Canonicus Barchinonenſis.|
|44.||Schism of the Barcelonas||Clement VIII, Antipope (1423–1429)||Gil Sanchez Muñoz||Antipope, who was a canon of Barcelona.|
|De inferno prægnãti.||Vrbanus VI.||Neapolitanus Pregnanus, natus in loco quæ dicitur Infernus.|
|45.||From a pregnant hell.||Urban VI (1378–1389)||Bartolomeo Prignano||The Neapolitan Prignano, born in a place which is called Inferno.
Urban VI's family name was Prignano or Prignani, and he was native to a place called Inferno near Naples.
|Cubus de mixtione.||Bonifacius. IX.||familia tomacella à Genua Liguriæ orta, cuius inſignia Cubi.|
|46.||Square of mixture||Boniface IX (1389–1404)||Pietro Tomacelli||Of the Tomacelli family, born in Genoa in Liguria, whose arms were cubes.
Boniface IX's coat of arms includes a bend checky — a wide stripe with a checkerboard pattern.
|De meliore ſydere.||Innocentius. VII.||uocatus Coſmatus de melioratis Sulmonenſis, cuius inſignia ſydus.|
|47.||From a better star||Innocent VII (1404–1406)||Cosmo Migliorati||Called Cosmato dei Migliorati of Sulmo, whose arms were a star.
The motto is a play on words, "better" (melior) referring to Innocent VII's last name, Migliorati (Meliorati). There is a shooting star on his coat of arms.
|Nauta de Ponte nigro.||Gregorius XII.||Venetus, commendatarius eccleſiæ Nigropontis.|
|48.||Sailor from a black bridge||Gregory XII (1406–1415)||Angelo Correr||A Venetian, commendatary of the church of Negroponte.
Gregory XII was born in Venice (hence mariner) and was commendatary of Chalkis, then called Negropont.
|Flagellum ſolis.||Alexander. V.||Græcus Archiepiſcopus Mediolanenſis, inſignia Sol.|
|49.||Whip of the sun||Alexander V, Antipope (1409–1410)||Petros Philarges||A Greek, Archbishop of Milan, whose arms were a sun.
Alexander V's coat of arms featured a sun, the wavy rays may explain the reference to a whip.
|Ceruus Sirenæ.||Ioannes XXIII.||Diaconus Cardinalis S. Euſtachii, qui cum ceruo depingitur, Bononiæ legatus, Neapolitanus.|
|50.||Stag of the siren||John XXIII, Antipope (1410–1415)||Baldassarre Cossa||Cardinal Deacon of St. Eustace, who is depicted with a stag; legate of Bologna, a Neapolitan.
John XXIII was a cardinal with the title of St. Eustachius, whose emblem is a stag, and was originally from Naples, which has the emblem of the siren.
|Corona ueli aurei.||Martinus V.||familia colonna, Diaconus Cardinalis S. Georgii ad uelum aureum.|
|51.||Crown of the golden curtain||Martin V (1417–1431)||Oddone Colonna||Of the Colonna family, Cardinal Deacon of St. George at the golden curtain.
The motto is a reference to Martin V's family name and cardinal title of San Giorgio in Velabro.
|Lupa Cœleſtina,||Eugenius. IIII.||Venetus, canonicus antea regularis Cœleſtinus, & Epiſcopus Senẽſis.|
|52.||Heavenly she-wolf||Eugene IV (1431–1447)||Gabriele Condulmaro||A Venetian, formerly a regular Celestine canon, and Bishop of Siena.
Eugene IV belonged to the order of the Celestines and was the Bishop of Siena which bears a she-wolf on its arms.
|Amator Crucis.||Felix. V.||qui uocabatur Amadæus Dux Sabaudiæ, inſignia Crux.|
|53.||Lover of the cross||Felix V, Antipope (1439–1449)||Amadeus, Duke of Savoy||Who was called Amadeus, Duke of Savoy, arms were a cross.
The motto is a reference to Felix V's given name, Amadeus, and arms, which featured the cross of Savoy.
|De modicitate Lunæ.||Nicolaus V.||Lunenſis de Sarzana, humilibus parentibus natus.|
|54.||From the meanness of Luna||Nicholas V (1447–1455)||Tommaso Parentucelli||A Lunese of Sarzana, born to humble parents.
Nicholas V was born in the diocese of Luni, the ancient name of which was Luna.
|Bos paſcens.||Calliſtus. III.||Hiſpanus, cuius inſignia Bos paſcens.|
|55.||Pasturing ox||Callixtus III (1455–1458)||Alfonso Borja||A Spaniard, whose arms were a pasturing ox.
Callixtus III's coat of arms featured an ox.
|De Capra & Albergo.||Pius. II.||Senenſis, qui fuit à Secretis Cardinalibus Capranico & Albergato.|
|56.||From a nanny-goat and an inn||Pius II (1458–1464)||Enea Silvio de Piccolomini||A Sienese, who was secretary to Cardinals Capranicus and Albergatus.
Pius II was secretary to Cardinal Domenico Capranica and Cardinal Albergatti before he was elected Pope.
|De Ceruo & Leone.||Paulus. II.||Venetus, qui fuit Commendatarius eccleſiæ Ceruienſis, & Cardinalis tituli S. Marci.|
|57.||From a stag and lion||Paul II (1464–1471)||Pietro Barbo||A Venetian, who was commendatary of the church of Cervia, and Cardinal of the title of St. Mark.
The motto refers to his Bishopric of Cervia (punning on cervus, "a stag") and his Cardinal title of St. Mark (symbolized by a winged lion).
|Piſcator minorita.||Sixtus. IIII.||Piſcatoris filius, Franciſcanus.|
|58.||Minorite fisherman||Sixtus IV (1471–1484)||Francesco Della Rovere||Son of a fisherman, Franciscan.
Sixtus IV was born the son of a fisherman and a member of the Franciscans, also known as "Minorites" (which was founded in 1209, after Malachy's death.)
|Præcurſor Siciliæ.||Innocentius VIII.||qui uocabatur Ioãnes Baptiſta, & uixit in curia Alfonſi regis Siciliæ.|
|59.||Precursor of Sicily||Innocent VIII (1484–1492)||Giovanni Battista Cibò||Who was called John Baptist, and lived in the court of Alfonso, king of Sicily.
Innocent VIII was from Sicily. "Precursor" may be explained as an allusion to his birth name, after John the Baptist, the precursor of Christ.
|Bos Albanus in portu.||Alexander VI.||Epiſcopus Cardinalis Albanus & Portuenſis, cuius inſignia Bos.|
|60.||Bull of Alba in the harbor||Alexander VI (1492–1503)||Rodrigo de Borgia||Cardinal Bishop of Albano and Porto, whose arms were a bull.
In 1456, he was made a Cardinal and he held the titles of Cardinal Bishop of Albano and Porto, and his arms featured an ox.
|De paruo homine.||Pius. III.||Senenſis, familia piccolominea.|
|61.||From a small man||Pius III (1503)||Francesco Todeschini Piccolomini||A Sienese, of the Piccolomini family.
Pius III's family name was Piccolomini, from piccolo "small" and uomo "man".
|Fructus Iouis iuuabit.||Iulius. II.||Ligur, eius inſignia Quercus, Iouis arbor.|
|62.||The fruit of Jupiter will help||Julius II (1503–1513)||Giuliano Della Rovere||A Genoese, his arms were an oak, Jupiter's tree.
On Julius II's arms was an oak tree, which was sacred to Jupiter.
|De craticula Politiana.||Leo. X.||filius Laurentii medicei, & ſcholaris Angeli Politiani.|
|63.||From a Politian gridiron||Leo X (1513–1521)||Giovanni de Medici||Son of Lorenzo de' Medici, and student of Angelo Poliziano.
Leo X's educator and mentor was Angelo Poliziano. The “Gridiron” in the motto evidently refers to St. Lawrence, who was martyred on a gridiron. This is a rather elliptical allusion to Lorenzo the Magnificent, who was Giovanni’s father.
|Leo Florentius.||Adrian. VI.||Florẽtii filius, eius inſignia Leo.|
|64.||Florentian lion||Adrian VI (1522–1523)||Adriaen Florenszoon Boeyens||Son of Florentius, his arms were a lion.
Adrian VI's coat of arms had two lions on it, and his name is sometimes given as Adrian Florens, or other variants, from his father's first name Florens (Florentius).
|Flos pilei ægri.||Clemens. VII.||Florentinus de domo medicea, eius inſignia pila, & lilia.|
|65.||Flower of the sick man's pill||Clement VII (1523–1534)||Giulio de Medici||A Florentine of the Medicean house, his arms were pill-balls and lilies.
The Medici coat of arms was emblazoned with six medical balls. One of these balls, the largest of the six, was emblazoned with the Florentine lily.
|Hiacinthus medicorũ.||Paulus. III.||Farneſius, qui lilia pro inſignibus geſtat, & Card. fuit SS. Coſme, & Damiani.|
|66.||Hyacinth of the physicians||Paul III (1534–1549)||Alessandro Farnese||Farnese, who bore lilies for arms, and was Cardinal of Saints Cosmas and Damian.
According to some sources, Paul III's coat of arms were charged with hyacinths, and he was cardinal of Saints Cosmas and Damian, both doctors.
|De corona montana.||Iulius. III.||antea uocatus Ioannes Maria de monte.|
|67.||From the mountainous crown||Julius III (1550–1555)||Giovanni Maria Ciocchi del Monte||Formerly called Giovanni Maria of the Mountain (de Monte)
His coat of arms showed mountains and laurel crowns (chaplets).
|Frumentum flocidum. [sic]||Marcellus. II.||cuius inſignia ceruus & frumẽtum, ideo floccidum, quod pauco tempore uixit in papatu.|
|68.||Trifling grain||Marcellus II (1555)||Marcello Cervini||Whose arms were a stag and grain; 'trifling', because he lived only a short time as pope.
His coat of arms showed a stag and ears of wheat.
|De fide Petri.||Paulus. IIII.||antea uocatus Ioannes Petrus Caraffa.|
|69.||From Peter's faith||Paul IV (1555–1559)||Giovanni Pietro Caraffa||Formerly called John Peter Caraffa.
Paul IV is said to have used his second Christian name Pietro.
|Eſculapii pharmacum.||Pius. IIII.||antea dictus Io. Angelus Medices.|
|70.||Aesculapius' medicine||Pius IV (1559–1565)||Giovanni Angelo de Medici||Formerly called Giovanni Angelo Medici.
The motto is likely a simple allusion to Pius IV's family name.
|Angelus nemoroſus.||Pius. V.||Michael uocatus, natus in oppido Boſchi.|
|71.||Angel of the grove||St. Pius V (1566–1572)||Antonio Michele Ghisleri||Called Michael, born in the town of Bosco.
Pius V was born in Bosco, Lombardy; the placename means grove. His name was 'Antonio Michele Ghisleri', and Michele relates to the archangel. O'Brien notes here that many of the prophecies contain plays on Italian words, which are not made explicit in the explanations provided in the Lignum Vitae.
|Medium corpus pilarũ.||Gregorius. XIII.||cuius inſignia medius Draco, Cardinalis creatus à Pio. IIII. qui pila in armis geſtabat.|
|72.||Half body of the balls||Gregory XIII (1572–1585)||Ugo Boncompagni||Whose arms were a half-dragon; a Cardinal created by Pius IV who bore balls in his arms.
The "balls" in the motto refer to Pope Pius IV, who had made Gregory a cardinal. Pope Gregory had a dragon on his coat of arms with half a body.
|Axis in medietate ſigni.||Sixtus. V.||qui axem in medio Leonis in armis geſtat.|
|73.||Axle in the midst of a sign.||Sixtus V (1585–1590)||Felice Peretti||Who bears in his arms an axle in the middle of a lion.
This is a rather straightforward description of the Sixtus V's coat of arms.
|De rore cœli.||Vrbanus. VII.||qui fuit Archiepiſcopus Roſſanenſis in Calabria, ubi mãna colligitur.|
|74.||From the dew of the sky||Urban VII (1590)||Giovanni Battista Castagna||Who was Archbishop of Rossano in Calabria, where manna is collected.
He had been Archbishop of Rossano in Calabria where sap called "the dew of heaven" is gathered from trees.
Popes 1590 to present (post-publication)
For this group of popes, the published text only provides names for the first three (i.e., those who were popes between the appearance of the text c. 1590, and its publication in 1595) and provides no explanations.
|Post-appearance Popes (1590–present)|
|Motto No.||Motto (Translation)||Regnal Name (Reign)||Name||Interpretations and Criticisms||Coat of Arms|
|Ex antiquitate Vrbis.||Gregorius. XIIII.|
|75.||Of the antiquity of the city / From the old city||Gregory XIV (1590–1591)||Niccolo Sfondrati||This may have been intended by the author of the prophecies to suggest that Cardinal Girolamo Simoncelli was destined to succeed Urban VII. Simoncelli was from Orvieto, which in Latin is Urbs vetus, old city. Simoncelli was not elected pope, however, Niccolo Sfondrati was, who took the name Gregory XIV. Proponents of the prophecies have attempted to explain it by noting that Gregory XIV's father was a senator of the ancient city of Milan, and the word "senator" is derived from the Latin senex, meaning old man, or that Milan is the "old city" in question, having been founded c. 400 BCE.|
|Pia ciuitas in bello.||Innocentius. IX.|
|76.||Pious citizens in war||Innocent IX (1591)||Giovanni Antonio Facchinetti||Proponents of the prophecies have suggested different interpretations to relate this motto to Innocent IX, including references to his birthplace of Bologna or title of Patriarch of Jerusalem.|
|Crux Romulea.||Clemens. VIII.|
|77.||Cross of Romulus||Clement VIII (1592–1605)||Ippolito Aldobrandini||Proponents of the prophecies have suggested different interpretations to relate this motto to Clement VIII, including linking it to the embattled bend on his arms or the war between Catholic Ireland and Protestant England during his papacy.|
|78.||Wavy man||Leo XI (1605)||Alessandro Ottaviano De Medici||This may have been intended by the author of the prophecies to suggest to his audience a possible heraldic design, but it does not correspond to Leo XI's Medici arms. Proponents of the prophecies have suggested different interpretations to relate this motto to this pope, including relating it to his short reign "passing like a wave."|
|79.||Wicked race||Paul V (1605–1621)||Camillo Borghese||Proponents of the prophecies have suggested it is a reference to the dragon and the eagle on Paul V's arms.|
|In tribulatione pacis.|
|80.||In the trouble of peace||Gregory XV (1621–1623)||Alessandro Ludovisi||The lack of plausible explanations for this motto leads O'Brien to comment, "The prophet, up to 1590, did not deal in generalities."|
|Lilium et roſa.|
|81.||Lily and rose||Urban VIII (1623–1644)||Maffeo Barberini||This motto again may have been intended to suggest a heraldic device, but not one that matches Urban VIII's arms. Proponents of the prophecies have alternatively suggested that it is a reference to the bees that do occur on his arms, to the fleur-de-lis of his native Florence, or to his dealings in France (the lily) and England (the rose).|
|82.||Delight of the cross||Innocent X (1644–1655)||Giovanni Battista Pamphili||Proponents of the prophecies have attempted to link this motto to Innocent X by noting that he was raised to the pontificate around the time of the Feast of the Exaltation of the Cross.|
|83.||Guard of the mountains||Alexander VII (1655–1667)||Fabio Chigi||Proponents of the prophecies have attempted to link this motto to Alexander VII by noting that his papal arms include six hills, though this was not an uncommon device, and this explanation would not account for the "guard" portion of the motto.|
|84.||Star of the swans||Clement IX (1667–1669)||Giulio Rospigliosi||This again may have been intended to be taken as an allusion to heraldry; O'Brien notes that there is an Italian family with arms featuring a swan with stars, but it had no relation to Clement IX. Proponents of the prophecies have claimed he had a room called the "chamber of swans" during the conclave.|
|De flumine magno.|
|85.||From a great river||Clement X (1670–1676)||Emilio Altieri||Proponents of the prophecies have attempted to link this motto to Clement X by claiming that the Tiber overflowed its banks at his birth, or as an obscure reference to his family name.|
|86.||Insatiable beast||Innocent XI (1676–1689)||Benedetto Odescalchi||Proponents of the prophecies have attempted to link this motto to the lion on Innocent XI's arms.|
|87.||Glorious penitence||Alexander VIII (1689–1691)||Pietro Ottoboni||Proponents of the prophecies have attempted to link this motto to Alexander VIII by interpreting as a reference to the submission of the Gallican bishops. O'Brien notes, "There are glorious repentances during every pontificate."|
|Raſtrum in porta.|
|88.||Rake in the door||Innocent XII (1691–1700)||Antonio Pignatelli||Some sources discussing the prophecy give Innocent XII's family name as "Pignatelli del Rastello," which would provide a clear way for proponents to connect this motto to this pope (rastello or rastrello is Italian for rake). Others, however, give the pope's family name as simply "Pignatelli", and indicate that it is difficult to find a satisfactory explanation to associate the pope with the motto.|
|89.||Surrounded flowers||Clement XI (1700–1721)||Giovanni Francesco Albani||A medal of Clement XI was created with the motto, "Flores circumdati", drawn from his description in the prophecies, which were widely circulated at that time.|
|De bona religione.|
|90.||From good religion||Innocent XIII (1721–1724)||Michelangelo dei Conti||Proponents of the prophecies have attempted to link this motto to Innocent XIII by interpreting it as a reference to the fact several popes had come from his family.|
|Miles in bello.|
|91.||Soldier in War||Benedict XIII (1724–1730)||Pietro Francesco Orsini||Proponents of the prophecies have attempted to link this motto to particular wars that occurred during Benedict XIII's pontificate, or a figurative war against decadence in favour of austerity.|
|92.||Lofty column||Clement XII (1730–1740)||Lorenzo Corsini||This may have been intended by the author of the prophecies as a reference to a pope of the Colonna family; a similar motto was used to describe to Martin V, who was pope before the publication of the prophecies. Proponents of the prophecies have attempted to link this motto to Clement XII as an allusion to a statue erected in his memory or the use of two columns from the Pantheon of Agrippa in a chapel he built.|
|93.||Country animal||Benedict XIV (1740–1758)||Marcello Lambertini||This may have been intended as a reference to armorial bearings, but it does not match Benedict XIV's arms. Proponents of the prophecies have attempted to link this motto to this pope as a description of his "plodding ox" diligence.|
|94.||Rose of Umbria||Clement XIII (1758–1769)||Carlo Rezzonico||Proponents of the prophecies have attempted to link this motto to Clement XIII as a reference to his elevation to sainthood of several Franciscans, to which order the motto can refer.|
|95.||Swift bear (later misprinted as Cursus velox Swift Course or Visus velox Swift Glance)||Clement XIV (1769–1774)||Lorenzo Giovanni Vincenzo Antonio Ganganelli||Proponents of the prophecies have struggled to provide a satisfactory explanation of this motto; some authors claim without evidence that the Ganganelli arms featured a running bear, but this is dubious.|
|96.||Apostolic pilgrim||Pius VI (1775–1799)||Giovanni Angelico Braschi||Proponents of the prophecies have attempted to link this motto to Pius VI by suggesting it is a reference to his long reign.|
|97.||Rapacious eagle||Pius VII (1800–1823)||Barnaba Chiaramonti||Proponents of the prophecies have attempted to link this motto to Pius VII by suggesting it is a reference to the eagle on the arms of Napoleon, whose reign as Emperor of the French took place during Pius' pontificate.|
|Canis & coluber.|
|98.||Dog and adder||Leo XII (1823–1829)||Annibale Sermattei della Genga||Proponents of the prophecies have attempted to link this motto to Leo XII by suggesting the dog and snake are allusions to his qualities of vigilance and prudence, respectively.|
|99.||Religious man||Pius VIII (1829–1830)||Francesco Saverio Castiglioni||Proponents of the prophecies have attempted to link this motto to Pius VIII by suggesting it is a reference to his papal name, or the fact that he was not the first pope from his family.|
|De balneis Ethruriæ.|
|100.||From the baths of Tuscany||Gregory XVI (1831–1846)||Mauro, or Bartolomeo Alberto Cappellari||Proponents of the prophecies have attempted to link this motto to Gregory XVI by suggesting it is a reference to his membership in the Camaldolese Order, founded in the thirteenth century in Fonte Buono, called Balneum in Latin, in Etruria.|
|Crux de cruce.|
|101.||Cross from cross||Bl. Pius IX (1846–1878)||Giovanni Maria Mastai Ferretti||Proponents of the prophecies have attempted to link this motto to Pius IX by interpreting it as a reference to his difficulties ("crosses") with the House of Savoy, whose emblem is a cross. O'Brien notes, "A forger would be very disposed to chance some reference to a cross on account of its necessary connexion with all popes as well as the probability of its figuring, in some form or other, on the pope's arms."|
|Lumen in cœlo.|
|102.||Light in the sky||Leo XIII (1878–1903)||Gioacchino Pecci||Proponents of the prophecies have attempted to link this motto to Leo XIII by interpreting it as a reference to the star on his arms. O'Brien notes this coincidence would be much more remarkable had the prophecies referred to sydus (star), as they did when describing this same device on pre-publication Pope Innocent VII's arms.|
|103.||Burning fire||St. Pius X (1903–1914)||Giuseppe Sarto||Proponents of the prophecies have attempted to link this motto to Pius X by interpreting it as a reference to his zeal.|
|104.||Religion destroyed||Benedict XV (1914–1922)||Giacomo Della Chiesa||Proponents of the prophecies have attempted to link this motto to Benedict XV by interpreting it as a reference to World War I and the Russian Revolution, which occurred during his pontificate.|
|105.||Intrepid faith||Pius XI (1922–1939)||Achille Ratti||Proponents of the prophecies have attempted to link this motto to Pius XI by interpreting it as a reference to his faith and actions during the reign of Benito Mussolini.|
|106.||Angelic shepherd||Ven. Pius XII (1939–1958)||Eugenio Pacelli||Proponents of the prophecies have attempted to link this motto to Pius XII by interpreting it as a reference to his role during the holocaust.|
|Paſtor & nauta.|
|107.||Shepherd and sailor||Bl. John XXIII (1958–1963)||Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli||Proponents of the prophecies have attempted to link the "sailor" portion of this motto to John XXIII by interpreting it as a reference to his title Patriarch of Venice, a maritime city.|
|108.||Flower of flowers||Paul VI (1963–1978)||Giovanni Battista Enrico Antonio Maria Montini||Proponents of the prophecies have attempted to link this motto to Paul VI by interpreting it as a reference to the fleurs-de-lis on his arms.|
|De medietate lunæ.|
|109.||Of the half moon||John Paul I (1978)||Albino Luciani|
|De labore solis.|
|110.||From the labour of the sun / Of the eclipse of the sun||Bl. John Paul II (1978–2005)||Karol Wojtyła||Proponents of the prophecies find significance in the occurrence of solar eclipses (elsewhere in the world) on the dates of John Paul II's birth (18 May 1920) and funeral (8 April 2005). Other attempts to link the pope to the motto have been "more forced," included drawing a connection to Copernicus (who formulated a comprehensive heliocentric model of the solar system), as both were Polish and lived in Kraków for parts of their lives.|
|111.||Glory of the olive.||Benedict XVI (2005–2013)||Joseph Ratzinger||Proponents of the prophecies generally try to draw a connection between Benedict and the Olivetan order to explain this motto: Benedict's choice of papal name is after Saint Benedict of Nursia, founder of the Benedictine Order, of which the Olivetans are one branch. Other explanations make reference to him as being a pope dedicated to peace and reconciliations of which the olive branch is the symbol.|
|In perſecutione extrema S.R.E. ſedebit.|
|In the final persecution of the Holy Roman Church, there will sit.||In the Lignum Vitae, the line "In persecutione extrema S.R.E. sedebit." forms a separate sentence and paragraph of its own. While often read as part of the "Peter the Roman" prophecy, other interpreters view it as a separate, incomplete sentence explicitly referring to additional popes between "glory of the olive" and "Peter the Roman".|
|Petrus Romanus, qui paſcet oues in multis tribulationibus: quibus tranſactis ciuitas ſepticollis diruetur, & Iudex tremẽdus iudicabit populum ſuum. Finis.|
|112.||Peter the Roman, who will pasture his sheep in many tribulations, and when these things are finished, the city of seven hills [i.e. Rome] will be destroyed, and the dreadful judge will judge his people. The End.||Francis (2013–present)||Jorge Mario Bergoglio||Many analyses of the prophecy note that it is open to the interpretation that additional popes would come between the "glory of the olive" and Peter the Roman. Popular speculation by proponents of the prophecy attach this prediction to Benedict XVI's successor. Since Francis' election as Pope, proponents in internet forums have been striving to link him to the prophecy. Theories include a vague connection with Francis of Assisi, whose father was named Pietro (Peter).|
The Prophecies in art, literature, and culture
- Pope Patrick is a novel about the then Pope John Paul II's supposed successor, the fictional Pope Patrick I. The novel assumes that 'Petrus Romanus', the last Pope in St Malachy's list, is to be regarded as some kind of unreal supernatural being, and that consequently Pope Patrick will be the last real Pope.
- Glory of the Olive: A Novel of the Time of Tribulation (first published in 2002) is a novel featuring the fictional Pope Peter II. "Glory of the Olive" is the Malachite attribute of the successor to the then Pope John Paul II.
- The Roman: Peter II... The Last Pope? is a novel featuring the fictional Pope Peter II as successor to the then Pope Benedict XVI. The novel begins with the Malachite prophecy concerning Peter the Roman, the last Pope in the Malachite list.
- The Third Secret is a novel featuring the fictional Pope Peter II (originally Cardinal Valendrea), who is elected Pope after the death of the fictional Pope Clement XV.
- The Devil Will Come (novel) by Glenn Cooper is a novel which uses the Malachy Prophecy as a part of the storyline in the book which spans generations, leading to the "modern day" conclave to elect a new pope and the attempt to destroy the Catholic faith by an enemy of the church.
List of fictional Popes Peter II
(Note: The final Pope in the Malachite list is called Peter the Roman)
- Pope Peter II – War, Progress, and the End of History: Three Conversations, Including a Short Story of the Anti-Christ by Vladimir S. Solovyov
- Pope Peter II – Petrus Secundus by Harold J. Frysne
- Pope Peter II – Peter the Second by Bruce Marshall (Third part of a Trilogy)
- Pope Peter II – The Accidental Pope by Raymond Flynn and Robin Moore
- Pope Peter II – The Final Restoration by John Cantwell Kiley
- Pope Peter II – The Reckoning by Thomas F. Monteleone
- Pope Peter II – The Third Secret: A Novel Of Suspense by Steve Berry
- Pope Peter II – Left Behind novels by Tim LaHaye and Jerry B. Jenkins
- Pope Peter II – Glory of the Olive: A Novel of the Time of Tribulation by Susan Claire Potts
- Pope Peter II – En el mar de la duda by Pedro De Illanez
- Pope Peter II – The Roman: Peter II... The Last Pope? by George R. Araujo-Matiz
- Pope Peter II – Fumata Bianca by Giuseppe Magnarapa
- Pope Peter II – I giorni della tempesta by Antonio Socci
- Pope Peter II (Antipope)– L'évangile selon Satan by Patrick Graham
- Bartholomew Holzhauser
- Bible code
- Legends surrounding the papacy
- List of popes
- The Prophesying Nun of Dresden
- Three Secrets of Fátima
- Vaticinia de Summis Pontificibus
- Vaticinia Nostradami
- Sieczkowski 2013.
- Boyle 2013.
- O'Brien 1880, pp. 16 & 25.
- Menestrier 1694, pp. 343-344.
- Catholic Encyclopedia 1913, "Prophecy".
- O'Brien 1880, p. 110.
- de Vallemont 1708, p. 87.
- Feijóo y Montenegro 1724-1739, p. 129.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 14.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 85.
- Feijóo y Montenegro 1724-1739, p. 134.
- Allan 2009, pp. 58-9.
- "Petrus Romanus Prophecy; Will The Next Pope Lead To The Apocalypse?", from International Business Times
- See, e.g. Bander 1969, p. 96.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 82.
- René Thibaut S.J.: La mystérieuse prophétie des Papes. Namur-Paris, 1951, p. 10.
- Hildebrand Troll: Die Papstweissagung des heiligen Malachias. Ein Beitrag zur Lösung ihres Geheimnisses. EOS-Verlag, St. Ottilien 2002, ISBN 3-8306-7099-0.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 47.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 28.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 28; Bander 1969, p. 19.
- Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani 2007, "Lucio II, papa".
- O'Brien 1880, p. 29; Bander 1969, p. 19.
- Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani 2007, "Eugenio III, papa".
- Michael Horn, Studien zur Geschichte Papst Eugens III.(1145-1153), Peter Lang Verlag 1992, pp. 28-33.
- Enciclopedia dei papi Treccani
- Hüls, Rudolf: Kardinäle, Klerus und Kirchen Roms: 1049–1130. Bibliothek des Deutschen Historischen Instituts in Rom. Max Niemeyer Verlag. Tübingen 1977,p. 201. ISBN 978-3-484-80071-7
- O'Brien 1880, p. 31.; Bander 1969, p. 23.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 31; Bander 1969, p. 25.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 33; Bander 1969, p. 26.
- Johannes Matthias Brixius, Die Mitglieder des Kardinalkollegiums von 1130-1181. Berlin : R. Trenkel, 1912, p. 68-69, no. 1
- O'Brien 1880, p. 34; Bander 1969, p. 24.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 36; Bander 1969, p. 24.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 36; Bander 1969, p. 28.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 37; Bander 1969, p. 28.
- A non-standard verb form, replacing classical exibit.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 37; Bander 1969, p. 29.
- Bander 1969, p. 30.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 38; Bander 1969, p. 30.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 39; Bander 1969, p. 32.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 40; Bander 1969, p. 33.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 40; Bander 1969, p. 34.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 41; Bander 1969, p. 35.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 42; Bander 1969, p. 35.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 42; Bander 1969, p. 36.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 43; Bander 1969, p. 36.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 43; Bander 1969, p. 37.
- Bander 1969, p. 38.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 44.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 44; Bander 1969, p. 39.
- Properly Asculanus, but that ruins the pun.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 45; Bander 1969, p. 41.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 46; Bander 1969, p. 42.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 47; Bander 1969, p. 43.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 48; Bander 1969, p. 44.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 48; Bander 1969, p. 45.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 49; Bander 1969, p. 45.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 49; Bander 1969, p. 46.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 49; Bander 1969, p. 47.
- Bander 1969, p. 47.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 50.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 50; Bander 1969, p. 48.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 51; Bander 1969, p. 50.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 52; Bander 1969, p. 51.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 53; Bander 1969, p. 48.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 53; Bander 1969, p. 49.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 54; Bander 1969, p. 50.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 54; Bander 1969, p. 52.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 55; Bander 1969, p. 53.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 55; Bander 1969, p. 54.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 56; Bander 1969, p. 56.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 56; Bander 1969, p. 57.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 57; Bander 1969, p. 58.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 57; Bander 1969, p. 59.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 58; Bander 1969, p. 60.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 58; Bander 1969, p. 61.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 58; Bander 1969, p. 62.
- Pileus here is not usually translated as "cap", but as if derived from pila "ball" or Late Latin pilula "little ball, pill".
- O'Brien 1880, p. 59; Bander 1969, p. 62.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 59; Bander 1969, p. 63.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 60; Bander 1969, p. 64.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 60; Bander 1969, p. 65.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 61; Bander 1969, p. 66.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 61; Bander 1969, p. 67.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 61; Bander 1969, p. 68.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 62; Bander 1969, p. 68.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 62; Bander 1969, p. 70.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 63; Bander 1969, p.70.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 64; Bander 1969, p.71.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 64; Bander 1969, p.72.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 65; Bander 1969, p.72.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 65.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 66.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 66; Bander 1969, p.75.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 67; Bander 1969, p.75.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 67; Bander 1969, p.76.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 69.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 69; Bander 1969, p. 77.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 70; Bander 1969, p. 78.
- Bander 1969, p. 79.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 70
- Rastellus, a diminutive of rastrum, can also refer to a metallic grid used to close the door of a town during night, cataracta in portis urbium according to Du Cange et al, Glossarium mediae et infimae latinitatis, ad vocem.
- See, e.g., de Vallemont 1708, p. 123, and Cucherat 1873, p. 206 (citing de Vallemont).
- O'Brien 1880, p. 70; Bander 1969, p. 79.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 71; Bander 1969, p. 79.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 71; Bander 1969, p. 80.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 72; Bander 1969, p. 80.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 72; Bander 1969, p. 81.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 73; Bander 1969, p. 83.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 74; Bander 1969, p. 83.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 74; Bander 1969, p. 84.
- The symbol like a raised 9 is a scribal abbreviation for the Latin suffix us.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 75; Bander 1969, p. 85.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 75; Bander 1969, p. 86.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 77; Bander 1969, p. 87.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 76; Bander 1969, p. 87.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 78; Bander 1969, p. 88.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 79; Bander 1969, p. 89.
- Bander 1969, p. 90.
- Bander 1969, p. 91; Allan 2009, pp. 58-9.
- Bander 1969, p. 91.
- Bander 1969, p. 92.
- Bander 1969, p. 93.
- Bander 1969, p. 94; Allan 2009, pp. 58-9.
- O'Brien 1880, p. 81.
- Bander 1969, p. 94.
- Bander 1969, p. 95.
- Gloria Olivae as a Peace Symbol, Does Pope Benedict XVI's resignation signal the 'end times?'
- In several later printings of the prophecies, the word ſuum was dropped, leading to the translation "the people" instead of "his people". See, e.g., O'Brien 1880, p. 83.
- "Forums strive to connect new Pope to Antichrist prophecy", from The Fraser Coast Chronicle
- De Rosa, Peter (1997). "''Pope Patrick''". Doubleday. ISBN 978-0385485487. Retrieved 2013-02-17.
- Potts, Susan Claire (2002). "Glory of the Olive: A Novel of the Time of Tribulation". iUniverse. ISBN 978-0595223220. Retrieved 2013-02-17.
- Araujo-Matiz, George R. (2007-02-21). "The Roman: Peter II... The Last Pope?". BookSurge Publishing. ISBN 978-1419651403. Retrieved 2013-02-17.
- Berry, Steve. "The Third Secret".
- Devil will come Glenn Cooper, Harpercollins.ca
- Allan, Tony (2009). Prophecies: 4,000 years of prophets, visionaries and predictions. London: Duncan Baird. ISBN 1780283407. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
- Boyle, Alan (12 February 2013). "Why the buzz over St. Malachy's 'last pope' prophecy outdoes 2012 hype". NBC News. Retrieved 17 February 2013.
- Bander, Peter (1969). The Prophecies of St. Malachy. Buckinghamshire, England: Colin Symthe Ltd.
- Cucherat, François (1873). La prophétie de la succession des papes depuis le XIIe siècle jusqu'a la fin du monde (in French). Grenoble: E. Dardelet.
- de Vallemont, Pierre Le Lorrain (1708). Les élemens de l'histoire ou ce qu'il faut savoir (in French) 3. Paris: Chez Rigaud, Directeur de l'Imprimerie Royale.
- "Eugenio III, papa". Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani (in Italian) 43. Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana. 1993. Retrieved 19 February 2013.
- Feijóo y Montenegro, Benito Jerónimo (1724-1739). Teatro crítico universal (in Spanish). p. 129.
- "Lucio II, papa". Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani (in Italian) 66. Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana. 2007. Retrieved 19 February 2013.
- Menestrier, Claude-François (1694). La philosophie des images énigmatiques, où il est traité des énigmes hiéroglyphiques, oracles, prophéties, sorts etc (in French). University of Lausanne.
- O'Brien, M. J. (1880). An historical and critical account of the so-called Prophecy of St. Malachy, regarding the succession of the popes. Dublin: M.H. Gill & Son.
- "Prophecy". Catholic Encyclopedia. New Advent. 1913. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
- Sieczkowski, Cavan (14 February 2013). "St. Malachy Last Pope Prophecy: What Theologians Think About 12th-Century Prediction". Huffington Post Canada. Retrieved 17 February 2013.
- Original 1595 text of the Prophecies (Arnold Wion, Lignum Vitae, Lib. ii, pp. 307–311)
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Before a photovoltaic installation may be constructed, engineers calculate, for some selected days in the year, when and where the interfering light reflections occur, especially if airports, highways or larger residential areas are close by. In the future, this will be easier and more comprehensive: with software that creates a three-dimensional depiction of the glare at the touch of a button.
The pilot is about to land the plane, when he is suddenly blinded by glaring brightness created by a large-scale photovoltaic installation reflecting the sun. These blinding events create major safety hazards in the vicinity of airports. They also increase the potential for accidents when near highways. For this reason, before a photovoltaic installation may be constructed, engineers calculate, for some selected days in the year, when and where the interfering light reflections occur, especially if airports, highways or larger residential areas are close by.
In the future, this will be easier and more comprehensive: with software that creates a three-dimensional depiction of the glare at the touch of a button. It is developed by researchers at the Fraunhofer Institute for Applied Information Technology FIT in Sankt Augustin, Germany together with their colleagues from the State Office for the Environment, Protection of Nature and Geology in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania and various solar planners. "The software creates a 3D view from all sides for any time of the day or time of the year," says Alexander Wollert, a scientist at the FIT. "We recreate the entire scene in a three-dimensional room, with a map, elevation profile, sun, three-dimensional buildings and photovoltaic installations." The researchers also simulate the course of the sun and the blinding for each time unit and in any direction. They take into account the elevation of various ground surfaces as well as obstacles, such as trees or noise barrier walls.
The planners can randomly move the installation around the monitor screen and immediately determine when and where it will cause problems. They determine at what position of the sun, at what time of the day and during which season the solar modules cause glares, and in which directions the reflections point. For example, do they affect residents, how often and how intense? And what can be done to prevent glares? For example, the planners of the installation can change the orientation and tilt angle of the elements. If that is not enough to mitigate the effects, the software can "simulate" modules with a somewhat more matte surface. They reflect the sun far less than traditional models; however, they are also more expensive.
The researchers have set up and tested the software for the region around the Frankfurt airport. Building on that, they are now developing a version that is intended to help the operators of photovoltaic installations throughout Germany. "The software downloads its map material dynamically from the Federal Agency for Cartography and Geodesy," explains Wollert. "It automatically downloads the required map material from there, as well as analogous contour maps. The software combines this information into a three-dimensional view of the respective surroundings, which form the basis for all further calculations." Wollert expects the software to be operational in the coming year.
The application is also of interest for private installations, because sometimes lawsuits are filed when neighbors feel bothered by the glare. In the future, the software could help avoid this problem. Used as service for engineers or planning agencies the peace among neighbors could be preserved.
Explore further: Cape Wind gets $200M investment from Danish fund
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Women’s Trade Union League (WTUL)Article Free Pass
Women’s Trade Union League (WTUL), American organization, the first national association dedicated to organizing women workers. Founded in 1903, the WTUL proved remarkably successful in uniting women from all classes to work toward better, fairer working conditions. The organization relied largely upon the resources of its own members, never receiving more than token financial support from the American Federation of Labor (AFL) or other major organized labour groups.
The WTUL came into existence as a result of a 1903 Boston meeting of the AFL, during which it became clear that the AFL had no intention of including women within its ranks. Later that year labour leaders Mary Kenney O’Sullivan and Leonora O’Reilly and settlement workers Lillian Wald and Jane Addams helped found the WTUL, and by 1904 the organization had branches in Chicago, New York City, and Boston. From the outset the organization had a strong reformist agenda, working in the tradition of social settlements to provide working women with educational opportunities while also striving to improve working conditions.
The organization achieved its greatest successes during the presidency of social reformer Margaret Dreier Robins. From 1907 to 1922, under Robins’s leadership, the organization fought for an eight-hour workday, the establishment of a minimum wage, the end of night work for women, and the abolition of child labour. During the garment industry strikes of 1909–11, league members marched side by side with striking workers and helped set up strike funds. Some of the wealthier members boycotted the clothing manufacturers who refused to settle with strikers. Following the disastrous 1911 Triangle shirtwaist factory fire in New York City, league members conducted a four-year investigation of factory conditions that helped establish new regulations.
By the mid-1920s the league’s leadership had passed from the hands of affluent middle-class women to women with working-class backgrounds. During the late 1920s, however, and continuing through the Great Depression, the league suffered serious financial problems that permanently weakened the organization. In 1950 it was dissolved.
What made you want to look up "Women's Trade Union League (WTUL)"? Please share what surprised you most...
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An indicator of resource sufficiency is percentage self-sufficiency (Department of Primary Industries and Energy (DPIE) 1987). Self-sufficiency was defined as:
The indicator shows how well domestic production meets demand and is simple to understand. Since 1970, self-sufficiency has fluctuated between 60 per cent and 90 per cent, with levels above 70 per cent since mid-1984.
DPIE, 1987, Forecast of energy demand and supply, Australia 1986-87 to 1999-00. Department of Primary Industries and Energy, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.
Topic contact: firstname.lastname@example.org Last updated: May 31, 2012
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Boffins BREAK BREAD's genetic code: Miracle of the loaves
Climate change? Population growth? Maybe science can help
A crack team of international boffins have done a "shotgun sequencing" of the wheat genome that will help increase wheat yields and thereby feed the world.
Wheat is one of the big three globally important foods, along with rice and maize, and it accounts for 20 per cent of the calories consumed by the entire human race.
Improving existing crop yields and resistance to disease is the best way of feeding a growing world population, given the lack of land to plant to wheat.
The bread wheat genome is incredibly complex, having descended from three ancient grass species, it has around five times the amount of DNA found in a human genome. A lot of the genome consists of repeated sequences, but it has so far been difficult for scientists to figure out which bits are repeats and which are unique.
Instead of decoding the entire genome, the researchers concentrated on one of the ancient ancestors of wheat and used that, along with comparisons to a range of other grasses like barley, to to help figure out which sequences which were repeats.
The ancient parent species Aegilops tauschii was decoded by a US team led by Jan Dvorak at the University of California Davis and Richard McCombie at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, along with boffins from the USDA, Kansas State University and North Dakota State University.
That team passed the sequence onto British boffins from the Universities of Liverpool and Bristol, the John Innes Centre and the European Bioinformatics Institute.
"The raw data of the wheat genome is like having tens of billions of scrabble letters; you know which letters are present, and their quantities, but they need to be assembled on the board in the right sequence before you can spell out their order into genes," Professor Neil Hall of the University of Liverpool said.
"We've identified about 96,000 genes and placed them in an approximate order. This has made a strong foundation for both further refinement of the genome and for identifying useful genetic variation in genes that scientists and breeders can use for crop improvement."
Even though the full sequence hasn't been mapped yet, what the boffins have done so far will help to develop new varieties of wheat.
"This research enables breeders and researchers to generate huge numbers of genetic markers to identify regions of the wheat genome carrying useful traits. This is one of the key practical uses of the genome resources we created," Professor Mike Bevan of Liverpool said.
"With markers, breeders can track the genetic makeup of plants when new varieties are being bred. Plants lacking the desired traits can be eliminated more efficiently, and those with desired characteristic identified more quickly, speeding up the production of new varieties from a far wider range of wheat varieties, including wild relatives that have many useful traits such as disease and stress tolerance."
The study, which also had help from the Institute of Bioinformatics and Systems Biology in Munich, was published in Nature. ®
Re: Colour me unimpressed
I am the 99%.
Now make me a sandwich.
"that whoever could make two ears of corn, or two blades of grass, to grow upon a spot of ground where only one grew before, would deserve better of mankind, and do more essential service to his country, than the whole race of politicians put together."
Jonathan Swift, in Gulliver's Travels
That's genetic engineering, and we all know genetic engineered crops make you into a slave of the NWO! And they give you cancers and stop you from opening your ar*ehole chakra! And your aura will be very sad and might leave you!
(I am, of course, doing a rather ham-fisted attempt at joking, but there are plenty of nutters that will use the exact same arguments with a straight face.)
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Mammals like ourselves pass our genes ‘vertically’ from parent to child. But bacteria aren’t quite so limited; they have mastered the art of gene-swapping and regularly transfer DNA ‘horizontally’ from one cell to another. This “horizontal gene transfer” has been largely viewed as a trademark of single-celled organisms, with few examples among animals and plants. That is, until now.
A group of American researchers have discovered a group of genetic sequences that have clearly jumped around the genomes of several mammals, one reptile and one amphibian. It’s the most dramatic example yet that horizontal genetic transfer outside of the bacterial realm is more common than we thought, and has helped to shape the evolution of animals. Meet the Space Invaders, genetic hitchhikers coming soon to a genome near you.
John Pace from the University of Texas originally discovered the sequences he named Space Invaders (or SPIN elements) by looking at the genome of a small primate called a bushbaby. He was searching for transposons, a group of parasitic DNA sequences that can cut themselves out of genomes and jump to new locations of their own accord. One sequence in particular stood out and Pace searched for it in all other vertebrates whose full genomes have been sequenced.
To his surprise, he found a large number of matches among the DNA of seven very distantly related species – the green anole (a lizard), African clawed frog, little brown bat, mouse, rat, opossum and tenrec , a small animal that looks like a hedgehog but is more closely related to elephants, manatees and aardvarks.
While these animals come from very diverse lineages, their SPIN sequences were incredibly similar; compare those of any two species and you’d get an average match of 96%. That is a remarkable resemblance; even genes for some of the most vital, unchanging proteins within the vertebrate repertoire aren’t that similar between different species.
The widespread but patchy distribution of SPIN sequences means that it is extremely unlikely that the seven species inherited these sequences from the same common ancestor. They each have close relatives with completely sequenced genomes that lack any SPINS; they’re in tenrecs but not elephants, in mice and rats but not squirrels, and in bushbabies but not macaques or humans.
There is more evidence. None of the SPIN elements (except for those in the rat and mouse) were found at the same locations in their respective genomes. And while the Space Invaders, like all transposons of their ilk, have characteristic sequences at their ends, theirs all differ in a small but consistent way – a single change to their sequence that always shows up in the same position and sets them apart from other transposons.
It’s strong evidence that they all of these species picked up their SPIN passengers independently. All the modern sequences are descended from a common ancestor, a transposon forefather that jumped across the genomes of all these species and left its descendents in its wake. They aren’t closely related to any other transposons so they don’t tell us the identity of the ‘Patient Zero’ species that was the source of the ancestral sequence, or how said sequence managed to jump into so many different vertebrates.
But Pace has some ideas on those fronts; he suggests that the Space Invaders may have infiltrated the genomes of vertebrates by stowing away aboard certain viruses. There is precedent for that – last year, scientists discovered a piece of DNA that hitched a ride from the genome of a carpet viper into that of a gerbil, by hitching a ride onboard a poxvirus that infected both species. And four of the species that harbour SPINs – bats, opossums, mice and rats – are rich reservoirs of poxviruses that could act as vehicles for mobile DNA.
Regardless of their origins, the SPINs have been busy in their new hosts. Each genome typically contains many copies of the full-length versions and even more shorter variants that do not have the ability to jump around themselves. Together, these short versions (known as MITEs) and the full-length originals can number in their thousands. The frog has 4,000 of them and the tenrec has around 99,000, making SPINs some of the most successful transposons known.
In one case, within the genomes of mice and rats, a SPIN element appears to have given rise to a new gene. It’s not clear what it does, but it appears to be functional and dates back to the time before mice and rats diverged from each other. But for the most part, natural selection has turned a blind eye to these sequences, and they have simply drifted through evolutionary time, picking up the odd neutral mutation.
Based on this steady drift, Pace estimated that the majority of SPINs spread through the genomes of vertebrates between 31 and 46 million years ago, with a possible second burst about 15 million years ago that affected the bat and opossum. That’s a very narrow period of time in evolutionary terms and during it, the elements managed to ‘infect’ the DNA of very unrelated species living in distant parts of the world. It was effectively a global pandemic that left lasting consequences.
Reference: J. K. Pace, C. Gilbert, M. S. Clark, C. Feschotte (2008). Repeated horizontal transfer of a DNA transposon in mammals and other tetrapods Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0806548105
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||Organic Chemistry 4e Carey||
|Online Learning Center
Chapter 10: Conjugation in Alkadienes and Allylic Systems
Allylic Systems |
Self Assessment |
Conjugation in Alkadienes and Allylic Systems
Resonance is probably one
of the most important concepts that one needs to master in order to understand
organic chemistry, yet it is often under appreciated or misunderstood.
We first met resonance in
Ch 1 (review)
Things to remember about
- It's a property of p
systems, therefore double or triple bonds must be present.
- Only the position of
p electrons changes in resonance contributors.
- Resonance structures
can (best) be derived by pushing curved arrows.
- The actual molecluar
structure is a composite of all the resonance contributors with the more favorable
ones contributing the most character.
- Delocalisation increases
the stablility of systems (esp. for charged systems)
of a cation
of an anion
- Functional groups next
to p systems (i.e. conjugated functional
groups) have some reactivity trends that are modified compared to those of
the non-conjugated system. Here are a few simple examples:
- allyl chloride :
very reactive in nucleophilic substitution reactions
- 1,3-butadiene : can
undergo addition via two different modes
- propenal : nucleophiles
can add to the C=C due to the presence of the conjugated C=O
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“One begins to need more and more intense stimuli in order to produce the same type of arousal ... It creates a greater appetite for more bizarre, more deviant types of sexual images.” Colleen Taylor
Sexual deviance is a complex issue because conformity and deviance are relative terms. To complicate matters further the definition of the term sexual deviance has shifted over time. In the last two to three decades there has been a shift in our attitude towards accepting some of these behaviors as normal and acceptable.
Sexual deviance refers to atypical sexual behaviors generally defined in moral, legal or medical terms. The term has always been a contested category as regards its meaning. Ancient texts, pictures and sculptures all over the world—like the comprehensive textbook for sex Kamasutra
, and explicit sexual postures carved in stone in Khajuraho
temple in India prove that fresh insights emerging from modern research on sex were already common knowledge in very ancient and medieval cultures in many parts of the world. By a process of socialization
whereby society dictates behavioral expectations to people and mainly due to moral and religious mores, normal sex, came to be understood as penile-vaginal intercourse
probably because of the procreation clause attached to it. What is Normal
: Misconception of our sexuality can lead to doubts, guilt and shame and perpetuate mistaken views of normal and abnormal sexual behavior in oneself and others. Today, with extensive researches and more information available on the subject of sexuality, it is possible to define our sexuality on the basis of personal choices –perhaps to a greater degree in certain segments of the Western society than in some Oriental societies. Modern lifestyles and upscale urban living have led to a shedding of inhibitions and increased sexual freedom to explore various sexual behaviors. Though a penile-vaginal intercourse for procreation and recreation was generally believed to be the only “civilized” expression of sexuality for a very long time, masturbating
alone, or in company, oral sex and anal sex among mutually consenting adults
as expressions of love and for purposes of pleasure are now gaining acceptance as typical sexual behaviors in many societies all over the world. Homosexuality:
Sexual mores keep changing according to time and place and what was previously seen as a sexual deviance can become a norm as it gains social acceptance. A recent drastic change occurred in the US when psychiatrists removed homosexuality from their list of mental disorders (DSM IV) and certain states even legally sanctioned gay marriages. On the contrary, in countries like India, homosexuality is clubbed along with bestiality (sex with animals) and pedophilia (sex with children) as an “unnatural act” and can attract a jail term of up to ten years under Article 377 of the Indian Criminal Code.
In a survey called “Now for the Truth about Americans and Sex," that was published in Time magazine in 1994, Philip Elmer-Dewitt reported that homosexuality was experienced by 9% of the men, and lesbianism by 4% of the women and they had experimented with it at least at some stage since their puberty. Perversion: Universally, certain sexual behaviors are described as deviant, aberrant, abnormal or perverted.
There is no denying that severe sexual maladjustment leads to conflict and misery, sometimes for the sexually deviant person, but most importantly for others. Psychologists use the term Paraphilia
for deviant types of sexual expression such as Fetishism, Transvestic Fetishism (Cross Dressing) Sexual sadism, Sexual masochism, Autoerotic asphyxia, Exhibitionism, Voyeurism, Frotteurism, Zoophilia /bestiality, Necrophilia, and at the extreme end of the continuum—pedophilia, incest and rape.
The incidence of sexual deviance varies in countries depending on the culture and is thankfully not common. A survey called “Now for the Truth About Americans and Sex," by Philip Elmer-Dewitt that was published in Time magazine in 1994, reported the following findings-•
Traditional penile-vaginal sex was the most enjoyable form of sexual practice and was universally appealing with 83% of men and 78% of women saying that is was "very appealing to them." & 80% of the sample surveyed said that every time they had sex during the past year, they had vaginal sex. •
Half of the men and a third of the women said that watching their partner undress was very appealing. •
Oral sex was practiced by 37% men and 19% women. •
The activates the respondents said they found appealing were quite traditional and conventional. Unusual, far-out "deviant" activities attracted very few positive evaluations.
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Basics of Cams
Cams are meant to protect small to large cracks. Cams provide (to a limited extent) multi-directional protection.
Cams work by contracting two set of lobes then placing the cams into a crack smaller than the expanded lobes. By releasing the trigger, the springs push the cam lobes against the sides of a crack. Cams allow you to make placements in parallel cracks (parallel cracks are difficult to protect with passive protection). The force of the lobes on the rock increases proportionally with the weight being pulled down on the cam (making a solid placement).
Cams are also known as SLCD's, "spring loaded camming devices".Full Article
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The political season is heating up, and once again the statewide ballot includes several measures that ask voters to weigh in on important state policy issues. Two of these measures, Proposition 30 and Proposition 38, would raise additional revenues through temporary tax increases, but differ significantly in their approaches as well as their implications for the state budget.
To help voters better understand Propositions 30 and 38, a new CBP analysis provides a side-by-side comparison of these measures. This easy-to-read table draws from the recent CBP reports, What Would Proposition 30 Mean for California? and What Would Proposition 38 Mean for California?, and aims to succinctly explain what each measure would do. As noted in our full reports, the CBP has endorsed Proposition 30 and neither supports nor opposes Proposition 38.
This side-by-side look at these measures sheds light on some notable strengths of Proposition 30. For example, the measure would raise almost four-fifths of the new revenues (78.8 percent) from the top 1 percent, a group whose average inflation-adjusted income has skyrocketed during the past generation, even while average incomes for low- and middle-income Californians have decreased. Furthermore – and most importantly – while Propositions 30 and 38 would both increase funding for K-12 schools, Proposition 30 also would provide the revenues needed to help close the state’s budget gap and stabilize the state’s finances. Proposition 30 thus would allow California to reinvest in education, while at the same time bringing the state budget into balance and avoiding deeper cuts to public programs and systems that are essential to all Californians.
– Jonathan Kaplan
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I have had several librarians ask me about finding online classes to which they can direct patrons when they are too busy to offer one-on-one help. In addition, many library staff members are looking for ideas for developing computer classes to offer. So I have come up with some great resources for both requests.
- This first link is to an excellent site for the beginning computer user. The site offers FREE self-paced learning modules on four distinct topics; computer skills, e-mail skills, word processing skills, and Web skills. The site was created, designed, and produced by Dr. Robert McCloud, Assistant Professor of Computer Science and Director of Online Learning, Sacred Heart University, Fairfield, Connecticut. Contributing authors: Professor Sandra Honda, Professor Cyrus D’Amato. It was created for the Connecticut Distance Learning Consortium. http://www.ctdlc.org/remediation/
- The Goodwill Community Foundation offers FREE on-line classes for a huge variety of topics including computers. They offer tutorials on Microsoft and Apple computers and their products. Each topic is a self-paced set of lessons and those topics are often divided into smaller subsets. They offer lessons, Interactive pages, Extras, and Videos for each topic. The lessons are designed similar to a slide show with explanations, descriptions, and definitions of the topic being discussed. They are written in easy to follow formats and language with great pictures and illustrations to support the text. The Interactive pages are a screen shot which requires the user to click to manipulate. For example, one shows the parts of a Windows desktop and another describes the parts of a keyboard. The Extras are links to relevant articles and related lessons on the topic. The Videos are extensions of the individual lessons. They are high quality, relevant videos with clear explanations of the topics. I am really impressed by this site. GCFLearnFree.org
- Basic Computer Operation Tutorial is a page for a wide variety of users. It tends to be a little more technical in nature but uses great photos and language to explain the details. It walks a user through many aspects of the computer hardware and software. It starts with the most basic information and progresses to much more technical information. It also includes an excellent glossary. This site would be particularly good for the slightly more tech savvy person looking to have specific questions answered. http://www.bcot1.com/
- Microsoft has developed a training program for Windows 7 users targeted at adults. It is called the “My PC Series.” The program is designed to be downloaded and the information used in an instructor led class. For example, a library staff member would download the class information which includes the lesson plans, hand-outs, and the Powerpoint presentations. When ready the class would be advertised and then taught using the provided materials. The curriculum consists of ten 1-hour workshops and four 3-hour workshops. This is a great starting point for a library looking to offer computer classes. http://www.mypcprogram.com/FrontPage.aspx
- Still have computers with Windows XP or Vista. Not to worry. Windows also has a “Help & How-to” page with easy to follow tutorials for their older operating systems. http://windows.microsoft.com/en-US/windows/help
- The AARP website has great resources on their technology page. This page may be designed for the 50+ crowd, but their information applies to everyone. They have excellent information on the latest innovations, privacy and security, social media information and how-to guides on an array of topics. They also have a section dedicated to getting on-line discounts for everything. http://www.aarp.org/technology/
Please let me know what you think of this list of links. Did you find them helpful? Will you use any of these in your library? Why or why not? Do you use other resources? Will share your favorite links? Click on the ”leave a comment” below and write your thoughts.
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Developmental toxicants are agents that cause adverse effects on the developing child. Effects can include birth defects, low birth weight, biological dysfunctions, or psychological or behavioral deficits that become manifest as the child grows. Maternal exposure to toxic chemicals during pregnancy can disrupt the development or even cause the death of the fetus. Exposure of pregnant women to mercury, lowers birth weight and can cause severe brain damage in children. While developmental toxicity usually results from prenatal exposures to toxicants experienced by the
mother, it can also result from paternal exposures. For example, the occupational exposure of men to vinyl chloride has been associated with increased rates of spontaneous abortion in their wives. Early postnatal contact with toxicants can also affect normal development. Exposure to secondhand tobacco smoke, for example, increases an infant's risk of contracting respiratory infections or succumbing to sudden infant death syndrome.
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A friend recently stumped me with a health-related trivia question. Who was the first president to be born in a hospital?
The answer, posted below, left me thinking about what a relatively new phenomenon hospital births really are. My colleague Julie Scelfo explores the issue further in today’s Home section, finding that the home birth appears to be making a surprising comeback. Since the 1950s, she explains, the overwhelming majority of American women have chosen to give birth in hospitals, the place the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists says is one of the safest places for childbirth.
But midwives and childbirth educators don’t always agree and have embarked on a national campaign to advocate for regulation and licensure of certified professional midwives. They argue that birth doesn’t have to be a medical event, and that when women do opt for hospital births, they often lose control of the process and many end up with unnecessary C-sections.
“In your home you’re able to move around,” said Élan McAlister, founder of Choices in Childbirth, a four-year-old non-profit educational group that publishes The New York Guide to a Healthy Birth. “If you believe birth is not a medical emergency, it is the ideal place because it’s the place you can really let go and follow what your body wants you to do.”
And to answer the trivia question: The first U.S. president born in a hospital was Jimmy Carter.
What do you think about giving birth at home rather than a hospital? Please join the discussion below.
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A not-so-hard graft
Transplantable blood vessels can now be grown as desired
ANOTHER advance in the emerging technology of regenerative medicine has just been announced. It should soon be possible to make blood vessels that can be stored and used “off the shelf” for surgery that requires arteries or veins to be bypassed. The vessels, prototypes of which are described this week in a paper in Science Translational Medicine, are made by Humacyte, a small firm based in Durham, North Carolina, that was founded by Shannon Dahl, the paper's principal author, and two colleagues.
The recipe Dr Dahl and her colleagues concocted begins with smooth-muscle cells. Smooth muscle is different from the familiar sort that cloaks bones and enables bodily movement. It is a component of organs such as the gut and the blood vessels that sometimes need to change shape while they are functioning.
To make artificial blood vessels the team took smooth-muscle cells from fresh corpses and cultured them on tubular scaffolds made of a material called polyglycolic acid. Grown this way, smooth muscle secretes collagen, a structural protein that is, among several other things in the body, an important component of the walls of blood vessels. The polyglycolic acid degrades spontaneously over the course of a few weeks with the consequence that it is, in effect, replaced by the collagen. The result is a tube of the length and diameter of the original scaffold, that is composed of collagen and smooth-muscle cells—a structure similar to a natural blood vessel.
Transplanting that into a patient, however, would risk provoking an immune reaction, since the muscle cells are “foreign” tissue. To get around this, Dr Dahl and her colleagues wash the muscle cells away with a detergent, leaving just the collagen. Though the end product is a nonliving simulacrum of a blood vessel rather than an artificial version of the real, biologically active thing, experiments on animals suggest that it works well enough to substitute for a diseased natural vessel (for example, a clogged coronary artery that might otherwise cause a heart attack). It can also act as a “tap” from which the blood of people whose kidneys have failed might be drawn for dialysis.
At the moment, the options for either of these things are limited. The best approach is to use a length of vessel taken from elsewhere in the patient's body (commonly, his leg). But that requires such transplants to be healthy themselves—and each length of transplanted vessel can be used only once. Synthetic vessels made of Teflon exist, but they are prone to infection and blockage by blood clots, and tend to work for only a few months.
The animal experiments suggest the new, all-collagen vessels are capable of lasting at least a year without noticeable deterioration. They are also, once implanted, able to remodel themselves in ways that improve their function—changing shape in response to blood flow, being colonised by cells from the patient's body, and showing signs of incorporating elastin, another structural protein found in natural vessels.
Also, if kept in a suitable saline buffer at 4°C, they can be transplanted a year after they were made without a perceptible degradation of their properties. So, if human trials confirm these results, the surgical-repairer's toolkit will have acquired a useful additional instrument—and the age of the cyborg will be just that little bit nearer.
From the print edition: Science and technology
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|Uruguay Table of Contents
Uruguay is located in the Southern Hemisphere on the Atlantic seaboard of South America between 53 and 58 west longitude and 30 and 35 south latitude. It is bounded on the west by Argentina, on the north and northeast by Brazil, and on the southeast by the Atlantic Ocean. To the south, it fronts the Río de la Plata, a broad estuary that opens out into the South Atlantic. Montevideo, the capital and major port, sits on the banks of the Río de la Plata and is on approximately the same latitude as Capetown and Sydney. Uruguay is the smallest Spanishspeaking nation in South America with a land area of 176,220 square kilometers, slightly smaller than North Dakota.
Most of Uruguay is a gently rolling plain that represents a transition from the almost featureless Argentine pampas to the hilly uplands of southern Brazil. The country itself has flat plains on its eastern, southern, and western edges. The narrow Atlantic coastal plain is sandy and marshy, occasionally broken by shallow lagoons. The littorals of the Río de la Plata and the Río Uruguay are somewhat broader and merge more gradually into the hilly interior.
The remaining three-quarters of the country is a rolling plateau marked by ranges of low hills that become more prominent in the north as they merge into the highlands of southern Brazil. Even these hilly areas are remarkably featureless, however, and elevations seldom exceed 200 meters.
Uruguay is a water-rich land. Prominent bodies of water mark its limits on the east, south, and west, and even most of the boundary with Brazil follows small rivers. Lakes and lagoons are numerous, and a high water table makes digging wells easy.
Three systems of rivers drain the land: rivers flow westward to the Río Uruguay, eastward to the Atlantic or tidal lagoons bordering the ocean, and south to the Río de la Plata. The Río Uruguay, which forms the border with Argentina, is flanked by low banks, and disastrous floods sometimes inundate large areas. The longest and most important of the rivers draining westward is the Río Negro, which crosses the entire country from northeast to west before emptying into the Río Uruguay. A dam on the Río Negro at Paso de los Toros has created a reservoir--the Embalse del Río Negro--that is the largest artificial lake in South America. The Río Negro's principal tributary and the country's second most important river is the Río Yí.
The rivers flowing east to the Atlantic are generally shallower and have more variable flow than the other rivers. Many empty into lagoons in the coastal plain. The largest coastal lagoon, Laguna Merín, forms part of the border with Brazil. A half-dozen smaller lagoons, some freshwater and some brackish, line the coast farther south.
Source: U.S. Library of Congress
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United States congressional apportionment
United States congressional apportionment is the process by which seats in the United States House of Representatives are redistributed amongst the 50 states following each constitutionally mandated decennial census. Each state is apportioned a number of seats which approximately corresponds to its share of the aggregate population of the 50 states. However, every state is constitutionally guaranteed at least one seat.
The number of seats in the House of Representatives is currently set to 435, and has been since 1913, except for a temporary increase to 437 after the admissions of Alaska and Hawaii. Though the actual reapportionment will normally occur in respect of a decennial census, the law that governs the total number of representatives and the method of apportionment to be carried into force at that time can be created prior to the census.
The decennial apportionment also determines the size of each state's representation in the U.S. Electoral College—that is, any state's number of electors equals the size of its total congressional delegation (i.e., House seat(s) plus Senate seats).
Federal law requires the Clerk of the House of Representatives to notify each state government of its entitled number of seats no later than January 25 of the year immediately following the census. After seats have been reapportioned, each state determines the boundaries of congressional districts—geographical areas within the state of approximately equal population—in a process called redistricting. Any citizen of the State can challenge the constitutionality of the redistricting in their US district court.
Because the deadline for the House Clerk to report the results does not occur until the following January, and the states need sufficient time to perform the redistricting, the decennial census does not affect the elections that are held during that same year. For example, the electoral college apportionment during 2000 presidential election was still based on the 1990 census results. Likewise, the congressional districts and the electoral college during the 2020 general elections will still be based on the 2010 census.
Constitutional text
Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons.
Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed.
Article I additionally provides that:
The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative...
House size
The size of the U.S. House of Representatives refers to total number of congressional districts (or seats) into which the land area of the United States proper has been divided. The number of voting representatives is currently set at 435. There are an additional five delegates to the House of Representatives. They represent the District of Columbia and the territories of American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, which first elected a representative in 2008, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Puerto Rico also elects a resident commissioner every four years.
Controversy and history
During the period that the current U.S. Constitution has been in effect, the number of citizens per congressional district has risen from an average of 33,000 in 1790 to almost 700,000 as of 2008[update]. Prior to the 20th century, the number of representatives increased every decade as more states joined the union, and the population increased. In 1911, Public Law 62-5 raised the membership of the U.S. House to 433 with a provision to add one permanent seat each upon the admissions of Arizona and New Mexico as states. As provided, membership increased to 435 in 1912.
But in 1921, Congress failed to reapportion the House membership as required by the United States Constitution. This failure to reapportion may have been politically motivated, as the newly elected Republican majority may have feared the effect such a reapportionment would have on their future electoral prospects. Then in 1929 Congress (Republican control of both houses of congress and the presidency) passed the Reapportionment Act of 1929 which capped the size of the House at 435 (the then current number), but allowed temporary increases upon the admission of new states which were to be reverted upon the implementation of the immediate subsequent census.
In truth, the rules prohibiting legislative entrenchment would allow any subsequent legislature (after 1929) to increase or decrease the membership of the House of Representatives if such legislature so desired.
The current size of 435 seats means one member represents on average about 709,760 people; but exact representation per member varies by state. Three states – Wyoming, Vermont, and North Dakota – have populations smaller than the average for a single district.
The "ideal" number of members has been a contentious issue since the country's founding. George Washington agreed that the original representation proposed during the Constitutional Convention (one representative for every 40,000) was inadequate and supported an alteration to reduce that number to 30,000. This was the only time that Washington pronounced an opinion on any of the actual issues debated during the entire convention. At the same time, the researchers with RangeVoting.org contend the optimal legislature size should be somewhere between the cube root and the square root of the constituent population, which would yield a number between 700 and 17,000 for the current U.S. population.
In Federalist No. 55, James Madison argued that the size of the House of Representatives has to balance the ability of the body to legislate with the need for legislators to have a relationship close enough to the people to understand their local circumstances, that such representatives' social class be low enough to sympathize with the feelings of the mass of the people, and that their power be diluted enough to limit their abuse of the public trust and interests.
"... first, that so small a number of representatives will be an unsafe depositary of the public interests; secondly, that they will not possess a proper knowledge of the local circumstances of their numerous constituents; thirdly, that they will be taken from that class of citizens which will sympathize least with the feelings of the mass of the people, and be most likely to aim at a permanent elevation of the few on the depression of the many;..."
Madison also addressed Anti-Federalist claims that the representation would be inadequate, arguing that the major inadequacies are of minimal inconvenience since these will be cured rather quickly by virtue of decennial reapportionment. He noted, however,
"I take for granted here what I shall, in answering the fourth objection, hereinafter show, that the number of representatives will be augmented from time to time in the manner provided by the Constitution. On a contrary supposition, I should admit the objection to have very great weight indeed."
Madison argued against the assumption that more is better:
"Sixty or seventy men may be more properly trusted with a given degree of power than six or seven. But it does not follow that six or seven hundred would be proportionally a better depositary. And if we carry on the supposition to six or seven thousand, the whole reasoning ought to be reversed. ... In all very numerous assemblies, of whatever character composed, passion never fails to wrest the scepter from reason."
Clemons v. Department of Commerce
A recent lawsuit, Clemons v. Department of Commerce, sought a court order for Congress to increase the size of the House's voting membership and then reapportion the seats in accordance with the population figures of the 2010 Census. The intent of the plaintiff was to rectify the disparity of congressional district population sizes among the states that result from the present method of apportionment. Upon reaching the U.S. Supreme Court in December 2010, the holdings of the lower district and appellate courts were vacated and the case remanded to the U.S. District Court from which the case originated with instructions that the district court dismiss the case for lack of jurisdiction.
Proposed expansion
The proposed Wyoming Rule calls for expanding the House until the standard Representative-to-population ratio equals that of the smallest entitled unit (currently the state of Wyoming). This proposal is primarily designed to address the fact that some House districts are currently nearly twice the size of others; for instance, there are nearly 1 million residents in Montana's single district, compared to about 570,000 in Wyoming's. See List of U.S. states by population.
In 2007, during the 110th Congress, Representative Tom Davis introduced a bill in the House of Representatives that would add two seats to the House, one for Utah and one for the District of Columbia. It was passed by the House, but was tripped up by procedural hurdles in Senate and withdrawn from consideration. An identical bill was reintroduced during the 111th Congress. In February 2009 the Senate adopted the measure 61-37. In April 2010, however, House leaders decided to shelve the proposal.
Apportionment methods
Apart from the requirement that the number of delegates for each state is at least one, a state's number of representatives is in principle proportional to population, thus assuring reasonably consistent representation to the people regardless of the state boundaries and populations. No method of calculating a fair distribution of voting power across the various states was known until recently and five distinct apportionment methods have been used since the adoption of the Constitution, none of them producing fully proportional distribution of power among the states. Some of these methods were even susceptible to the apportionment paradox. In 2008, however, a so-called One-Person-One-Vote model was introduced by J. Toplak in Temple Law Review, which distributes the states' power in the House of Representatives exactly 'according to their Numbers'. Under this system, however, members of the House of Representatives do not have equal voting power. The method would be constitutional since the U.S. Constitution does not require Congressmen to have equal voting powers but does require the voters to have votes of equal weight.
The Method of Equal Proportions
The apportionment methodology currently used is the method of equal proportions, so called because it guarantees that no additional transfer of a seat (from one state to another) will reduce the ratio between the numbers of persons per representative in any two states. According to NationalAtlas.gov, the method of equal proportions minimizes the percentage differences in the populations of the congressional districts.
In this method, as a first step, each of the 50 states is given its one guaranteed seat in the House of Representatives, leaving 385 seats to assign.
The remaining seats are allocated one at a time, to the state with the highest priority number. Thus, the 51st seat would go to the most populous state (currently California). The priority number is determined by a formula that is mathematically computed to be the ratio of the state population to the geometric mean of the number of seats it currently holds in the assignment process, n (initially 1), and the number of seats it would hold if the seat were assigned to it, n+1.
The formula for determining the priority of a state to be apportioned the next available seat defined by the method of equal proportions is
where P is the population of the state, and n is the number of seats it currently holds before the possible allocation of the next seat. An equivalent, recursive definition is
where n is still the number of seats the state has before allocation of the next, and for n = 1, the initial A1 is explicitly defined as
Consider the reapportionment following the 2010 U.S. Census: beginning with all states initially being allocated one seat, the largest value of A1 corresponds to the largest state, California, which is allocated seat 51. After being allocated its 2nd seat, its priority value decreases to its A2 value, which is reordered to a position back in line. The 52nd seat goes to Texas, the 2nd largest state, because its A1 priority value is larger than the An of any other state. However, the 53rd seat goes back to California because its A2 priority value is larger than the An of any other state. The 54th seat goes to New York because its A1 priority value is larger than the An of any other state at this point. This process continues until all remaining seats are assigned. Each time a state is assigned a seat, n is incremented by 1, causing its priority value to be reduced and reordered among the states, whereupon another state normally rises to the top of the list.
The Census 2010 Ranking of Priority Values shows the order in which seats 51–435 were apportioned after the 2010 Census, with additional listings for the next five priorities. Minnesota was allocated the final (435th) seat. North Carolina, which gained the 435th seat in the 2000 census, missed its 14th seat by 15,754 residents as the 436th seat to be allocated.
Past apportionments
Note: The first apportionment was established by the Constitution based on population estimates made by the Philadelphia Convention, and was not based on any census or enumeration.
|14th, 1920||Congress failed to pass any reapportionment act. Distribution of seats from 1913 remained in effect, despite population shifts.|
Changes following the 2010 census
|Gain four||Gain two||Gain one||Lose one||Lose two|
Past increases
|March 4, 1789||59||n/a||Const. Art. I,
§ 2, cl. 3
|Seats apportioned by the Constitution|
|November 21, 1789||64||5||North Carolina ratified the Constitution with the seats apportioned by the Constitution|
|May 29, 1790||65||1||Rhode Island ratified the Constitution with the seats apportioned by the Constitution|
|March 4, 1791||67||2||1 Stat. 191||Vermont admitted|
|June 1, 1792||69||2||Kentucky admitted|
|March 4, 1793||105||36||1 Stat. 253||Apportionment of the First Census|
|June 1, 1796||106||1||1 Stat. 492||Tennessee admitted|
|March 1, 1803||107||1||2 Stat. 175||Ohio admitted.|
|March 4, 1803||142||35||2 Stat. 128||Apportionment of the Second Census.|
|April 30, 1812||143||1||2 Stat. 703||Louisiana admitted.|
|March 4, 1813||182||39||2 Stat. 669||Apportionment of the Third Census.|
|December 11, 1816||183||1||3 Stat. 290||Indiana admitted.|
|December 10, 1817||184||1||3 Stat. 349||Mississippi admitted.|
|December 3, 1818||185||1||3 Stat. 430||Illinois admitted.|
|December 14, 1819||186||1||3 Stat. 492||Alabama admitted.|
|March 15, 1820||3 Stat. 555||Maine admitted, 7 seats transferred from Massachusetts|
|August 10, 1821||187||1||3 Stat. 545||Missouri admitted|
|March 4, 1823||213||26||3 Stat. 651||Apportionment of the Fourth Census|
|March 4, 1833||240||27||4 Stat. 516||Apportionment of the Fifth Census|
|June 15, 1836||241||1||5 Stat. 49||Arkansas admitted|
|January 26, 1837||242||1||5 Stat. 50||Michigan admitted|
|March 4, 1843||223||19||5 Stat. 491||Apportionment of the Sixth Census, the only time the size of the House was reduced, except for the minor readjustment in 1963.|
|March 3, 1845||224||1||5 Stat. 743||Florida admitted.|
|December 29, 1845||226||2||5 Stat. 798||Texas annexed and admitted.|
|December 28, 1846||228||2||5 Stat. 743
9 Stat. 52
|May 29, 1848||230||2||9 Stat. 58
9 Stat. 235
|March 4, 1849||231||1||9 Stat. 235||Wisconsin given another seat.|
|September 9, 1850||233||2||9 Stat. 452||California admitted.|
|March 4, 1853||9 Stat. 432||Apportionment of the Seventh Census.|
|234||1||10 Stat. 25||Additional seat apportioned to California|
The 1850 Apportionment bill provided a method to be used in future reapportionments, as well as establishing the then-current 233 as the number of seats to be apportioned after future censuses. Due to census returns being incomplete in California, an additional act provided that California retain the same representation it had when admitted, until a new census could be taken. California would otherwise have lost one seat, and so the total number of seats was increased by one to 234.
|May 11, 1858||236||2||11 Stat. 166||Minnesota admitted.|
|February 14, 1859||237||1||11 Stat. 383||Oregon admitted.|
|January 29, 1861||238||1||11 Stat. 269||Kansas admitted|
|June 2, 1862||239||1||12 Stat. 411||California apportioned an extra seat|
|March 4, 1863||233||6||9 Stat. 432||Apportionment of the Eighth Census, in accordance with the 1850 act, which provided for an apportionment of 233 seats|
|241||8||12 Stat. 353||Supplemental apportionment of 8 seats, for an overall increase of 2 seats in the 38th Congress|
|June 20, 1863||12 Stat. 633||West Virginia admitted, three seats transferred from Virginia|
|October 31, 1864||242||1||13 Stat. 32||Nevada admitted|
|March 1, 1867||243||1||14 Stat. 391||Nebraska admitted|
|March 4, 1873||283||40||17 Stat. 28||Apportionment of the Ninth Census, replacing the 1850 act|
|292||9||17 Stat. 192||Supplemental apportionment added one seat each for nine states|
|August 1, 1876||293||1||13 Stat. 34||Colorado admitted|
|March 4, 1883||325||32||47th Congress, ch. 20, 22 Stat. 5||Apportionment of the Tenth Census.|
|November 2, 1889||328||3||North Dakota and South Dakota admitted. One seat goes to the former, two to the latter.|
|November 8, 1889||329||1||Montana admitted.|
|November 11, 1889||330||1||Washington admitted.|
|July 3, 1890||331||1||Idaho admitted.|
|July 10, 1890||332||1||Wyoming admitted.|
|March 4, 1893||356||24||Apportionment Act of 1891||Apportionment of the Eleventh Census.|
|January 4, 1896||357||1||Utah admitted.|
|March 4, 1903||386||29||Apportionment Act of 1901, 31 Stat. 733||Apportionment of the Twelfth Census|
|November 16, 1907||391||5||Oklahoma Enabling Act||Oklahoma admitted|
|January 6, 1912||393||2||Apportionment Act of 1911, Sec. 2; New Mexico Enabling Act||New Mexico admitted|
|February 14, 1912||394||1||Apportionment Act of 1911, Sec. 2||Arizona admitted|
|March 4, 1913||435||41||Apportionment Act of 1911, Pub.L. 62–5, 37 Stat. 13||Apportionment of the Thirteenth Census|
|January 3, 1959||436||1||Alaska Statehood Act||Alaska admitted|
|August 21, 1959||437||1||Hawaii Admission Act||Hawaii admitted|
|January 3, 1963||435||2||Reapportionment Act of 1929, ch. 28, 46 Stat. 26, 2 U.S.C. § 2a||Apportionment of the Eighteenth Census
Note: The Reapportionment Act of 1929 stated that the "then existing number of Representatives" would be apportioned after each census, which would have dictated an apportionment of 437 seats, but the Alaska Statehood Act and Hawaii Admission Act explicitly stated that the new seats were temporary increases
See also
- Apportionment paradox
- Article the First
- List of U.S. states by population
- List of U.S. states by historical population (tables of state populations since 1790)
- United States Congress
- Delegate counts in italics represent temporary counts assigned by Congress until the next decennial census or by the U.S. Constitution in 1789 until the first U.S. Census.
- Elections held in the year of a census use the apportionment determined by the previous census.
- The populations of Washington, D.C. and federal territories are not included in this figure.
- U.S. Constitution, Article II, Section 1, Clause 2.
- 2 U.S.C. § 2c
- U.S. Const., art. I, § 2, cl. 3.
- U.S. Const., amend. XIV, § 2.
- Bush signs federalization bill, Agnes E. Donato, Saipan Tribune, May 10, 2008.
- "Fair Representation, Meeting The Ideal of One Man One vote" - Michael Balinski and H. Peyton Young -- Page 51
- George Will Called Me An Idiot, Jonah Golderg, National Review, January 15, 2001.
- Madison's notes on the Constitutional Convention - Tuesday September 17, 1787
- The Federalist #55
- The Federalist #55
- House of Representatives? Hardly., Alcee Hastings, May 21, 2001.
- Marimow, Ann E.; Pershing, Ben (April 21, 2010). "Congressional leaders shelve D.C. voting rights bill". The Washington Post.
- Toplak, Jurij (2008). "Equal Voting Weight of All: Finally 'One Person, One Vote' from Hawaii to Maine?". Temple Law Review (Temple University) 81 (1): 123–176.
- "The History of Apportionment in America". American Mathematical Society. Retrieved 2009-02-15.
- "2 USC §2a". Cornell University Law School, Legal Information Institute. Retrieved 2008-05-13.
- "Computing Apportionment". U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved 2009-02-14.
- Edward V Huntington (1921). "The Mathematical Theory of the Apportionment of Representatives". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A. 7 (4): 123–7. PMC 1084767. PMID 16576591.
- "Congressional Apportionment". NationalAtlas.gov. Retrieved 2009-02-14.
- "PRIORITY VALUES FOR 2010 CENSUS". U.S. Bureau of the Census. Retrieved 2012-06-07.
- "Census 2000 Ranking of Priority Values". U.S. Bureau of the Census. 2001-02-21. Retrieved 2008-05-13.
- "APPORTIONMENT POPULATION AND NUMBER OF REPRESENTATIVES, BY STATE: 2010 CENSUS". US Census. 2010-12-21. Retrieved 2013-02-23.
- The Size of the U. S. House of Representatives and its Constituent State Delegations, thirty-thousand.org.
- Both acts included the phrasing That such temporary increase in the membership shall not operate to either increase or decrease the permanent membership of the House of Representatives as prescribed in the Act of August 8, 1911 (37 Stat. 13) nor shall such temporary increase affect the basis of apportionment established by the Act of November 15, 1941 (55 Stat. 761; 2 U. S. C., sec. 2a), for the Eighty-third Congress and each Congress thereafter.
- Balinski, Michael L.; Young, H. Peyton (1982). Fair Representation: Meeting the Ideal of One Man, One Vote. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-8157-0090-3.
- Foster, Robert (1895). Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States: Historical and Judicial 1. Boston: The Boston Book Co. pp. 329–446.
- Hamilton, Alexander; Madison, James; Jay, John (1831). The Federalist. Hallowell: Glazier, Masters & Co. ISBN 0-8239-5735-7.
- Edelman, Paul H. (2006). "Getting the Math Right: Why California Has Too Many Seats in the House of Representatives". Vanderbilt Law Review (Nashville: Vanderbilt University) 102 (March): 297.
- Charles Kromkowski and John A Kromkowski; Kromkowski, John A (1991). "Why 435? A Question of Political Arithmetic" (PDF). Polity 24 (Fall 1991): 129–145. doi:10.2307/3234988. JSTOR 3234988. Retrieved 2009-06-22. More than one of
- Agnew, Robert A. (2008). "Optimal Congressional Apportionment". American Mathematical Monthly (Mathematical Association of America) 115 (April): 297–303.
Further reading
- Stinebrickner-Kauffman, Taren (2004). "Counting Matters: Prison Inmates, Population Bases, and "One Person, One Vote"". Virginia Journal of Social Policy & the Law (Chicago: Virginia Journal of Social Policy & the Law) 11 (Winter): 229.
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What if you're a bird of prey, looking down on miles of grassland or desert, trying to spot a meal that's only an inch or two long?
On the American plains, squirrels are the food of choice for both the coyote and the badger.
How is it that cats can sleep so much? Learn more on this Moment of Science.
Farming has been a useful tool for a long long time, and not just for humans!
Though most true bugs eat plant sap, some feed on animals. One such true bug is the assassin bug, which feeds on fellow insects.
Bald eagles are not longer an endangered species. Learn more on this Moment of Science.
Learn how the rabbit population in Australia rose to six-hundred-million over the course of 100 years. "Rabbits Down Under" on this Moment of Science.
Learn how search engines work on this Moment of Science.
Early stone tools, like knives and scrapers, are easy for anthropologists to learn about because these items are still around. Even after two million years, a chipped stone tool is still going to be there when you dig it up.
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Vestas V164 is the world’s largest ocean wind turbine
In 1919 a German physicist Albert Betz had concluded that no wind turbine can convert more than 59.3% of the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical energy turning a rotor. Today this is known as Betz Limit or Betz Law.
However, the same maximum result was obtained earlier by a British scientist Lanchester in 1915 and also obtained by a Russian aerodynamic scholar Zhukowsky in 1920. Al Jazari, the father of robotic engineering even a number of centuries earlier had explained about the utilization of wind energy in his book, the Book of Ingenious Devices (Arabic: Kitab al-Hiyal).
Wind Energy: Kinetic Energy of Wind Turbine
The incoming wind energy to the wind turbine is at 100%, say Einput = 100. Wind energy is a kinetic energy and is given by equation ½ mv2. The equation describe that the kinetic energy is relatively dependent on the speed (or velocity) of the wind, v.
For example, if the wind turbine could collect or gain wind’s kinetic energy 100% from the incoming wind Einput. The wind energy at the exit of the wind turbine would be zero. The velocity or speed of the wind also would be zero.
If the wind stops moving at the exit of the wind turbine, then no more fresh or new wind could get in, because it’s being blocked. This explains why that the wind turbine could not gain 100% of kinetic energy from wind rather than maximum of 59.3% from the total wind’s kinetic energy.
For a wind turbine to rotate and collect wind’s kinetic energy there has to be some wind movement to the turbine, some of the wind energy collected and some is left and flow out.
Wind Energy: Turbine Efficiency
Based on the first article that we have discussed previously about wind power and wind energy, all those numbers could be multiply with 0.593. This is the theoretical maximum power of any design of wind turbines.
Equation from the previous article for power of wind hitting the turbine:
Powerwind = 1/2 x Swept Area x Air Density x Velocity3
Theoretical maximum power of wind turbine:
Powermax-turbine = 0.593 x (1/2 x Swept Area x Air Density x Velocity3)
In real world limit below “Betz limit” such as 0.35 to 0.45 is a common even among the world’s best designed wind turbines. So if somebody comes to convince you saying that their product could collect 80% from wind energy you already know the answer. On the other hand if somebody comes and telling you the truth that their design could collect only 25% of wind energy, you have to shake his hand immediately for his honesty.
This is the link for some models of smaller wind turbines for home usage if readers might be interested to see, Wind Energy for Home. In their website you could find as well some DIY models which are easy for installation. Hopefully, we are going to discuss more on other topics of wind energy in the next coming articles. Thanks for reading.
Next & Previous articles in series:
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NEW YORK (Reuters Health) - One class of drugs used to prevent wheezing and shortness of breath in people with asthma may increase kids' risk of being hospitalized for an asthma attack, according to a new analysis from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
However, researchers said, it's possible that when the drugs, called long-acting beta-agonists or LABAs, are used in combination with inhaled corticosteroid medications, that extra risk disappears.
"These studies confirm our recommendations at the FDA that are already (on drug labels) for children and adolescents to use inhaled corticosteroids and LABAs together in one asthma product," said Dr. Ann McMahon, who led the study.
But, she added, the researchers weren't completely convinced from the data they had that inhaled corticosteroids take away all extra risk.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, seven million children in the U.S. have asthma (about nine percent), and the rate has been climbing steadily in recent years.
Some kids and adults with asthma are prescribed LABAs to relax muscles around the airway and prevent symptoms like wheezing. But there's also evidence that long-term use of the drugs may slightly increase the risk of sudden serious symptoms.
LABAs are also used by people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder, or COPD.
The FDA report combines safety data from over 100 studies including about 60,000 people with asthma. The original trials were done by companies that market LABAs.
The drugs include Merck's Foradil and GlaxoSmithKline's Serevent.
Compared to all patients who didn't take LABAs, adults and kids who were prescribed the drugs were 27 percent more likely to end up in the hospital, or in rare cases die or require intubation, because of an asthma attack.
That extra risk was greatest in the youngest study participants. Kids between age four and 11 who were taking a LABA were 67 percent more likely to have an asthma-related hospitalization than those who weren't getting the medication.
That means that over a one-year period, there would be an extra three hospitalizations for every 100 kids taking LABAs.
A small number of people of all ages who were regularly taking an inhaled corticosteroid together with a LABA didn't seem to have any extra risk of hospitalization, according to the report published in Pediatrics.
"Although we were able to be somewhat reassured... it was a small enough sample that we didn't feel entirely confident, and we need to have further analysis," McMahon told Reuters Health.
The finding of an extra hospitalization risk in people taking LABAs alone isn't new. Last year, after other research suggested that risk, the FDA began requiring drugmakers to write on LABA labels that the drugs should not be used without a long-term asthma control medication like an inhaled corticosteroid.
Some asthma medications, including GlaxoSmithKline's Advair and AstraZeneca's Symbicort, contain both a LABA and corticosteroid. The FDA recommends such combined products for kids with asthma.
"The thing that's new in this paper... is they've highlighted the fact that younger-age children may have a higher risk" when taking a LABA alone, said Dr. Scott Weiss, as asthma researcher from Harvard Medical School in Boston who was not involved in the report.
Weiss reported financial ties to the drug company Novartis, and was formerly linked to GlaxoSmithKline and AstraZeneca.
McMahon said the analysis wasn't designed to examine the reason for extra risks due to LABA use in kids, and didn't want to speculate. But Weiss said it could be related to their smaller airways.
He agreed that it's important for future studies to look directly at the issue of serious attacks in LABA users to determine the underlying cause behind those attacks -- and whether they're directly due to the medications themselves.
Still, he told Reuters Health, "Nobody is really prescribing a LABA on its own -- that's basically off the market."
SOURCE: http://bit.ly/txnp6y Pediatrics, online October 24, 2011.
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Program 5 Notes
Love and friendship, honor and betrayal. The central dynamics of human relationships, they are also the linchpins of drama—and the foundation of John Cranko’s masterful Onegin. Based on mature themes rather than fairy tales or fantasy, Onegin is a ballet for adults, a visual feast of rich, emotional choreography, powerful storytelling, and stunning imagery. And with a story by poet Alexander Pushkin, set to music by the incomparable Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky, it’s Russian to its core.
The ballet, which made its San Francisco Ballet premiere in 2012, is based on Pushkin’s verse novel Eugene Onegin, as is the 1879 Tchaikovsky opera that preceded it. Cranko had staged dances for the opera when it was performed at London’s Covent Garden, and he pitched the idea for a ballet version to Sadler’s Wells Ballet, where he was working at the time. Sadler’s Wells said no, but Cranko found a receptive home for his ballet at Stuttgart Ballet, where he became artistic director.
Born in South Africa in 1927, Cranko made his first ballet in 1946, while studying at Cape Town University Ballet School. That same year he left for London to study at the Sadler’s Wells school, later joining the company. After retiring from dancing at 23, he began choreographing extensively, for Sadler’s Wells (and its later incarnation, The Royal Ballet), Ballet Rambert, Paris Opera Ballet, and New York City Ballet. In 1961 he became director of Stuttgart Ballet and turned it into the world-renowned company it is today. He died at the young age of 45 but left a pronounced mark on the ballet world as a nuanced storyteller and gifted choreographer. Among his dozens of works are three widely performed full-lengths—Romeo and Juliet (1958), The Taming of the Shrew (1969), and Onegin.
Cranko created Onegin in 1965 for Stuttgart Ballet, with Marcia Haydee as Tatiana and Ray Barra as Onegin in the April 13 premiere, and revised it in 1967, with Heinz Clauss in the title role. It was first seen in the United States in 1969, when Stuttgart Ballet performed it at New York’s Metropolitan Opera House. Although Onegin has been performed by more than 20 companies in Europe, Asia, and North America, U.S. ballet companies were slow to acquire it; the first was Boston Ballet, in 1994.
Instead of using the opera music, Cranko enlisted German conductor Kurt-Heinz Stolze to arrange and orchestrate a score comprised of various piano and orchestral pieces by Tchaikovsky. Along with selections from five piano solo collections (many from The Seasons, Op. 37a), Stolze used portions of the opera Cherevichki (as a recurring theme for Tatiana and Onegin),the symphonic fantasy Francesca da Rimini, the symphonic ballad The Voyevoda, the overture-fantasy Romeo and Juliet, and an impromptu. The result is a cohesive score that sounds as if it could have been written from scratch for Onegin. In unfailing Tchaikovsky style, his music conveys all the depth and emotional power needed for a ballet that brings audiences to tears.
Prior to its SF Ballet debut last season, Artistic Director & Principal Choreographer Helgi Tomasson had been thinking about Onegin for quite a while.“It’s one of those dramatic story ballets that are very good for the Company members to experience and be challenged by, especially some who have been with me for a while,” he says. “The Sleeping Beauty is a fairy tale. Romeo and Juliet is not; it’s a drama. It could be anytime, anywhere, and we have the same situation with Onegin. It’s a human drama.” Offering his dancers plenty of stylistic range is important to Tomasson, which he points out by comparing Onegin to Don Quixote. The latter ballet “is up and light and fun, pure show-off dancing. This is different.”
Tomasson also likes the fact that Onegin is “gorgeous,” an adjective he applies to both the music and the designs by Santo Loquasto, commissioned by National Ballet of Canada in 2010 when the original sets and costumes by Jurgen Rose had become too fragile to use. Sumptuous interiors alternate with outdoor scenes populated with silver birches, so evocative of Russia.
Bringing Onegin into SF Ballet’s repertory was a major undertaking involving Tomasson, longtime Cranko ballet stager Jane Bourne, five ballet masters, and more than three-quarters of the Company’s dancers, plus apprentices and students. Bourne has been staging Cranko’s ballets since 1975, after studying Benesh Movement Notation (a system of documenting dance steps and staging on paper) at London’s Benesh Institute of Choreology (now the BeneshInstitute). Since her early days of assisting Georgette Tsinguirides, then the choreologist at Stuttgart, Bourne has staged Onegin roughly 25 times in 35 years. “I still get excited by it,” she says. “It has everything—tragedy and drama, some small comedic episodes in the second act, deep character portrayals. But it’s heavy on the drama.”It’s also heavy on choreography, including a series of pas de deux and robust ensemble dances that fill the stage with traditional Russian steps, polonaises, and courtly promenades. Compared to many full-length ballets, Onegin has less stage business and more full-out dancing.“Cranko tells the story with movement—that’s his talent,” says Bourne. “There’s very, very little classical mime.” Referring to a scene where Tatiana writes a letter and then dances with Onegin, Bourne says, “She dreams the pas de deux, because how else are you going to show what’s in the letter? This is, I think, just clever.”
For the dancers, Onegin holds the richness of deep emotion conveyed as much through the choreography as through the drama. Principal Dancer Yuan Yuan Tan, who was the first foreign student to receive a full scholarship to the John Cranko School, calls Tatiana “a dream role for me, since I was young.” At17, while in the school, “I saw Marcia Haydee in a clip of Onegin, and thought, ‘Oh my God, what is this?’ ” Tan says. “In China I never experienced seeing dramatic roles, because at that time we were still very isolated. I remember that last scene, as the curtain comes down. It brought me to tears.”
With such meaty, mature subject matter and choreography that makes great demands in terms of technique and musicality, Onegin requires experience, in both ballet and life, from its leads. “This is my first Cranko ballet, and it is quite difficult,” Tan says. “But I have the benefit from all these years of work with well known choreographers—their pas de deux are not easy either. So I have been practiced and maybe trained to take all the difficult pas de deux to a certain level.”
Principal Dancer Pierre-Francois Vilanoba, who dances Onegin, agrees that experience is a plus. “The partnering is quite difficult and challenging,” he says about the pas de deux for Tatiana and Onegin, which are packed with complicated lifts. “It took me some time to understand how it works. It requires complete coordination between the partners. It has to be really exact in some ways, in the intent at least.”
In preparing to dance Onegin, Vilanoba read Pushkin’s book, integrating the deeper understanding he gained from it into his own interpretation of the character .As he strives to meld physicality and personality, musicality and motivation, Vilanoba is discovering “what I can imply, add to the character.” He sees Onegin as a man who is struggling to find meaning in life. “I understand why, for this role, you have to be more mature. He’s seeking something with more depth and not finding it. And for me that’s good. I have evolved in this company, so I have been younger and superficial. And you learn there is more depth to be discovered. So I can really identify with Onegin.”
Principal Dancer Vitor Luiz, who danced both Lensky and Onegin with Ballet do Theatro Municipal do Rio de Janeiro, coached by former Stuttgart dancers Richard Cragun and Marcia Haydee, has seen firsthand the importance of bringing maturity to the role of Onegin. In Brazil he danced Lensky first. “It was good not to have me do Onegin right away, because the more you grow as an artist, the more you have to put into the character,” he says. “You learn the experience of life and then you can bring that experience to your shows.”
Like Vilanoba, Luiz researched the role of Onegin, which he describes as “a great opportunity for a male dancer. I feel very fortunate. There are very few ballets that are named for the male dancer, so it brings you a big responsibility because people go in with an expectation to know who Onegin is. And I think it’s a tricky moment— Onegin’s not a very pleasant person. [Male dancers] are used to being young and happy and pleasant, and he’s the opposite.”
Luiz believes that for a ballet like Onegin storytelling skills are essential, and he’s grateful that his mother, a writer, encouraged him to read. “In your imagination you build on that,” he says. “So when you’re telling a story, you have some idea of how you can express it.” He recalls the impact of hearing Cragun talk about how he used to cry onstage in the scene where Onegin brings his letter to Tatiana. “He told me, ‘I was having trouble with Marcia [Haydee] in our relationship, and in this moment I was completely in tears,’ ” says Luiz. “And I realized that I had to listen to him because he was so into it that he could actually cry for real—that’s a big thing.”
Principal Dancers Maria Kochetkova and Gennadi Nedvigin bring a different kind of history to Onegin: they grew up reading Pushkin. “[Eugene Onegin is] one of the greatest Russian stories,” says Kochetkova. “I still remember most of it.”Acknowledging that non-Russian choreographers who try to make ballets of Russian stories sometimes don’t get them quite right, she says Cranko’s Onegin “is spot-on. It’s so smart, and it’s really close to the book. All the little moments are so perfect you feel like it would be hard to do something different. Even like a little movement of the hand—it can be so strong. It’s fascinating.”
Nedvigin, who dances Lensky, says he reread the book before rehearsals started last season “to refresh my memory. It’s so light; you’re just floating through the text. I wish everyone could read it in Russian because it makes more sense and is much more enjoyable.” The ballet gives Lensky more to do than Pushkin did, says Nedvigin. Cranko’s Lensky, he says, is “young, and very romantic, very sensitive. The qualities that need to be demonstrated are something new; I can’t think of any other ballet that has that kind of character in it.” The key scene for him is the one before the duel, when he feels betrayed by Olga, his girlfriend, and Onegin. In that scene, Nedvigin says, “I’m really aware of what I’m doing and how I’m feeling, how I’m presenting it.” The culmination of those emotions comes in his solo before his duel with Onegin, which is “challenging because it’s very slow,” he says. “You have to control every movement, every step, and that asks a lot from a dancer.”
That solo, says Principal Dancer Jaime Garcia Castilla, also cast as Lensky, is filled with emotions. After challenging Onegin, Lensky realizes what he’s done, Garcia Castilla says: “That guy’s not anybody; he’s a friend. So you have a moment of craziness, this desperation and frustration and anger.” When the solo begins, he says, “it’s lyrical, like you’re asking, ‘Why, why, why?’ in the pirouettes. Then you have a moment of melancholy and then the craziness. I feel like Lensky should go to his knees angry and then calm himself. I think he knows he’s going to die [in the duel] because Onegin is more experienced.”
Like Kochetkova and Nedvigin, Soloist Dana Genshaft, born in Moscow to Russian parents, has a personal connection to the story behind Onegin. When she called her family with the news that she had been cast as Olga, her mother, who had studied Pushkin and memorized Tatiana’s letter as a schoolgirl, “couldn’t get the words out fast enough, that’s how excited she was,” Genshaft says. “The letter is so beautiful, the way it was written in Russian, and so honest.”
Genshaft says Olga is the most substantial role she’s danced in terms of “having a character and having a pas de deux and a variation to deliver. It’s a very demanding part in terms of acting and dancing, and I think carrying the two together is the challenge.” In the stop-and-go rehearsal process it’s easy to focus on technique, she says, “but this is a character. So you’re never a blank slate—you always have something you’re connecting with.”She describes Olga as “funny and light. You have to go out there and think, ‘This is my party’—and then it all goes sour.”
The third act, with two nearly back-to back pas de deux for Tatiana (one with Gremin, her husband, and one with Onegin), demands tour-de-force acting.“Tatiana is very comfortable resting in Gremin’s arms,” Tan says, describing how the pas de deux differ in emotional tone.“But with Onegin there’s that tension, very intense but passionate. Love has different dimensions and different looks.”
The tonal shifts are inherent in the choreography, but the dancers bring their own nuances and emotions to the final pas de deux. “I think every ballerina decides [what she’s feeling] for herself,” says Kochetkova. “There are very strong phrases in the book about why Tatiana rejects Onegin, but also you decide for yourself why. It’s not like she’s unhappy. But it’s a quiet happiness, and I feel like she can’t give this up for a maybe short time of something she wanted. I think she still loves Onegin, definitely. It’s the principle; she has to do the right thing. You have to make a decision about what’s right.”
Ultimately, that principle—of honor, of doing what is right—is what drives Cranko’s Onegin. As Onegin himself says in Pushkin’s novel, “If I am without honor, honor does not exist.” Honor brings pain and loss; it supersedes the most potent love. We see that vividly in that final pas de deux, which brilliantly conveys Onegin’s desperation and Tatiana’s anguish. Cranko pulls out all the stops in this duet, using movement and physical images that are unparalleled in their dramatic effect.
When the final curtain falls on Onegin, it’s impossible not to agree with Bourne’s assessment of the ballet: “It’s beautiful in every respect—choreography, storytelling, visually. It’s a joy to watch.”
Program notes by Cheryl A. Ossola
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In Worship Leadership class during Red Carpet week 2012 a question arose: “When do contemporary songs become hymns?” One of the leading sources on hymnology that has arisen among evangelicals in recent years is by David Music and Milburn Price, A Survey of Christian Hymnody. The following can be found in the opening chapters of their book: “Hymns are part of the branch of poetry known as ‘lyric poetry.’ The lyre was an ancient Greek musical instrument, and lyric poetry was poetry that was to be accompanied by the lyre; thus, poetry was designed for singing. Hymns contain many of the characteristics that are familiar from other types of poetry such as stanzaic form, rhyme, poetic meter, and poetic device” (Introduction, vii). In terms of distinguishing Old Testament singing and New Testament singing, they define all OT singing as Psalms (probably not completely canonized until Bablonian captivity) and or Canticles (other lyrical poetry in OT that were “antecedents for the songs of faith of later eras.” Regarding the emergence of the word hymn in the NT, Music/Price said the following: “Paul encouraged believers to sing ‘psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs’ both as an instrument of praise to God and as a tool for teaching (Eph. 5: 19, Col. 3:19). Whether this referred to three specific types of songs or is to be interpreted as a rhetorical device that Paul used for emphasis is a matter of some uncertainty. . . . Early Christians sought to supplement their heritage of psalms and canticles with songs that would praise the name of Christ, share the gospel, and express their own religious experience” (3). Three of the earliest Christian songs come directly from scripture: Magnificat (Luke 1: 46-56), Benedictus est (Song of Zacharias, Luke 1: 67-79), Gloria in Excelsis Deo (Luke 2: 14), Nun dimittis (Song of Simeon, Luke 2: 29-32). Also, portions of Paul’s letters appear to be hymn-like refrains emphasizing a particular theological point, possibly existing before Paul’s original penning of the words. If we use this possibly loose NT definition of hymn, a contemporary song could become a hymn quite quickly. But from a hymnologist’s standpoint, there are more specific designations among modern Western Christian categories for song, which can be very helpful to trace historic patterns. For example, Harry Eskew/Hugh McElrath distinguishes hymns as “usually [existing] in strophic form, using the same music for each stanza. The number of phrases of the hymn tune correspond to its text, ranging generally from as few as four. . . . There will sometimes be a refrain of four or more additional phrases.” (Sing with Understanding, 36). Clearly, a typical worship song that might have emerged in the 80′s as a chorus of few words that is continuously repeated would not fit this definition. However, a song like “Blessed Be Your Name” does appear to match the criteria stated above. Because of the influence of rock on worship songs from 1980′s to present, a bridge is often included. So, one must decide if the inclusion of a bridge is enough to not count a song as a hymn.
Archive for May, 2012
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Cutting down CO2 emissions could help increase the amount of power generated by renewable cheap energy sources, a new report says.
According to a study by Greenpeace, the world could produce 95 per cent of the electricity it needs from sustainable sources within 40 years by reducing greenhouse emissions from the energy and transport sectors by 80 per cent.
The Energy [R]evolution report estimates that the transition to a low carbon economy will require total investments of $18 trillion (£12.4 trillion) by 2030 and eco policies such as energy efficiency standards, feed-in tariffs and smart grids.
Moreover, 12 million jobs could be created in the energy sector by 2030, with 8.5 million in the renewables sector alone.
Sven Teske, Greenpeace International's senior energy expert, said: "The 2010 Energy Revolution report outlines pathways towards a 100 per cent renewable energy supply for the world.
"It demonstrates that there is no technological barrier to achieving this vision and reaping its many benefits in terms of the environment and jobs."
If you want to find out more about your energy options and how you could save up to £378 in minutes, click here.
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Wonsan (wŭnˈsän) [key], Jap. Gensan, city (1993 pop. 300,148), capital of Kangwon prov., SE North Korea, on the Sea of Japan (or East Sea). It is a major port and naval base, with a natural harbor protected by a line of islands. The city has important fish and fish-processing industries. Oil refining, rice processing, and the manufacture of locomotives, textiles, ships, chemicals, and leather goods are also important. Opened to foreign trade in 1883, Wonsan became a Japanese naval base in World War II. It suffered heavy damage during the Korean War.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
See more Encyclopedia articles on: Korean Political Geography
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In 1942, a United Press International photographer visited a metal pressing factory outside Detroit and took a snapshot of a slim, fresh-faced brunette leaning over a machine. The picture enchanted the graphic artist J. Howard Miller, who had been hired by the Westinghouse Company to design a series of motivational posters aimed at boosting female factory workers’ morale. He incorporated its pretty young subject’s face and polka-dot headscarf into one of the posters, which features a determined-looking woman flexing her right bicep under the slogan “We Can Do It!” Decades later, the poster became one of America’s most recognizable emblems of women’s empowerment, spawning countless imitations and reproduced on everything from mugs and magnets to postage stamps.
Geraldine Hoff Doyle, the real-life inspiration behind the iconic poster, died on December 26 in Lansing, Michigan, at the age of 86. Just 17 when the photographer captured her, she had taken a factory job after graduating high school, one of 6 million women who entered the workforce during World War II to plug gaping holes in the industrial labor force. An aspiring cellist, Doyle left after just two weeks of employment when she learned that the machinery had badly injured another worker’s hands. She found a position at a soda fountain and bookstore, where she met her future husband, Leo, in 1943. The couple had six children and ran a successful dental practice.
More than four decades would go by before Doyle learned of the poster’s existence and discovered that her likeness had inspired a pop culture reference. Paging through a magazine one day in 1984, she spotted a photograph of the poster and recognized her younger self. In a 2002 interview with the Lansing State Journal, Doyle, who began making frequent appearances in Michigan to sign posters, explained that motherhood and daily life had kept her too busy to realize she had become the face of Rosie the Riveter. “I was changing diapers all the time,” she said.
Unlike another famous depiction, painted by Norman Rockwell and featured on a Saturday Evening Post cover in 1943, the “We Can Do It!” poster was not originally intended as a portrayal of Rosie the Riveter, who was first immortalized in a 1942 hit song and starred in numerous government-sponsored recruitment campaigns. One of many in Miller’s series, the poster was barely seen outside Westinghouse factories in the Midwest, where women were making plastic helmet liners. It was not until later, when feminists rediscovered the poster during the 1970s and 1980s, that it achieved its iconic status and became associated with the World War II-era character.
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- Tea Pouches
- Loose Tea
- Iced Tea
- Why Mighty Leaf?
Green Tea and Breast Cancer Prevention
Adapted from Science News, September 13, 2003Many studies have indicated that diets high in produce—including broccoli and other veggies—may lower a woman's risk of developing breast cancer. Now, California researchers report data suggesting that drinking green tea does the same thing. Bad news for women who—like me—prefer black tea: The study failed to identify a similar advantage from such brews, much less coffee or herbal "teas" such as chamomile and African rooibos.
The new data aren't the first to link green teas to anticancer benefits. Dozens of animal and test-tube studies have highlighted the potential of those brews to fight malignancies in mammary and other tissues. For instance, researchers at the University of California, Los Angeles and the University of Texas in Houston showed last year that an extract of green tea inhibits breast cancer cells from making a chemical that supports tumors. The chemical, a growth factor, fosters new blood vessels that nourish the cancer. The study's results help explain why previous work by the group showed that green tea extract suppresses the growth of breast tumors in animals.
What sets the new study apart, however, is that it's the first confirmation of green tea's power against breast cancer in people. It also dovetails with several other studies in women showing no breast-cancer protection from even heavy black-tea consumption.
Globally, tea ranks second only to water as the preferred liquid refreshment. Though green tea remains popular in Asia—and accounts for roughly 23 percent of all teas drunk—it's largely ignored in the West, where black tea reigns.
In fact, both brews come from the same source—leaves of Camellia sinensis. For green teas, producers steam or otherwise heat fresh leaves shortly after harvesting, before fermentation reactions begin transforming the plant's natural polyphenols. These are compounds in tea and many other plants that serve as natural antioxidants.
To make black teas, manufacturers first crush and dry the leaves, which fosters oxidation of polyphenols and a darkening of the leaves. The process converts tea leaves' simple polyphenols—such as catechins and gallocatechins—into complex polyphenols, such as theaflavins.
For the latest study, Anna H. Wu of the University of Southern California in Los Angeles and her colleagues recorded diet and other facets of lifestyle in 501 women with breast cancer and 594 cancerfree women from the same Los Angeles neighborhoods. All were Asian Americans of Chinese, Japanese, or Filipino descent, ages 25 through 74.
Cancer patients and healthy women were comparable in their education, nation of birth, age of puberty, and height and weight. However, there were a few notable differences in the two groups. The cancer patients tended to have fewer children, to eat less soy, and to exercise less. But what really set the two groups apart was that women in the healthy group were far more likely to drink green tea.
Overall, the researchers found, drinking an average of up to 85 milliliters (ml) of green tea per day—that's less than 6 tablespoons—appeared to cut a woman's breast cancer risk by almost 30 percent, compared with women drinking no green tea. Green tea drinking halved her risk if she typically drank more green tea.
Focus on teaDuring face-to-face interviews, Wu's team questioned each volunteer on her family history, reproductive history, menstrual history, and diet. Each woman was shown measuring cups and asked to quantify the amount of various coffees and teas she had been drinking.
Overall, the Chinese-American participants consumed about three times as much black tea per day (180 ml) as the Japanese-American or Filipino-American women did. Except for the Japanese Americans, women born overseas drank more black tea than did women born in the United States, Wu's team reports in the Sept. 10 International Journal of Cancer.
Green tea consumption was highest among the Japanese Americans (160 ml per day). They downed, on average, 60 percent more than the Chinese Americans did and more than six times as much as did the women of Filipino descent. However, for each group, foreign-born women drank on average at least twice as much green tea as did women in their ethnic group who were born in the United States.
More importantly, Wu's team found, the cancer patients were more likely to eschew tea than were the healthy women. Among cancer patients who drank tea, a smaller share drank green tea; and those who did drink green tea tended to consume smaller quantities than the healthy women drank.
Wu and her coworkers acknowledge that many factors could have influenced the women's risk of breast cancer. For instance, it could be that green tea drinkers have fewer unhealthy habits such as smoking tobacco and drinking alcohol. However, the researchers probed for such confounding factors and found that green tea's apparent benefit persisted no matter how much a woman smoked or drank. Other factors that the researchers found didn't erase the green tea's effect were a woman's consumption of red meat, processed meats, poultry, milk, coffee, or fish; how much she exercised; and whether she had a history of breast cancer in her family.
Moreover, the researchers observe, "green tea drinkers showed a significantly reduced risk of breast cancer compared to non–green tea drinkers, even after adjusting for age, Asian ethnicity, birthplace, age at menarche" and a host of other potential risk factors, such as calorie intake, menopausal status, use of menopausal hormones, calorie intake, body size, or number of past pregnancies.
What about soy?Researchers have puzzled for decades over why women in Asia tend to have dramatically lower breast cancer rates than do U.S. women, including those who migrated from Asia. For a long time, the leading suspicion has centered on the greater intake of tofu, tempeh, and other soybean products in East Asia than in this country.
Because Wu's study had been designed in part to investigate this question, she and her colleagues surveyed their volunteers' soy consumption as children and adults. The researchers turned up what they describe as "an intriguing interrelationship between intake of green tea and soy that points to the possibility of a shared anticarcinogenic mechanism." A significant protective effect of soy products showed up only in women who didn't drink green tea—and vice versa.
In other words, either green tea or soy seemed to provide a benefit that wasn't increased by addition of the other. If one looks at the chemical profiles of the two foods, Wu's team notes, both green tea and soy products have an abundance of powerful antioxidants. Since the chemicals called free radicals have been implicated in several cancers, the quashing of free radicals by antioxidants might offer one explanation for these foods' anticancer effects.
The chemical interaction might also explain why a previous study in Japan found no benefit from green tea against breast cancer. Wu notes that both groups were probably consuming a typical Asian diet that was rich in soy and therefore protective against breast cancer.
ReferencesAdhami, V.M., N. Ahmad, and H Mukhtar. 2003. Molecular targets for green tea in prostate cancer prevention. Journal of Nutrition 133 (July):2417S-2424S.
Sartippour, M.R., et al. 2002. Green tea inhibits vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) induction in human breast cancer cells. Journal of Nutrition 132 (August):2307-2311.
Wu, A.H., et al. 2003. Green tea and risk of breast cancer in Asian Americans. International Journal of Cancer. 106(Sept. 10):574-579.
Further ReadingsGorman, J. 2003. Matcha green tea packs the antioxidants. Science News 163 (Apr. 12):238.
Lee, K.W., H.J. Lee, and C.Y. Lee. 2002. Antioxidant activity of black tea vs. green tea. Journal of Nutrition. 132 (April):785.
Leung, L.K., et al. 2001. Theaflavins in black tea and catechins in green tea are equally effective antioxidants. Journal of Nutrition 131 (September):2248-2251.
Raloff, J. 2001. Drink those antioxidants. Science News Online (Aug. 4).
Yang, C.S., et al. 2000. Tea and tea polyphenols in cancer prevention. Journal of Nutrition 130 (February):472S-478S.
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Whenever possible, we should try to choose a diet that includes adequate amounts of all the essential nutrients. In the case of calcium, this means consuming enough dairy products and/or relying heavily on relatively few foods --such as canned salmon and sardines with the bones, kale, collards, mustard and turnip greens and broccoli--to get 800 milligrams a day.
Recent studies have found dietary intakes of many Americans, particularly women, to be well below that level. As the high incidence of osteoporosis moves into the limelight, attention has focused on the use of calcium supplements as an alternative.
There is quite a collection to consider. The most common preparations are the calcium salts: carbonate, gluconate, lactate and phosphate. All but one are sold strictly as calcium supplements. The exception is calcium carbonate, which is also used as an antacid. Tums is the most well-known. Be aware, however, that most other antacid preparations, including the popular brands Maalox, Mylanta, Gelusil and Rolaids, do not contain calcium. And some have a lot of sodium, so check the label on these products carefully.
Some meal and dolomite also provide calcium. Because they can be contaminated with toxic metals such as lead or mercury, we do not recommend them.
Daily multiple-vitamin supplements usually contain no calcium. The exceptions are some with added minerals. Again, read the label. Calcium levels in these products generally range from 40 to 60 milligrams. It is not practical to count on this type of supplement for more than a minor contribution to your calcium intake.
Besides calcium salt, supplements may also contain vitamin D, phosphorus and/or magnesium. Unless you are housebound or get very limited exposure to sunlight, you probably don`t need extra vitamin D. As for phosphorus, nowadays there is concern that the average American is getting too much of it, particularly from processed foods and soft drinks. Getting more in the form of a supplement is probably unnecessary. And there is scant support for claims that magnesium enhances calcium absorption or utilization.
The major difference between the various calcium supplements is concentration--meaning how much calcium itself is found in a given amount of a calcium salt. Carbonate is the most concentrated form at 40 percent calcium, followed by tricalcium phosphate at 39 percent. Dicalcium phosphate provides 29 percent, and lactate 13 percent. Gluconate trails at only 9 percent calcium. These figures can mean the difference between taking one or two tablets or downing as many as 10 or 12 to get the same dose of calcium.
Unfortunately, it is harder than it should be to learn how much calcium there is in each tablet. On one bottle we saw, ``500 milligrams`` was prominently displayed on the front label. But a careful reading of the side panel revealed that the 500 milligrams referred to the total compound, calcium carbonate. Each tablet contained only 200 milligrams of calcium. In another case, the main label said ``1,000 milligrams,`` but elsewhere on the bottle it indicated that it took three pills to get that dose.
Although the various supplements differ in concentration, with one exception they are believed to be equally effective. Calcium carbonate, currently the most popular of the supplements, may be poorly absorbed by many older people. This is related to the gradual decline in stomach acid that tends to accompany advancing age.
What`s the best time to take a supplement? Absorption is probably better on an empty stomach. But manufacturers recommend taking supplements with meals because people are more likely to remember it that way, and it minimizes the chance for stomach upset.
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The main problem is to use a block cipher to generate a random key.
I would like to generate 256-bits key which can be as random as possible. I generate it in the following way:
- Pick a plaintext $p_0$ of 64 bits and a 256-bit key $k_0$. ( can be given from keyboard as seed)
- Implement a cipher which goes from 64-bits to 64-bits.
- Encrypt $p_0$ with this cipher using $k_0$ to get $c_0$. (Assuming that the cipher is a pseudo-random permutation then $c_0$ is pretty random)
- Set $p_0 = c_0$ and repeat the process say for 1000 times.
- At the end use the last 4 encrypted messages of the loop to fill the key $k_0$ and take this as the new key.
Is this method random enough? Maybe there is a problem as I'm using all time to encrypt $k_0$? Which is the best implementation to get a really random key?
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Polarized Starlight and the Handedness of Life
The asymmetry of the amino acid molecules found in all living things may have originated in space billions of years ago
Whereas amino acids produced by inorganic reactions are equally split between two mirror-image versions, the amino acids found in living things are almost universally "left-handed." The origin of this biological homochirality, as it is called, has been clouded in mystery, but a group of astronomers may have stumbled on the answer. They found that the light passing through large parts of the cosmos is sometimes circularly polarized in one direction. Such radiation can preferentially destroy one version of the amino acid molecules that form in space along with other complex organic compounds. A similar occurrence five billion years ago may have seeded the solar system and the early earth with a lopsided mix of amino acids, which would have favored one handedness over the other when life evolved from these organic molecules.
Go to Article
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Guest Author - Tracey-Kay Caldwell
Overworked? Stressed out? Is it killing you? Well some scientists are beginning to think that might be what is killing our commercial bee colonies. We are working them to death. Commercial beekeepers have been experiencing colony collapse; the bees are abandoning their hives and dropping dead. Scientist have been scrambling to figure out why the colonies are collapsing before financial and economic disaster strike.
Honeybees are not indigenous to North America. Our native plants will survive without bees and the pollination they bring. But so many crops grown in the United States, things we think of as everyday foods, like almonds, grapes, plums, cucumbers, cantaloupe, asparagus, apples, cherries, tomatoes and zucchini depend on bees for pollination. It used to be that a farmer or orchard grower would invite a beekeeper to keep his hives on his land in an agreement that benefited both. The bee’s work would operate on a natural schedule, working with the seasons, and hibernating in the winters.
But big agribusiness doesn’t work that way. The bees must accommodate their schedule. Rather than living on the land and doing their work naturally, they, and their hives are trucked in for the two week pollination season, and then trucked to another part of the country to do the same work. In the course of a year a hive can be trucked from California to North Dakota and then to Florida. All this traveling doesn’t allow for much of a winter hibernation, as the almond pollination season begins mid February.
When hives occur naturally in the wild, an square mile will support three or four hives. The bees enjoy a diverse diet of pollen and nectar from a variety of plants the diversity of this diet provides a rich mix of protein, fats, minerals, vitamins and micronutrients. But life is very different for a bee living in a commercial, agribusiness hive. The hives are crammed close to together in rows that are just a few feet apart. Because there is not enough forage to support that many bees, the bees are fed high-fructose corn syrup. Add to that the dearth of pollen last year because of drought and temperature changes, and the bees may be suffering from malnutrition. This would may them more susceptible to the concentration of viruses and diseases that occur when living creatures are housed in high-density conditions.
Commercial bee keeping operations make most of their money from pollination and not honey. Many even kill off their hives at the end of the season so as to not have maintenance cost in non productive periods. Food activists have been warning us that agribusiness’s way of growing food is dangerous to our health, it appears now it may also be dangerous to the health of bees.
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Turkey: Volga Tatar Community Losing Touch with Heritage
The bulbous brass samovar on a table in the Tatar-Turkish village of Osmaniye is definitely not a historic relic. Nearly 120 years after its arrival in Turkey from Russia, villagers say it is one of the few links left to their Tatar homeland in the Volga River.
Accounts vary about how 14 Volga Tatar families, carrying three bags of gold from the sale of their land, traveled in 1893 from Kazan, today the capital of the Republic of Tatarstan, to Osmaniye, located about 160 kilometers inland from Turkey’s Black Sea coast. Most villagers have lost track of the details, but the story goes that their ancestors migrated to practice Islam without restrictions. “We left our home and most of our relatives for Islam,” said Ravza Melle, whose family brought the samovar and, reportedly, was among Osmaniye’s founders. “We couldn’t live our religion freely.”
The area’s flat plains reminded them of the steppe along the Volga River, and Osmaniye’s distance from Istanbul, some 209 kilometers to the northwest, created a safe distance from vices found in cities, she said.
Now, the local Tatar community is once again grappling with a threat to its cultural identity. Thirty-some years ago, about 150 Tatar families lived in Osmaniye, but, these days, sheep nearly outnumber human inhabitants. In search of reliable sources of income, most villagers have moved to Istanbul or the Aegean and Mediterranean Sea port cities of Izmir and Antalya.
During the summer, only about 50 families, many of whom live permanently elsewhere, take up residence in the village. In winter, that number falls to about 30 to 35 families, residents say. “In our time, there were eight kids in every yard,” recounted 65-year-old Ferhat Aktaş, a retired farmer and jewelry-maker, who, 40 years ago, left Osmaniye for the nearby administrative seat of Eskişehir. “Now, at most, there is only one child per house. If this continues, the village will disappear.”
And, with it, the ties to Tatarstan -- a connection that already has changed with time. In the past, no ethnic Turkish families lived in Osmaniye, but now, with many mixed families, “the Tatars are a minority here,” said Fedai Erdoğan, the village’s mukhtar, or head.
"Before, we tried to keep it all Tatar,” added Erdoğan, who, despite his last name, claims no Turkish ancestry. “We didn't welcome Turkish families, but…there have been marriages.”
“I am trying to remember who is still Tatar here,” mused Aktaş.
Irfan Bitik is among the Tatar men who married a Turkish woman. A retiree who only comes to the village during the summer, Bitik said he does not speak Tatar very well. While he was growing up, his mother would scold him if he spoke Tatar, he claimed.
Aktaş, in turn, recalled how an elementary school teacher would twist his ear if he spoke Tatar -- a reflection of the Turkish Republic’s former aggressive campaign to forge a unified people out of disparate ethnic groups.
Reliable data on the current size of Turkey’s Volga Tatar population, a group that evolved from the Mongol-Tatars’ 13th century invasion of Russia, does not exist.
But Osmaniye’s Tatar villagers emphasize that, as a Turkic people, they have no need for official status as an ethnic minority. Officially, Turkey does not categorize Muslim ethnic groups as minorities.
Rather, they attribute the disappearance of Turkey’s Volga Tatar culture to the younger generation’s disinterest.
When Aktaş, who serves on the board of a Tatar cultural foundation, and his brother offered Tatar language lessons, no one signed up. “It’s kind of our fault,” Aktaş said. “It is the parents’ fault; they did not want to work hard to make the kids learn.”
His 21-year-old niece, Sule Baykal, bashfully admitted that she did not consider her identity to be “exactly” Tatar. When she was growing up, Baykal’s parents spoke Tatar among relatives, but not to her. Today, she can understand the language, but not speak it. “This is the case for most of my generation,” she said.
Samovar owner Melle, who lives in Osmaniye year-round, can only agree. “We have a really good culture, but if you don’t speak the language, if you don’t cook the food, if you don’t play the games, you lose the culture.”
Latest from Turkey
We would like to hear your opinion about the new site. Tell us what you like, and what you don't like in an email and send it to: email@example.com
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Aural Rehabilitation/Communication Therapy
These services are provided to the Gallaudet community and the DC metropolitan area)
This area offers the opportunity to work on improving how one produces/says the specific sounds as well as how well one is able to use the rules of English to" pronounce" words (for example, the in the word "phone", 'ph' is produced as 'f'; the 'e' at the end of the word is silent). In addition, one can improve how they use their voice as it relates to how well other people understand what they are saying.
- Articulation (production of speech sounds)
- Pronunciation/dictionary skills (knowledge of English rules and dictionary symbols to produce words)
- Voice/intelligibility (pitch, loudness, nasality, breath support, etc.)
Addresses how one can increase their understanding and use of English idioms & figurative language (for example, "She feels like a fish out of water.") and general vocabulary terms. Language work may also include improving your written language (structure of the sentences used as well as words/vocabulary used.)
- English idioms
- Writing for communication
Individuals who have received cochlear implant or those who are simply interested in improving listening skills for a variety of reasons (general communication, family, work, school, safety in the environment, ) can address their needs/interests under the area of auditory training.
- Post cochlear implant training (developing listening skills through the cochlear implant)
- Listening skills for hearing aid/assistive device users
- Telephone training
Individuals interested in supporting their overall communication skills by improving their ability to receive more communication information visually via lipreading/speechreading have the opportunity to address that in communication therapy.
- Viseme training (recognizing groups of sounds categorized by mouth shape)
- Synthetic training (understanding meaningful speech through speechreading)
Communication Strategies Training:
A tremendous aid to communication as a whole is the ability to use the strategies available to you when you are communicating. Knowing about communication strategies will assist you in planning for a communication situation ahead of time. Maintaining successful communication and knowing how to appropriately repair breakdowns in conversations when they occur are also an important part of this area. Having some idea of how to adjust your environment to promote good and successful communication is an essential part of this therapy.
- Anticipatory strategies (strategies to plan for more effective communication encounters)
- Maintenance and repair strategies (strategies to keep conversation going and repair communication breakdowns when they occur)
- Environmental strategies (methods for evaluating and modifying the effect of the environment on communication)
For more information on Aural Rehabilitation, please email firstname.lastname@example.org
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June 2006: Conservation of Polychrome Sculpture, Blessing Christ
The Saint Louis Art Museum will soon reopen its early European galleries. As part of that new display the museum had wanted to include a polychrome (painted) wood sculpture, Blessing Christ. The 13th-century piece is the museum’s only example of medieval Spanish sculpture, and it is one the few represented in American museum collections. The sculpture had not been on view for more than 30 years and its condition was extremely fragile: the wood was powdery, the paint actively peeling, a large crack disfigured the face. The sculpture, depicting a standing Christ with an arm raised in a blessing, could not even be placed in an upright position.
The sculpture was in critical need of conservation care, but the museum did not have a conservator with special knowledge of polychrome wood. A grant was needed to send the sculpture to a conservator with the specialized skills and knowledge needed to stabilize the piece.
In addition, the museum saw a need to bring the story of the conservation of the piece and other polychrome sculptures in its collection to its student audiences. With funding from IMLS, the museum would be able to develop, produce, and distribute a curriculum packet for teachers. The packet would discuss career opportunities in museum conservation and show how careful examination leads to new discoveries about works of art.
Project design and goals
The Saint Louis Art Museum applied for a Conservation Project Support grant primarily to stabilize Blessing Christ for eventual display to the public. The funding would enable the museum to send the sculpture to a medieval art conservation specialist at the Cloisters of the Metropolitan Museum of Modern Art. Objects conservator Lucretia Kargere could offer her knowledge of how paint is applied and how a surface is prepared for painting, as well as an understanding of the wood encountered in medieval works of art.
The work of Kargere was intended to address further goals of the project. For one, Judith Mann, curator of the museum’s early European collection, had hoped to address the prominent vertical crack in the face of the figure. With sculpture, museums do not always fill holes and losses or try to reconstruct missing parts. When they do, decisions are made based on mitigating those things that seem to interfere with the viewer’s ability to appreciate the aesthetics of the entire piece. In the case of Blessing Christ, Mann authorized a fully reversible patching and retouching so that visitors could see the beauty of the face as originally intended.
Curator Mann also hoped that Kargere’s conservation detective work would shed some light on questions surrounding the sculpture. Mann had long been aware that the sculpture had been painted more than once. A visible layer of paint showed a dotted floral pattern. She hoped to get clues about how the piece may have been painted in the past. In addition, the museum’s records about the piece included documentation describing some question of the sculpture’s authenticity. Another goal of the project, therefore, was to confirm for the record Mann’s view that the sculpture was indeed from the medieval period and was not simply a later work "in the style of" medieval art.
The goal of the museum interpretation staff’s curriculum packet was to help teachers introduce students to careers in museum conservation and show the role of the conservator as a detective who can uncover important events or details in the life of a work of art.
Plan in Action
Kargere successfully addressed the immediate concerns about the fragility of Blessing Christ. After removing accumulated dirt and grime, she consolidated paint on the sculpture with a water-soluble gelatine solution and stabilized the portions of the wood damaged by insects so that the piece could again be lifted upright.
The conservator also examined paint samples under a microscope for clues to their composition and sent two tiny paint samples to a lab for analysis. Kargare discovered that the sculpture had been painted only twice in its 800-year life and that a good bit of the original layer of paint remained. An analysis of the paint pigment showed that the original paint layer was from the 13th century. The pattern she discerned was similar to patterns she had seen on other early medieval pieces, including one of a seated Virgin and Child at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. This bit of news laid to rest any idea that the work was from a later period.
Kargere was able to sketch out the original painted design of the work, as well as the later painted design that she determined was from the 17th or 18th century.
Once the sculpture was stabilized, curator and conservator discussed cosmetic options for the face. The facial gap was filled with removable paper filler that was then retouched with removable paint to blend with the face. The less distracting portion of the crack in the hair of the figure remains. A detailed report was written and returned with the treated sculpture to be included in the sculpture’s permanent files.
The curriculum packet was the first developed by the museum and served as a prototype for two later curriculum packets for teachers. The packet was designed to explore such conservation issues as: How do we understand how objects are made and how they look? How do various methods of conservation analysis illuminate the historical context of a work of art? How do conservators preserve and restore painted wooden sculpture? What are the limitations of restoration?
The packet’s booklet has five lesson plans based on five polychrome sculptures in the museum’s collection. Written by a contract writer with input from the curator and conservators, the booklet also includes historical background, a piece on careers in art, a vocabulary list, and selected bibliography. The packet comes with images of the artworks on paperboard and on CD-ROM and is packaged in an attractive box package labeled, "Layers of Meaning: How Conservators Protect Art."
Four hundred copies of the packet were produced. Many were put in the museum’s remote resource centers at the public libraries in the city and surrounding county; many others were distributed for free to teachers who requested copies. And some were distributed at a workshop the museum held to introduce teachers to the new resource.
The packets were a hit with area schools, especially among the Catholic schools, of which St. Louis has many. Jean Turney, fourth grade teacher at St. John the Baptist in south Saint Louis used it at her former school and uses it with her current class at St. John’s. A museum member, Turney enjoys visits to the museum personally and has participated in general teacher workshops offered at the museum. She has used the packet for a variety of lessons that have included fieldtrips to the museum. She said, "Incorporating art into the curriculum adds a layer of appreciation for the resources students have in their neighborhood."
She used information in the packet to explore museum careers with her students and to discuss how decisions about conservation treatment are made. She said students enjoyed thinking about how things were made, why they were saved, and why a museum would or would not keep objects looking old.
Mann hopes that visitors to the museum’s soon-to-be-opened early European galleries will also consider such questions. The display of Blessing Christ will include a special text panel showing the two painted designs uncovered by the conservator and will describe how the appearance of works of art can be changed over the years by their owners. She said, "We’re hoping that museum visitors will take away that idea from this piece and begin to look more discriminatingly at other pieces."
Copies of the curriculum packet are still available. The charge is $8.00 for shipping. To request one, email: firstname.lastname@example.org
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OSMap: Hadrian's Wall, OL43, LR87.
Type: Vexillation Fortress, Fort, Town, Bridge, Mausoleum.
Dere Street: N (2½) to Onnvm (Halton Chesters, Northumberland)|
Stanegate: W (6¾) to Cilvrnvm (Chesters, Northumberland)
Stanegate: ESE (15) to Washing Wells (Whickham, Tyne & Wear)
Dere Street: SE (9) to Vindomora (Ebchester, Durham)
The most striking thing about the Corbridge site, aside from the massive remains themselves, is the undulating ground caused by subsidence following the Roman departure, giving the appearance that the ruined town was originally built upon the green and gentle waves of a turf sea. It also makes the layout of the town very difficult to see from ground level unless one looks directly along the line of the Stanegate itself, or one of its side-streets.
Strategically placed beside the lowest fordable point of the Tyne, close downstream of the confluence of its North and South streams. Dere Street crossed the river here on its journey north from Eburacum (York) and continued northwards across the river into Barbaricum.
"Further south are the Otalini, among whom are the following towns: Coria 20*10 59°00, Alauna 23*00 58°40, Bremenium 21*00 58°45."
There is an interesting passage in the early second century geographical treatise by Claudius Ptolemaeus (see above), in which he assigns a town named Coria to the Otalini or Otadini tribe, along with other towns Alauna and Bremenium. These settlements have all been identified with Roman sites in Northumberland, at Corbridge, Learchild and High Rochester respectively. The tribal name has now been equated with the Votadini, whose territories lay mostly within the county of Northumberland in north-east England, also in the Borders region of south-east Scotland.
There is further mention of the Roman name for Corbridge in the Antonine Itinerary of the late-second century. The first route listed for Britain in this document is entitled "From the Wall at the limits [of the empire], to Praetorium", which lists the road-stations along the route from Hadrian's Wall to Bridlington on the north-east coast of England. The second entry in Iter I is named Corstopitum, and is listed 20 miles from Bremenium (High Rochester, Northumberland) and 9 miles from Vindomora (Ebchester, Durham).
There is further mention of Corbridge in the Ravenna Cosmography of the fourth/fifth century, wherein entry #142 appears as Corie Lopocarium, the first part of which has been equated with the Coria of Ptolemy (vide supra), but the suffix Lopocarium remains a mystery, and indeed, may even be the name of another town, as yet unidentified. The Corie entry appears between those of Concangis (Chester-le-Street, Durham) and Segedunum (Wallsend, Tyne & Wear).
"Corbridge Northum. Corebricg c.1050. 'Bridge near Corchester'. OE brycg 'bridge' with a shortened form of the old Celtic name of Corchester (Corstopitum) which is near here." (Mills, 1998)
The names Coria from Ptolemy and Corie from the RC, may be derived from the same Celtic roots as the Gaelic word Coire 'a round hollow in a mountainside', and the Welsh word Cwm 'valley, dale'; both words adequately describe the location of the Corbridge station. The Antonine name Corstopitum, is possibly a Romanisation of the original Celtic name suffixed by the Latin word strepitum 'loud noise, resounding', the Roman-British name therefore meaning something along the lines of 'The Valley of the Resounding Noise', a name which undoubtedly reflects its use as a busy legionary garrison post close to the troublesome Scottish border region. It may be significant that the entry identified with Corbridge in the Ravenna Cosmography, seems to show that by the seventh century the settlement had reverted back to its original Celtic name, without the Latin suffix.
|I O M PRO SALVTE VEXILLATIO NVM LEG XX V V ET VI VIC MILITES AGENT IN P...|
|"To Jupiter Best and Greatest, for the well-being and harmony of the Vexillation drawn from the Valiant and Victorious Twentieth Legion and the Victorious Sixth Legion, the soldiers negotiated the placing [of this]."|
|(RIB 1130; altarstone)|
The Corbridge garrison was composed of legionary cohorts taken at various times from several of the Roman legions which were stationed in Britain. The first to arrive was Legio II Augusta from Caerleon in south Wales, who were stationed here under governor Quintus Lollius Urbicus around AD140, followed in the late second century by cohorts of Legio VI Victrix from York. The cohorts from the Sixth Legion were augmented for a short time by contingents from Legio XX Valeria who were moved up from their legionary fortress at Chester in Cheshire during the administration of Sextus Calpurnius Agricola. The last legionary cohort recorded at Corbridge was from the Sixth, dated to the turn of the third century.
|CONCORDIAE LEG VI VI P F ET LEG XX|
|"To Concordia,¹ the Sixth Legion, Victorious, Loyal and Faithful and the Twentieth Legion [dedicates this]."|
Vexillus of the Second Legion Augusta
|LEG II AVG COH III F||"The Third Cohort of the Second Augustan Legion made this"||1155|
|LEG II AVG COH III||"The Third Cohort of the Second Augustan Legion"||1156|
|LEG II AVG COH IIII F||"The Fourth Cohort of the Second Augustan Legion made this"||1157|
|...CE LEG II AVG FEC||"[...] of the Second Augustan Legion made this"||1158|
The Second Legion is mentioned on at least eleven inscribed stones recovered from the Corbridge environs. Aside from the usual clutch of 'cohort stones' (vide supra) which proclaim responsibility for the structure of the defences and internal buildings, there are a couple of inscriptions which provide invaluable dating information (RIB 1147 & 1148), culturally important altarstones dedicated to classical gods (RIB 1127 & 1136), also a single tombstone to an unnamed soldier (RIB 1177); all texts shown below.
|DISCIPVLINAE AVGVSTORVM LEG II AVG|
|"For the Discipline of the Emperors, the Second Augustan Legion [made this]"|
|(RIB 1127; altar or statue base)|
|DEO SAN SILVANO MILITES VEXILLAT LEG II AVG ET COL LEGIVM SILVANIANO RVM ARAM DE SVO POS VOL LIB|
|"For the holy god Silvanus,¹ the soldiers from the Vexillation of the Second Augustan Legion and the College of the Silvaniani,² willingly and freely placed this altar out of their own resources."|
|(RIB 1136; altarstone)|
|IMP T AELIO ANIONINO AVG PIO II COS SVB CVRA Q LOLII VRBICI LEG AVG PR PR LEG II AVG F||IMP CAES I AELIO ANTONINO AVG PIO III COS P P SVB CVRA Q LOLLI VRBICI LEG AVG PR PR LEG II AVG FECIT|
|"For the emperor Titus Aelius Antoninus Augustus Pius, consul for the second time,¹ under the command of Quintus Lollius Urbicus,² legate of the Augustus with pro-praetorian power, the Second Legion Augusta built this"||"For Imperator Caesar Titus Aelius Antoninus Augustus Pius, three times consul,¹ Father of the Fatherland, under the care of Quintus Lollius Urbicus² the pro-praetorian legate of the emperor, the Second Augustan Legion made this"|
|(RIB 1147; dated: AD139)||(RIB 1148; dated: AD140)|
|D M MILES LEG II AVG ...|
|"To the spirit of the departed, a soldier of the Second Augustan Legion [...]."|
|(RIB 1177; tombstone)|
|LEG VI VIC FE||"The Sixth Victorious Legion made this"||1159>|
|LEG VI VIC P F||"The Sixth Victorious Legion, Loyal and Faithful"||1160|
|INSTANTE FL HYGIN > LEG VI V||"Restored by the century of Flavius Hyginus of the Sixth Victorious Legion"||1161|
|LEGIO VI PIE F VEX REFE||"The flag-section of the Sixth Legion, Loyal and Faithful rebuilt this"||1162|
There are at least a dozen stones bearing the name of the Sixth Legion; including three dateable to the latter half of the second century, three altarstones and a tombstone. This total includes the much-defaced and difficult inscription RIB 1190, which reads: ...IE... ...TITICIA... ...VI BRIV... ...TAE... ...L VI VIC ...F, the latter part of which contains the name of the legion.
|... VEXILLATIO LEG VI VIC P F SVB CN IVL VERO LEG AVG PER L O... TRIB MILITVM|
|"[...] flag-section of the Sixth Victorious Legion, Loyal and Faithful under Gnaeus Julius Verus,¹ legate of the emperor, through the agency of Lucius O[...] military tribune"|
|(RIB 1132; dated: c.AD158)|
|SOLI INVICTO VEXILLATIO LEG VI VIC P F F SVB CVRA SEX CALPVRNI AGRICO LAE LEG AVG PR PR|
|"To the Invincible Sun, the Vexillation of the Sixth Legion, Victorious, Loyal and Faithful, under the administration of Sextus Calpurnius Agricola,² pro-praetorian legate of the emperor"|
|(RIB 1137; dated: AD162-8)|
|VEXILLATIO LEG VI VIC P F SVB CVRA VIRI LVPI V C COS|
|"The Vexillation of the Sixth Legion, Victorious, Loyal and Faithful under the administration of the consular Virius Lupus,³ a most worthy man"|
|(RIB 1163; dated: AD197-202)|
|APOLLINI MAPONO Q TERENTIVS Q F OVF FIRMVS SAEN PRAEF CASTR LEG VI V P F D D||DEO MAPONO APOLLINI P AE... LVS > LEG VI VIC VSLM|
|"To Apollo Maponus, Quintus Terentius Firmus, son of Quintus, of the Aufentine voting tribe from Saena,¹ Praefectus Castrorum² of Legio Sextae Victrix Pia Fidelis, donated out of devotion"||"To the god Maponus Apollo, Publius Ae[lius Lucul]lus, centurion of the Sixth Victorious Legion willingly and deservedly fulfills his vow"|
|(RIB 1120; altarstone)||(RIB 1122; altarstone)|
|L VAL IVSTO MIL LEG VI EGN DYONISIVS ET SVR IVSTVS HER F C|
|"For Lucius Valerius Justus, a soldier of the Sixth Legion, Egn[atius] Dyonisius and Sur[ius] Justus his heirs had this made"|
|(RIB 1175; tombstone)|
|LEG XX V V FECIT||"The Twentieth Legion Valiant and Victorious made this"||1164|
|LEG XX V V FEC||"The Twentieth Legion Valiant and Victorious made this"||1165|
|LEG XXX¹ V V COH VII||"The Seventh Cohort of the Twentieth¹ Legion Valiant and Victorious"||1166|
The name of the Twentieth Legion appears on five stones from Roman Corbridge, and it seems that a Vexillatio of at least one cohort undertook building work during the latter part of the second century. This posting placed contingents from two separate legions in Corstopitum at the same time, and appears to have been cause of some disharmony, as the only altarstone dedicated by the Twentieth is one to Concordia, the dedication of which is significantly shared with the Sixth Legion (vide RIB 1125 supra).
|IMPERATORIBVS CAESARIBVS M AVRELIO ANTONINO AVG TRIBVNICIAE POTESTATIS ... COS ... ET L AVRELIO VERO AVG ARMENIACO TRIBVNICIAE POTESTATIS I... COS ...II VEXILLATIO LEG XX V V FECIT SVB CVRA SEXTI CALPVRNI AGRICOLAE LEGATI AVGVSTORVM PR PR|
|"For their imperial Caesars, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus, holding tribunician power for the [seventeenth]¹ time, consul [three]¹ times, and Lucius Aurelius Verus Augustus Armeniacus, holding tribunician power for the [third]¹ time, consul [two]¹ times, a Vexillation of the Twentieth Legion Valiant and Victorious made this, under the administration of Sextus Calpurnius Agricola, legate of the emperors with pro-praetorian power"|
|(RIB 1149; dated: AD163)|
|DIS MANIBVS FLAVINVS EQ ALAE PETR SIGNIFER TVR CANDIDI AN XXV STIP VII H S|
|"To the spirits of the departed and to Flavinus, a trooper of the Petrian Wing, standard-bearer in the turma of Candidus, twenty five years old with seven years service, here [he] lies"|
|(RIB 1172; tombstone)|
This cavalry unit is attested at Corbridge on at least one tombstone, and is possibly mentioned on another, both stones being shown here. The wing was named after Titus Pomponius Petra, a former commander, and the name was later transferred to their main garrison fort Petrianvm (Stanwix, Cumbria). For further information see Ala Petriana.
|...MERITO EX EQ ALAE ...AE|
|"[...] veteran and former trooper of the Wing [...]"|
|(RIB 1178; suspected tombstone)|
|DISCIP AVGVSTO MILITES COH I F VARDVLLORVM M C R EQ CVI PRAEEST PVB CALPVRNIVS VICTOR TR|
|"For the Discipline of the Emperor, the soldiers of the First Cohort of Vardulli, one-thousand strong, citizens of Rome, part-mounted, under the command of the tribune Publius Calpurnius Victor [made this]."|
The First Cohort of Vardulli is attested at Corbridge on a single dedicatory stone (see text above). This part-mounted unit were originally recruited from among the Vardulli tribe, who inhabited Hispania Terraconensis, Guipuscoa, northern Spain. The unit is also recorded on two stones from Longovicium (Lanchester, Durham; RIB 1076 & 1083), on seven inscriptions variously dated between AD216 to AD241 from Bremenium (High Rochester, Northumberland; RIB 1262, 1263, 1272, 1279, 1280, 1285 & 1288), and on single undated altarstones in Scotland at Cappuck in Borders Region (RIB 2118) and Castlecary in Central (RIB 2149).
|COH [I] LING ILIOMARVS|
|"The [First] Cohort of Lingones, [century of] Juliomarus [made this]"|
Cohors Primae Lingonum Equitata was a part-mounted unit originating from the Lingones tribe of Gallia Lugdunensis, inhabiting the Bourgogne region of Central France. The First Cohort of Lingones is known from inscriptions at Bremenium (High Rochester, Northumberland; RIB 1276; AD139-43) and Longovicium (Lanchester, Durham; RIB 1091/1092; AD238-44), and possibly also here at Corbridge, where it is recorded on a single undated stone (RIB 1186 supra), which is missing the unit number.
This large early installation is described on a separate page: Beaufront Red House.
A Trajanic coin sealed beneath the rampart of the Stanegate fort at Corbridge proves a foundation date of AD103 or later, at the same time that the emperor Trajan was withdrawing troops from Britain (and elsewhere) for deployment in his second Dacian campaign which commenced in 105. It would appear that the original (Agricolan?) fort was burnt to the ground and the area levelled shortly after AD103. This is not indicative of barbarian activity, who would hardly be mindful to carefully level the ground after a night's arson attack, but is sure evidence of careful preparation of the foundations for another, larger fort built upon the same site during the early-Trajanic period. This complete rebuilding of the former fort is evidence of a change in the type of garrison unit housed at the site.
There is evidence of another rebuild and accompanying change of garrison in the early Hadrianic period, and a certain amount of rebuilding during late-Antonine times in the mid-second century is attested by an inscription of governor Sextus Calpurnius Agricola, who replaced Priscus around AD162. This probably indicates the strengthening of the Hadrianic and Stanegate barriers following the withdrawal from the Antonine Wall in Scotland. By the 3rd century Corbridge had grown into a large sprawling garrison town of 12 hectares enclosed by walls and housing a legionary garrison at its centre.
The dimensions of the auxiliary forts at Corbridge are unknown, but judging from the size of the garrison units, two of which contained a nominal one-thousand men and/or horses, the forts must have covered an area of at least 8 or 9 acres (c.3.6ha). It is noteable that of all the forts on the Northern frontier only Corbridge has yielded Saxon artefacts, perhaps indicating that the Hadrianic barrier a couple of miles to the north continued to keep barbary at bay, at least for a while.
|IMP CAES L SEP SEVERVS PI PERTINAX ET IMP CAESAR M AVR ANTONINVS PIVS AVGVSTI ET P SEPTIMIVS [GETA] CAESAR HORREVM PER VEXILLATIONEM LEG ... FECERVNT SVB L ALFENO SENECIONE LEG AVGG PR PR|
|"For Imperator Caesar Lucius Septimius Severus Pius Pertinax, Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Pius Augustus and Publius Septimius Geta Caesar, this granary, through the agency of a detachment of the [...] Legion, was built under Lucius Alfenus Senecio,¹ legate of the emperors with pro-praetorian power."|
|(RIB 1151; restored inscription; dated: AD205-8)|
The latest datable inscription found at Corbridge is RIB 1151, a restored inscription for which there are two feasible concluding lines (see above). Lucius Alfenus Senecio governed Britain from c.AD205 to 208 and is the last known governor of the entire British province before it was partitioned by the emperor Septimius Severus sometime before his death at York in 211. Gaius Valerius Pudens was the immediate predecessor of Senecio, and governed Britain from c.AD202 to 205.
During excavations over the years at Corbridge a number of animal bones have been uncovered, including those of domesticated Ox, Sheep, Goats and Pigs, game such as Red Deer, Roe Deer, Wild Ox and Hare, also animals such as Fox, Badger, Beaver, Vole and Mole; the latter group very likely being hunted and killed for sport and as a means of pest control. Among the bones recovered from the Red House site were those of Ox, Sheep, Goat, Pig, Red Deer and Roe Deer.
"At Corbridge, records have been obtained of roads and buildings over a wide area around the visible remains exposed by excavation. The main street fronting the two military compounds continues in an irregular course east and west. It is flanked by buildings, and other streets branch off to north and south. A third of a mile to the west is a Romano-Celtic temple of normal plan. The outline of the precinct-wall, which encloses an area of perhaps 120 by 110 ft., and of a central building are clearly visible, though no trace remains on the surface." (St. Joseph, 1951)
|D M ...RATHES PAL MORENVS VEXILA VIXIT AN LXVIII|
|"To the spirits of the departed [and Aria]rathes¹ Morenus the Palmyrene,² vexillarius² who lived for sixty-eight years."|
|(RIB 1171; tombstone)|
As always, the best epigraphic evidences of civilian settlement at Corbridge come in the form of tombstones.
|D M IVL PRIMVS CONIVGI C P C||"To the spirits of the departed and to Julius Primus, husband. His wife placed this as arranged."||1174|
|D M AHTEHE FIL NOBILIS VIXIT ANIS V||"To the spirits of the departed and Athene, an excellent daughter who lived for five years."||1180|
|D M SVDRENVS ERTOLE NOMINE VELLIBIA FELICISSIME VIXIT ANIS IIII DIEBVS LX||"To the spirits of the departed, Sudrenus Ertole nominates the most happy Vellibia, who lived for four years and sixty days."||1181|
|IVLIA MATER NA AN VI IVL MARCELLINVS FILIAE CARISSIMAE||"Julia Materna, six years old. Julius Marcellinus [made this] for a most lovely daughter."||1182|
|LEG A... Q CALPVRNIVS CONCESSINI VS PRAEF EQ CAESA CORIONOTOTARVM MANV PRAESENTISSIMI NVMINIS DEI V S|
|"The Legate of the Augustus [...] for cutting-down an armed band of Corionototae,¹ Quintus Calpurnius Concessinius, Prefect of Cavalry, fulfills his vow to the spirit of the most omnipresent god.²."|
|(RIB 1142; altarstone)|
Over twenty altarstones have been uncovered at Corbridge, mostly dedicated to various gods from the classical pantheons of Greece and Rome, although the greatest number of altars to a single god is the Romano-Celtic amalgam Apollo Maponus, to whom there are four dedications, closely followed by the Germanic god Veterus with three. The only other gods possessing more than one dedication are Jupiter and Discipline, each with two altarstones. There are single altars dedicated to Astarte (in Greek), Concordia, Diana, Hercules (in Greek), Mercury (in relief), Minerva, Panthea, Silvanus, Sol Invictus (Mithras) and Victory; there are another six altarstones dedicated to gods whose names are illegible or otherwise unknown. A selection of the more interesting examples are shown here.
|IOVI AETERNO DOLICHENO ET CAELESTI BRIGANTIAE ET SALVTI G IVLIVS APOLINARIS > LEG VI IVSS DEI|
|"To the eternal Jupiter of Doliche,¹ Celestial Brigantia² and Salus,³ Gaius Julius Apolinaris, Centurion of the Sixth Legion, [set this up] by command of the god."|
|(RIB 1131; altarstone)|
|ASTARTES BOMON M HESORAS POULCHER M ANETHEKEN||HERAKLEI TYRIOI DIODORA ARCHIERIA|
|"You see me, an altar of Astarte,¹ Pulcher set me up."||"To Herakles of Tyre,² the priestess Diodora (set this up)."|
|(RIB 1124; altarstone; in Greek)||(RIB 1129; altarstone; in Greek)|
|VICTORIAE AVG L IVL IVLIANVS LEG AVG ...VS...|
|"To August Victory, Lucius Julius Julianus, legate of the emperor [... willingly and deservedly] fulfilled his vow."|
|(RIB 1138; altarstone)|
|DEO VETERI||VIT M ITI||DEO VITIRI|
|"For the god Veterus."||"For Vitiris, Marcus Itius [made this]."||"To the god Vitiris."|
|(RIB 1139; altarstone)||(RIB 1141; altarstone)||(RIB 1140; altarstone)|
There are three altarstones recovered from Corbridge which are dedicated to the god Veterus or Vitiris (vide supra), an ancient German ancestral deity worshipped in Britain under a variety of names including; Veter, Veteres, Viter and Votris. The god is also known from altars at Concangis (Chester-le-Street, Durham; RIB 1046), Vindomora (Ebchester, Durham; RIB 1103) and Cataractonium (Catterick, North Yorkshire; RIB 727), also at many forts along Hadrian's Wall.
|DEAE MINERVAE T TERTINIVS... LIBR EX VOTO POS|
|"To the goddess Minerva,¹ Titus Tertinius [...] Librarius,² placed this as the result of a vow."|
|(RIB 1134; altar or statue base)|
|APOLLINI MAPONO CALPVRNIVS ... TRIB DEDICAVIT||DEO ARECVRIO APOLLINARIS CASSI VSLM|
|"To Apollo Maponus, the tribune Calpurnius [...] has dedicated [this]."||"To the god Arecurius Apollo, Cassius willingly and deservedly fulfills his vow."|
|(RIB 1121; altarstone)||(RIB 1123; altarstone)|
Apollo, also known by the Romans as Phoebus (the sun), was the son of Jupiter and Latona, and brother of Diana (a.k.a. Phoebe, the moon). He was the god of the fine arts, music, poetry, medicine and eloquence, and reputed to be master of the bow and arrow, as was his sibling goddess. His temples are known throughout the Roman world, including many examples in Britain.
|ARA DIAN POSVI N...||DEO MERCVRIO||B F DEAE PANTHEAE|
|"An Altar for Diana,¹ placed from us [...]."||"To the god Mercury.²"||"Good fortune to the goddess Panthea.³"|
|(RIB 1126; altarstone)||(RIB 1133; relief of Mercury)||(RIB 1135; altarstone)|
|... ... ...SIT... ... ...NORVS ...PRAEP CVRAM AGENS HORR TEMPO RE EXPEDITIONIS FELICISSI BRITTANNIC VSLM|
|"[...] the acting administrator,¹ planning in advance [so that] the granaries were repaired in time for the successful campaigns in Britain, willingly and deservedly fulfilling a vow."|
|(RIB 1143; altarstone)|
|IMP C M PIAVONIO VICTORINO P F AVG||AVG ... CAESAR MAXIMINVS AVG N|
|"Imperator Caesar Marcus Piavonius Victorinus Pius Felix Augustus.¹"||"Augustus [...]² Caesar Maximinus, our emperor.³"|
|(RIB 2296; dated: AD269-271)||(RIB 2297; dated: AD235-238)|
The sanctuary area of Corstopitum lay in two sections to the north of the military enclosures at the heart of the Roman town. The defenses of both the eastern and western compounds have a very un-military outline due to their methodical respect of the temples sacred boundaries. All of the temples so far discovered appear to be constructed in the classical style, which is to be expected in a town with a predominantly legionary population, all of whom were Roman citizens and thus inclined towards the classical pantheon. The eastern enclave contains at least five known temples (numbers 1 through 5) while the western enclave holds two (6 & 7). Unfortunately, although there have been several altarstones and religious artifacts turned-up in Corbridge over the years, none may be positively assigned to any of the classical shrines.
The podium of this temple was composed of packed earth held within retaining walls of dressed stone measuring 24½ ft. wide by 33 ft. long. There were five irregularly-spaced columns along the northern front, the bases of which were 1 ft 4 ins. square, which would imply a column-height of between 10-12 ft. The north-east corner of the temple was destroyed, possibly during barbarian incursions south of Hadrian's Wall around AD296.
Built alongside Temple 1 only 2 ft. to the east, the podium of this temple measured 31 ft. 5 ins. wide and at least 55½ ft. long. There were four columns set along the front of the temple, two spaced 10 ft. apart to either side of the door leading to the cella, the sanctuary of the temple. The form of the temple sanctuary was an open courtyard with surrounding roofed colonnade containing a massive platform set at the rear, probably to house an altar which was also open to the sky.
Lying to the immediate east of Temple 2, all that survives of this temple is the front of the podium measuring 27 ft. wide; the original length is unknown.
This temple is situated to the north-east of Temple 3, behind Temple 5, and unlike the three preceeding temples faced either west or east. Only the podium has survived, measuring 27 ft. 3 ins. wide by 32 ft. 8 ins. long.
Like temple 4, this temple is oriented east-west and is known only from its podium, which measured about 26½ ft. wide by at least 43 ft. in length. It was situated to the immediate north of Temple 3 and just west of Temple 4, obscuring them both.
This temple lies in the western enclave and is known only from its podium, which measures 12 ft. 8 ins. in width by 24 ft. 10 ins. long. It is the smallest known temple at Corbridge and is oriented north-south, its facade probably opened onto the street to the north.
This temple lies to the immediate south of Temple 6 and is known only from the south-east corner of its podium, which was probably aligned east-west.
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Note from the Author: Since side-saddle riding has been substantially replaced in the modern era by riding astride, many people know relatively little about it. However, since it was common back during the era of our game, I thought it might be useful to find out a little about it.
Side-saddle riding has been around since ancient times, and became popular in the Middle Ages in Europe as it allowed women to ride in a modest fashion while wearing fine clothing. There are images of women sitting aside on ancient Greek vases, although these were as passengers rather than in control of the horse. Back then, riding astride was the only way to have enough control over the horse to ride solo. The development of the side-saddle changed that, and remained popular until riding astride became socially acceptable in the early 20th century when women would wear split skirts, bloomers or eventually breeches for the activity.
There are a number of misconceptions about side-saddle riding that I have heard over the years, mostly from simple lack of experience. I have it on good authority (my mother has ridden aside, and informs me that it is VERY comfortable and easy) that it is not the torturous tool of female oppression that it is sometimes portrayed as!
While cultural pressures did make the side-saddle necessary, it in fact developed out of a need for women of status to be able to control their own horses without having to bunch up their fashionable long skirts, which could be impractical and very awkward as well as unbecoming. For the majority of women, it was more an empowerment than otherwise.
There were some notable historical figures who did ride astride, such as Marie Antoinette and Catherine the Great (who even has a portrait of herself riding astride, dressed in a male officer's uniform), but I would have to assume that they would have had to wear trousers, and so they would have been the exceptions rather than the rule. Women riding astride would at the very least raise eyebrows, unless one was of sufficiently high status to be able to disregard this (e.g. Empress of all Russia...)Catherine the Great riding side-saddleContrary to popular belief, side-saddle riding is NOT:
, as long as the saddle is correctly fitted to the rider.
- Hard on the horse
, as long as the saddle correctly fits the horse (and most saddles, especially when we are playing, would have been custom-made for the horse).
- Difficult to learn
; most students can walk, trot and possibly even canter by the end of their first lesson.
; saddle design has come a long way since the days of yore, and it is not uncommon for modern riders to gallop, jump, hunt and enter dressage contests riding aside. Regency riders would certainly have been able to canter, if not manage a risky gallop and possibly small jumps.
- Only for certain types of horse
; there are very few that cannot take a side-saddle.
- Only for women
; there are some men who ride aside, either for the challenge, for a display of some kind, or due to disability. Riding aside is perfect for people who have lost part of a leg.
- Archaic and no longer practiced
; there are numerous side-saddle associations, teachers, and it remains a feature of dressage, eventing, show jumping, parades, historical re-enactment, and even specialist side-saddle exhibitions performed in period dress.Riders in period costume (circa Victorian era?)History of the side-saddle:
One of the earliest designs is attributed to Anne of Bohemia, and is a chair-like design still seen in some epic films. The rider sat sideways, with her feet on a footrest. It was difficult for the rider to hold the reins and stay on the horse, so it was usually led, and the palfrey horse (with its smooth gait) became a popular mount for women.
Later, in the 16th century, a more practical design was available. We ladies have Catherine di Medici to thank for this one, where the rider sat facing forwards, with her leg hooked over the pommel and the addition of a stirrup for the lower foot. This now allowed women to control their own horse and ride at faster gaits.
In the 1830s (admittedly a little later than our game, sadly!)
, a double-pommel saddle was invented. The way this works is that the right leg goes around the top pommel, with the thigh lying across the horse's back and the lower leg down the horse's shoulder. The left leg then sits BELOW the lower pommel, with the foot in the stirrup, with the pommel therefore keeping the rider securely on the saddle. This allowed more freedom of movement, including gallops and jumping. The record for side-saddle jumping is 6ft 6 inches, set in Sydney in 1915. This development of the second pommel, also called a leaping horn, was the last major innovation in side-saddle design. This design is still used today.Sidesaddle showjumping record, 1915Equipment:
Aside from the saddle itself, a breastcollar is usually used to keep the saddle more steady, or sometimes a crupper (but rarely). There are no real differences in the bridles for side-saddle riding, although the reins need to be a little longer due to the position the rider must hold them.
A riding crop or whip are required, but for cueing purposes only - where an astride rider would use their right leg to give the horse a direction, a side-saddle rider does not have this option (since their leg is over the horse's back). The crop is used to replace this.
Because some saddles force the rider to hold the reins higher than usual, snaffle bits can cause the horse to have to raise its head too high, and so pelhams or double bridles may be used instead.Double-pommel sidesaddleRiding:
Posture is really important. The rider must sit squarely and centred on the horse, with both hips and shoulders square. A side-saddle rider should NOT be distinguishable from an astride rider when viewed from behind. Good balance and coordination are necessary to help keep your seat; good posture is also necessary to help ensure the horse's comfort and your own.
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This Demonstration shows the velocity and position over time of two small spheres dropped in air subject to the forces of gravity and drag. You can vary the base mass and surface area of the blue sphere. You can vary the red sphere's mass and area relative to the blue sphere. The differential equation of the forces is described in the Details.
The snapshots show three variations of base and ratio parameters leading to different terminal velocities. The position and velocity of the spheres were directly derived from solutions to the equations , where represents the downward force. Newton's second law gives , where is the instantaneous velocity, is the cross-sectional area, and is the drag coefficient. The drag force acts upward and is proportional to the area and the square of the velocity of the falling sphere. The gravity force acts downward and is proportional to the mass of the sphere; is the acceleration due to gravity. The units are MKS; the mass and area of the sphere scale to roughly model falling raindrops for their terminal velocity. Adjustments in the program could model other shapes and sizes.
The solution with initial condition can be written , where , representing the terminal velocity Integration of ) then gives the distance fallen: .
Linear drag resistance, proportional to the velocity, as described by the Stokes formula, would be valid for Reynolds number . The quadratic drag equation, attributed to Lord Rayleigh, was chosen because of the much higher .
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New Tools and Activities!
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Find the missing digit in a division calculation.
Know what each digit represents and partition into millions, thousands, hundreds, tens and ones.
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Planning a fair test to find out which habitat woodlice prefer.
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Frog Or Toad? What Is The Difference?
Is it a frog or is it a toad? How can you tell and do you want it as a pet?
Frogs and toads are from the order Anura, which literally means "no tail," and the zoological class Amphibia. Recently, zoologists have given increased attention to this species, which has been neglected (compared to birds and mammals) in the past.
These animals are mainly nocturnal and secretive and are confined to remote areas making it difficult for observation. Herpetologists specializing in amphibians have been cataloguing the variety of species in recent years and have labeled more than 3500 types of anurans.
On initial inspection, all species of frogs and toads are similar in shape. They are squat in form and have long powerful hindlegs used for jumping and swimming. They usually have webbed toes and sometimes webbed fingers. They lack a tail except for one breed of tailed frog, which has what looks like a tail but is really a copulatory organ.
There is no hard and fast difference between frogs and toads. In the past, "frog" was used to describe those with smooth, wet skin, and "toad" was used for the dry, warty type. However, large numbers have been found to fit in neither category. Experts now use the word "Anuran" to describe both frogs and toads, or they just use the word "frog" for both types.
If you plan to keep anurans, the accommodations must be set up well in advance. It is best to keep anurans in different habitats since some species can't withstand the temperament or the body secretions of others. Some species will not only eat other species almost as large as themselves, but they will even eat their own brothers and sisters.
In order to have the proper accommodations for an anuran, the owner must know something about the breed's habits and native habitat so as to provide as near natural conditions as possible. Some anurans require aquariums (all water for aquatic species), some require terrariums (land dwelling species), and some require aqua-terrariums. This is essential information before the enthusiast considers the pet. Pet stores have supplies and will suggest the best for the type of anuran you have. Tropical and subtropical species can also be kept in greenhouses (depending on the temperature). Native species and those from similar climates can be kept in an outdoor pond or enclosure.
When housing them in a container, it is also important to consider lighting, temperature, ventilation, and humidity. Each of these can be artificially provided. Anurans are ectothermic, adjusting their body temperatures by moving among a range of external temperatures. Each species has its own preferred optimum temperature, need for light and ventilation, and proper humidity level. The container where the anuran lives must be cleaned regularly, and bedding must be replaced.
Most anurans have enormous appetites and will eat only live bait. They respond to the movement. The enthusiast must either catch a large supply of insects or purchase the live bait from a pet shop. Foods include mealworms, crickets, grasshoppers, locusts, flies, earthworms, and whiteworms. Some require non-live food as well. All anurans should be supplied with food and vitamin supplements.
Anurans are not an ideal pet for someone unwilling to regularly supply live bait or clean the habitat. However, they are an unusual pet and extremely interesting to observe and enjoy.
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ClassicsOnline Home » LAWRENCE, T.E.: Seven Pillars of Wisdom (Abridged)
Although Lawrence of Arabia died in 1935, the story of his life has captured the imagination of succeeding generations. The Seven Pillars of Wisdom is a monumental work in which he chronicles his role in leading the Arab Revolt against the Turks during the First World War. A reluctant leader, and wracked by guilt at the duplicity of the British, Lawrence nevertheless threw himself into his role, suffering the blistering desert conditions and masterminding military campaigns which culminated in the triumphant march of the Arabs into Damascus.
T. E. Lawrence
Seven Pillars of Wisdom
At the funeral of T.E. Lawrence, Churchill wept and called
him ‘one of the greatest beings of our time. Whatever our need we shall never
see his like again’. For the generation who experienced the mud and horror of
the trenches in Flanders, Lawrence offered a view of the war in Arabia, which
was at once more romantic and exotic. But the reality of Lawrence was more
complex than the courageous, blue-eyed British hero, risking his all for the
love of his country and his commitment to the Arab cause against their Turkish
Thomas Edward Lawrence was born on August 16, 1888. His
father, Thomas Chapman, was heir to an Irish baronetcy, but he had left his
wife and four daughters to live with their governess, Sarah Maden. He and Sarah
changed their name to Lawrence and Thomas Edward was the second of their five
In 1907, Lawrence won a scholarship to Jesus College,
Cambridge, to study History. He later undertook a 1,000-mile walking tour of
Syria and became fascinated by the country.
In 1914, he was recruited by military intelligence and, when
Turkey joined Germany in the war against the Allies, he was posted to Cairo.
His subsequent role in the war in the Middle East is described in Seven Pillars
It is clear throughout the book that Lawrence was well aware
that his promises of freedom to the Arabs were hollow; that his job was to get
them to fight the Turks at all costs. It is possible that this sense of
betrayal and guilt dogged him for the rest of his life.
After the war, he withdrew from public life and became an
aircraftman with the Royal Air Force under the assumed name
of Shaw. Here he devoted himself to the development of high-speed launches and
a primitive forerunner of the hovercraft.
In 1935, he left the RAF and retired to his cottage in
Clouds Hill in Dorset. On May 13, 1935, only ten weeks after his retirement,
Lawrence was injured in a motorcycle accident and died six days later. He has
become one of the legendary figures of the 20th century; his bust stands in St.
Paul’s Cathedral, along with those of Nelson and Wellington. Although he was a
reluctant leader, and never felt that he fully belonged either in Arabia or as
part of the British establishment, he has become, nevertheless, the epitome of
the swashbuckling British adventurer.
Notes by Heather Godwin
Jim Norton, one of Ireland’s leading actors, has worked
regularly on Joycean topics, and particularly Ulysses, during his long career
in film, TV, radio and theater. Born and brought up in Dublin, he spent his
early acting years in Irish radio. He now divides his time between London and
Hollywood — where, among his many parts, has been the role of Einstein on the
popular TV serial Star Trek. Norton's film credits include Hidden Agenda, Into
the West, and Straw Dogs.
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LAWRENCE, T.E.: Seven Pillars of Wisdom (Abridged)
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Takeo Kanade serves as director of the Quality of Life Technology Center and professor in computer science and robotics at Carnegie Mellon University. See how NSF has supported his research. Image credit: Takeo Kanade
This project, called Grand Challenge, aims to collect data on daily activities such as cooking. Here, a user is monitored with video, accelerometers and motion-capture devices. Eventually this data could help robots recognize human activities and assist, if needed.
A Robot Butler
HERB, the robot butler, is part of the Active Home project. That project combines physical assistance with a "smart" environment, monitoring people and objects. The robot can recognize, grasp and move objects of varying shapes and positions.
More Than a Wheelchair
PerMMA is a project that seeks to allow wheelchair users all the mobility and manipulation of an unimpaired person. It's not just a wheelchair with added intelligence and arms--PerMMA is a mobile robotic manipulator with a seat for a person.
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The International Labor Organization (ILO), founded in 1919, is the longest continuously operating intergovernmental organization in modern history and is widely recognized as the arbiter and protector of workers’ rights and employment standards worldwide. It has a unique, tripartite governance structure comprised of representatives of governments, organized labor, and employers from its current 183 member states, each of whom participate in the work of the ILO in a 2-1-1 ratio, respectively. And largely for this reason, with its International Labor Conference or General Conference (often called the “international parliament of labor”) setting its broad policies each year, it has garnered widespread support for nearly 200 conventions that today form the foundation of human rights protection for workers.
The United States, a member of the ILO, has been slow to ratify these treaty instruments, however, even though they run the gamut of worker concerns and are embraced by the International Bill of Human Rights (the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights). For example, 1948 ILO Convention 87, ratified by 150 countries, requires countries “to take all necessary and appropriate measures to ensure that workers . . . may exercise freely the right to organize”; 1949 ILO Convention 98, ratified by 160 countries, declares that “[w]orkers shall enjoy adequate protection against acts of anti-union discrimination”; and other widely ratified ILO conventions require countries to “promote . . . equal remuneration for men and women workers for work of equal value” and to “establish a system of minimum wages” that considers “the needs of workers and their families . . . , the cost of living, social security benefits, and the relative living standards of other social groups.”
Yet of the more than 125 million people in the United States labor force, only 14.8 million workers belong to labor unions, and union membership continues to drop as employers move jobs overseas and become more adept at blocking unionization efforts. Women in the United States are paid less than 78% of what men are paid in similar positions, and the real value of the U.S. minimum wage has decreased by more than 25% since its peak in 1968. These and other statistics bear harsh witness.
Percent of private-sector workers in the United States who are members of a union, less than one-fifth of the public-sector rate, which stands at 37% (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2012)
Income ratio between the top fifth of households and bottom fifth of households in U.S. metropolitan areas, reflecting the growing wage gap between high‑wage and low‑wage workers over the past 30 years when inflation‑adjusted wages have increased by 14% for low‑wage workers and 44% for high‑wage workers (DC Fiscal Policy Institute 2012; The Washington Post 2012)
Number of U.S. states that, as of 2012, have passed anti-union “right to work laws” that also are among the states with the highest income inequality, lowest educational achievement, and highest level of dependence on public subsidies as of 2012; nineteen of the twenty-five states with the highest worker fatality rates and six of the ten states with the highest unemployment rates were right-to-work states at the same time (The Huffington Post 2012; The New York Times 2012; Washington State Labor Council, AFL-CIO 2009)
Percent of employers who fire workers that try to form unions, an illegal practice under the 1935 National Labor Relations Act, but one still attractive to employers who face weak penalties for violations (such as mitigated back pay), which take the National Labor Relations Board an average of 5.5 years to resolve, even in the “highest priority” cases (The New York Times 2012; American Rights at Work 2009)
Percent increase of disparity in the hourly wage of men and women in the United States between 1973 and 2007; over that same span, private‑sector union membership in the United States declined from 34% to 8% for men and from 16% to 6% for women (Bruce Western, Harvard University Department of Sociology 2011)
Percent of newly formed unions that, as of 2007, did not have a collective‑bargaining agreement one year after union election; 37% of newly formed unions had not reached such an agreement two years after union election (American Rights at Work 2009)
Percent of children and working-age adults in the United States with employer-sponsored health insurance in 2010, down from 63.6 percent in 2007, a steep decline in coverage caused largely by the significant loss of employment during the “great recession” stretching from December 2007 to June 2009 (National Institute for Health Care Reform 2012; The New York Times 2012)
Percent of authorized foreign‑born workers who reported employer violations of laws regulating overtime work in 2008; 31.1% of foreign‑born workers also reported more frequent minimum-wage violations than U.S.-born workers (15.6%), a disparity magnified by obstacles to foreign-born worker unionizing―in 41% of 2005 unionizing campaigns with recent immigrants in the majority, employers threatened to call U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) (American Rights at Work 2012; Migration Policy Institute 2011)
The CEO-to-worker “pay ratio” in the United States in 2010, indicating that CEO compensation at the country’s 299 largest corporations is 343 times workers’ median pay, by far the widest ratio in the world, representing a dramatic shift in corporate profit allocation since 1980, when CEO compensation stood at 42 times workers’ median pay (AFL-CIO 2011; Economic Policy Institute 2011)
Number of state employees represented by unions who received layoff warnings from Wisconsin Governor Scott Walker in 2011 in an attempt to pass a bill that would dramatically reduce collective‑bargaining rights for public‑sector employees; similar bills were introduced in Ohio and Indiana the same year (The New York Times 2011)
Number of religion-based employment‑discrimination charges filed with the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission in 2011, 25% of them by U.S. Muslim workers (though Muslims make up less than 2% of the U.S. population), reflecting a 142% increase since 1997, including more complaints of anti-Muslim bias in 2009 than in the year following the 9/11 attacks on New York’s World Trade Center (U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission 2011; The New York Times 2010)
Yearly dollar wage for a forty-hour work week at the mandated 2012 federal minimum wage of $7.25 per hour, less than 40% of the $37,960 annual income needed to afford a two-bedroom apartment at the national average Fair Market Rate of $949 per month (National Low Income Housing Coalition 2012; The Washington Post 2012)
Number of people trafficked internationally each year as part of a global trafficking trade valued at $32 billion annually, resulting in an estimated 2.5 million people who are subjected to forced labor at any given time, including an estimated 50,000 in the United States―in contrast to governments, in 2010, having formally identified only 33,113 trafficking victims worldwide, prosecuted only 6,017 trafficking cases, and obtained only 3,619 trafficking convictions worldwide (The Economist 2008; U.S. State Department Trafficking in Persons Report 2011; Human Rights & Human Welfare, University of Denver 2008)
Decrease in number of U.S. workers belonging to unions since U.S. union membership peaked at 21 million in 1983, the union membership rate having plunged from 28.3% in 1954 to 11.8% in 2011, notwithstanding that the median weekly earnings of union members approximates $200 more than non-union workers ($938 compared to $729) (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2012; Cornell University ILR School 2004)
Number of domestic workers―mostly women―worldwide, including 1.8 million in the United States who, under ILO Convention 189 on Decent Work for Domestic Workers adopted by the ILO General Conference and opened for ratification in June 2011, will be guaranteed basic labor rights for the first time in history once the Convention enters into force, affording protection against excessive work hours, unpaid wages, confinement, and physical and sexual abuse (International Labor Organization 2011; Human Rights Watch 2011)
Dollars in reimbursement offered to workers discharged or discriminated against in violation of the National Labor Relations Act in the fiscal year ending September of 2009, representing compensation for discharged workers’ lost earnings, fees, dues, and fines (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2009)
* Copyright © 2012 by The University of Iowa Center for Human Rights (UICHR). Prepared by Bessie Dutton Murray Distinguished Professor of Law Emeritus and UICHR Senior Scholar Burns H. Weston with the generous assistance of Michael Judd and Chelsea Moore, students at the UI College of Law, and Abigail Behr, a pre-law student in the UI College of Liberal Arts and Sciences. For further information on human rights generally, please visit the UICHR web site: www.uichr.org .
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The Chemists in the Library Working Group has compiled these electronic and print resources for further exploration of the theme of National Chemistry Week: Earth's Atmosphere and Beyond!. The resources have been classified by grade level and annotated.
- Composition of Earth's Atmosphere
- What the atmosphere is made of, how it came to be that way, and how it could change in the future.
- The forces behind weather and how to forecast it. Also a special section on storms, tornadoes, and hurricanes.
- Ozone Hole
- The history of the ozone hole and how ozone depletion affects us.
- Global Warming and Climate Change
- How scientists measure global warming, what may be causing it, and its impact.
- Extraterrestrial Atmospheres -- Mars
- All about the planet next door and the Mars Rover missions.
- The History of Flight
- The Wright Brothers, how airplanes have changed over the years, and the principles behind flight.
- A - Z
- Alphabetical list of selected resources as PDF files. More items are included on the web site.
- Reference Shelf
- Sources of basic reference information.
- How to Find More in Your Library
- Find other interesting books by searching your library's catalog or by browsing certain call numbers in your library's stacks.
- How to Find More on the Web
- Find other interesting web sites using search engines and subject directories.
Copyright © 2003 American Chemical Society
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Discover the cosmos! Each day a different image or photograph of our fascinating universe is featured, along with a brief explanation written by a professional astronomer.
2007 May 14
Explanation: When passing Earth on your way to Jupiter, what should you look for? That question arose for the robotic Galileo spacecraft that soundlessly coasted past the Solar System's most photographed orb almost two decades ago. The Galileo spacecraft, although originally launched from Earth, coasted past its home world twice in an effort to gain speed and shorten the duration of its trip to Jupiter. During Galileo's first Earth flyby in late 1990, it made a majestically silent home movie of our big blue marble rotating by taking images almost every minute during a 25-hour period. The above picture is one frame from this movie -- clicking on this frame will put it in motion (in many browsers). Visible on Earth are vast blue oceans, swirling white clouds, large golden continents, and even one continent frozen into a white sheet of water-ice. As Galileo passed, it saw a globe that not only rotated but began to recede into the distance. Galileo went on to a historic mission uncovering many secrets and mysteries of Jupiter over the next 14 years, before performing a final spectacular dive into the Jovian atmosphere.
Authors & editors:
Jerry Bonnell (USRA)
NASA Official: Phillip Newman Specific rights apply.
A service of: ASD at NASA / GSFC
& Michigan Tech. U.
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