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In Emmon Bach, Eloise Jelinek, Angelika Kratzer & Barbara Partee (eds.), Quantification in Natural Languages. Kluwer (1995)
|Abstract||In this paper, we discuss some rather puzzling facts concerning the semantics of Warlpiri expressions of cardinality, i.e. the Warlpiri counterparts of English expressions like one,two, many, how many. The morphosyntactic evidence, discussed in section 1, suggests that the corresponding expressions in Warlpiri are nominal, just like the Warlpiri counterparts of prototypical nouns, eg. child. We also argue that Warlpiri has no articles or any other items of the syntactic category D(eterminer). In section 2, we describe three types of readings— "definite", "indefinite" and "predicative"—which are generally found with Warlpiri nouns, including those which correspond to English common nouns and cardinality expressions. A partial analysis of these readings is sketched i n section 3. Since Warlpiri has no determiner system, we hypothesize that the source of (in)definiteness in this language is semantic. More specifically, we suggest that Warlpiri nominals are basically interpreted as individual terms or predicates of individuals and that their three readings arise as a consequence of the interaction of their basic meanings, which are specific to Warlpiri, with certain semantic operations, such as type shifting (Rooth and Partee 1982, Partee and Rooth 1983, Partee 1986, 1987), which universally can or must apply in the process of compositional semantic interpretation|
|Keywords||No keywords specified (fix it)|
|Through your library||Configure|
Similar books and articles
Miriam Corris, Christopher Manning, Susan Poetsch & Jane Simpson, Bilingual Dictionaries for Australian Languages: User Studies on the Place of Paper and Electronic Dictionaries.
Maria Bittner (1994). Cross-Linguistic Semantics. Linguistics and Philosophy 17 (1):53 - 108.
Maria Bittner (1998). Cross-Linguistic Semantics for Questions. Linguistics and Philosophy 21 (1):1-82.
Brian Butterworth & Robert Reeve (2008). Verbal Counting and Spatial Strategies in Numerical Tasks: Evidence From Indigenous Australia. Philosophical Psychology 21 (4):443 – 457.
Maria Bittner & Ken Hale (2000). Comparative Notes On Ergative Case Systems. In Robert Pensalfini & Norvin Richards (eds.), MITWPEL 2: Papers on Australian Languages. Dep. Linguistics, MIT.
Paul Faulstich (1998). Mapping the Mythological Landscape: An Aboriginal Way of Being-in-the- World. Philosophy and Geography 1 (2):197 – 221.
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Join the colours
Enlist in the army.
Each regiment in the British Army had a flag, which called its colour. This dates back to at least the 16th century. In this citation from Certain discourses concerning the formes and effects of divers sorts of weapons, and other verie important matters militarie, 1590, Sir John Smythe appears to be disparaging about what must then have been new practise of called an ensign (flag) a colour:
"Colours is by them so fondlie & ignorantly given, as if they should (in stead of Ensignes) be asked how manie Colours of footmen there were in the Armie."
The word colour in this context is now best remembered via the annual ceremony of Trooping The Colour. In this, various regiments of the British Army, notably the Household Division, parade their regimental colour before the monarch.
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On switching the filters, an abrupt decrease occurs in the discharge valve opening. On the time frame of the trend in Figure 5, the response of the flow controller is instantaneous. However, there's no effect on discharge flow. (The decreased valve opening merely compensates for the lower pressure drop across the filters.) In the cascade configuration, the flow controller completely isolates the level controller from any consequences from switching the filters.
Figure 5. Flow controller isolates level controller from any consequences when filters are switched.
CONSTANT TOTAL DISCHARGE FLOW
Up until now we've focused on maintaining as constant a discharge flow as possible given the variations in feed flow to the vessel and the capacity of the vessel to smooth these variations. Some applications, though, add a complication. In them:
• Two (or possibly more) discharge flows are present, with the vessel level controller manipulating one.
• Other factors determine the second discharge flow and that flow isn't constant.
• Any change in the second flow must lead as quickly as possible to an equal but opposite change in the flow regulated by the vessel level controller — that is, the total discharge flow must remain constant.
Figure 6. Manipulating distillate flow regulates temperature in upper stage of column.
Distillation provides an example of such a requirement. Figure 6 illustrates the upper section of a column. The overhead vapor is totally condensed. Some of the condensate exits as distillate product; the remaining condensate returns to the column as reflux.
The control configuration consists of a temperature-to-flow cascade. Distillate flow manipulation regulates the temperature on the control stage in the upper section of the column. The temperature loop responds slowly, so providing a controller for distillate flow is advisable. Reflux manipulation regulates vessel level.
Reflux flow can't be zero; the minimum depends on the column internals. In the simple feedback configuration shown in Figure 6, you must convert this minimum flow to a corresponding valve opening and impose a minimum on the opening. The availability of a reflux flow measurement permits implementing a level-to-flow cascade. This enables imposing the minimum reflux flow via a lower limit on the reflux flow set point.
In developing control configurations for distillation, the first priority is to establish how to regulate product compositions. To maintain overhead composition at its desired value, the scheme shown in Figure 6 uses the temperature on a control stage in lieu of an overhead composition measurement. When you must control both overhead and bottoms compositions, interaction between these two loops is a given — anything that affects one composition impacts the other (a consequence of the material balances). Using a steady-state separation model, you can perform an interaction analysis to determine whether to control overhead composition using reflux flow or distillate flow. When the answer is distillate flow, the configuration in Figure 6 is appropriate.
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Who Was Melchizedek?
We have already seen that Jesus Christ is the Mediator between God and man. His willing sacrifice for our sins uniquely qualified Him for this crucial role. Yet the preexistent Word also prefigured this sacred office during the time of Abraham.
He did so in the person of Melchizedek, priest of the Most High God. The book of Genesis only briefly mentions this mysterious person. But King David, and especially the New Testament book of Hebrews, does not miss His deep significance.
To understand Melchizedek's identity, we must again let the Bible interpret the Bible. Our breadth of understanding is augmented enormously when we join these three accounts together and consider them as a whole.
First let's look at the Genesis account. After rescuing his nephew Lot from military capture, Abraham encountered Melchizedek. "Then Melchizedek king of Salem brought out bread and wine; he was the priest of God Most High. And he blessed him and said: 'Blessed be Abram of God Most High, Possessor of heaven and earth; and blessed be God Most High who has delivered your enemies into your hand.' And he [Abraham] gave him a tithe of all" (Genesis 14:18-20).
It is interesting to note that Melchizedek greeted Abraham with bread and wine, later to become the symbols of Christ's Passover sacrifice of His body and blood. Also, Melchizedek addressed God as "Possessor of heaven and earth." Around 2,000 years later, Jesus Christ addressed the Father as "Lord of heaven and earth."
Psalm 110, one of David's psalms, is one of the most theologically significant. As we saw in an earlier chapter, it features both the Father and the Word in the opening verse: "The LORD said to my [David's] Lord, sit at my right hand . . ." It is Christ who now resides at the Father's right hand (Hebrews 8:1; 10:12; 12:2).
Keeping the general context of Psalm 110:1 in mind, notice verse 4: "The LORD has sworn and will not relent, 'You are a priest forever according to the order of Melchizedek.'" This is the same LORD that spoke to David's Lord (the preexistent Word) in verse 1, still speaking to the same Being. This certainly helps to indicate the identity of this mysterious Old Testament personage. Yet it is the book of Hebrews that gives us the strongest evidence.
Hebrews' commentary on Melchizedek
So important is this basic subject that one entire New Testament chapter is devoted to explaining the significance of just three verses in the book of Genesis. The topic is introduced in the last verse of Hebrews 6. The writer points out that Jesus has become "High Priest forever, according to the order of Melchizedek," as King David foretold so long ago in Psalm 110.
Then in Hebrews 7, the author goes on to consider the amazing attributes and qualities of God's high priest of old. "For this Melchizedek, king of Salem, . . . first being translated 'king of righteousness,' and then also king of Salem, meaning 'king of peace,' . . . remains a priest continually" (verses 1-3).
Consider that Melchizedek means "King of Righteousness." It would essentially be blasphemy to apply this title to any human being because "all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God" (Romans 3:23). Only a divine Being would appropriately bear this awesome title.
Says The New Bible Commentary: Revised: "Note that Scripture pictures him [Melchizedek] as one who is a king as well as a priest. The combination of these two offices was to be a distinguishing characteristic of the Messiah" (p. 1203, 1970, emphasis in original).
Melchizedek's next awesome title is "King of Peace." Of course, fallible human beings simply do not know the way to peace (Romans 3:10, 17), and to apply such a title to any man would, again, be virtually blasphemous. Jesus Christ Himself is the Prince of Peace (Isaiah 9:6).
'Like the Son of God'
The equation between these two great personages becomes clearer as we read on in Hebrews 7. Verse 3 describes Melchizedek as being "without father, without mother, without genealogy, having neither beginning of days nor end of life, but made like the Son of God, [and one who] remains a priest continually." His priesthood never ceased! The only priest who could possibly have fit these qualifications was the preexistent Word, the great Being who was on hand before the very creation itself (John 1:1).
The description "without father, without mother" means far more than just the supposition that Melchizedek's family connections were simply omitted from the Genesis account. He had no physical human parents! In context, the phrase "having neither beginning of days nor end of life" makes that point crystal clear.
Finally, the phrase "made like the Son of God" ("bearing the likeness of the Son of God," REB) is further strong evidence of Melchizedek's identity. He was "like" the Son of God because He was not yet, in actuality, the Son of God—that is, until He was later begotten by God the Father through the agency of the Holy Spirit.
Melchizedek couldn't have been the Father because he was the "priest of the Most High God." He could have been only the eternal, preexistent Word who later became Jesus Christ, the Son of God.
|©1997-2007 United Church of God -
Reproduction in whole or in part without permission is prohibited.
All correspondence and questions should be sent to firstname.lastname@example.org. Send inquiries regarding the operation of this Web site to email@example.com
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In the design literature, the term design concept is often used de facto, or with only a brief definition provided. Despite the cursory definition for concept, the design process rests heavily on concepts, e.g., brainstorming and generating multiple design concepts, and subsequently identifying design concepts for concept selection, evaluation and development, etc. Concepts and concept formation are of particular interest in psychology, as concepts play a central role in human cognition. Concepts and concept identification are also of interest in other fields such as archaeology, bioinformatics and education. In this paper, we explore the process of design concept identification and address the issue of identifying design concepts in free-form text. Our exploratory experiment uses text transcripts of verbal concept generation sessions to first investigate agreeability between human concept identifiers. Next, we perform a language analysis on the transcripts to uncover language patterns that may differentiate between text segments containing concepts and text segments not containing concepts. Our results show that humans are adept at identifying and agreeing upon concepts (average agreeability > 0.70), and that there are significant language differences that may distinguish concept segments from non-concept segments (i.e., non-concept segments have significantly more verbs and borderline significantly more self-references than concept segments). In general, automated concept identification may lead to better integration of early conceptual design with more detailed and computable downstream processes, resulting in a unified design workflow.
I. Chiu and F.A. Salustri. 2012. Understanding the Design Concept Identification Process. Design Computing & Cognition. College Station, Texas.
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The weather in New York City improved a little this week. So I am posting a photo of this carousel at Bryant Park.
The carousel, from the Italian word garosello and Spanish word carosella ("little war"), was first built by Turkish and Arabian cavalries in the 1100s as a training apparatus for combat on horseback. Soldiers would practice their archery skills and sword plays while sitting on the moving wooden horses. These carousels were usually kept within the castle walls and not seen by the public.
In the early-1800s, colorful wooden horses suspended on a poles and powered by ropes and pulleys were unveiled at carnivals and fairs in England and Europe. Steam powered machines and music were added later and the popularity of carousels began to rise. The golden age of carousels were in the early 1900s when elaborate animals and decorative chariots were added to the rides.
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History of Megan's Law
Megan's Law is named after seven-year-old Megan Kanka, a New Jersey girl who was raped and killed by a known child molester who had moved across the street from the family without their knowledge. In the wake of the tragedy, the Kanka family sought to have local communities warned about sex offenders in the area.
On a warm July evening in 1994, Megan was lured into a neighbor's house in
Hamilton Township, New Jersey. The neighbor was a twice-convicted sex offender and told Megan he wanted to show her a puppy. The offender lived right across the street from the Kanka residence. However the police were prohibited from disclosing the presence of this child molester because at the time the law did not allow the release of sex offender information to the public.
As a result of Megan's death, the longstanding legal requirement prohibiting law enforcement from advising the public of serious and high-risk sex offenders living in a community was brought to national attention. On May 17, 1996, President Clinton signed the federal Megan's Law (H.R. 2137), which "required the release of relevant information to protect the public from sexually violent offenders."
In California, Assemblywoman Barbara Alby authored California's version of Megan's Law with Attorney General Dan Lundgren as the measure's sponsor. Governor Pete Wilson signed Megan's Law for California. This law allows, for the first time, public access to information on serious and high-risk sex offenders.
For more information, please visit Megan's Law
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5. Where do the world's supplies of mercury come from?
- 5.1 How does mercury reach the world market?
- 5.2 How important is mercury recycling?
- 5.3 What is mercury used for?
5.1 How does mercury reach the world market?
The natural levels of mercury in the Earth’s crust vary from
place to place, but average about 50
mg per tonne of rock.
Mercury is mined when present in
cinnabar ores, which
generally contain about 10
kg per tonne of rock.
Mercury is also present at very low levels throughout the
biosphere. Thus, mercury
absorbed by ancient plants
may account for its presence in
fossil fuels like coal, oil
Today, the world market is supplied by mercury that is:
- newly extracted from mines;
- recovered as a by-product of the mining or refining of
other metals, minerals, natural gas and old mining waste;
- recycled from spent products and waste from industrial
- held in government reserve stocks; and
- held in private stocks, such as in
chlor-alkali and other
By the year 2000, the production of mined mercury had fallen
to a third of its level in the early 1980s. Despite low demand,
low prices and the alternative sources available, mercury is
still mined in a number of countries such as Spain, China,
Kyrgyzstan and Algeria. Moreover, unrecorded small-scale mercury
mines have been reported in Asia and Latin America.
5.2 How important is mercury recycling?
Since the 1990s, about 700 to 900
tonnes of recycled mercury
have been put on the world market every year. Most of this has
come from recently closed mercury-based
Their equipment employs a lot of mercury, though it is not
consumed in the chemical process.
Over the next decade and beyond, up to 13 000
tonnes of mercury will
become available from the European Union alone. Similarly, large
stocks of mercury held by various governments have become
surplus and could be put on the market. For instance, the US
government has a large mercury stock of 4 435 tonnes and has
suspended sales since 1994 pending an evaluation of the
potential environmental and market impacts.
The reuse and recycling of mercury replaces the mining
processes, and prevents new mercury entering the market and the
environment. However, giving preference to recycled mercury
creates complications, because an excess supply may drive the
market price down. This would encourage increased use, and thus
disposal of mercury. For this reason, certain steps are being
taken to manage supply, for example in Europe.
5.3 What is mercury used for?
Mercury is a versatile material known for thousands of years.
It is the only metal that is liquid at room temperature. It is a
good electrical conductor, has a very high
density and high
surface tension, expands
and contracts uniformly when pressure and temperature change,
and it can kill micro-organisms, including
pathogenic organisms and
Elemental mercury has
- to extract gold and silver from ore (for centuries);
- to assist the manufacture of
- in manometers, which measure and control pressure;
- in thermometers;
- in electrical and electronic switches;
- in fluorescent lamps; and
- in dental amalgam
Mercury compounds have been used:
- in batteries;
- as biocides, to
control or destroy micro-organisms, e.g. in the paper
industry, in paints and on seed grain;
- as antiseptics in
- for chemical analysis;
- as catalysts, to
make the manufacture of other chemicals more efficient; and
- in pigments and dyes, detergents, and explosives
(mainly in the past).
In industrialised countries, awareness of the potential
adverse impacts of mercury
on health and the environment has led to a reduction of both the
volume and the range of uses of mercury and its compounds,
particularly during the 1980s and 1990s. Nonetheless, mercury is
still used in many ways in some other parts of the world.
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The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian people who spoke a language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family and established a kingdom centered at Hattusa (Hittite URUḪattuša) in north-central Anatolia (on the Central Anatolian plateau) ca. the 18th century BC. The Hittite empire reached its height ca. the 14th century BC, encompassing a large part of Anatolia, north-western Syria about as far south as the mouth of the Litani River (a territory known as Amqu), and eastward into upper Mesopotamia. After ca. 1180 BC, the empire disintegrated into several independent "Neo-Hittite" city-states, some surviving until as late as the 8th century BC.
The archaeologists who discovered the Anatolian Hittites in the 19th century initially identified them with the Biblical Hittites. The term "Hittites" was taken from the KJV (King James Version) translation of the Hebrew Bible, translating חתי HTY, or בני-חת BNY-HT "Children of Heth". (Heth is a son of Canaan.) Today the identification of the Biblical peoples with either the Hattusa-based empire or the Neo-Hittite kingdoms is a matter of dispute.
The fullest identified designation of the Hittite kingdom is "The Land of the City of Hattusa". This description could be applied to either the entire empire, or more narrowly just to the core territory, depending on context. The word "Hatti" is actually an Akkadogram, rather than Hittite; it is never declined according to Hittite grammatical rules. Despite the use of "Hatti", the Hittites should be distinguished from the Hattians, an earlier people who inhabited the same region until the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, and spoke a non-Indo-European language called Hattic. The Hittites themselves referred to their language as Nesili (or in one case, Kanesili), an adverbial form meaning "in the manner of (Ka)nesa", presumably reflecting a high concentration of Hittite speakers in the ancient city of Kanesh (modern Kültepe, Turkey). Many modern city names in Turkey are first recorded under their Hittite names, such as Sinop and Adana, reflecting the contiguity of modern Anatolia with its ancient past.
Although belonging to the Bronze Age, the Hittites were forerunners of the Iron Age, developing the manufacture of iron artifacts from as early as the 14th century BC, when letters to foreign rulers reveal the demand for their iron goods. Recent excavations, however, have discovered evidence of iron tool production dating back at least as far as the 20th century BC. Hittite weapons were made from bronze though; iron was so rare and precious that it was employed only as prestige goods. But the Hittites were famous for their skill in building and using chariots. These chariots gave them a military superiority as illustrated on a plate from Carchemish.
The Hittites used cuneiform letters. Archaeological expeditions have discovered in Hattushash entire sets of royal archives in cuneiform tablets, written either in Akkadian, the diplomatic language of the time, or in the various dialects of the Hittite confederation.
The first archaeological evidence for the Hittites appeared in tablets found at the Assyrian colony of Kültepe (ancient Karum Kanesh), containing records of trade between Assyrian merchants and a certain "land of Hatti". Some names in the tablets were neither Hattic nor Assyrian, but clearly Indo-European.
The script on a monument at Boğazköy by a "People of Hattusas" discovered by William Wright in 1884 was found to match peculiar hieroglyphic scripts from Aleppo and Hamath in Northern Syria. In 1887, excavations at Tell El-Amarna in Egypt uncovered the diplomatic correspondence of Pharaoh Amenhotep III and his son Akhenaton. Two of the letters from a "kingdom of Kheta" -- apparently located in the same general region as the Mesopotamian references to "land of Hatti" -- were written in standard Akkadian cuneiform script, but in an unknown language; although scholars could read it, no one could understand it. Shortly after this, Archibald Sayce proposed that Hatti or Khatti in Anatolia was identical with the "kingdom of Kheta" mentioned in these Egyptian texts, as well as with the biblical Hittites. Others such as Max Müller agreed that Khatti was probably Kheta, but proposed connecting it with Biblical Kittim, rather than with the "Children of Heth". Sayce's identification came to be widely accepted over the course of the early 20th century; and the name "Hittite" has become attached to the civilization uncovered at Boğazköy.
During sporadic excavations at Boğazköy (Hattusa) that began in 1906, the archaeologist Hugo Winckler found a royal archive with 10,000 tablets, inscribed in cuneiform Akkadian and the same unknown language as the Egyptian letters from Kheta — thus confirming the identity of the two names. He also proved that the ruins at Boğazköy were the remains of the capital of an empire that at one point controlled northern Syria.
Under the direction of the German Archaeological Institute, excavations at Hattusa have been underway since 1907, with interruptions during both wars. Kültepe has been successfully excavated by Professor Tahsin Özgüç since 1948 until his death in 2005. Smaller scale excavations have also been carried out in the immediate surroundings of Hattusa, including the rock sanctuary of Yazılıkaya, which contains numerous rock-cut reliefs portraying the Hittite rulers and the gods of the Hittite pantheon.
The Hittite kingdom was centered on the lands surrounding Hattusa and Neša, known as "the land Hatti" (URUHa-at-ti). After Hattusa was made capital, the area encompassed by the bend of the Halys River (Turkish: Kızılırmak, which Hittites called the Marassantiya) was considered the core of the Empire, and some Hittite laws make a distinction between "this side of the river" and "that side of the river", for example, the reward for the capture of an eloped slave after he managed to flee beyond the Halys is higher than that for a slave caught before he could reach the river.
To the west and south of the core territory lay the region known as Luwiya in the earliest Hittite texts. This terminology was replaced by the names Arzawa and Kizzuwatna with the rise of those kingdoms. Nevertheless, the Hittites continued to refer to the language that originated in these areas as Luwian. Prior to the rise of Kizzuwatna, the heart of that territory in Cilicia was first referred to by the Hittites as Adaniya. Upon its revolt from the Hittites during the reign of Ammuna, it assumed the name of Kizzuwatna and successfully expanded northward to encompass the lower Anti-Taurus mountains as well. To the north lived the mountainous people called the Kaskians. To the southeast of the Hittites lay the Hurrian empire of Mitanni. At its peak during the reign of Mursili II, the Hittite empire stretched from Arzawa in the west to Mitanni in the east, many of the Kaskian territories to the north including Hayasa-Azzi in the far northeast, and on south into Canaan approximately as far as the southern border of Lebanon, incorporating all of these territories within its domain.
The Hittite kingdom is conventionally divided into three periods, the Old Hittite Kingdom (ca. 1750–1500 BC), the Middle Hittite Kingdom (ca. 1500–1430 BC) and the New Hittite Kingdom (the Hittite Empire proper, ca. 1430–1180 BC).
The earliest known member of a Hittite speaking dynasty, Pithana, was based at the city of Kussara. In the 18th century BC Anitta, his son and successor, made the Hittite speaking city of Neša into one of his capitals and adopted the Hittite language for his inscriptions there. However, Kussara remained the dynastic capital for about a century until Labarna II adopted Hattusa as the dynastic seat, possibly taking the throne name of Hattusili, "man of Hattusa", at that time.
The Old Kingdom, centered at Hattusa, peaked during the 16th century BC. The kingdom even managed to sack Babylon at one point, but made no attempt to govern there, enabling the Kassite to rise to prominence and rule for over 400 years.
During the 15th century BC, Hittite power fell into obscurity, re-emerging with the reign of Tudhaliya I from ca. 1400 BC. Under Suppiluliuma I and Mursili II, the Empire was extended to most of Anatolia and parts of Syria and Canaan, so that by 1300 BC the Hittites were bordering on the Egyptian sphere of influence, leading to the inconclusive Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC.
Civil war and rivalling claims to the throne, combined with the external threat of the Sea Peoples weakened the Hittites and by 1160 BC, the Empire had collapsed. "Neo-Hittite" post-Empire states, petty kingdoms under Assyrian rule, may have lingered on until ca. 700 BC, and the Bronze Age Hittite and Luwian dialects evolved into the sparsely attested Lydian, Lycian and Carian languages.
The Hittites are thought to have had the first constitutional monarchy. This consisted of a king, royal family, the pankush (who monitored the king's activities), and an often rebellious aristocracy. The Hittites also made huge advances in legislation and justice. They produced the Hittite laws. These laws rarely used death as a punishment. For example, the punishment for theft was to pay back the amount stolen.
The Hittite language (or Nesili) is recorded fragmentarily from about the 19th century BC (in the Kültepe texts, see Ishara). It remained in use until about 1100 BC. Hittite is the best attested member of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family.
The language of the Hattusa tablets was eventually deciphered by a Czech linguist, Bedřich Hrozný (1879—1952), who on 24 November 1915 announced his results in a lecture at the Near Eastern Society of Berlin. His book about his discovery was printed in Leipzig in 1917, under the title The Language of the Hittites; Its Structure and Its Membership in the Indo-European Linguistic Family. The preface of the book begins with:
For this reason, the language came to be known as the Hittite language, even though that was not what its speakers had called it. The Hittites themselves apparently called their language nešili "(in the manner) of (the city of) Neša" and hence it has been suggested that the more technically correct term, "Nesite", be used instead. Nonetheless, convention continues and "Hittite" remains the standard term used.
Due to its marked differences in its structure and phonology, some early philologists, most notably Warren Cowgill even argued that it should be classified as a sister language to Indo-European languages (Indo-Hittite), rather than a daughter language. By the end of the Hittite Empire, the Hittite language had become a written language of administration and diplomatic correspondence. The population of most of the Hittite Empire by this time spoke Luwian dialects, another Indo-European language of the Anatolian family that had originated to the west of the Hittite region.
Hittite religion and mythology was heavily influenced by Mesopotamian mythology, increasingly so as history progressed. In earlier times, Indo-European elements may still be clearly discerned, for example Tarhunt the god of thunder, and his conflict with the serpent Illuyanka.
The Hebrew Bible refers to "Hittites" in several passages, ranging from Genesis to the post-Exilic Ezra-Nehemiah. Genesis 10 (the Table of Nations) links them to an eponymous ancestor Heth, a descendant of Ham through his son Canaan. The Hittites are thereby counted among the Canaanites. The Hittites are usually depicted as a people living among the Israelites - Abraham purchases the Patriarchal burial-plot of Machpelah from "Ephron HaChiti", Ephron the Hittite, and Hittites serve as high military officers in David's army. In 2 Kings 7:6, however, they are a people with their own kingdoms (the passage refers to "kings" in the plural), apparently located outside geographic Canaan, and sufficiently powerful to put a Syrian army to flight.
It is a matter of considerable scholarly debate whether the biblical "Hittites" signified any or all of: 1) the original Hattites of Hatti; 2) their Indo-European conquerors (Nesili), who retained the name "Hatti" for Central Anatolia, and are today referred to as the "Hittites" (the subject of this article); or 3) a Canaanite group who may or may not have been related to either or both of the Anatolian groups, and who also may or may not be identical with the later Neo-Hittite (Luwian) polities.
Other biblical scholars have argued that rather than being connected with Heth, son of Canaan, instead the Anatolian land of Hatti was mentioned in Old Testament literature and apocrypha as "Kittim" (Chittim), a people said to be named for a son of Javan.
Pharaoh Ramses II often referred to the Hittites as humty which translated from ancient Egyptian meant "women-soldiers", as it was the practice of male Hittite warriors to wear their hair long. Scholars have also regarded the Hittites to be of a "Mediterranean ethnic group". Archeologist Henry Heras's analysis of Egyptian portrayals of the Hittites, coincided with this view as they appeared to possess physical characteristics typical of Mediterranean people. Some scholars believed that this may point to a north-east African origin as such physical traits have been thought to originate in this area. Similar physical characteristics were possessed by the ancient Greeks leading some to suspect that both ancient Greeks and Hittites descended from similar prehistoric populations in the Near East and Aegean. Physical anthropological analysis of populations alone, however, is an insufficient basis for grouping peoples into races, substantiating theories of folk migrations and accounting for the origins of ancient people due to many complicated factors.
The exact origins of the Hittites have been shrouded in mystery for quite some time. While it has been argued that Hittite culture and language developed locally in Anatolia, it has been far more common to view the Hittites and their ways as intrusive. Possible geographic origins from the west (Balkans), east (via or along the Caspian Sea or from the Armenian highlands), and north (across the Black sea) are just some of the proposed migration routes. The process has been viewed as one of conquering elites but alternatively as peaceful coupled with gradual assimilation. In archaeological terms, relationships of the Hittites to the Ezero culture of the Balkans and Maikop culture of the Caucasus have been considered within the migration framework.
A genetic study based on modern male Anatolian y-chromosome DNA has revealed gene flow from multiple geographic origins which may correspond to various migrations over time. The predominant male lineages of Anatolian males are shared with European and neighboring Near Eastern populations (94.1%). Lineages related to Central Asia, India, and Africa were far less prevalent among the males sampled. No specific lineage was determined or identified as "Hittite", however the y-chromosome haplogroup G-M201 was implied to have a possible association with the Hattians.
Des origines à la fin de l'ancien royaume hittite, Les Hittites et leur histoire 1, Paris, 2007 ; Les débuts du nouvel empire hittite, Les Hittites et leur histoire 2, Paris, 2007 ; L'apogée du nouvel empire hittite, Les Hittites et leur histoire 3, Paris, 2008.
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Palestine and Syria appear to have been originally inhabited by three different tribes. (1.) The Semites, living on the east of the isthmus of Suez. They were nomadic and pastoral tribes. (2.) The Phoenicians, who were merchants and traders; and (3.) the Hittites, who were the warlike element of this confederation of tribes. They inhabited the whole region between the Euphrates and Damascus, their chief cities being Carchemish on the Euphrates, and Kadesh, now Tell Neby Mendeh, in the Orontes valley, about six miles south of the Lake of Homs. These Hittites seem to have risen to great power as a nation, as for a long time they were formidable rivals of the Egyptian and Assyrian empires. In the book of Joshua they always appear as the dominant race to the north of Galilee.
Somewhere about the twenty-third century B.C. the Syrian confederation, led probably by the Hittites, arched against Lower Egypt, which they took possession of, making Zoan their capital. Their rulers were the Hyksos, or shepherd kings. They were at length finally driven out of Egypt. Rameses II. sought vengeance against the "vile Kheta," as he called them, and encountered and defeated them in the great battle of Kadesh, four centuries after Abraham. (See JOSHUA.)
They are first referred to in Scripture in the history of Abraham, who bought from Ephron the Hittite the field and the cave of Machpelah (Gen 15:20: 23:3-18). They were then settled at Kirjath-arba. From this tribe Esau took his first two wives (26:34; 36:2).
They are afterwards mentioned in the usual way among the inhabitants of the Promised Land (Ex 23:28). They were closely allied to the Amorites, and are frequently mentioned along with them as inhabiting the mountains of Palestine. When the spies entered the land they seem to have occupied with the Amorites the mountain region of Judah (Num 13:29). They took part with the other Canaanites against the Israelites (Josh 9:1; 11:3).
After this there are few references to them in Scripture. Mention is made of "Ahimelech the Hittite" (1Sam 26:6), and of "Uriah the Hittite," one of David's chief officers (2 Sam 23:39; 1Chr 11:41). In the days of Solomon they were a powerful confederation in the north of Syria, and were ruled by "kings." They are met with after the Exile still a distinct people (Ez 9:1; comp. Neh 13:23-28).
The Hebrew merchants exported horses from Egypt not only for the kings of Israel, but also for the Hittites (1 Kg 10:28, 29). From the Egyptian monuments we learn that "the Hittites were a people with yellow skins and 'Mongoloid' features, whose receding foreheads, oblique eyes, and protruding upper jaws are represented as faithfully on their own monuments as they are on those of Egypt, so that we cannot accuse the Egyptian artists of caricaturing their enemies. The Amorites, on the contrary, were a tall and handsome people. They are depicted with white skins, blue eyes, and reddish hair, all the characteristics, in fact, of the white race" (Sayce's The Hittites). The original seat of the Hittite tribes was the mountain ranges of Taurus. They belonged to Asia Minor, and not to Syria.
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Scientific name: Polyommatus icarus
Male has blue wings with black-brown border and thin white fringe. Female brown, similar to Brown Argus, but with blue dusting near body.
The Common Blue is the most widespread blue butterfly in Britain and Ireland and is found in a variety of grassy habitats.
The brightly coloured males are conspicuous but females are more secretive. The colour of the upperwings of females varies from almost completely brown in southern England to predominantly blue in western Ireland and Scotland, but the colour is variable within local populations with some striking examples. Unlike Adonis and Chalkhill Blues, the dark veins do not extend into white fringes of wing margins.
It remains widespread but there have been local declines within its range.
Size and Family
- Family – Blues
- Small Sized
- Wing Span Range (male to female) - 35mm
- UK BAP status: Not listed
- Butterfly Conservation priority: Low
- European status: Not threatened
Common Bird's-foot-trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) is the main foodplant. Other plants used include: Greater Bird's-foot-trefoil (L. pedunculatus), Black Medick (Medicago lupulina), Common Restharrow (Ononis repens), White Clover (Trifolium repens), Lesser Trefoil (T. dubium).
- Countries – England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales
- Found throughout Ireland and Britain
- Distribution Trend Since 1970’s = -15%
Very common and found in a variety of habitats especially sunny sheltered spots. Examples of habitats include; downland, coastal dunes, undercliffs, road verges, acid grass and woodland clearings
It is also found on waste ground, disused pits and quarries, golf courses, and urban habitats such as cemeteries.
- Butterflies and farmland
- Farmland Butterflies ID chart
- Butterflies in towns and cities
- Woodlands for Butterflies and Moths
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Official figures compare radioactive cesium at Fukushima with World War II blast.
News DeskAugust 25, 2011 09:03
The amount of radioactive cesium-137 that has so far been released by the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster is equal to 168 Hiroshima atomic bombs, according to government estimates.
Cesium-137 is a radioactive isotope of cesium, and is the principal source of radiation in the dead zone around the Chernobyl nuclear power plant.
In a report on Thursday, the Japanese daily Tokyo Shimbun said the government calculated that the amount of cesium released in the six months since the three reactors were hit by the earthquake and tsunami is 15,000 tera becquerels.
In comparison, Little Boy , the World War II bomb dropped on the western Japanese city of Hiroshima, released 89 tera becquerels.
The figures were submitted by Prime Minister Naoto Kan’s cabinet to a lower house committee.
But despite the estimate, nuclear experts say it is impossible to properly compare the reactor meltdowns at Fukushima with the dropping of an atomic bomb, which was designed to inflict damage.
Continue reading at Fukushima cesium ‘equals 168 Hiroshimas’
◇ Article in Japanese:
・福島第一放出セシウム１３７ 広島原爆１６８個分 via 東京新聞
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Ethnic Groups of Minnesota
From Ancestry.com Wiki
This entry was originally written by Carol L. Maki and Michael John Neill for Red Book: American State, County, and Town Sources.
Minnesota counted very few African Americans in the population prior to the Civil War. Those who were in the state were basically in two groups, either servants of officers at Fort Snelling or engaged in the fur trading industry. The latter, hired mainly by the fur companies in St. Louis, were some of the earliest African Americans in Minnesota. The Minnesota territorial census of 1849 listed forty free persons of African descent, thirty of those living in St. Paul in seven family groups. After 1860 the African-American population increased twofold, including over 500 men, women, and children arriving by steamboats from St. Louis to St. Paul in May of 1863. The Minnesota Historical Society has numerous manuscript collections pertaining to African Americans in Minnesota. Some of these have been documented in various articles in Minnesota History. See also:
- Spangler, Earl. Bibliography of Negro History: Selected and Annotated Entries, General and Minnesota. Minneapolis: Ross and Haines, 1963. Excellent bibliography.
- Taylor, David Vassar. “The Blacks.” In They Chose Minnesota: A Survey of the State’s Ethnic Groups. Edited by June Drenning Holmquist. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1981, 73-91. Excellent history of the African Americans in Minnesota, including detailed endnotes.
- ———. Blacks in Minnesota: A Preliminary Guide to Historical Sources. St. Paul: Publications of the Minnesota Historical Society, 1976.
link title==Native American== Minnesota’s two major native nations were the Dakota (or Sioux), originally from the southern prairie, and the Ojibway (or Chippewa) of the northern pine forests, both semi-nomadic societies based on hunting and gathering. In 1805 the United States purchased a small parcel of land in Minnesota for a military post, Fort Snelling. All other land belonged to the Native Americans. Intertribal fighting for northern Minnesota existed until 1825 when the Dakota and Ojibway agreed to a tribal diagonal demarcation almost across the center of the state.
Massive cessions of Native American land to European settlement began in Minnesota country in 1837 when an area between the St. Croix and Mississippi rivers was relinquished by the Dakota and Ojibway. After the chiefs signed the treaty, they headed north to the lands for which they thought they had given only timber rights. It was not until 1849 that they realized they had indeed sold their native land.
In 1847 land west of the Mississippi in central Minnesota was provided by treaty for the Winnebago and Menominee, although neither tribe ever occupied the area. Four years later, at Traverse des Sioux and Mendota, the Dakota signed treaties that gave the United States most of southern Minnesota. In treaties of 1854, 1855, 1863, and 1866, the Ojibway gave up much of their northern Minnesota land.
During the 1850s and 1860s, the Dakota treaties brought about a tragic and sorrowful chapter of Minnesota history. The reservations were not established as promised, and the various bands refused to move to the provisional reserves in the mid-1850s. Land annuity payments, the restriction of reservation life, and the nonexistence of promised agricultural aid led many Dakota families to return to their original lands, now the homes of European settlers. In 1857 settlers were killed in Spirit Lake, Iowa, and in Jackson County, Minnesota. A treaty in 1858 providing for Dakota self-government and land allotments failed, resulting in the Sioux Conflict of 1862, after which many either fled to the Dakota Territory or Canada or were moved to Crow Creek (now South Dakota). The unsatisfactory conditions at Crow Creek resulted in many deaths before the tribe was moved to Nebraska in 1866.
Minnesota’s Ojibway were not involved in armed conflict with the white settlers, but the United States acquired most of their land and tried to confine them to reservations within the state. Small inter-tribal treaty parcels were consolidated, and some Ojibway refused to move to these larger reservations.
By 1980 there were nearly twice as many Native Americans in Minnesota as when the Europeans first visited this area. The metropolis of St. Paul and Minneapolis has the third largest urban concentration of Native Americans in the United States. The Ojibway in the northern part of the state occupy one of the few unallotted and unceded reservations in the country.
For an excellent explanation of the Native Americans in Minnesota in the twentieth century, see Mitchell E. Rubenstein and Alan R. Woolworth, “The Dakota and Ojibway,” in They Chose Minnesota: A Survey of the State’s Ethnic Groups, edited by June Drenning Holmquist (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1981), 17-35. An article specifically directed at the family researcher of Native American records is Virginia Rogers, “The Indians and the Metis: Genealogical Sources on Minnesota’s Earliest Settlers,” in Minnesota History (Fall 1979): 286-96. Rogers has directed her research on Ojibway born prior to 1850, including the use of Canadian genealogical volumes and extensive study of missionary manuscript sources. These include early parish records, with baptisms at St. Ignace de Michilimackinac as early as 1712.
Helpful aids at the Minnesota Historical Society include the society’s Chippewa and Dakota Indians: A Subject Catalogue of Books, Pamphlets, Periodical Articles, and Manuscripts in the Minnesota Historical Society (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 1969) and their original source material: U.S. Office of Indian Affairs, Chippewa Annuity Rolls (1849–1935); U.S. Office of Indian Affairs, Sioux Annuity Rolls (1849–1935); White Earth Indian Reservation, Saint Columba Parish Register (1853–1933); and Philip C. Bantin, Guide to Catholic Indian Mission and School Records in Midwest Repositories (Milwaukee, Wis.: Marquette University Libraries, Department of Special Collections and University Archives, 1984).
Other Ethnic Groups
Nineteenth-century French Canadians as fur traders, as lumbermen, and as priests in the Catholic Church were the first immigrants to Minnesota. Later other French Canadians followed, locating their new homes in the river valleys. The first French-Canadian communities at Fort Snelling and Mendota were both at the junction of the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers. Minnesota has a larger French-Canadian population in the late twentieth century than any state outside of New England.
Of the approximately thirty-two million total immigrants to the United States from 1820 through 1950, it is estimated that at least one million made their way to or through Minnesota. They came to the state for the available land; they came with tickets purchased for them by earlier U.S. immigrants; and they came to the support and security of ethnic communities already established in the counties and small towns. Most came via Canada and the Red River trails, up the Mississippi on steamboats, and overland. Eventually they arrived by train.
Excellent and thorough discussions of all the immigrant groups to Minnesota can be found in June Drenning Holmquist, They Chose Minnesota: A Survey of the State’s Ethnic Groups (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1981).
There are several research repositories for ethnic groups in Minnesota. The Immigration History Research Center was founded in 1965 at the University of Minnesota (311 Andersen Library, 222-21st Ave. S., St. Paul, MN 55114). Its dual purpose is to encourage the study of the role of immigration and to collect the records of twenty-four American ethnic groups originating from Eastern, Central, and Southern Europe and the Near East. The collection includes newspapers, books, and periodicals. The center also has records of churches, cultural societies, political, and fraternal organizations, in addition to the personal papers of some immigrants. The American Letters (1880–1964), a microfilmed collection of some 15,000 letters sent by immigrants to friends and relatives in Finland is an example of the type of items in the collection.
The Norwegian-American Historical Association, St. Olaf College, Northfield, MN 55057 <www.naha.stolaf.edu> has a collection on immigration including letters, diaries, business records, family histories, photographs, oral histories, and obituary and newspaper indexes, including the Rowberg file, which contains more than 175,000 newspaper clippings. Their website has online versions of some society periodicals and publications.
The Minnesota Historical Society has a large collection of Norwegian immigration materials including guidebooks written for prospective emigrants, about 10,000 manuscripts, an excellent printed and periodical collection for Swedish-Americans, and several ethnic collections that include artifacts and manuscripts listed in the society’s Historic Resources in Minnesota: A Report on their Extent, Location, and Need for Preservation (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 1979).
The American Swedish Institute, 2600 Park Ave., Minneapolis, MN 55407 focuses on the settlement of Swedes in America. Its collection includes family and personal papers, oral history, correspondence and record books of Swedish immigrant organizations, Bibles, genealogies, photographs, and microfilm copies of Swedish church records in Minnesota.
The emphasis of the Celtic Collection, O’Shaughnessy Library, College of Saint Thomas, 2115 Summit Ave., St. Paul, MN 55105 is on Welsh, Scottish, and Irish history, folklore, language, and literature.
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The landlocked West African country of Mali - one of the poorest in the world - experienced rapid economic growth after the 1990s, coupled with a flourishing democracy and relative social stability.
This all hung in the balance in early 2012, when the steady collapse of state control over the north of the country was followed by an inconclusive military coup and French military intervention against Islamist fighters who threatened to advance south.
For several decades after independence from France in 1960, Mali suffered droughts, rebellions, a coup and 23 years of military dictatorship until democratic elections in 1992.
At a glance
- Politics: Mali was regarded as a model of African democracy until military seized power in March 2012. Tuareg rebels declared the independence of 'Azawad state' in the north, which was quickly taken over by al-Qaeda allies
- Economy: Mali is among the 25 poorest countries. It is highly dependant on gold mining and agricultural exports such as cotton
- International: France responds to a Malian request and swiftly recaptures key cities in the north
- Country profiles compiled by BBC Monitoring
The core of ancient empires going back to the fourth century, Mali was conquered by the French in the middle of the 19th century.
After a brief experiment in federation with Senegal, Mali became independent in 1960.
Although swathes of Mali are barren, the country is self-sufficient in food thanks to the fertile Niger river basin in the south and east.
It is one of Africa's major cotton producers, and has lobbied against subsidies to cotton farmers in richer countries, particularly the US.
A chronic foreign trade deficit makes it nonetheless heavily dependent on foreign aid and remittances from Malians working abroad.War in the north
In the early 1990s the nomadic Tuareg of the north began an insurgency over land and cultural rights that persists to this day, despite central government attempts at military and negotiated solutions.
The insurgency gathered pace in 2007, and was exacerbated by an influx of arms from the 2011 Libyan civil war.
The Saharan branch of al-Qaeda was quick to move into this increasingly lawless area, and seized control of the Tuareg north after the March 2012 military coup, effectively seceding from the rest of Mali and establishing a harsh form of Islamic law.
The West African regional grouping Ecowas agreed to launch a coordinated military expedition to recapture the north at a meeting in Nigeria in November, with UN backing.
But with preparations expected to take several months, the Islamists took the initiative and began to advance towards the government heartland in the south-west.
Alarmed at the captured of the town of Konna, the government in Bamako asked France to intervene militarily. French troops rapidly overran Islamist strongholds in the north.Music stars
Despite its political travails, Mali is renowned worldwide for having produced some of the stars of African music, most notably Salif Keita. The annual Festival in the Desert has traditionally celebrated this talent.
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English Vocabulary refers to the words in the English language. Learning English requires many skills, and vocabulary can be seen as knowledge you can’t do without.
The English Words in this section is that required by the IELTS external exam, and represents a good to very good level of the English language.
At English we believe that English learners would benefit greatly from a large word in all areas of their language ability.
In this site, you could find many lists of words related to Places, Profession, Number, Character, Church, Governmenr, Marriage, Medicine,Science,Art etc...
Take your own time to go through all these lists of Vocabulary and note down the words which you may need for your writings.
From English Vocabulary to HOME PAGE
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An allergy can be defined as the hyperactive response taking place in the immune system when subjected to a foreign substance. The substance which causes allergies is termed as allergens. There are so many types of allergens such as food, dust, pollen and so on. The allergy treatments are directed at suppressing the functioning of immune system with steroids. Drug and sting of insects can also be considered as one of the allergens for producing the respiratory allergy. In short, we can say that allergies occurs when the immune systems gives a wrong signal.
The allergies may cause so many kinds of side effects, which may worsen the person’s health. Allergies are more common during the winter and spring season.
Mostly in children, the consumption of fat forms an important reason for developing the allergic disease. The fatty acids such as margarine are considered to endorse the prostaglandin E2 formation which in turn will affect the immune system thereby enhancing the allergic reactions.
Butter is the best example for the margarine fats.
Running nose is one of the mild effects of allergy which turns into asthma in the worst cases. Asthma occurs when the dust or pollen are inhaled into the lungs. Pollen allergies are considered to be seasonal allergens .The harmless reaction occurs mostly in the non-allergic people. The other symptoms of allergies are redness in the eyes, blurred vision and itchy eyes which increases the amount of tears. There are so many researches conducted for finding out the allergy treatments. In most cases, the treatments are given by blocking the response of the immune system.
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The redemptive message of Tisha B'av, which we commemorate next week, must be ferreted from a thicket of woe. And even then, when we find the flower amid the thistle, relief is tempered by a renewed awareness not only of hope, but also of hope’s loss, a permanent fixture, so it seems, in the human condition.
Commemorating the destruction of Jerusalem and the First Temple in 586 BCE, the day, marked by its dirges and the chanting of the Scroll of Lamentations, has come to represent Jewish dislocation and destruction throughout history. But therein lies the paradox: had devastation and exile been one-time events in Jewish history, there would be no Jewish history. That destruction recurs inherently signifies the recurrence of renewal and rebirth. Defeat never is a permanent condition, nor is restoration. As in the seasons of nature, encoded within each is the potential of the other. Both are part of some grand design, a wheel of destiny to which our shoulders, as Jews, are permanently pressed.
As the grand cycle of poems comprising Lamentations implores, as individuals and as a people we are to look within ourselves, in our actions, in our relationships, to ask questions about our fidelity to principles, to determine our role in the cycle. The Jewish people, who throughout history have ascended to glory and descended to the pit, have much to reflect on as we contemplate, once again the strange cycle, at once ominous and exhilarating, that drives our history forward.
Where are we now in this cycle? Weren’t the 19th and 20th centuries tumultuous enough? How alarmed should we be that the eloquent message of the 5th BCE should resonate with such pain and passion today, in the 21st century?
Ours is not to see the future; even in Lamentations prophecy came in for its share of skepticism and critique. Ours is but to build, to do what we believe is right, and, in the words of the Prophet Micah, "to do justice, love mercy, and to walk humbly with the Creator."
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County, East Texas
Highway 149, FM 124 and FM 959
8 miles NE of Carthage
library and museum|
Photo courtesy Barclay
, April 2006
in a Pecan Shell
Named after early
settler Matthew W. Beck who arrived sometime around 1850, the community was once
a mile east of the present location. A post office opened in the late 1850s when
the population was estimated at 75. The Texas, Sabine Valley and Northwestern
Railroad was headed straight toward Beckville, but local landowners jacked up
the price of a right-of-way to the point where the railroad decided to build a
mile south where landowner Joe Biggs was more amenable.
townsite was deserted as people and businesses relocated to the new townsite.
In 1889 the first school was built. By 1914 the population was up to 750. A fire
in 1917 destroyed buildings in downtown Beckville, and the region suffered a drought
in 1927. The population reached 880 people just as the Great Depression was beginning
and the population fell to just 453. The population remained at that level for
decades. It had increased to 783 in the early 1990s and has since decreased to
: Music from two country masters|
(Excerpted from "THE
EAST TEXAS SUNDAY DRIVE BOOK" by Bob Bowman)
on Texas 43, return to Tatum, take Texas 149 southeast
to the settlement of Beckville, which was founded before the l880s by Matthew
W. Beck, who settled in the area about l850. The town was originally established
about a mile north of its present site but was moved in l887 to be near the railroad.
At Beckville, take FM 124
and proceed in a southerly direction until you come to the community of Fair
Play at the intersection with U.S. 79..."
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Volume 9, Number 6 November/December 2001 Small Business/SBIR
Small Business Flying High
Instruments on NASA satellites and aircraft will be collecting the data needed by scientists to answer some of the most challenging questions faced today concerning our atmosphere and the formation of stars and planets. One of those instruments is a passive radiometer, which measures infrared or heat radiation from the atmosphere or space as seen through a telescope. Scientists use this information in a number of ways. When looking at the Earths atmosphere, observations in infrared vision allow scientists to calculate the amount of several environmentally important gases, such as ozone and carbon monoxide. When looking toward interstellar space, this data allows scientists to estimate the quantities of important chemicals, such as water and carbon in the clouds of dust and gas that are believed to collapse to form solar systems such as our own.
Working under a NASA SBIR contract managed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, DeMaria ElectroOptics developed a compact, efficient near-infrared (2.5 Thz) laser that extends the observation range of passive radiometers. Observations made by earlier passive radiometers were limited to the longer wavelength range of the infrared spectrum. The new source from DeMaria ElectroOptics increased the observation range to shorter wavelengths. The stable signal from the laser is used in converting the observed infrared radiation to a lower frequency signal for measuring its intensity.
Scientists focus on the infrared range of the spectrum for two reasons. First, atoms and molecules emit infrared radiation even at the very cold temperatures of interstellar space. Thus, these gases, which are invisible to us through a regular telescope, are visible using an infrared telescope. Second, different atoms and molecules have their own characteristic signatures or particular wavelengths at which they emit infrared radiation. Therefore, infrared radiation can be used to estimate the amount of different chemicals in the interstellar medium or the Earths atmosphere.
Under another contract with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, DeMaria ElectroOptics is providing a near-infrared laser for the Microwave Limb Sounder instrument that will be a part of the Earth-Observing System (EOS) AURA mission. With a launch date in June 2003, the AURA satellite, with four major scientific instruments, will map data on the Earths atmosphere on a global scale. With its near-infrared capability, the Microwave Limb Sounder will measure the OH concentration in the upper atmospherea key factor in ozone chemistry and understanding the cause of the hole in the ozone layer.
DeMaria ElectroOptics also supplied a near-infrared laser being used in the development of the radiometer that will fly on the SOFIA missionan effort between NASA and the German space agency, DLR. In a joint effort, the agencies will fly a large infrared telescope on a Boeing 747 aircraft. At ground level, the atmosphere filters out most of the infrared radiation from space; however, most of the infrared radiation is observable at stratospheric altitudes. Observations made from the aircraft when flying in the stratosphere will support a comprehensive study of the processes that lead from cold clouds of gas and dust in the Interstellar Medium to the formation of stars and planetary systems. SOFIA will also examine the dust and gas in the vicinity of our Galactic Center, and search for the signature of a black hole. The first flight is scheduled for late 2002. Q
For more information, contact Bryon Jackson at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 818/354-1246, Bryon.L.Jackson@jpl.nasa.gov. Please mention you read about it in Innovation.
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Spinal Decompression is a non-surgical therapy to treat back and neck pain associated with spinal disc problems. In the most basic terms, spinal decompression therapy is advanced technology “traction” combined with a much better understanding of human physiology. Back pain is often caused by misalignment in the spine. The technology allows your practitioner to isolate and treat specific spinal discs. The treatment alternates between gentle stretching and relaxation to realign the spine.
Spinal Decompression is used for many non-surgical condition of the spine including:
The physiology is quite complicated, but basically spinal decompression does a number of things. It distracts the spinal joints which gives them more mobility and stretches the spinal muscles and ligaments which in turn allows them to relax. If you have a disc problem such as a bulge or herniation touching a nerve, decompression will create a sort of vacuum in the center of the disc which will tend to suck the involved portion of the disc back towards the center, thus reducing the size of the bulge/herniation. The bottom line is that spinal decompression makes the pain go away by correcting the problem that is causing it.
Spinal Decompression therapy is not recommended for advanced pregnancy, severe osteoporosis or severe obesity. It is also not recommended if you have had spinal surgery with instrumentation (screws, metal plates or cages). This is why a thorough examination and pre-screening is always done before any treatment protocol would be recommended.
Yes, to be effective it must be. This is not like the old mechanical weighted units of the past. The system we use is computerized and will go up in small increments until the maximum setting is achieved. The same is used during release. You will barely notice since the computer control is so efficient.
This is variable from individual to individual, but there is a certain time frame that we expect to see results within, depending upon your condition. We will not keep bringing you back if we are not getting the results that we wish to see within this time frame.
In some cases this may be recommended after the treatment schedule has been completed in order to keep things stable. It depends upon the individual, how much degeneration has occurred, etc. These can vary from a maintenance treatment once a month to every few months.
Let’s be totally honest, nothing in life is ever fully guaranteed, especially in regard to medical therapies. However, research has indicated that spinal decompression therapy is very effective. Some clinical studies have demonstrated spinal decompression therapy to have a success rate of 92%. Consider that other studies have shown that low back surgery to have a success rate of less than 25%.
Unfortunately, it is not. However, we pride ourselves that our fees are less than those generally charged by other clinics outside the Quinte area, plus you don’t have to travel to other cities to receive the treatments. Some extended health care plans may partially cover the cost.
Many people come for decompression therapy as a last resort. They may have tried chiropractic, physiotherapy, acupuncture, massage therapy, etc but have not experienced relief and now they are facing the prospect of surgery. All these mentioned therapies can be excellent and will help many people, but sometimes they don’t. No single therapy works 100% all the time, but spinal decompression therapy is non invasive and may be the solution for you where others have failed.
We do not and here is why – oxygen comprises about 21% of the air we breathe regularly. Some clinics have their patients breath concentrated oxygen as part of the treatment but the reality is that there is absolutely no scientific evidence whatsoever to indicate that this would have any effect on a healing process with spinal decompression therapy. There is a claim that it may help for relaxation, but we feel the same thing can be accomplished by dimming the lights and playing soft music. In fact, breathing concentrated oxygen can be very detrimental for people with certain medical conditions.
No we certainly do not. This was the now infamous machine that appeared on the controversial CBC “Marketplace” program. The DRX-9000 was not a true spinal decompression machine. The company has gone out of business and the DRX-9000 is no longer recognized by Health Canada.
We want spinal decompression therapy to be as affordable and available to as many people as possible in the Quinte area. Your specific treatment plan will be determined after your initial consultation and examination. Based upon clinical observation and current research, optimum results are usually achieved with 20 sessions ($75. each) over a period of about six weeks. Using this protocol the total would be only $1500. Bear in mind that some clinics in larger urban areas are charging three times as much for the exact same treatment protocol. (Yes, you did read this right – three times more.) We also offer a senior’s discount. After the treatment protocol is completed, any further maintenance visits will be reduced to $50. per treatment if necessary.
First book an appointment. Our initial consultation and examination is complimentary. You must first receive a thorough assessment to determine if spinal decompression therapy is suitable for your condition. If you have any previous MRI or x-ray reports please bring these with you. Copies can be requested from either your family physician’s office or from the institute where they were done.
“In a recent study of 219 patients with herniated discs and degenerative disc disease, 86 percent who completed the therapy showed immediate improvement and resolution to their symptom; 92 percent improved overall”
-Glonis T, Groteke E, Spinal Decompression. Orth Tech Review 5(6):36-39 Nov-Dec 2003
“We consider decompression therapy to be a primary treatment for low back pain associated with lumbar disc herniation, degenerative disc disease and decreased spine mobility. We believe that post-surgical patients with persistent pain or “failed back syndrome” should not be considered candidates for further surgery until a trial of reasonable trial of decompression has been tried”
-Gose E, Naguszewski W, Naguszewski R. Vertebral Axial Decompression Therapy for pain associated with herniated or degenerated discs or facet syndrome: an outcome study. J Neuro research 20(4) 186-90 April 1998
“Successful reduction of intradiscal pressure with decompression therapy represents a technological advance”
Naguszewski R. Gose E., Derma tonal Somatosensory Evoked Potential of Nerve Root Decompression After Vax-D Therapy. Journal Neuro Research 23(7) Oct 2001
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- Development & Aid
- Economy & Trade
- Human Rights
- Global Governance
- Civil Society
Monday, May 20, 2013
- This year, the cyclone season’s heavy rains did not mean the usual days off school for children in Marolondo, a village in the Fénérive-Est district, 450 kilometres northeast of Antananarivo, the capital of Madagascar.
New classrooms, built with support from the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), mean the students can study while being sheltered from the rain and sun. The ruins of old wooden structures have become playgrounds.
Eleven-year-old Angita, in her third year of primary school, said she was happy with the new buildings.
“It’s very nice to study in the new classrooms,” she told IPS. “The sun doesn’t beat down too hard, and when it rains, we are protected.”
According to Daniel Timme, head of communications at UNICEF Madagascar, the classrooms’ roofs were specifically designed and constructed to make the heat less oppressive.
Angita remembers the previous years, after the old school building was destroyed by a cyclone in 2008. “After the cyclone, we studied in tents. But it was very hot, and I always wanted to sleep,” she said.
“Then later, the wind destroyed the tents. The water came in when it rained and the sun turned everything into mud. So we had to go home and only come back to school when the weather was drier.”
Parents are equally satisfied with the new infrastructure, which is meant to be cyclone-proof. Fénérive-Est is a region that is frequently hit by cyclones, and parents are often worried about sending their children to school during the rainy season. Since the new school was built, more parents have allowed their children to go to school.
“Parents are less anxious, and we have seen an increase in the number children registered for public primary schools,” the chief of the village, Bruno Tsimitoa, told IPS.
For UNICEF, which provided about 1.3 million dollars for the construction at Marolondo and 57 other sites across Madagascar, the project goes beyond creating a safe and pleasant environment to study. The goal is also to reduce the impact of construction on the environment while meeting the objectives of the Education for All programme.
Madagascar needs to build 3,000 classrooms every year until 2015. Added to this, the education ministry also has to rebuild and refurbish the roughly 1,000 classrooms damaged or destroyed by cyclones every year, according to figures from UNICEF.
“Imagine the consequences it would have for the environment if the bricks used for all this construction were made using traditional methods,” Timme told IPS. “To put up just two classrooms calls for 14,000 baked earth bricks, which requires burning up firewood equivalent to one hectare of forest – and spewing 200 tonnes of CO2 into the atmosphere.”
And so the concept of an eco-friendly school has been launched. “It calls for an approach which promotes techniques and construction materials that respect the environment,” Timme said.
“Instead of baked earth, we’re using rammed earth bricks, and the materials are available locally,” Jacques Ramaroson, coordinator of the NGO charged with the school building project in Marolondo, told IPS. “We only add a little bit of sand and rebar – the earth is treated according of the type of soil. And we don’t need cement to put up the walls because the bricks are self-locking.”
Ramaroson also said building with rammed earth bricks is up to 25 percent cheaper than traditional methods. The time needed to build a school is also shortened. “The Marolondo school block was built in only three months.”
With its pilot buildings at sites in all seven regions of the island, UNICEF also hopes to develop local capacity and knowledge of the materials and techniques, and set an example for other institutions and businesses involved in construction in Madagascar.
One objective of UNICEF has already been achieved. “Private construction companies have begun using the process in other regions,” said Ramaroson, “while local artisans have begun making machines for rammed earth bricks.”
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Photonic crystals boost semiconductor lasers
Oct 30, 2003
Physicists have made a new type of laser by combining a quantum cascade laser with a photonic crystal. Raffaele Colombelli of Bell Labs in the US and colleagues say that their novel proof-of-concept device could find use in sensing applications and fundamental research in optics (R Colombelli et al. 2003 Sciencexpress 1090561).
Conventional semiconductor lasers emit photons when electrons in the conduction band and holes in the electron band recombine. The wavelength or energy of the photon is determined by the energy difference between the conduction and valance bands – which is a fundamental property of the semiconductor.
Quantum cascade lasers, on the other hand, emit light when electrons fall from a higher to a lower energy level in a quantum well. Since the quantum well can contain a whole series of levels, the same electron can emit a large number of photons as it cascades down through the levels. Moreover, the wavelength depends on the width of the quantum well which means that photons of more than one wavelength can be emitted by the same device. However, quantum cascade lasers can only emit light in certain directions and cannot emit vertically from the semiconductor surface.
Using dry etching and lithography, Colombelli (now at the University of Paris-Sud) and colleagues have now embedded a tiny photonic crystal - a material that only transmits certain wavelengths of light - in the active region of a quantum cascade laser. The photonic crystal acts as a microcavity that provides feedback for laser action when an electric current is applied. Moreover, the cavity diffracts light vertically from the semiconductor surface so that the new device can emit light in the vertical direction.
The researchers say that such devices could be used to make large arrays, where each laser emits at a different wavelength, for chemical sensing and optoelectronics applications. They now hope to improve the performance of the new devices so that they will work as well as standard quantum cascade lasers.
About the author
Belle Dumé is Science Writer at PhysicsWeb
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The Astronomical Observatory
The function of the astronomical observatory is centered around the telescope. In addition to visual and photographic observations of astronomical bodies and phenomena, perhaps the most valuable use of the telescope is in connection with the spectroscopic study of starlight. The total light from a star is separated into its various wavelengths (see spectrum), and the intensity of each is measured. The temperature and chemical composition of stars can be obtained by this method, as well as information about stellar motion and magnetic fields. Using computers, astronomers can measure the spectra digitally recorded by spectrographs and photometers. Observatories specializing in solar astronomy usually have coronographs and spectroheliographs. Atmospheric limitations on telescopic observations include weather conditions, air turbulence, air glow, pollution, and any source of extraneous illumination. To minimize such conditions optical observatories are generally located at high altitudes in sparsely populated areas.
See articles on specific observatories.
Sections in this article:
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
More on observatory The Astronomical Observatory from Fact Monster:
See more Encyclopedia articles on: Astronomy: General
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This is a photograph of nimbostratus clouds and a rainbow in Seattle, WA. Can you see the rain falling from the clouds?
Click on image for full size
Courtesy of Peggy LeMone
Nimbostratus (weather symbol - Ns) clouds are composed of water droplets and
belong to the Low Cloud (surface to 2000m up) group. They are dark gray with a
ragged base. Nimbostratus clouds are associated with continuous rain or snow. Sometimes they cover the whole sky and you can't see the edges of the cloud.
Shop Windows to the Universe Science Store!Cool It!
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You might also be interested in:
The low cloud group consists of Stratus, Stratocumulus, and Nimbostratus clouds. Low clouds consist of water droplets. The base of a low cloud is from the surface to 2000m....more
Rain is precipitation that falls to the Earth in drops of 5mm or greater in diameter according to the US National Weather Service. Virga is rain that evaporates before reaching the ground. Raindrops form...more
Stratocumulus (weather symbol - Sc) clouds consist of water droplets and belong to the Low Cloud (surface-2000m) group. These clouds are low, lumpy, and gray. These clouds can look like cells under a microscope...more
Altostratus clouds (weather symbol - As) consist of water and some ice crystals. They belong to the Middle Cloud group (2000-7000m up). An altostratus cloud usually covers the whole sky and has a gray...more
Weather fronts can cause clouds to form. Fronts occur when two large masses of air collide at the Earth's surface. Warm fronts produce clouds when warm air replaces cold air by sliding above it. Many different...more
Altocumulus clouds (weather symbol - Ac), are made primarily of liquid water and have a thickness of 1 km. They are part of the Middle Cloud group (2000-7000m up). They are grayish-white with one part...more
Cirrocumulus clouds (weather symbol - Cc) are composed primarily of ice crystals and belong to the High Cloud group (5000-13000m). They are small rounded puffs that usually appear in long rows. Cirrocumulus...more
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28.06.2007Media in the Islamic Republic of IranBetween Self-censorship and RepressionMass media in Iran are subjected to censorship and the tyranny of state control. Journalists who refuse to toe the line and follow the official ideology have to be prepared to suffer severe repression – or to flee abroad. By Asghar Schirazi
The Iranian constitution guarantees the freedom of the press, but this is only on condition that it does not contradict "the principles of Islam" Even the Islamic Republic's constitution leaves no doubt that Iran has a state ideology which has little to do with the basic values of democratic republican forms of state, being based solely on the rule of God. Such an approach to politics is enough to make clear that the idea of the freedom of the media finds little understanding.
The constitution does indeed speak of "basic freedoms," among which it includes the freedom of the press (Article 24), but this is only on condition that it does not contradict "the principles of Islam."
In theory, this condition also provides the justification for the repression of any spoken or written word which does not conform to the approach to Islam taken by the ruling fundamentalists. What this means in practice can be seen from the way the Islamic Republic's relationship with the press and other mass media has developed since the revolution.
Mass media in the grip of the state
Radio and television stations were put under the control of the new state immediately after the Islamic Revolution in 1979. But it took until the summer of 1981 before the last opposition newspaper had to cease publication. Directly after the revolution there were 444 different newspapers and magazines being published. By 1988, the number had gone down to 121, and they were without exception fully supportive of the regime.
Under the influence of the reformist policies followed by the government of Ayatollah Rafsanjani after the death of Ayatollah Khomeini in 1989, the pressure on the media was initially relaxed. By 1992, there were 369 publications. As a result of the pressure of radical forces on the government, this process was interrupted for a time, but liberalisation resumed after the election of Mohammad Khatami to the presidency in 1997.
But this time too, radical Islamist tendencies were able to stop this relative liberalisation. Between 2000 and the election of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad to the presidency as Khatami's successor in 2005, over one hundred newspapers and magazines were banned.
The pressure grew under the new president: between April 2006 and April 2007 alone, another 34 newspapers and magazines were banned. That has left just a few newspapers published by the right wing of the reform movement, and they have to submit to strict censorship.
Powerlessness of those in the media
The publishers and journalists do not have much with which they can respond to the massive pressure under which they are placed. In early 2001, a Journalists' Association was founded, but it has been able to do little more than issue protest statements.
The editorial team of Shargh, or East, at their newspaper's office. In 2006, Iran closed down this prominent reformist daily Under these conditions, journalists who do not want to submit to self-censorship but who still want to publish their views have to reckon with negative consequences, such as legal action, imprisonment and large fines. The other option is to escape abroad. Some journalists have succeeded in re-establishing contact with their readership via the internet.
Indeed, many escape the rigid press laws by escaping into the internet. They set up websites from which they try to reach their public with information and commentary.
Control over online media
As was to be expected, the government has reacted to these attempts by blocking and filtering websites and internet service providers. It has closed down individual internet cafés and punished their operators. Some have been forced to make public confession of their alleged "offences."
In a law passed in November 2001, every private internet service provider has to have state approval. Such approval is only given to those providers who permit the authorities to install filters for web-pages and e-mails.
After that, users can only register with internet service providers if their personal details and their IP addresses are sent to the ministry for information and communication technology. Only after the authorities have given their approval and the customer has signed a commitment not to visit any "Islamic" sites, can a contract be signed.
This cartoon was the reason for the closure of the Shargh newspaper. It deals with the country's controversial nuclear program, depicting a donkey representing the Iranian government. Donkeys in Iranian culture represent a man who is unintelligent In addition, operators of internet cafés have to note down the personal details, times of use and IP addresses of their customers so that the authorities can find out who visited which internet sites at any specific time. If providers do not keep these rules, they can expect at the least to have their premises closed down.
Further measures to oversee the use of the internet followed in the following years. In 2004, a commission was set up to oversee Iranian internet sites; the commission has the power to close down specific sites. Towards the end of 2006, the Ministry for Islamic Leadership ("Overshadow") required the operators of internet sites to register within two months. Those who failed to do so were threatened with the filtering of their sites.
Weblogs as an alternative solution?
These measures have prevented many web site operators from spreading information and opinion via the internet, but they still have the possibility of using web logs. These internet diaries have many advantages for the user: they are easy to set up, cost nothing, allow the writer to remain anonymous and are thus harder to control than normal websites.
This technology is of course not only available to be used by journalists but can be used by anyone, especially by the young. And the extent to which this possibility is being taken up by the younger generation can be seen from the impressive number of active Persian-language web logs. In 2006 it was estimated that there were between 75,000 and 100,000 of them.
The content of these websites and blogs is very varied. They often deal with taboo topics, including information about politics, sex, philosophy, women, literature, music, books as well as personal issues and complaints--the variety itself is a way of breaking the monopoly on information held by the country's rulers.
But it is not so clear how far this development is helping to nurture democracy in the country. The less the bloggers engage in monologues, the more they bring up socially relevant topics for discussion, and thus encourage communication between various views, the more their contribution towards building democracy can be regarded as positive.
But one also has to bear in mind that the internet is not only used by friends of democracy, but also by its enemies, such as the ruling fundamentalists.
© Qantara.de 2007
Translated from the German by Michael Lawton
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U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2011, Ethiopia
The most significant human rights problems included the government’s arrest of more than 100 opposition political figures, activists, journalists, and bloggers. The government charged 14 of those arrested under the antiterrorism proclamation. In addition it charged another 17 persons outside the country in absentia under this proclamation. The government restricted freedom of the press, and fear of harassment and arrest led journalists to practice self-censorship. The Charities and Societies Proclamation (CSO law) continued to impose severe restrictions on civil society and nongovernmental organization (NGO) activities.
Ethiopia is a federal republic led by Prime Minister Meles Zenawi and the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). In national parliamentary elections in May 2010, the EPRDF and affiliated parties won 545 of 547 seats to remain in power for a fourth consecutive five-year term. The EPRDF is made up of four ethnically based political organizations: the Tigrayan People’s Liberation Front, Amhara National Democratic Movement, Oromo People’s Democratic Organization, and Southern Ethiopian People’s Democratic Movement. Although the relatively few international officials allowed to observe the elections concluded that technical aspects of the vote were handled competently, some also noted that an environment conducive to free and fair elections was not in place prior to election day. Several laws, regulations, and procedures implemented since the 2005 national elections created a clear advantage for the EPRDF throughout the electoral process. Security forces generally reported to civilian authorities; however, there were instances in which special police and local militias acted independently of civilian control.
The most significant human rights problems included the government’s arrest of more than 100 opposition political figures, activists, journalists, and bloggers. The government charged 14 of those arrested under the antiterrorism proclamation. In addition it charged another 17 persons outside the country in absentia under this proclamation. The government restricted freedom of the press, and fear of harassment and arrest led journalists to practice self-censorship. The Charities and Societies Proclamation (CSO law) continued to impose severe restrictions on civil society and nongovernmental organization (NGO) activities.
Other human rights problems included torture, beating, abuse, and mistreatment of detainees by security forces; harsh and at times life-threatening prison conditions; arbitrary arrest and detention; detention without charge and lengthy pretrial detention; infringement on citizens’ privacy rights, including illegal searches; allegations of abuses in connection with the continued low-level conflict in parts of the Somali region; restrictions on freedom of assembly, association, and movement; police, administrative, and judicial corruption; violence and societal discrimination against women and abuse of children; female genital mutilation (FGM); exploitation of children for economic and sexual purposes; trafficking in persons; societal discrimination against persons with disabilities; clashes between ethnic minorities; discrimination against persons based on their sexual orientation and against persons with HIV/AIDS; limits on worker rights; forced labor; and child labor, including forced child labor.
Impunity was a problem. The government did not take steps to prosecute or otherwise punish officials who committed abuses other than corruption.
The Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF), an ethnically based, violent, and increasingly fragmented separatist group operating in the Somali region, was responsible for abuses.
a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life
There were no reports that the government or its agents committed politically motivated killings during the year.
Human Rights Watch reported that it received reports of five to six persons dying due to security force beatings in connection with the government’s “villagization” program during the year (see section 1.f.).
In May gunmen linked to the ONLF killed a humanitarian aid worker (see section 1.g.).
Clashes between ethnic groups during the year resulted in dozens of deaths, as well as the displacement of persons (see sections 2.d. and 6, National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities).
There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances; however, there were credible reports that security officials temporarily detained opposition activists and held them incommunicado.
The ONLF held two humanitarian aid workers for more than six weeks (see section 1.g.).
c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
The constitution and law prohibit such practices; however, there were credible reports that security officials tortured and otherwise abused detainees.
Authorities reportedly tortured Ethiopian National Unity Party president Zerihun Gebre-Egziabher and journalist Woubishet Taye, two of the nine persons arrested June 19-21and accused of terrorist activity and involvement with the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) (see section 1.e.).
In November 2010 the UN Committee Against Torture reported that it was “deeply concerned” about “numerous, ongoing, and consistent allegations” concerning “the routine use of torture” by the police, prison officers, and other members of the security forces–including the military–against political dissidents and opposition party members, students, alleged terrorists, and alleged supporters of violent separatist groups like the ONLF and the OLF. The committee reported that such acts frequently occurred with the participation of, at the instigation of, or with the consent of commanding officers in police stations, detention centers, federal prisons, military bases, and unofficial or secret places of detention. Some reports of such abuses continued during the year.
Numerous credible sources confirmed in 2009 that in Maekelawi, the central police investigation headquarters in Addis Ababa, police investigators often used physical abuse to extract confessions. Citizens widely believed that such treatment remained a common practice at Maekelawi. Authorities continued to restrict access by diplomats and NGOs to Maekelawi.
Prison and pretrial detention center conditions remained harsh and in some cases life threatening. Severe overcrowding was common, especially in sleeping quarters. The government provided approximately eight birr ($0.46) per prisoner per day for food, water, and health care. Many prisoners supplemented this with daily food deliveries from family members or by purchasing food from local vendors. Medical care was unreliable in federal prisons and almost nonexistent in regional prisons. Water shortages caused unhygienic conditions, and most prisons lacked appropriate sanitary facilities. Many prisoners had serious health problems in detention but received little treatment.
The country has three federal and 120 regional prisons. There also are many unofficial detention centers throughout the country, including in Dedessa, Bir Sheleko, Tolay, Hormat, Blate, Tatek, Jijiga, Holeta, and Senkele. Most are located at military camps.
At the end of 2010 there were an estimated 86,000 persons in prison, of whom 2,474 were women and 546 children incarcerated with their mothers. Juveniles sometimes were incarcerated with adults who were awaiting execution. Male and female prisoners generally were separated. Authorities generally permitted visitors. In some cases family visits to prisoners were restricted to a few per year. Some of those charged with terrorist activity reported that their families were not allowed to visit them in prison.
Prisoners generally were permitted religious observance, but this varied by prison, and even by section of prison, at the discretion of prison management. Prisoners may, during trial, make complaints about prison conditions or treatment to the presiding judge.
During the year the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) visited regional prisons but, like all international organizations and NGOs, remained barred from visiting federal prisons, which held persons accused or convicted of crimes against national security, and all prisons in the Somali region. Regional authorities allowed NGO representatives to meet regularly with prisoners without third parties present.
The government and prison authorities generally cooperated with efforts of the Ethiopian NGO Justice for All-Prison Fellowship Ethiopia (JFA-PFE) to improve prison conditions. JFA-PFE was granted access to various prison and detention facilities, including federal prisons. It ran “model” prisons in Adama and Mekele, with significantly better conditions than those found in other prisons.
Because the government routinely failed to meet its accepted obligation to notify diplomatic missions of the arrest of foreign nationals, foreign representatives had only rare access to prisons and other detention facilities.
d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention
Although the constitution and law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention, the government often ignored these provisions in practice.
Role of the Police and Security Apparatus
The Federal Police Commission reports to the Ministry of Federal Affairs, which is subject to parliamentary oversight; however, this oversight was loose in practice. Each of the country’s nine regions has a state or special police force that reports to the regional civilian authorities. Local militias operated across the country in loose coordination with regional and federal police and the military, with the degree of coordination varying by region. In many cases these militias functioned as appendages of local EPRDF political bosses.
Security forces were effective, but impunity remained a serious problem. The mechanisms used to investigate abuses by the federal police were not known. Since 2010 regional police in the Somali region came under increasing control by the regional government and several members were subject to arrest for acts of indiscipline. The government rarely publicly disclosed the results of investigations into abuses by local security forces, such as arbitrary detention and beatings of civilians. In its November 2010 report, the UN Committee Against Torture noted that there were “numerous and consistent reports” about the government’s “persistent failure” to investigate allegations of torture and prosecute perpetrators, including Ethiopian National Defense Force (ENDF) or police commanders. The committee further noted the absence of information on cases in which soldiers and police or prison officers were prosecuted, sentenced, or subjected to disciplinary sanctions for acts of torture or mistreatment.
The government continued its efforts to provide human rights training for police and army recruits. During the year the government continued to accept assistance from the JFA-PFE and the Ethiopian Human Rights Commission (EHRC) to improve and professionalize its human rights training and curriculum, by including more material on the constitution and international human rights treaties and conventions. The JFA-PFE and the EHRC conducted human rights training for police commissioners, prosecutors, judges, prison administrators, and militia in Tigray; Amhara; Oromia; Afar; Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People’s Region (SNNPR); Gambella; and Addis Ababa.
Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention
Although the constitution and law require that detainees be brought to court and charged within 48 hours of arrest, sometimes this requirement was not respected in practice. With court approval, however, persons suspected of serious offenses can be detained for 14 days without being charged and for additional 14-day periods if an investigation continues. Under the antiterrorism law, police may request to hold persons without charge for 28-day periods, up to a maximum of four months. The law prohibits detention in any facility other than an official detention center; however local militias and other formal and informal law enforcement entities used dozens of unofficial local detention centers.
A functioning bail system was in place. Bail was not available for murder, treason, and corruption. In most cases authorities set bail between 500 and 10,000 birr ($29 and $580), which was too costly for most citizens. Police officials did not always respect court orders to release suspects on bail. The government provided public defenders for detainees unable to afford private legal counsel, but only when their cases went to court. While detainees were in pretrial detention, authorities allowed them little or no contact with legal counsel.
Arbitrary Arrest: Authorities regularly detained persons without warrants and denied access to counsel and in some cases to family members, particularly in outlying regions.
The government arrested more than 100 opposition political figures, activists, journalists, and bloggers.
In contrast with previous years, there were no reports that Ethiopian asylum seekers deported from Yemen were detained upon return to the country.
Pretrial Detention: Some prisoners reported being detained for several years without being charged and without trial. Pretrial detention continued to decline during the year. Approximately 80 percent of those incarcerated during the year in Amhara, Benishangul-Gumuz, Oromia, SNNPR, and Tigray had been sentenced.
Trial delays were most often caused by lengthy legal procedures, the large numbers of detainees, judicial inefficiency, and staffing shortages.
Amnesty: On June 1, after extensive lobbying by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and other religious institutions, and despite the protests of the family members of victims of the Red Terror, the government commuted the death sentences of 23 officials of the previous military regime, known as the Derg (1974-91). The officials, convicted of genocide, had their sentences reduced to life imprisonment; 16 of those officials were released from prison on October 4 for good behavior.
On September 10, in keeping with a long-standing tradition of issuing pardons at the Ethiopian New Year, the government pardoned 2,620 prisoners. In addition the SNNPR government pardoned 5,671 prisoners.
On September 27, officials commuted the life sentence of Ginbot 7 member Tsige Habtemariam and released him. Tsige was more than 80 years old at the time of his release. Tsige is the father of Andargachew Tsige, the secretary general of Ginbot 7, who received a death sentence in absentia in 2009.
e. Denial of Fair Public Trial
The law provides for an independent judiciary. Although the civil courts operated with a large degree of independence, the criminal courts remained weak, overburdened, and subject to political influence. The upper house of parliament has sole responsibility for judging the constitutionality of proposed new laws, handling judicial appointments, and reviewing judicial conduct. Courts have the ability to convict defendants on charges not raised by the prosecution.
Regional offices of the federal Ministry of Justice, known as bureaus of justice, monitored developments in local courts, but the federal judicial presence in the regions was otherwise limited. Some regional courts had jurisdiction over both local and federal matters, as the federal courts in those jurisdictions were not operational. Many citizens residing in rural areas generally had little access to formal judicial systems and relied on traditional mechanisms of resolving conflict.
A severe lack of experienced staff in the judicial system sometimes made the application of the law unpredictable. The government continued to train lower court judges and prosecutors and made effective judicial administration the primary focus of this training.
The seventh criminal branch of the Federal Court of First Instance, headed by three judges, handled cases involving juvenile offenses and cases of sexual abuse of women and children. There was a large backlog of juvenile cases, and accused children often remained in detention with adults until officials heard their cases. There were also credible reports that domestic violence and rape cases often were delayed significantly and given low priority.
The law provides legal standing to some preexisting religious and traditional courts and allows federal and regional legislatures to recognize decisions of such courts. By law all parties to a dispute must agree to use a traditional or religious court before such a court may hear a case, and either party can appeal to a regular court at any time. Sharia (Islamic) courts may hear religious and family cases involving Muslims. In addition other traditional systems of justice, such as the Council of Elders, continued to function. These customary mechanisms resolved disputes for the majority of citizens who lived in rural areas. Some women complained of lack of access to free and fair hearings in the traditional justice system because they were excluded by custom from participation in the Council of Elders and because there was strong gender discrimination in rural areas.
By law accused persons have the right to a fair public trial by a court of law within a “reasonable time,” a presumption of innocence, the right to be represented by legal counsel of their choice, and the right to appeal. The law gives defendants the right to present witnesses and evidence in their defense, cross-examine prosecution witnesses, and access government-held evidence. However, in practice the government did not always respect the right of access to evidence it held. In some sensitive cases deemed to involve matters of national security, notably the Ginbot 7 and OLF trials, detainees stated that authorities initially denied them the right to see attorneys. The court system does not use trial by juries. Unlike in previous years, there were no reports that persons charged with corruption were denied access to evidence against them prior to their trials.
Judicial inefficiency and lack of qualified staff often resulted in serious delays in trial proceedings. The Public Defender’s Office provided legal counsel to indigent defendants, although its scope and quality of service remained limited due to the shortage of attorneys.
During the year 31 persons were charged with terrorist activities under the antiterrorism proclamation, including 12 journalists, opposition political figures, and activists based in the country; two foreign journalists; and 17 Ethiopians living abroad who were charged in absentia. The first formal charges in such cases were filed on September 6. Several international human rights organizations raised concerns over the law’s broad definition of terrorism, as well as its severe penalties, its broad rules of evidence, and the discretionary powers afforded police and security forces. In at least one case defense attorneys were not given access to the prosecution’s evidence before the start of the trial.
Political Prisoners and Detainees
The government arrested more than 100 persons between March and September, including opposition political figures, activists, journalists, and bloggers. The government charged several of those arrested with terrorist or seditious activity, but observers found the evidence presented at trials to be either open to interpretation or indicative of acts of a political nature rather than linked to terrorism.
Estimates on the number of political prisoners varied. Domestic and international NGOs estimated that there were 200 to 300 political prisoners and detainees at year’s end. The government did not permit access by international human rights organizations.
From March 13 to 16, in the Oromia region the government arrested members of the Oromo Federalist Democratic Movement (OFDM) and the Oromo People’s Congress (OPC). The opposition parties stated that the government arrested 74 of their members and claimed that the arrests were politically motivated. The government stated that authorities arrested 120 persons, and that those arrested were affiliated with the OLF.
A second wave of arrests between June and September included a number of prominent journalists, political opposition figures, and activists, many of whom the government alleged were involved with terrorism. For example, on September 14, authorities arrested Andualem Arage, the vice chairman of the opposition front Medrek and a Unity for Democracy and Justice Party (UDJ) official; the well known blogger and journalist Eskinder Nega; and the UDJ official Natnael Mekonnen. Representatives of the opposition said that the arrests were politically motivated. The trial continued at year’s end.
Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies
The law provides citizens the right to appeal human rights violations in civil court; however, no such cases were filed during the year.
The law requires authorities to obtain judicial warrants to search private property; however, in practice police often ignored the law, and there were no records of courts excluding evidence found without warrants. Opposition political party leaders reported suspicions of telephone tapping and other electronic eavesdropping. In 2009 a former employee of the Ethiopian Telecommunication Corporation (ETC), the state-run monopoly telecommunications and Internet provider, reported from self-imposed exile that the government had ordered ETC employees to record citizens’ private telephone conversations unlawfully. It was widely believed that this practice continued during the year. In at least one instance, a foreign diplomat received a communication from a service provider stating that the government had accessed the diplomat’s private e-mail account.
The government reportedly used a widespread system of paid informants to report on the activities of particular individuals. During the year opposition members reported that ruling party operatives and militia members made intimidating and unwelcome visits to their homes, although the number of reports of such visits declined significantly compared with the previous year, when there was an election.
Human Rights Watch and some opposition parties alleged that the government politicized foreign donor assistance and that humanitarian assistance was used as an incentive to secure support for the ruling coalition. In 2010 the donor community based in the country, collectively known as the Development Assistance Group, conducted an assessment of the four largest donor-supported development programs. The assessment concluded that all four programs had accountability systems in place that provided effective checks against distortion for political purposes in the distribution of assistance.
Security forces continued to detain family members of persons sought for questioning by the government. There were credible reports that unemployed youths who were not affiliated with the ruling coalition sometimes had trouble receiving the “support letters” from their kebeles (neighborhoods or wards) necessary to get jobs.
The national government and regional governments continued to put in place “villagization” plans in the Gambella, Benishangul-Gumuz, and Somali regions. These plans involved the resettlement of scattered rural populations from arid or semiarid lands vulnerable to recurring droughts into designated clusters by regional governments. The stated purposes of villagization were to improve the provision of government services (i.e., health care, education, and clean water), protect vulnerable communities from natural disasters and attacks, and change environmentally destructive patterns of shifting cultivation. However, some observers stated that the purpose was to enable the large-scale leasing of land for commercial agriculture, a claim the government denied. The plan involved the resettlement of 45,000 households in Gambella and Benishangul-Gumuz and 70,000 in the Somali region from 2008-11. The government described the villagization program as strictly voluntary, and assessments by international donors found no systematic evidence to the contrary. These assessments found that communities and individual families appeared to have agreed to move based on assurances from authorities of food aid, services, and land, although in some instances communities moved before adequate basic services and shelter were in place in the new locations. They also noted that community members who objected to moving were allowed to stay, with consultations continuing, and some persons later returned to their original homes without hindrance. A Human Rights Watch report characterized the process as “far from voluntary.” The report described a process in which security forces and local militia attended meetings with those communities that had initially indicated they did not want to move and later went with villagers to the new locations, where they oversaw the construction of tukuls (traditional huts) by the villagers. According to the report, security forces beat (sometimes leading to death), threatened, arrested without charge, and detained persons who were critical of planned villagization of their communities, and this caused persons to fear speaking out against the process.
Since1994 the ONLF has engaged in armed conflict with the government. During the year scattered fighting continued between government forces, primarily regional government-backed militia, and residual elements of the ONLF. Allegations of human rights abuses committed by government forces (including regional police), government-aligned local militias, and ONLF forces continued. Often fighting was reported only well after the fact with the opposing sides alleging vastly differing and unverifiable accounts of events. In June parliament declared the ONLF and four other entities as terrorist organizations.
Most allegations of human rights abuses involving government actors came from ONLF sources, typically conveyed via diaspora blogs, and could not be readily investigated. Some villagers continued to report that local authorities threatened to retaliate against anyone who reported abuses by security forces. The number of reports of such human rights abuses continued to decline. The “Admiral Osman faction” of the ONLF, consisting of hard-core fighters and supported by the Eritrean government, was believed to be responsible for an attack against aid workers on May 13 and attacks against the government. Deliveries of food and medicine were temporarily halted in the limited areas affected by fighting due to security concerns.
The 2010 peace agreements that the government signed with the United Western Somali Liberation Front and the Salahdin Ma’ow faction of the ONLF held.
On May 13, gunmen affiliated with the ONLF attacked a vehicle belonging to the UN World Food Program (WFP), killed its driver, Farhan Hamsa, and injured one other staff member.
The persons responsible for the May 13 attack on the WFP vehicle also kidnapped two other WFP employees in the vehicle. The ONLF admitted that it had the two employees in its custody without taking responsibility for the attack. On June 30, the ONLF released the two WFP employees unharmed.
There was no additional information regarding reports in past years that some local militias in the Somali region recruited child soldiers.
Also see the Department of State’s Trafficking in Persons Report at www.state.gov/j/tip.
Other Conflict-related Abuses
Civilians, international NGOs, and other aid organizations operating in the Somali region reported that government security forces, local militias, and the ONLF committed abuses such as arbitrary arrest to intimidate the civilian population. In contrast with the previous year, there were no reports that special police and or militias forcibly relocated whole villages believed to be supportive of the ONLF.
Restrictions that limited the access of NGOs and journalists to conflict regions continued, although these were relaxed significantly in comparison with previous years and large portions of the region were opened to diplomatic visitors. At year’s end no areas of the region were officially off-limits, and the government generally encouraged travel in the region as a means of spurring potential investment. The government continued strongly to advise caution in areas of recent fighting. Journalists must register before entering conflict regions. NGOs had to request permission to enter the Fik zone in the Somali region. There were isolated reports of regional police or local militias blocking NGO access to particular locations on particular days, citing security concerns as the reason for this. NGO workers generally turned back and did not press the point. Several foreign missions and other groups continued to exercise caution in traveling to the area.
Authorities arrested and convicted two Swedish journalists who entered the Somali region after crossing the border from Somalia illegally; the journalists were in the company of ONLF fighters when they were arrested (see section 2.a.). The government continued to ban the ICRC from the region, having previously alleged that it cooperated with the ONLF. During the year some humanitarian groups reported roadblocks manned by insurgent groups that occasionally briefly detained them. These same humanitarian groups reportedly were interrogated by the ENDF on their encounters with insurgents at the roadblocks.
a. Freedom of Speech and Press
Status of Freedom of Speech and Press
While the constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and press, the government did not respect these rights in practice.
Freedom of Speech: Authorities arrested and harassed persons for criticizing the government.
Freedom of Press: Approximately 20 private Amharic- and English-language newspapers with political and business focuses were published, with a combined weekly circulation in Addis Ababa of more than 150,000. Most newspapers were printed on a weekly basis with the exception of the state-owned Amharic and English dailies.
The government controlled the only nationally broadcast television station which, along with radio, was the primary source of news for much of the population. Apart from three private FM radio stations in the capital city and community radio stations in the regions, the government controlled all radio broadcasting.
Government-controlled media mostly reflected the views of the government and the ruling EPRDF coalition. The government periodically jammed foreign broadcasts. For example, Voice of America’s Amharic-language programs experienced periodic jamming throughout the year. Deutsche Welle also reportedly experienced jamming in early April. The broadcasting law prohibits political and religious organizations or foreigners from owning broadcast stations.
Violence and Harassment: The government continued to arrest, harass, and prosecute journalists, publishers, and editors. During the year the government arrested nine journalists, five of whom remained in custody at year’s end. Two journalists fled the country, citing fear of arrest; one of the two reported having his accreditation revoked prior to departure.
On February 8, the Ministry of Justice filed approximately130 charges against Temesgen Dessalegn, editor in chief and owner of the private Amharic weekly newspaper Feteh. The charges included 35 criminal offenses and approximately 100 other allegations. Dessalegn was charged with inciting public violence and protests in order to boost sales. Reportedly, the charges cited articles in 13 issues of the newspaper published between September and December 2010 as “defaming the EPRDF and the government, inciting the public against the government and the constitution, and dishonoring the flag.”
In November Dawit Kebede, editor in chief of the Awramba Times, reportedly fled the country due to harassment and intimidation by government officials. Following his departure the Awramba Times ceased publication. Its license was in Dawit’s name and was essentially nontransferable.
Censorship or Content Restrictions: Government harassment of journalists caused them to fear reporting on sensitive topics. Many private newspapers reported informal editorial control by the government through article placement requests and calls from government officials concerning articles perceived as critical of the government. Private-sector and government journalists routinely practiced self-censorship. In contrast with previous years, there were no reports that the government used its licensing authority to censor the media indirectly.
Libel Laws/National Security: The government used the antiterrorism law to suppress criticism. Journalists feared reporting on the five groups designated by parliament in June as terrorist organizations (Ginbot 7, the ONLF, the OLF, al-Qaida, and Al Shabaab), citing ambiguity on whether reporting on these groups might be punishable under the law. From June through September, the government arrested and charged five journalists under the antiterrorism proclamation. Several journalists, both local and foreign correspondents, reported an increase in self-censorship.
On June 19 and 21, authorities arrested nine persons under the antiterrorism proclamation, including two journalists–Woubishet Taye, deputy editor of the Awramba Times, and Feteh columnist Reyot Alemu–as well as Zerihun Gebre-Egziabher, president of the Ethiopian National Unity Party. Reports indicated that Woubishet and Reyot were not allowed to receive visitors and did not have access to counsel while awaiting formal charges, although they had counsel once their trial began. The families of Zerihun and Woubishet stated that the two men had been tortured. On September 6, Woubishet, Reyot, and Zerihun were charged formally with terrorist activity. The trial continued at year’s end. Four others of those arrested were later released.
On June 30, Swedish freelancers Johan Persson and Martin Schibbye, a photographer and a journalist, respectively, were arrested in the Somali region. Reports indicated that they were found with a group of ONLF rebels and that prior to their capture the rebels and government troops were in a firefight. The journalists admitted to embedding themselves with the ONLF and entering Ethiopia illegally but otherwise denied actual involvement with or support for the organization. On December 21, they were found guilty of rendering support to a terrorist organization and illegally entering the country. They each received sentences of 11 years in prison.
The government did not use libel laws during the year to suppress criticism.
Publishing Restrictions: The government owned the only high-quality newspaper printing press and regularly increased costs to publishers. Reports indicated that this practice influenced the circulation numbers of the private newspapers, forcing them to adjust their printing runs according to what they could afford. One private publisher claimed to have purchased and imported a news printing press but cited government-imposed obstacles that prevented delivery and installation.
The government restricted access to the Internet and blocked several Web sites, including news sites, blogs, opposition Web sites, and Web sites of domestic groups designated as terrorist organizations by parliament (Ginbot 7, the OLF, and the ONLF). Several news blogs and Web sites run by opposition diaspora groups, such as Addis Neger, Nazret, Ethiopian Review, CyberEthiopia, Quatero Amharic Magazine, Tensae Ethiopia, and the Ethiopian Media Forum, were not accessible. In general blog sites were not accessible. The news Web site for VOA News was only available periodically, although users could generally access their proxy Web sites.
On September 14, authorities arrested the journalist and blogger Eskinder Nega (see section 1.e., Political Prisoners and Detainees).
Academic Freedom and Cultural Events
The government restricted academic freedom, including the curriculum, teachers’ appointments, and student enrollment decisions. Speech, expression, and assembly frequently were restricted on university and high school campuses.
Students in schools and universities were indoctrinated in the core precepts of the ruling EPDRF party’s concept of “revolutionary democracy.” According to credible sources, the ruling party “stacks” student enrollment at Addis Ababa University, which is the nation’s largest and most influential university, with students loyal to the party to ensure further adherence to the party’s principles and to forestall any student protest.
The government also restricted academic freedom in other ways. Authorities did not permit teachers at any level to deviate from official lesson plans and actively prohibited partisan political activity and association of any kind on university campuses. Numerous anecdotal reports suggested that non-EPRDF members were more likely to be transferred to undesirable posts and bypassed for promotions. There was a lack of transparency in academic staffing decisions, with numerous complaints from individuals in the academic community of bias based on party membership, ethnicity, or religion.
Some college students reportedly were pressured to pledge allegiance to the EPRDF in order to secure enrollment in universities or government jobs after graduation. According to multiple credible sources, teachers and high school students in grade 10 and above were required to attend training on the concepts of revolutionary democracy and EPRDF party ideology. Many students reportedly believed that they needed EPRDF membership to gain admission to a university and consequently became members.
During the year the Ministry of Education relaxed some restrictions in its 2010 directive prohibiting private universities from offering degree programs in law and teacher education. The directive also requires private universities to align their curriculum offerings with the previously announced ministry’s policy of a 70-to-30 ratio between science and social science academic programs. Private university curricula had focused heavily on the social sciences. Ministry officials originally cited a need to maintain quality standards as the reason for the directive.
Freedom of Assembly
The constitution and law provide for freedom of assembly; however, the government restricted this right. On one occasion during the year, authorities injured and arrested protestors who were reportedly demonstrating without a permit.
Organizers of large public meetings or demonstrations must notify the government 48 hours in advance and obtain a permit. Local government officials, almost all of whom were affiliated with the EPRDF, controlled access to municipal halls, and there were many complaints from opposition parties that local officials denied or otherwise obstructed the scheduling of opposition parties’ use of halls for lawful political rallies.
Regional governments, including the Addis Ababa regional administration, were reluctant to grant permits or provide security for large meetings.
In September the All Ethiopia Unity Party and Ethiopia Unity Democratic Organization stated that they were not granted permission by the Addis Ababa city administration to hold a peaceful demonstration.
Freedom of Association
Although the law provides for freedom of association and the right to engage in unrestricted peaceful political activity, the government limited this right in practice.
In accordance with the CSO law, anonymous donations to NGOs are not permitted. All donors are therefore aware that their names will be public knowledge. The same is true of all donations made to political parties.
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs screens registration applications from international NGOs and submits a recommendation on whether to approve or deny registration.
See the Department of State’s International Religious Freedom Report at www.state.gov/j/drl/irf/rpt.
Although the law provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, the government restricted some of these rights in practice.
The government cooperated with the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in assisting refugees and returning citizens.
In-country Movement: The government relaxed but did not completely remove restrictions on the movement of persons into and within the Ogaden area of the Somali region, continuing to argue that the ONLF posed a security threat (see section 1.g.).
Exile: The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Several citizens sought political asylum in other countries or remained abroad in self-imposed exile, including prominent human rights advocates. For example, during the year Awramba Times editor Dawit Kebede fled the country after receiving information that he was going to be imprisoned (see section 2.a., Violence and Harassment).
Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs)
The total number of IDPs in the country during the year was not known. Many persons who had been displaced due to conflict in Gambella, Oromia, SNNPR, and the Somali region remained displaced. Drought also caused displacements during the year.
The government did not recognize IDPs as a distinct group, and there was no specialized office charged with managing matters such as IDP protection, return, resettlement, or durable solutions. The government did not maintain data on IDPs. The Federal Disaster Risk Management and Food Security Sector, under the authority of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, is the main government agency responsible for emergencies, in collaboration with the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Water and Energy.
Government restrictions on the access of human rights organizations, the media, humanitarian agencies, and diplomatic missions to conflict-affected areas significantly decreased in comparison with previous years. There were isolated reports of regional police or local militias blocking NGO access to particular locations on particular days, citing security concerns as the reason for this. NGO workers generally turned back. Access to conflict-affected IDPs often was difficult and limited; hence assistance provided to them was often inadequate.
During the year drought caused displacements in the Somali region, a situation exacerbated in some cases by the continuing conflict (see section 1.g.). The government limited humanitarian access to the Fik zone of the Somali region.
In Oromia religious violence caused temporary displacement. In March between three thousand and four thousand evangelical Protestants were displaced temporarily when Muslims attacked and burned more than 60 homes and churches in Asendabo, a small town near Jimma, the principal city of western Oromia. The federal police quelled the violence. Virtually all of those who left had returned to their homes by year’s end.
Protection of Refugees
Access to Asylum: The law provides for the granting of asylum or refugee status and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees.
According to the UNHCR, the country hosted 290,304 refugees at year’s end. The majority of refugees were from Somalia (185,473), with others coming from Sudan and South Sudan (46,129) and Eritrea (55,085). New arrivals from Somalia increased significantly during the year, most being women and children who were not in good health. Most Somali refugees went to camps in the Dollo Ado area. Deaths of Somali refugee children increased significantly compared with previous years, mainly due to severe malnutrition. Mortality rates peaked in July and August. In August the UNHCR reported that an average of 10 children under age five died every day in Kobe camp (located in the Dollo Ado area) since it opened in June.
The UNHCR, the government, and humanitarian agencies activated contingency plans to care for Sudanese arrivals who fled from conflict in Sudan’s Blue Nile State.
Eritrean asylum seekers continued to arrive at the rate of approximately 1,000 new arrivals per month, according to the UNHCR. Hundreds of Eritrean refugees reportedly departed monthly on secondary migration through Egypt and Sudan to go to Israel, Europe, and other final destinations. The UNHCR assisted in the reception and transportation back to My Ayni or Adi Harush camps of more than 723 Eritrean refugees who had been detained in Egypt and deported by the Egyptian authorities. The UNHCR reported that the population of unaccompanied minors who fled Eritrea was 1,197 at year’s end. Unaccompanied minors in the 15- to17-year-old age group represented more than 75 percent of the total population of such minors, who stated they fled Eritrea to avoid military conscription.
Refugee Abuse: The out-of-camp policy for Eritrean refugees, which permits Eritrean refugees to live outside the camps, remained in place. Prior to this policy, such permission was given primarily to attend higher education institutions, undergo medical treatment, or avoid security threats at the camps. Officially, the out-of-camp policy is not extended to refugees from places other than Eritrea. However, in practice such persons were not prevented from moving in and out of camps.
Employment: The government does not grant refugees work permits.
Access to Basic Services: Refugees in camps were provided with schooling and health services. For those outside of camps, there were no reports of discrimination in access to public services.
Durable Solutions: During the year, the International Organization for Migration processed 4,746 refugees who departed for resettlement and family reunification abroad.
The constitution and law provide citizens the right to change their government peacefully. In practice the country has never had a peaceful change of government.
Elections and Political Participation
Recent Elections: In the May 2010 national parliamentary elections, the EPRDF and affiliated parties won 545 of 547 seats to remain in power for a fourth consecutive five-year term. In simultaneous elections for regional parliaments, the EPRDF and its affiliates won 1,903 of 1,904 seats. The EPRDF and its affiliates received approximately 79 percent of total votes cast but won more than 99 percent of all seats at all levels. Independent observation of the vote was severely limited due to government restrictions. Although the relatively few international officials allowed to observe the elections concluded that technical aspects of the vote were handled competently, some also noted that an environment conducive to free and fair elections was not in place prior to election day. Several laws, regulations, and procedures implemented since the 2005 national elections created a clear advantage for the EPRDF throughout the electoral process. There was ample evidence that unfair government tactics–including intimidation of opposition candidates and supporters–influenced the extent of the EPRDF victory. In addition voter education was limited in scope to information about technical voting procedures and done only by the National Electoral Board, and then only days before voting began.
The African Union, whose observers arrived one week before the vote, pronounced the elections as free and fair. The European Union, some of whose observers arrived a few months before the vote, concluded that the elections fell short of international standards for transparency and failed to provide a level playing field for opposition parties. Overall the EU observed a “climate of apprehension and insecurity,” noting that the volume and consistency of complaints of harassment and intimidation by opposition parties was “a matter of concern” and had to be taken into consideration “in the overall assessment of the electoral process.”
Political Parties: Political parties were predominantly ethnically based. Membership in the EPRDF conferred advantages upon its members; the party directly owned many businesses and was broadly perceived to award jobs and business contracts to loyal supporters. The opposition reported that in many instances local authorities told its members to renounce their party membership and join the EPRDF if they wanted access to subsidized seeds and fertilizer; food relief; civil service job assignment, promotion, or retention; student university assignment and postgraduate employment; and other benefits controlled by the government.
During the year there were credible reports that teachers and other government workers had their employment terminated if they belonged to opposition political parties. According to opposition groups such as the OFDM and the OPC, the Oromia regional government continued to threaten to dismiss opposition party members–particularly teachers–from their jobs. At the university level, however, members of Medrek and its constituent parties were able to teach.
Registered political parties must receive permission from regional governments to open and occupy local offices.
In early 2010 a system of public campaign finance was announced. Under this system parties are to receive public funds based in part on the number of parliamentary seats they hold.
Participation of Women and Minorities: No laws or cultural or traditional practices prevented women or minorities from voting or participating in political life on the same basis as men or nonminority citizens.
The government policy of ethnic federalism led to the creation of individual constituencies to provide for representation of all major ethnic groups in the House of People’s Representatives. There were more than 80 ethnic groups, and small groups lacked representation in the legislature. There were 24 nationality groups in six regional states (Tigray, Amhara, Beneshangul-Gumuz, SNNPR, Gambella, and Harar) that did not have a sufficient population to qualify for constituency seats based on the 2007 census result; however, in the May 2010 elections, individuals from these nationality groups competed for 24 special seats in the House of People’s Representatives. Additionally these 24 nationality groups have one seat each in the unelected, largely ceremonial House of Federation.
The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption; despite the government’s prosecution of numerous officials for corruption, some officials continued to engage in corrupt practices. Corruption, especially the solicitation of bribes, remained a problem among low-level bureaucrats. Police and judicial corruption also continued to be problems. Some government officials appeared to manipulate the privatization process, and state- and party-owned businesses received preferential access to land leases and credit.
The Ministry of Justice has primary responsibility for combating corruption, largely through the Federal Ethics and Anti-Corruption Commission.
A large number of arrests for corruption were made during the year, including of significant regional politicians and government officials. For example, in May authorities arrested the deputy head of the Bureau of Land Administration and Environmental Protection for the Oromia region, Mohammed Ebrahim Mussa, on corruption charges. The Oromia Ethics and Anti-Corruption Commission arrested more than 60 government officials in the first half of the year.
On August 16, eight team leaders and staff members of the Department of Trade, Industry, and Transport in two Oromia cities, Adama and Bishoftu, received fines and prison terms of up to five and a half years. They were convicted of misusing their offices for illicit gain in the importation of duty-free vehicles; the financial loss to the government was reportedly 1,755,585 birr ($101,950). In addition 26 other individuals convicted of benefiting from the scheme received similar sentences.
The law requires that all government officials and employees officially register their wealth and personal property. The president, prime minister, and all cabinet-level ministers registered their assets by the end of 2010, and by the next September a total of 9,102 elected officials, political appointees, and public servants had registered their assets, according to the Federal Ethics and Anti-Corruption Commission.
There was progress in the 2008 case of former ETC managing director Tesfaye Birru and 12 other senior management staff accused of approving an equipment and technology contract that violated government bid regulations and cost 1.52 billion birr ($88.3 million). On August 24, the federal high court convicted five of the 13 defendants and sentenced them to five to nine years in prison and fines of 7,000 to 40,000 birr ($406 to $2,323).
The law provides for public access to government information, but access was largely restricted in practice. The law included freedom of information provisions.
The government publishes its laws and regulations in the national gazette prior to their taking effect. The Government Communications Affairs Office managed contacts between the government, the press, and the public; however, the private press reported that the government rarely responded to its queries.
Section 5. Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights
A few domestic human rights groups operated, but with significant government restriction. The government was generally distrustful and wary of domestic human rights groups and international observers. State-controlled media were critical of international human rights groups such as Human Rights Watch. The government strongly criticized Human Rights Watch on several occasions during the year for what it described as biased and inaccurate reporting.
The CSO law prohibits charities, societies, and associations (NGOs or CSOs) that receive more than 10 percent of their funding from foreign sources from engaging in activities that advance human and democratic rights or promote equality of nations, nationalities, peoples, genders, and religions; the rights of children and persons with disabilities; conflict resolution or reconciliation; or the efficiency of justice and law enforcement services. There were 3,522 organizations registered before the CSO law was adopted, although not all were active, and as of June 2,059 CSOs–old and new–were registered under the law. Of these, 262 were foreign charities, 1,330 were “resident” charities, 371 were “local” charities, 62 were adoption agencies, and 34 were consortia. The government maintained that the majority of organizations that did not reregister were not functional organizations prior to the passage of the law. In December the government participated in the first session of a civil-society sector working group with donor countries and resident CSOs. Some human rights defender organizations adjusted by registering either as local charities, meaning that they could not raise more than 10 percent of their funds from foreign donors but could act in the enumerated areas, or as resident charities, which allowed foreign donations above 10 percent but prohibited activities in the enumerated areas.
Two prominent human rights defender organizations–the Human Rights Council (HRCO) and the Ethiopian Women Lawyers’ Association (EWLA)–registered as local charities to preserve their mission and adjust to the law. However, due to the restrictions of the CSO law, both the HRCO and the EWLA cut most of their staff in 2010, drastically reducing the services they provided. In 2010 the Charities and Societies Association (CSA), set up by the government to oversee NGOs, froze the accounts of these two and four other organizations, claiming that funds raised in 2009 would have to be cross-checked against the annual work plan for the year. The funds remained frozen during the year. On October 25, the Federal High Court 11th Civil Bench upheld the CSA’s decision to block the funds. Both the EWLA and the HRCO signed agreements with the government-run EHRC that allowed them to gain access to some limited funding through the EHRC. The EWLA’s agreement with the EHRC allowed it to establish legal aid centers in tandem with the government-run agency, which effectively began to expand the organization again during the year.
The government denied NGOs access to federal prisons, police stations, and political prisoners.
Restrictions that limited access of NGOs and journalists to conflict regions continued, although these were relaxed significantly compared with previous years. Journalists must register before entering conflict regions. NGOs had to request permission to enter the Fik zone in the Somali region. There were isolated reports of regional police or local militias blocking NGOs’ access to particular locations on particular days, citing security concerns as the reason for this (see section 1.g.).
There were credible reports that security officials continued to intimidate or detain local individuals to prevent them from meeting with NGOs and foreign government officials investigating allegations of abuse.
On August 27, authorities jailed Bekele Gerba, an Addis Ababa University professor and deputy chairman of the opposition OFDM, as well as OPC member Olbana Lelisa. Representatives of Amnesty International had met with Bekele and Olbana several days prior to their arrest. Bekele and Olbana were accused of involvement with the OLF. At the same time, 20 Addis Ababa University students were arrested under similar allegations, and several remained incarcerated at year’s end. The government also expelled the Amnesty International staff from the country. Court proceedings against Bekele and Olbana were beginning at year’s end.
UN and Other International Bodies: The government generally cooperated with international organizations such as the UN.
Government Human Rights Bodies: The government-established EHRC, which is funded by the parliament and subject to parliamentary review, investigates human rights complaints and produces both annual and thematic reports, although it did not release any reports during the year. The commissioner reported that 11 investigative reports were issued. He also stated that the commission established 106 legal aid centers, 16 of which were affiliated with universities and 31 with the EWLA, pursuant to an agreement that enables the EWLA branches to access EHRC funds. The EHRC itself also reviewed more than 1,400 complaints submitted to it during the year, the vast majority of which were not directed against the government or government bodies. The EHRC, however, is not a body independent of government influence, as it is controlled by parliament.
The Office of the Ombudsman has the authority to receive and investigate complaints with respect to administrative mismanagement by executive branch offices. The agency received hundreds of complaints during the year, mainly focused on delays or denials in services, improper institutional decisions, promotions or demotions, and pension matters. It was not known which complaints were investigated or acted upon.
In September the government launched a steering committee for its National Action Plan on Human Rights; however, no action took place by year’s end.
The constitution provides all persons equal protection without discrimination based on race, nation, nationality or other social origin, color, gender, language, religion, political or other opinion, property, birth, or status. However, in practice the government did not fully promote and protect these rights.
Rape and Domestic Violence: The law criminalizes rape and provides for penalties of five to 20 years’ imprisonment, depending on the severity of the case; however, the law does not expressly address spousal rape. The government did not fully enforce the law, partially due to widespread underreporting. Recent statistics on the number of abusers prosecuted, convicted, or punished were not available.
Domestic violence, including spousal abuse, was a pervasive social problem. The government’s 2005 Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) found that 81 percent of women believed a husband had a right to beat his wife. A 2005 World Health Organization study found that in two SNNPR rural districts, Meskan and Mareko, 71 percent of women were subject to physical or sexual violence, or both, by an intimate partner during their lifetime. Although women had recourse to the police and the courts, societal norms and limited infrastructure prevented many women from seeking legal redress, particularly in rural areas. The government prosecuted offenders on a limited scale. Domestic violence is illegal, but government enforcement of laws against rape and domestic violence was inconsistent. Depending on the severity of damage inflicted, legal penalties range from small fines to imprisonment for up to 10 to 15 years.
Domestic violence and rape cases often were delayed significantly and given low priority (see section 1.e.). On December 17, Fisseha Tadesse was convicted of attempted murder after gouging out his ex-wife’s eyes. On December 30, he was sentenced to 14 years’ imprisonment. In the context of gender-based violence, significant gender gaps in the justice system remained, due to poor documentation and inadequate investigation.
During the year the Ministry of Health began the expansion of the rape crisis center at Gandhi Hospital into a training center for health workers, law enforcement personnel, and others. Police officers were required to receive domestic violence training from domestic NGOs and the Ministry of Women’s Affairs. There was a deputy commissioner of women’s and children’s rights in the EHRC.
Women and girls experienced gender-based violence, but it was underreported due to cultural acceptance, shame, fear, or a victim’s ignorance of legal protections.
The government established a National Commission for Children’s and Women’s Affairs in 2005, as part of the EHRC, to investigate alleged human rights violations against women and children. During the year the commission focused its efforts on workshops and seminars, and not on investigations.
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM): One of the most prevalent harmful traditional practices, FGM, is illegal, but the government did not enforce this prohibition or punish those who practiced it. The practice was still widespread but declining. The 2000 DHS found that 80 percent of all women surveyed had undergone FGM, while the total dropped to 74 percent of all women surveyed in 2005. In addition the number of younger women subjected to FGM was declining more rapidly; in 2005, 81 percent of women ages 35-39 had been subjected to FGM, compared with 62.1 percent of women ages 15-19. The same survey found that four in five women who had been subjected to FGM in the Somali region, and three in five in the Afar region, underwent infibulation, the most severe form of FGM (see Children, Harmful Traditional Practices).
Other Harmful Traditional Practices: The most prevalent harmful traditional practices, besides FGM, were uvulectomy (cutting or removal the uvula, the piece of flesh that hangs down at the rear of the mouth), tonsillectomy (cutting or removal of the tonsils), and marriage by abduction.
Marriage by abduction is illegal, although it continued in some regions, including Amhara, Oromia, and SNNPR, despite the government’s attempts to combat the practice. Forced sexual relationships accompanied most marriages by abduction, and women often experienced physical abuse during the abduction. Abductions led to conflicts among families, communities, and ethnic groups. In cases of marriage by abduction, the perpetrator did not face punishment if the victim agreed to marry the perpetrator. Ethiopia Goji Limadawi Dirgitoch Aswogaj Mahibar (EGLDAM), an NGO that combats harmful traditional practices, reported in June 2010 that there were significant decreases in this practice in all regions over the past decade. Overall, 25 percent of women ages 60 and above reported marriage by abduction, but only 8 percent of women under age 30 reported this practice.
Sexual Harassment: Sexual harassment was widespread. The penal code prescribes penalties of 18 to 24 months’ imprisonment; however, harassment-related laws generally were not enforced.
Reproductive Rights: Neither law nor practice curtailed the right of individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of children, and to have the information and means to do so free from discrimination, coercion, and violence. The 2011 DHS Preliminary Report indicated a contraceptive prevalence of 29 percent nationwide among married women, a twofold increase from five years ago. A 2009 modeling study by the World Health Organization indicated that the maternal mortality rate was 590 per 100,000 live births. The principal causes of maternal mortality were excessive bleeding, infection, hypertensive complications, and obstructed labor, and the underlying cause for these was the prevalence of home births. Only 9 percent of women reported delivering in a health facility or with a skilled birth attendant.
Discrimination: Discrimination against women was most acute in rural areas, where an estimated 82 percent of the population lived. The law contains discriminatory regulations, such as the recognition of the husband as the legal head of the family and the sole guardian of children over five years old. Courts generally did not consider domestic violence a justification for granting a divorce. There was limited legal recognition of common-law marriage. Irrespective of the number of years the marriage existed, the number of children raised, and joint property, the law entitled women to only three months’ financial support if a relationship ended. A common-law husband had no obligation to provide financial assistance to his family, and as a result, women and children sometimes faced abandonment. Notwithstanding progressive provisions in the formal law, traditional courts continued to apply customary law in economic and social relationships.
According to the constitution, all land belongs to the government. However, both men and women have land-use rights, which they can pass on as an inheritance. Land law varies among regions. All federal and regional land laws empower women to access government land. Inheritance laws also enable widowed women to inherit joint property they acquire during marriage.
In urban areas women had fewer employment opportunities than men, and the jobs available did not provide equal pay for equal work. Women’s access to gainful employment, credit, and the opportunity to own or manage a business was further limited by their low level of education and training and by traditional attitudes.
The Ministry of Education reported that female participation in undergraduate and postgraduate programs increased to 123,706 during the 2010-11 academic year, compared with 90,938 in 2008-09, continuing the trend of rising female participation in tertiary education.
Birth registration: Citizenship is derived from one’s parents. The law requires that all children be registered at birth. In practice children born in hospitals were registered while most children born outside of hospitals were not. The overwhelming majority of children, particularly in rural areas, were born at home.
Education: As a policy, primary education was universal and tuition-free; however, there were not enough schools to accommodate the country’s youth, particularly in rural areas. The cost of school supplies was prohibitive for many families, and there was no legislation to enforce compulsory primary education. The number of students enrolled in schools expanded faster than trained teachers could be deployed.
Child Abuse: Child abuse was widespread. A 2009 study conducted by the African Child Policy Forum revealed that prosecuting offenders for sexual violence against children was difficult due to inconsistent interpretation of laws among legal bodies and the offender’s right to bail, which often resulted in the offender fleeing or coercing the victim or the victim’s family to drop the charges.
Harmful Traditional Practices: Societal abuse of young girls continued to be a problem. Harmful practices included FGM, early marriage, marriage by abduction, and food and work prohibitions. A 2006 African Child Policy Forum retrospective survey indicated that 68.5 percent of girls surveyed had been abused sexually and 84 percent had been abused physically.
The majority of girls in the country had undergone some form of FGM. FGM was much less common in urban areas, where only 15 percent of the population lived. Girls typically experienced clitoridectomies seven days after birth (consisting of an excision of the clitoris, often with partial labial excision) and faced infibulation (the most extreme and dangerous form of FGM) at the onset of puberty. A 2008 study funded by Save the Children Norway reported a 24 percent national reduction in FGM cases over the previous 10 years, due in part to a strong anti-FGM campaign. The campaign continued to have an effect in SNNPR and Afar during the year. The penal code criminalizes practitioners of clitoridectomy, with imprisonment of at least three months or a fine of at least 500 birr ($29). Infibulation of the genitals is punishable with imprisonment of five to 10 years. However, no criminal charges have ever been brought for FGM. The government discouraged the practice of FGM through education in public schools, the Health Extension Program, and broader mass media campaigns (see Women, Female Genital Mutilation (FGM).
Child Marriage: The law sets the legal marriage age for girls and boys at 18; however, this law was not enforced uniformly. In several regions it was customary for older men to marry young girls, although this traditional practice continued to face greater scrutiny and criticism. Child marriage was a problem, particularly in Amhara and Tigray, where girls were married routinely as early as age seven, despite the legal minimum age of 18 for marriage. Regional governments in Amhara and Tigray ran programs to educate young women on issues associated with early marriage. There were some signs of growing public awareness in communities of the problem of abuse of women and girls, including early marriage.
Sexual Exploitation of Children: The minimum age for consensual sex is 18 years, but this law was not strictly enforced. The law provides for three to 15 years in prison for sexual intercourse with a minor. The law provides for one year in prison and a fine of 10,000 birr ($580) for trafficking in indecent material displaying sexual intercourse by minors. The law prohibits profiting from the prostitution of minors and inducing minors to engage in prostitution; however, commercial sexual exploitation of children continued, particularly in urban areas. Girls as young as age 11 reportedly were recruited to work in brothels and often sought by customers who believed them to be free of sexually transmitted diseases. Young girls were trafficked from rural to urban areas. They also were exploited as prostitutes in hotels, bars, resort towns, and rural truck stops. Reports indicated that some young girls were forced into prostitution by their family members.
Infanticide: Ritual and superstition-based infanticide continued in remote tribal areas, particularly the South Omo Valley. Local government worked to educate communities against the practice.
Displaced Children: According to a 2010 report by the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, approximately 150,000 children lived on the streets, and 60,000 of these children lived in the capital. The ministry’s report stated that families’ inability to support children due to parental illness and insufficient household income exacerbated the problem. These children begged, sometimes as part of a gang, or worked in the informal sector. Government and privately run orphanages were unable to handle the number of street children.
Institutionalized Children: There were an estimated 5.4 million orphans in the country, according to a 2010 report by the Central Statistics Authority. The vast majority lived with extended family members. Government-run orphanages were overcrowded, and conditions were often unsanitary. Due to severe resource constraints, hospitals and orphanages often overlooked or neglected abandoned infants. Children did not receive adequate health care, and several infants died due to lack of adequate medical attention. There were multiple international press reports that parents received payment from some adoption agencies to relinquish their children for international adoption, and that some agencies concealed the age or health history of children from their adoptive parents and also misled birth parents about the conditions of adoption. The government had begun to investigate the allegations.
International Child Abductions: The country is not a party to the 1980 Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction.
The Jewish community numbered approximately 2,000; there were no reports of anti-Semitic acts.
Trafficking in Persons
See the Department of State’s Trafficking in Persons Report at www.state.gov/j/tip.
Persons with Disabilities
The constitution does not mandate equal rights for persons with disabilities. However, two laws prohibit discrimination against persons with physical and mental disabilities in employment and mandate access to buildings. It is illegal for deaf persons to drive.
The Right to Employment of Persons with Disabilities Proclamation prohibits employment discrimination on the basis of disability. It also makes employers responsible for providing appropriate working or training conditions and materials to persons with disabilities. The law specifically recognizes the additional burden on women with disabilities. The government took limited measures to enforce the law, for example, by assigning interpreters for hearing-impaired civil service employees.
The Ethiopian Building Proclamation mandates building accessibility and accessible toilet facilities for persons with physical disabilities, although specific regulations that define the accessibility standards have not been adopted. Buildings and toilet facilities were usually not accessible. Landlords are required to give persons with disabilities preference for ground-floor apartments, and this was respected in practice.
Women with disabilities were more disadvantaged than men with disabilities in education and employment. An Addis Ababa University study from 2008 showed that female students with disabilities were subjected to a heavier burden of domestic work than their male peers. The enrollment rate for girls with disabilities was lower than for boys at the primary school level, and this gap increased at higher levels of education. Girls with disabilities also were much more likely to suffer physical and sexual abuse than girls without disabilities.
There were approximately seven million persons with disabilities, according to the Ethiopian Federation of Persons with Disabilities. There were one mental hospital and an estimated 10 psychiatrists in the country. There were several schools for hearing and visually impaired persons and several training centers for children and young persons with intellectual disabilities. There was a network of prosthetic and orthopedic centers in five of the nine regional states.
The CSO law prohibits organizations receiving more than 10 percent of their funding from foreign sources from promoting the rights of persons with disabilities. Several domestic associations, such as the Ethiopian National Association of the Blind, Ethiopian National Association of the Deaf, and Ethiopian National Association of the Physically Handicapped continued to be affected negatively by the legislation.
The country has more than 80 ethnic groups, of which the Oromo, at 35 percent of the population, is the largest. The federal system drew boundaries roughly along major ethnic group lines, and regional states had much greater control over their affairs than previously. Most political parties remained primarily ethnically based.
Clashes between ethnic groups during the year resulted in deaths. Water shortages contributed to interethnic conflict.
On January 2, a territorial dispute in SNNPR between members of the Guji Oromo and the Sidama ethnic groups left five persons dead and 11 injured.
On April 4, a dispute in SNNPR over land ownership between members of the Geweda and Kolme ethnic groups resulted in the death of three persons and the injury of seven others. The federal police and local administration intervened quickly to bring calm to the area.
Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity
Consensual same-sex sexual activity is illegal and punishable by imprisonment under the law. There were some reports of violence against lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) individuals; however, reporting was limited due to fears of retribution, discrimination, or stigmatization. Persons did not identify themselves as LGBT persons due to severe societal stigma and the illegality of consensual same-sex sexual activity.
In early December Christian and Muslim religious leaders attempted to derail a seminar on sexual health that was targeted at men who have sex with men. The government intervened, and the seminar went ahead, although at a different location.
The AIDS Resource Center in Addis Ababa reported that the majority of self-identified gay and lesbian callers, the majority of whom were male, requested assistance in changing their behavior to avoid discrimination. Many gay men reported anxiety, confusion, identity crises, depression, self-ostracism, religious conflict, and suicide attempts.
Other Societal Violence or Discrimination
Societal stigma and discrimination against persons living with or affected by HIV/AIDS continued in the areas of education, employment, and community integration. Despite the abundance of anecdotal information, there were no statistics on the scale of this problem.
a. Freedom of Association and the Right to Collective Bargaining
The law provides most workers with the right to form and join unions. However, the law specifically excludes managerial employees, teachers, and civil servants (including judges, prosecutors, and security service workers) from organizing unions.
A minimum of 10 workers is required to form a union. While the law provides all unions with the right to register, the government may refuse to register trade unions that do not meet its registration requirements. The law stipulates that a trade union organization may not act in an overtly political manner. Seasonal and part-time agricultural workers cannot organize into labor unions. The law prohibits antiunion discrimination by employers and provides for reinstatement for workers fired for union activity.
The law protects the right of collective bargaining for most workers.
Although the constitution and law provide workers with the right to strike to protect their interests, it contains detailed provisions that make legal strike actions difficult to carry out, such as a minimum of 30 days’ advance notice before striking when the case is referred to a court or a labor relations board. The law requires aggrieved workers to attempt reconciliation with employers before striking and includes a lengthy dispute settlement process. These provisions applied equally to an employer’s right to lock workers out. Two-thirds of the workers involved must support a strike for it to occur. If a case has not already been referred to a court or labor relations board, workers retain the right to strike without resorting to either of these options, provided they give at least 10 days’ notice to the other party and the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs and make efforts at reconciliation.
The law also prohibits strikes by workers who provide essential services, including air transport and urban bus service workers, electric power suppliers, gas station personnel, hospital and pharmacy personnel, firefighters, telecommunications personnel, and urban sanitary workers. The law prohibits retribution against strikers.
The government permits unions in practice. Approximately two-thirds of union members belonged to organizations affiliated with the Confederation of Ethiopian Trade Unions. There was no reported government interference in trade union activities during the year, although the major trade unions were government-established entities. There were no reports that the government used its authority to refuse to register trade unions during the year. Approximately 400,000 workers were union members. Based on a 2008 Council of Ministers’ regulation, the government sued the Workers’ Association of the National Bank of Ethiopia (central bank) in the federal High Court, claiming that the bank was a nonprofit government agency and that the labor union should be dissolved. In 2009 the High Court ruled that the association could not be dissolved by a regulation while the rights of workers of the bank were protected by law. The government appealed to the Supreme Court, and at year’s end the case was pending; however, the worker’s association was not functional.
The government allowed citizens to exercise the right of collective bargaining freely. Labor experts estimated that collective bargaining agreements covered more than 90 percent of unionized workers. Representatives negotiated wages at the plant level. It was common for employers to refuse to bargain. Unions in the formal industrial sector made some efforts to enforce labor regulations.
Despite the law prohibiting antiunion discrimination, unions reported that employers frequently fired union activists. Lawsuits alleging unlawful dismissal often take years to resolve because of case backlogs in the courts. Employers found guilty of antiunion discrimination were required to reinstate workers fired for union activities and generally did so in practice. While the law prohibits retribution against strikers, most workers were not convinced that the government would enforce this protection. Labor officials reported that, due to high unemployment and long delays in the hearing of labor cases, some workers were afraid to participate in strikes or other labor actions.
b. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor
The law prohibits most forms of forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, the law also permits courts to order forced labor as a punitive measure. The government did not effectively enforce the forced labor prohibition.
Forced labor occurred in practice. Both adults and children were forced to engage in street vending, begging, traditional weaving, or agriculture work. Children also worked in forced domestic labor. Situations of debt bondage also occurred in traditional weaving, pottery, cattle herding, and other agricultural activities, mostly in rural areas.
Also see the Department of State’s Trafficking in Persons Report at www.state.gov/j/tip.
c. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment
By law the minimum age for wage or salary employment is 14 years. The minimum age provisions, however, do not apply to self-employed children. Special provisions cover children between the ages of 14 and 18, including the prohibition of hazardous or night work. By law children between the ages of 14 and 18 are not permitted to work more than seven hours per day or between 10 p.m. and 6 a.m., on public holidays or rest days, or overtime. The law defines hazardous work as work in factories or involving machinery with moving parts or any work that could jeopardize a child’s health. Prohibited work sectors include passenger transport, electric generation plants, underground work, street cleaning, and many other sectors.
The government did not effectively enforce these laws in practice. The resources for inspections and the implementation of penalties were extremely limited. Child labor issues are covered by the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, with support from the Ministry of Women, Youth, and Children. Cooperation, information sharing, and coordination between and among the ministries improved during the year. Courts are responsible for enforcing children’s rights, and criminal and civil penalties may be levied in child rights violation cases. In the absence of a national strategy, investigation and disposition in cases of the violation of children’s rights was minimal.
Child protection units, which the NGO Forum for Street Children (FSCE) had sponsored, ceased child protection activities at the end of 2010 due to restrictions in the CSO law and did not resume them during the year. The FSCE changed its name to Forum on Sustainable Child Empowerment and piloted a child-labor-free zone at the subcity level in Addis Ababa. In this zone the FSCE worked with child protection officers, labor inspectors, and police to reintegrate child laborers.
During the year the government continued to invest in modernizing agricultural practices as well as in constructing schools to combat the problem of children in agricultural sectors
Child labor remained a serious problem, both in urban and rural areas. According to the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, many children worked for their families without pay. In both rural and urban areas, children often began working at young ages. The Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs reported that two of five working children were below the age of six. Child labor was particularly pervasive in subsistence agricultural production, traditional weaving, and small-scale gold mining. Children in rural areas, especially boys, also engaged in activities such as cattle herding, petty trading, plowing, harvesting, and weeding, while other children, mostly girls, collected firewood and fetched water. Children in urban areas, including orphans, also worked in domestic service, often working long hours, which prevented many from attending school regularly. Children in urban areas also worked in construction, manufacturing, shining shoes, making clothes, portering, directing customers to taxis, parking, public transport, petty trading, and occasionally herding animals. Child laborers often faced physical, sexual, and emotional abuse at the hands of their employers.
Also see the Department of Labor’s Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor at www.dol.gov/ilab/programs/ocft/tda.htm.
d. Acceptable Conditions of Work
There is no national minimum wage. Some government institutions and public enterprises, however, set their own minimum wages. Public sector employees, the largest group of wage earners, earned a monthly minimum wage of approximately 420 birr ($24); employees in the banking and insurance sector had a minimum monthly wage of 336 birr ($20).
Wages in the informal sector were generally below subsistence levels. Consequently, most families in the wage sector required at least two wage earners to survive, which forced many children to leave school early. Only a small percentage of the population was involved in wage-labor employment, which was concentrated in urban areas.
The law provides for a 48-hour maximum legal workweek with a 24-hour rest period, premium pay for overtime, and prohibition of excessive compulsory overtime. The country has 13 paid public holidays per year. The law entitles employees in public enterprise and government financial institutions to overtime pay; civil servants receive compensatory time for overtime work.
The government, industries, and unions negotiated occupational health and safety standards. Workers have the right to remove themselves from dangerous situations without jeopardizing their employment. However, due to lack of resources, the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs inspection department did not effectively enforce occupational health and safety standards. Lack of detailed, sector-specific health and safety guidelines also precluded enforcement. The country had 130 labor inspectors. Penalties were not sufficient to deter violations. Compensation, benefits, and working conditions of seasonal agricultural workers were far below those of unionized permanent agricultural employees. Although the government did little to enforce the law, in practice most employees in the formal sector worked a 39-hour workweek. However, many foreign, migrant, and informal sector workers worked more than 48 hours per week.
Despite the law providing for the right to remove themselves from dangerous situations without jeopardizing their employment, most workers feared losing their jobs if they were to do so. The Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs did not have an effective mechanism for receiving, investigating, and tracking allegations of violations.
Hazardous working conditions existed in the agricultural sector, which was the most primary base of the country’s economy. There also were reports of hazardous and exploitative working conditions in the fledgling construction and industrial sectors. The Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs attempted to enforce occupational health and safety laws, but its investigative and administration capacity was severely limited.
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Test interface for browsers to be standardised
The first draft of the WebDriver API has been delivered by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), offering an interface to control browsers remotely. This functionality is used primarily for automated testing of web applications.
The WebDriver API is very similar to the interface of the same name in the free test framework Selenium 2. At the core of the design is the
WebElement, a DOM object that the function
findElement() returns. It expects a
Locator, composed of two strings specifying a strategy that should be used to locate elements and a value to pass to this strategy. This API call therefore allows elements to be located by things such as XPath, ID, CSS selector or link text.
It is complemented by other methods which allow you to read and set various attributes of WebElements. Information about which strings fill text boxes, which buttons triggered a click and the actual selection of a
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Ross, Sir James Clark (1800–1862), a British Arctic and Antarctic explorer. In 1839 Ross commanded an expedition searching for the South Pole. It reached 78º 10´ S., a latitude that was not passed until 1900. He was knighted on his return in 1843. Ross Sea, Ross Ice Shelf, and Ross Island in the Antarctic are named for him.
Ross was born in London. He entered the navy in 1812, and in 1818 accompanied his uncle, John Ross, in search of a northwest passage to Asia. Between 1819 and 182 7 he sailed with William Edward Parry on four expeditions to the Arctic. They reached the northern shores of the island of Svalbard in 1827. Their latitude of 82º 45' N. was the farthest point north attained to that time. On another voyage with his uncle, 1829–33, Ross determined the position of the north magnetic pole.
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People with perfect pitch seem to possess their own inner pitch pipe, allowing them to sing a specific note without first hearing a reference tone. This skill has long been associated with early and extensive musical training, but new research suggests that perfect pitch may have as much to do with genetics as it does with learning an instrument or studying voice.
Previous research does draw a connection between early musical training and the likelihood of a person developing perfect pitch, which is also referred to as absolute pitch. This is especially true among speakers of tonal languages, such as Mandarin. Speakers of English and other non-tonal languages are far less likely to develop perfect pitch, even if they were exposed to early and extensive musical training.
"We have wondered if perfect pitch is as much about nature or nurture," said Diana Deutsch, a professor of psychology at the University of California, San Diego. "What is clear is that musically trained individuals who speak a non-tone language can acquire absolute pitch, but it is still a remarkably rare talent. What has been less clear is why most others with equivalent musical training do not." Deutsch and her colleague Kevin Dooley present their findings at the 164th meeting of the Acoustical Society of America (ASA), held Oct. 22 – 26 in Kansas City, Missouri.
To shine light on this question, the researchers studied 27 English speaking adults, 7 of whom possessed perfect pitch. All began extensive musical training at or before the age of 6. The researchers tested the subjects' memory ability using a test known as the digit span, which measures how many digits a person can hold in memory and immediately recall in correct order. They presented the digits either visually or auditorily; for the auditory test, the subject listened to the numbers through headphones, and for the visual test the digits were presented successively at the center of a computer screen.
The people with perfect pitch substantially outperformed the others in the audio portion of the test. In contrast, for the visual test, the two groups exhibited very similar performance, and their scores were not significantly different from each other. This is significant because other researchers have shown previously that auditory digit span has a genetic component.
"Our finding therefore shows that perfect pitch is associated with an unusually large memory span for speech sounds," said Deutsch, "which in turn could facilitate the development of associations between pitches and their spoken languages early in life."
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But not all sea serpent bodies can be explained quite so easily. This notable (and by most accounts, incredibly malodorous) carcass was discovered in 1942, along the shores of Gourock, overlooking the river Clyde, Scotland.
A council officer by the name of Charles Rankin took it upon himself to take detailed notes concerning this beast. Measuring to a length of over 27-feet, this animal was described by Rankin in great detail. Its most notable features included a small, flattened head with pronounced brow ridges situated over laterally slit eyes.
The creature's jawbones were reportedly full of large, pointed teeth. The skull was nestled atop a long neck, which connected to a partially exposed spinal column. The animal's torso still bore two pairs of, what have been described as, L-shaped flippers, which were smaller in the fore-portion, than the rear.
The spine eventually tapered off into a long, rectangular tail. The creature's skin was also said to harbour a multitude of 6-inch long, quill-like bristles. According to Rankin, the creature's appearance was reptilian in nature. Any additional information regarding this intriguing animal was, unfortunately, interred not long after its discovery. The carcass was hacked up and buried under the football field of a local Roman Catholic primary school called St Linnians.
Further disappointment awaits Fortean investigators. As it turns out, Rankin was denied the right to photograph the creature, owing to the fact that it happened to be beached on what was deemed to be a classified area. Being as Scotland - along with the rest of Europe - was embroiled in the Second World War, this breach of security was not permitted.
The war effort also consumed the time of many scientists who might otherwise have been predisposed to investigate this matter. As it stands, the Gourock Carcass must be chalked up to another case of a lost opportunity for science to further illuminate the incredible mysteries of our oceans. That is unless we can convince the Gourock Council and St Linnians to let us try out some geophysics and digging ‘Time Team’ style.
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Question: "What does the Bible say about peace?"
Answer: Peace is something everyone wants, yet few seem to find. What is peace? It can be defined as “tranquility, harmony, or security.” Depending on the situation, it could mean “prosperity” or “well-being.” Various forms of the word peace are found 429 times in the King James Version of the Bible. There are different types of peace, including false peace, inner peace, peace with God and peace with man.
In the Old Testament, the primary Hebrew word for “peace” is shalom, and it refers to relationships between people (Genesis 34:21), nations (1 Kings 5:12), and God with men (Psalm 85:8). Peace is a desired status in each of these arenas, and shalom is often tied to a covenant or a promise kept. A familiar friend (literally, “friend of my peace” in Psalm 41:9) is one with whom you would be at ease, a trusted companion. “Peace” was the standard greeting (1 Samuel 25:6), still used in many cultures today.
Peace is directly related to the actions and attitudes of individuals; but it is ultimately a gift from God (Isaiah 45:7; Leviticus 26:6; John 14:27). The presence of peace indicates God's blessing on man's obedience (Isaiah 32:17; Malachi 2:5) and faith (Isaiah 26:3). There is no peace for the wicked (Isaiah 48:22).
As valuable as peace is, it is not surprising to find that it is sometimes counterfeited. Empty promises of peace can be used to manipulate others. Deceitful men speak words of peace while secretly planning evil (Obadiah 1:7). The Antichrist will confirm a treaty, producing a temporary peace which he will then abruptly shatter as he reveals his true colors (Daniel 9:27). False teachers proclaim peace when God is actually proclaiming judgment (Ezekiel 13:10-16). In Jeremiah’s day, the religious leaders dealt only with the symptoms of the national problems, without addressing the sinful root of the crisis. These false prophets declared everything was well between God and Israel: “Peace, peace,” they said, when there was no real peace (Jeremiah 6:14).
In the New Testament, the primary Greek word for “peace” is eirene, and it refers to rest and tranquility. A key focus of peace in the New Testament is the advent of Jesus Christ, as announced by the angels in Luke 2:14 (“Peace on earth . . .”). Isaiah had predicted the Messiah would be the Prince of Peace (Isaiah 9:6), and He is called the Lord of peace in 2 Thessalonians 3:16. It is through Christ’s work of justification that we can have peace with God (Romans 5:1), and that peace will keep our hearts and minds secure (Philippians 4:7).
God commands us to seek peace (Psalm 34:14; Matthew 5:9). We should “make every effort to do what leads to peace” (Romans 14:19). Of course, there will be some people who do not desire peace, but we are still to do our utmost to be at peace with them (Romans 12:18).
Believers have an obligation to “let the peace of God rule” in their hearts (Colossians 3:15). This means we have the choice either to trust God’s promises (letting His peace rule) or to rely on ourselves and reject the peace He offers. Jesus gave His disciples peace based on the truth that He has overcome the world (John 14:27; 16:33). Peace is a fruit of the Spirit, so, if we are allowing the Spirit of God to rule in our lives, we will experience His peace. To be spiritually minded brings life and peace, according to Romans 8:6.
The world will continue to have wars and interpersonal conflicts until Jesus comes to establish true, lasting peace (see Isaiah 11:1-10), but God will give His peace to those who trust Him. Jesus took the chastisement of our peace (Isaiah 53:5) and has made it possible for us to have peace with God. Once His peace rules in our hearts, we are able to share that peace with others; we become publishers of peace (Isaiah 52:7) and ministers of reconciliation (2 Corinthians 5:18).
© Copyright 2002-2013 Got Questions Ministries.
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Thinking Beyond Disciplines: Why We Need it
November 23, 2011 4 Comments
What is Transdisciplinarity?
The Institute for the Future and the University of Phoenix Research Institute list transdisciplinarity as #7 in a list of skills critical for Workforce 2020. They define it as “understanding concepts across multiple disciplines.”
Why is it Important?
Why is it increasingly important to understand concepts across multiple disciplines?
- The problems we are trying to solve are increasingly complex.
- The view from within any one discipline can be too narrow to provide a clear solution to a complex problem
- Looking beyond the boundaries of knowledge that define a discipline can help us solve problems and understand complex information in a new way, using a broader view.
Transdisciplinarity connotes a research strategy that crosses many disciplinary boundaries to create a holistic approach.
Transdisciplinarity at Wikipedia.org
How Does Thinking More Broadly Help Us Lead Responsibly?
Broadening our thinking is particularly helpful in understanding concepts like “ethical leadership” which involves leading within multiple interrelated systems and meeting the needs of multiple constituents responsibly.
Sometimes looking at a problem from a single perspective may cause us to overlook important systems that are not completely within the scope of that one perspective.
Systems don’t stop where the boundaries of a discipline stop. That means that we need to broaden our view to avoid missing important pieces of the problem we’re trying to solve or the responsibility we’re trying to fulfill.
Looking at the research and information across disciplines helps us understand complex, connected systems and problems in a broader context. That broader level of thinking is the level that we’ll need to use to solve today’s complex, connected problems.
Transdisciplinarity and Ethics
Transdisciplinary ethics seeks to describe ethics in ways that transcend any particular discipline or profession.
”Transdisciplinary Studies are an area of research and education that addresses contemporary issues that cannot be solved by one or even a few points-of-view. It brings together academic experts, field practitioners, community members, research scientists, political leaders, and business owners among others to solve some of the pressing problems facing the world, from the local to the global.”
“The values embedded in the transdisciplinary vision are basic: sharing, respect, and resolve.” “It is a distinctly postmodern point-of-view, calling on women and men, on “transdisciplinary-minded persons of all countries” to join in bringing this vision into reality, into “everyday life.” It is a bold vision; some might even say an impossible one, filled with a zeal for justice, equality, inclusion, and true democratic decision-making.”
“As the prefix trans indicates, transdisciplinarity concerns that which is at once between the disciplines, across different disciplines, and beyond all discipline.” – Basarab Nicolecsu, 2002 quoted by the Woodbury Institute of Transdiciplinary Studies
When solving difficult problems, consider looking across disciplines for clues. Stepping back far enough to look across disciplines may lead you to an elegant solution.
These articles discuss the broad values and value of interdisciplinary research, thinking and ethics.
Overview of Transdisciplinarity as Methodology McGregor Consulting Group
Unity of Knowledge From Transdisciplinary Research on Sustainability by G. Hirsch Hadorn
From Inter-Disciplinary Ethics to Trans-Disciplinary Ethics NCBI, Pubmed.gov
Linda Fisher Thornton is CEO/Owner of Leading in Context. She can be reached at Linda@LeadinginContext.com.
You are invited to access the full benefits that Leading in Context provides to customers and subscribers:
- Access selected publications via Slideshare
- Develop ethical leaders using the materials in our Digital Store (via Payloadz.com).
- Subscribe to this blog via email or RSS (in upper right corner of this page)
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- Connect with Leading in Context on our Facebook Page
- Contact Linda Fisher Thornton at Linda@LeadinginContext.com
Ways That Leading in Context® Publications Meet Your Needs #4:
“We need compelling materials that help us lead in complex times.”
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While the fireworks may be fun to watch, to catch them requires keeping children up way past their bedtime, which inevitably involves overtired children who meltdown at the drop of a hat.
This Independence day, as you celebrate the liberty and freedom we have in the United States, get the children involved with family friendly festivities.
Having a birthday party for America.
Gather the family together and decorate with flags and red, white and blue streamers. Use food coloring to make a three layered red, white and blue cake. Sing patriotic songs like America the Beautiful and read an age-appropriate book, like the board book The Story of America’s Birthday by Patricia Pingry. Play games like “I Spy” and look for patriotic themed items or make your own Bingo cards, using flags, hotdogs and other all American type images.
Catching a concert.
While many local fireworks displays have live concert music to accompany the show, many communities have more laid back concert events during the day on the town green. Check your city or town’s local calendar events to see what’s happening in your area. If you’re looking for a great concert to watch on TV, consider celebrating with the East Coast and catching the Boston Pops perform during Boston’s July fourth celebration.
Serving a red, white and blue lunch.
Serve up cream cheese and strawberry jam sandwiches cut into the shapes of stars, with vanilla yogurt, blueberry and strawberry parfaits. Slice up red peppers and a side salad with sliced strawberries, crumbled feta cheese blueberries.
Making a flag for your front door.
Give the children a piece of blue construction paper and white chalk. Ask them to draw stars on it. Hang it high on the left-hand side of your front. Use red and white streamers to make the flag stripes. The streamers can be taped at both the top and bottom to keep them in place. If you are worried about leaving sticky tape residue behind, use blue painter’s tape for a no mess, family friendly project.
Making a care package for our troops.
The Fourth of July lends itself to teaching children about America’s history and how our freedom was won. Share with children the role of our troops in keeping America safe and free and prepare a care package to send to our troops. Through OperationShoebox families can send a onetime care package or even adopt a troop.
Young and old, American’s have lots to celebrate this Fourth of July. Get the children involved in the festivities by teaching them about America’s history and providing them with opportunities to honor the red, white and blue.
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Patients with blood cancers that are not cured with a stem cell transplant do not have standard treatment options. Studies have shown that natural killer (NK) cells, a type of white blood cells, donated by another person can be given safely and may be helpful for treating some blood diseases. These NK cells are collected from the donor and purified before infusion into the patient.
In this study, researchers want to determine the effectiveness of giving NK cells to patients with leukemia or myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) that has come back after a transplant and cannot be treated with a second transplant or with chemotherapy alone. They hope that giving chemotherapy and then NK cells will be a better treatment for these patients than currently available treatment options.
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Arthroscopy is a method of viewing a joint, and, if needed, to perform surgery on a joint. An arthroscope consists of a tiny tube, a lens, and a light source.
This procedure is typically performed on the knee, shoulder, elbow, or wrist. The type of anesthesia depends on the particular joint and other factors. A regional anesthetic numbs the affected area, but the patient may remain awake, depending on whether other medications are used. For more extensive surgery, general anesthesia may be used. In this case the patient is asleep and pain-free.
The area is cleaned and a pressure band (tourniquet) may be applied to restrict blood flow. The health care provider then makes a surgical cut into the joint. Sterile fluid is passed through the joint space to provide a better view.
Next, a tool called an arthroscope is inserted into the area. An arthroscope consists of a tiny tube, a lens, and a light source. It allows a surgeon to look for joint damage or disease. The device also allows the surgeon to perform reconstructive procedures on the joint, if needed.
Images of the inside of the joint are displayed on a monitor.
One or two small additional surgical cuts may be needed in order to use other instruments. These instruments can be used to remove bits of cartilage or bone, take a tissue biopsy, or perform other minor surgery. In addition, ligament reconstruction can be performed using the arthroscope in many cases.
You should not eat or drink anything for 12 hours before the procedure. You may be told to shave your joint area. You may be given a sedative before leaving for the hospital.
You will be asked to wear a hospital gown during the procedure so the body part for surgery is accessible.
You must sign a consent form. Make arrangements for transportation from the hospital after the procedure.
You may feel a slight sting when the local anesthetic is injected. After this medicine starts to work, you should feel no pain.
The joint may need to be manipulated to provide a better view, so there may be some tugging on the leg (or arm, if done on the shoulder).
After the test, the joint will probably be stiff and sore for a few days. Ice is commonly recommended after arthroscopy to help relieve swelling and pain.
Slight activity such as walking can be resumed immediately, however excessive use of the joint may cause swelling and pain and may increase the chance of injury. Normal activity should not be resumed for several days or longer. Special preparations may need to be made concerning work and other responsibilities. Physical therapy may also be recommended.
Depending on your diagnosis, there may be other exercises or restrictions.
Your doctor may order this test if you have:
Arthroscopy can also help see if a disease is getting better or worse (this is called monitoring the disease), or to determine whether a treatment is working.
Abnormal results may be due to:
The diagnostic accuracy of an arthroscopy is about 98%, although x-rays and sometimes MRI scans are taken first because they are noninvasive.
Review Date: 7/29/2008
The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed physician should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. Copyright ©2010 A.D.A.M., Inc., as modified by University of California San Francisco. Any duplication or distribution of the information contained herein is strictly prohibited.
Information developed by A.D.A.M., Inc. regarding tests and test results may not directly correspond with information provided by UCSF Medical Center. Please discuss with your doctor any questions or concerns you may have.
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Bordered to the north by the North Downs and the west by The Weald,
Romney Marsh was originally created by the sea after the last ice age and
with the help of man, is now an expanse of rich farmland.
During the middle ages, it was a centre of commerce and was home to many smugglers.
Romney Marsh also has the largest expanse of shingle in the world and
with its associated flora and fauna is home to Britain's only designated desert area.
It is also on the migratory path of a huge number of visiting birds.
To browse through the website, use the navigation bar at the top or
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Converse (shoe company)
|Type||Subsidiary of Nike|
|Founded||Malden, Massachusetts (February 1908)|
|Headquarters||North Andover, Massachusetts, United States|
1973: Early days
In his mid 30s, Marquis Mills Converse, who was previously a respected manager at a footwear manufacturing firm, opened the Converse Rubber Shoe Company (unrelated to the Boston Rubber Shoe Company founded by fourth cousin Elisha Converse) in Malden, Massachusetts in February 1908. The company was a rubber shoe manufacturer, providing winterized rubber soled footwear for men, women, and children. By 1910, Converse was producing 4,000 shoes daily, but it was not until 1915 that the company began manufacturing athletic shoes for tennis.
The company's main turning point came in 1917 when the Converse All-Star basketball shoe was introduced. Then in 1921, a basketball player named Charles H. "Chuck" Taylor walked into Converse complaining of sore feet. Converse gave him a job. He worked as a salesman and ambassador, promoting the shoes around the United States, and in 1932 Taylor’s signature was added to the All Star patch on the classic, high-topped sneakers. He continued this work until shortly before his death in 1969.
Converse also customized shoes for the New York Renaissance (the "Rens"), the first all-African American professional basketball team. On March 2, 1962, Wilt Chamberlain, an American basketball player for the Philadelphia Warriors, scored 100 points in a game while wearing his pair of Chucks, taking a 169–147 victory over the New York Knicks.
1941–present: War, bankruptcy, and new management
When the U.S. entered World War II in 1941, Converse shifted production to manufacturing rubberized footwear, outerwear, and protective suits for the military. Widely popular during the 1950s and 1960s, Converse promoted a distinctly American image with its Converse Yearbook. Artist Charles Kerins created cover art that celebrated Converse's role in the lives of high school and college athletes.
Through its shoes, Converse developed into an iconic brand, and came to be seen as the essential sports shoe. In the 1970s, Converse purchased the trademark rights to Jack Purcell sneakers from B.F. Goodrich.
Converse lost much of its apparent near-monopoly from the 1970s onward, with the surge of new competitors, including Puma and Adidas, then Nike, then a decade later Reebok, who introduced radical new designs to the market. Converse found themselves no longer the official shoe of the National Basketball Association, a title they had relished for many years. While being employed at Converse, one of its employees, Jim Labadini (1968-78), created the chevron and star insignia / logo that still remains on most Converse footwear items that are not classic Chuck Taylors.
The loss of market share, combined with poor business decisions, forced Converse to file for bankruptcy on January 22, 2001. In April 2001, Footwear Acquisitions, led by Mardsen Cason and Bill Simon, purchased the brand from bankruptcy and added industry partners Jack Boys, Jim Stroesser, Lisa Kempa, and David Maddocks to lead the turnaround of America's Original Sports Company.
The new team drove Converse from the 16th largest footwear company to number 7 in less than 2 1/2 years, leading to a buyout by rival Nike on July 9, 2003 for $305 million, qualifying as the merger and acquisition of the year in 2003.
By November 2012 Converse had quickly disappeared completely from the NBA, facilitated by the last dozen players wearing the brand exiting it and/or the NBA over a period of less than a year and a half. Carlos Arroyo went overseas in late 2011. Maurice Evans last played for the Washington Wizards in April 2012. Nine switched to Nike: Acie Law (who went overseas) in late 2011; JJ Barea and Kirk Hinrich during the 2011-2012 season; Luke Harangody and Larry Sanders after the 2011-2012 season; Elton Brand, Louis Williams, and Kyle Korver for the 2012-2013 season; and Chris Andersen during the 2012-2013 season. Udonis Haslem, the last NBA player wearing Converse on the court, followed Miami Heat teammate Dwyane Wade to switch to Li-Ning in late November 2012.
Converse – Skateboarding
Converse launched its skateboarding program in 2009 with a team of "ambassadors": Kenny Anderson, Anthony Pappalardo, Nick Trapasso, Sammy Baca, Ethan Fowler, Raymond Molinar, and Rune Glifberg.
In 2012, the company added Jason Jessee and Mike Anderson to its ambassadors team.
Pappalardo controversy
In 2012, Pappalardo, who, at that time, was no longer listed as an "Ambassador" for the brand—along with Fowler—provided a detailed and candid interview on the 48 Blocks skateboarding website, in which he explains his experience with Converse's skateboarding division. Pappalardo's signature model shoe had been released in 2010 and, according to the skateboarder:
Word was, my shoe was actually doing alright. Actually, I don’t know that for sure, to this day I have never been told, but it seemed like every single kid in NY was running them and they just were everywhere. Since they kept it running the following three years with a total of over twenty different colorways of it being released, some as recently as 4 – 5 months ago, would I be the crazy one to say it was probably a success ...
Over the course of the interview, Pappalardo explains that his experience with the company "just comes down to blatant shady business". Pappalardo had left his previous sponsor, a highly regarded skate shoe brand named Lakai, to join Converse, a company that had made an offer based on Pappalardo's video part in the, at that time, recently released video, Fully Flared—Fully Flared became a widely praised, award-winning skate video that Pappalardo calls "the biggest, most watched skate video of our decade". In the interview, Pappalardo explained his decision to leave Lakai:
It was sketchy, and it was a major risk, but I took it and I had to stick to my guns. I had to believe it could work, but I knew it could work if done in a specific way and they were on the same page as I was about how to make that happen. With the Lakai video being released at that time, I was just what they needed and they got it. No big deal, that’s business.
According to Pappalardo, he was eventually offered a deal by Converse, but it was "embarrassing" and he "was making more being an amateur for Lakai"; however, Pappalardo believes that he was "backed up against the wall" and "had to sign" the contract, as the company had just released his signature shoe model. As of January 2013, Pappalardo is not listed on the "Ambassador" page of the Converse website and he explained in the 2012 interview:
Who knows what my relationship with cons is today… 90% of people I run into think I still ride for them. Why wouldn’t they, they put out the 22, 23, and 24th colorway of my shoe not even six months ago. I never got even anything close to a call, email, or anything telling me shit was going to go down, or I was kicked off, get prepared, or anything … They were cowards who did nothing but lie to me every month for two years digging my life into a whole of shit deeper and deeper every month … Your guess is as good as mine.
2012 onwards
In August 2012, Converse sponsored a skate event at Huntington Beach, California, US - including Trapasso, Tom Remillard, Aaron Homoki, Greyson Fletcher, Ben Raemers, Ben Hatchell, Robbie Russo, and Ben Raybourn participated in the competition that was held. Raybourn eventually won the US$20,000 grand prize and Homoki won the US$3,000 Best Trick contest.
As of May 2013, the Converse skateboard team consists of original members Anderson, Trapasso, Baca, Glifberg, and Molinar, while Jessee, Anderson, Julian Davidson, Remillard and Zered Basset were subsequently added.
Chuck Taylor All Star basketball shoe
The Chuck Taylor All Star shoe has developed a number of nicknames over the years, such as: "Cons", "Connies", "Convics", "Convos", "Verses", "Chuckers", "Chucks", "Converse", "Chuckalos", "Chuckies", "Chuck Ts", or "Chucker Boots" or "Chuck Taylors" for the higher styles. For decades the Chuck Taylor All Star basketball shoe only came in black, with a white variant released in 1947. Under pressure from basketball teams Converse decided in 1966 to manufacture other colors. Different materials also began to be used, starting in the 1970s, including leather, suede and vinyl, and even hemp, rather than just canvas. Besides high-tops, low-cuts and later knee-high versions were produced.
The Weapon
In 1986, Converse released "The Weapon" basketball shoe. Manufactured in two color schemes to match the kit colors of basketball teams, it has been available in both high-top and low cut varieties. The unique aspect of this shoe is the leather construction throughout, including the inside heel which is also heavily padded for comfort. Converse re-released "The Weapon" classic (which Kobe Bryant wore at least three times in 2002 and Andre Miller wore numerous times in 2002 from mid August to early September) several times from 2001-2003 and after, "The Loaded Weapon" in 2003, "The Weapon 86" in 2008 (and the John Varvatos version in 2012), "The Weapon EVO" in 2009, and its successor "The Star Player EVO" in 2010.
The first endorsers of "The Weapon" were Larry Bird and Magic Johnson, who were prominently featured in a Converse commercial set in Bird's hometown of French Lick, Indiana in 1986. They were also worn by Axl Rose in the Guns N' Roses music video "Estranged".
Special editions
Several special editions of Converse shoes have been made, including DC Comics, The Ramones, AC/DC, the Sailor Jerry, Metallica, The Clash, Dr. Seuss, Grateful Dead, Ozzy Osbourne, Jimi Hendrix, Drew Brophy, Nirvana (band), Bad Meets Evil, Green Day, and Gorillaz, the Control, green, brown or camouflage edition, Super Mario, and the Danny Potthoff. Three new designs were created for high tops, inspired by The Who.
A special collection called "1Hund (RED)", whereby fifteen percent of the profits are used to support HIV/AIDS prevention, was released by the brand. One hundred artists from around the world were chosen to create designs for the collection as part of the (RED) campaign. Professional skateboarder, Anthony Pappalardo, who, at the time, was also associated with another (RED) participant, Girl skateboards—Pappalardo was sponsored by Chocolate skateboards, a brand distributed by the Crailtap, the distribution company that owns both Girl and Chocolate— released a (RED) edition of his high-selling signature skate shoe model. A short video piece was published on the internet and Pappalardo explains in it:
I got into woodworking about two years ago, through a buddy of mine who I used to skate with every day—he turned into a woodworker. So he gave me this scrap box of wood, and, basically, I just wanted to do something with it ... make something with it. It just definitely started consuming me like skating did. I wanted to read about it, you know? Go on the internet and watch videos about it, and just learn anything and everything I could about woodworking. The first thing I ever made was a bench, and that's, kinda, what I've been making ever since. the cool thing about working with Product (RED) is just by doing the two things that I love, I'm also able to help people.
Pappalardo's first signature shoe with Converse was released in February 2010 and it was produced in the (RED) colorway.
In 2012, Converse is listed as a partner in the (RED) campaign, together with other brands such as Nike Inc., Girl, and Bugaboo. The campaign's mission is to prevent the transmission of the HIV virus from mother to child by 2015 (the campaign's byline is "Fighting For An AIDS Free Generation").
Converse college teams
- Marquette Golden Eagles (formerly, switched to Jordan when most famous alum, Dwyane Wade, signed with Jordan)
- Western Kentucky Hilltoppers (shoes only)
- "Converse turns 100". Chucksconnection.com. 2008-05-29. Retrieved 2011-08-31.
- Perrin, Charles. "Old Sneakers (since 1935) - Goodrich (now Converse) Jack Purcell". Retrieved 2011-08-31.
- "Converse, Form 8-K, Current Report, Filing Date Jul 10, 2003". secdatabase.com. Retrieved Mar 28, 2013.
- Watson, Julie (2003-07-07). "Nike Swooshes In On Converse". Forbes. Retrieved 2011-08-31.
- asayer (13). "Cons Comes Back: A Look at Converse Skateboarding". Push.ca. Bell Canada. Retrieved 9 September 2012.
- "Ambassadors". Converse.com. Converse Inc. 2012. Retrieved 9 September 2012.
- Blair Alley (2). "ANTHONY PAPPALARDO’S PROJECT RED CONS PRO MODEL". Transworld Skateboarding. Bonnier Corporation. Retrieved 20 January 2013.
- "Anthony Pappalardo". 48 Blocks. 48 Blocks. 2012. Retrieved 20 January 2013.
- RIDE Channel; Rob Brink and Erica Yary (3). "Nick Trapasso, Tom Remillard & Robbie Russo at Coastal Carnage! Weeke ..." (Video upload). YouTube. Google, Inc. Retrieved 20 January 2013.
- Lance Dawes; Cory Williams (6). "RAYBOURN CRUISES THROUGH CARNAGE". ESPN Action Sports. ESPN Internet Ventures. Retrieved 20 January 2013.
- "Anthony Pappalardo". 48 Blocks. 48 Blocks. 2012. Retrieved 20 January 2013.
- Aaron Meza; crailtap (30). "Anthony Pappalardo and (RED)" (Video upload). YouTube. Google, Inc. Retrieved 20 January 2013.
- "(RED)". (RED) Partners. (RED), a division of The ONE Campaign. 2012. Retrieved 13 October 2012.
- Media related to Converse at Wikimedia Commons
- Official web site
- Transworld Business Article Brophy Brings Surf Art to Converse
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by Jake McMillan
In my efforts to get this blog read by people from Greenland, I have been doing some research as most people don’t know much about this large country.
Here are some quite interesting facts about Greenland:
- It is the Largest island in the world (Australia is classified as world’s smallest continent). On many World Maps (including the world map in WordPress stats), Greenland is often shown to be larger than Australia when in fact the truth is Australia is three times the size of Greenland.
- Greenland is the least densely populated country in the world
- It is believed Greenland was named as such largely as a PR exercise by the Norwegian-born Erik the Red who was exiled from Iceland for murder in the 10th century and settled on the island and naming it Grønland (“Greenland”) in the hope that the pleasant name would attract further settlers
- Autonomous Country within the Kingdom of Denmark
- Population of 57,637 (which is smaller than the population of the English town Taunton in Somerset)
- Capital is Nuuk, in the South-West and is largest city in Greenland with a population of 15,459
- Official language is Greenlandic, with second language Danish and third English
- Ethnicity of the country is 88% Inuit (including Inuit-Danish mixed( and 12% Europeans (mostly Danes)
- Currency is Danish Krone
- Fishing and fish exporting is a major part of the Greenlandic economy, with shrimp fishing industry being by far the biggest income generator
- Transport between cities in Greenland is by air and boat as there are no connecting roads due to the many fjords
- Football (soccer) is the national sport of Greenland. However, the Football Association of Greenland is not yet a member of world governing body FIFA because it cannot grow grass for regulation grass pitches.
How do I break into Greenland
How to be a Sock Genius
How to provide a Stool Sample
How to Make a Good Cup of Tea
Top 7 Ways to Solve an Argument
Jack the Ripper Murder Sites (Modern Day)
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The New York State Domestic Workers Bill of Rights, the first in the United States, becomes law today -- Nov. 29.
By amending the Human Rights Law, Workers Compensation Law and Labor Law, the state government gave the more than 200,000 domestic workers in the metropolitan area -- housekeepers, nannies, home aides -- a package of limited rights and benefits previously denied them.
The measure provides statutory protections from harassment, mandates for overtime pay, a six-day (or shorter) workweek and three paid vacation days after the first year on the job even if there is only one employee in a household instead of four under prior law. The changes will extend disability benefits to employees who work fewer than 40 hours per week. While the new laws apply to employees who do some work on an ad hoc, or casual, basis, they do not extend to the teenager who baby-sits once in a while or the person hired to clean out closets every spring. The Human Rights Law will prohibit "unwelcome sexual advances," seeking "sexual favors," or verbal and/or physical conduct which tends to be a condition of employment or creates an "intimidating, hostile or offensive work environment."
Overtime pay is defined as one and one-half times the hourly pay over 40 hours; for live-in domestic workers (who may be present to assist elderly or disabled persons day and night), it is 44 hours. In barring a seven-day work week, the Bill of Rights does not require, but does encourage, allowing that that the day off be the worker's Sabbath or day of worship.
The bill of rights protects workers against discrimination on the basis of sex, race, national origin and religion, but does not extend that to some of New York's other protected classes, such as those discriminated against because of age, sexual orientation or marital status. Nor is the Bill of Rights about discrimination in hiring, salary issues or other conditions; it covers only what is specified.
A Change in Attitude
Organizers working with a coalition of non-profit groups fought for paid sick leave or sick days, vacation days and severance pay but won none of those benefits. While they did not succeed in getting their entire agenda passed, the changes do represent some shift in attitudes toward those who work in other people’s homes, almost all of whom are minority women employed at the lowest pay scales, often working under difficult and demeaning conditions. According to Joycelynn Campbell, organizing coordinator for Domestic Workers United, 93 percent of domestic workers are women, 95 percent are women of color and 99 percent are immigrants, mostly from Caribbean and Latin American countries.
The new benefits are minimal compared to those that unions regularly negotiate for their members, and are less than what was sought by the 10-year old, non-profit organization Domestic Workers United. Union membership and collective bargaining are explicitly unavailable to domestic workers. The Bill of Rights requires an investigation into the feasibility of a union being established and recognized by the state Employment Relations Act, which applies to private employment.
According to the domestic workers law, the labor department was to examine and report on whether an employee organization could be formed in accordance with the State Labor Relations Act; how bargaining units could be formed; whether there are issues unique to the domestic work context; and alternative frameworks for collective organization., and the unionizing portion has not been released. So far, the state Department of Labor has not authorized unions for these workers.
A report has, however, been issued rejecting several other demands. In addition to the collective bargaining issues, the legislature directed the Department of Labor to consider sick leave, notice of termination and severance pay. All were rejected.
Getting the Word Out
Whether and how covered employees will be made aware of the protections and benefits without a union may depend in part on the good will of and information provided by their employers. Information on the workers' new rights will be available on Domestic Workers United website. The group is considering using billboards to get the information out.
Enforcement will require workers to file complaints about violations with the state, but it may be that, even when employers are not in compliance, employees will be reluctant to make formal complaints or will remain unaware of their options.
This could be a particular issue for the affected workers who are undocumented immigrants. The legislation does not address them or their employers. Campbell of Domestic Workers United said, "Immigration is not an issue. Our members are not afraid of speaking out. They have been educated about their rights, and these are workers' human rights."
Legal representation is available pro bono through NELA, the National Employment Law Association and today, as law goes into effect, Domestic Workers United will announce the opening of its legal clinic at 1201 Broadway (Suite 807-8) in Manhattan.
A complaint of harassment or abuse filed with the Department of Labor could expose the employer to further filings if they have, for example, not paid unemployment and disability insurance or workers' compensation, as well as state and federal taxes.
Emily Jane Goodman is a New York State Supreme Court Justice
Last Updated (Jun 06, 2012)
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Formants are defined by Gunnar Fant as 'the spectral peaks of the sound spectrum of the voice'. In speech science and phonetics, formant is also used to mean an acoustic resonance of the human vocal tract. It is often measured as an amplitude peak in the frequency spectrum of the sound, using a spectrogram (in the figure) or a spectrum analyzer, though in vowels spoken with a high fundamental frequency, as in a female or child voice, the frequency of the resonance may lie between the widely-spread harmonics and hence no peak is visible. In acoustics, it refers to a peak in the sound envelope and/or to a resonance in sound sources, notably musical instruments, as well as that of sound chambers. Thus it is possible to talk about the formant frequencies of a room, as exploited, for example, by Alvin Lucier in his piece I Am Sitting in a Room.
Formants and phonetics
Formants are the distinguishing or meaningful frequency components of human speech and of singing. By definition, the information that humans require to distinguish between vowels can be represented purely quantitatively by the frequency content of the vowel sounds. In speech, these are the characteristic partials that identify vowels to the listener. Most of these formants are produced by tube and chamber resonance, but a few whistle tones derive from periodic collapse of Venturi effect low-pressure zones. The formant with the lowest frequency is called f1, the second f2, and the third f3. Most often the two first formants, f1 and f2, are enough to disambiguate the vowel. These two formants determine the quality of vowels in terms of the open/close and front/back dimensions (which have traditionally, though not entirely accurately, been associated with the position of the tongue). Thus the first formant f1 has a higher frequency for an open vowel (such as [a]) and a lower frequency for a close vowel (such as [i] or [u]); and the second formant f2 has a higher frequency for a front vowel (such as [i]) and a lower frequency for a back vowel (such as [u]). Vowels will almost always have four or more distinguishable formants; sometimes there are more than six. However, the first two formants are most important in determining vowel quality, and this is often displayed in terms of a plot of the first formant against the second formant, though this is not sufficient to capture some aspects of vowel quality, such as rounding.
Nasals usually have an additional formant around 2500 Hz. The liquid [l] usually has an extra formant at 1500 Hz, while the English "r" sound ([ɹ]) is distinguished by virtue of a very low third formant (well below 2000 Hz).
Plosives (and, to some degree, fricatives) modify the placement of formants in the surrounding vowels. Bilabial sounds (such as /b/ and /p/ in "ball" or "sap") cause a lowering of the formants; velar sounds (/k/ and /g/ in English) almost always show f2 and f3 coming together in a 'velar pinch' before the velar and separating from the same 'pinch' as the velar is released; alveolar sounds (English /t/ and /d/) cause less systematic changes in neighbouring vowel formants, depending partially on exactly which vowel is present. The time-course of these changes in vowel formant frequencies are referred to as 'formant transitions'.
If the fundamental frequency of the underlying vibration is higher than a resonance frequency of the system, then the formant usually imparted by that resonance will be mostly lost. This is most apparent in the example of soprano opera singers, who sing high enough that their vowels become very hard to distinguish.
Control of resonances is an essential component of the vocal technique known as overtone singing, in which the performer sings a low fundamental tone, and creates sharp resonances to select upper harmonics, giving the impression of several tones being sung at once.
Spectrograms are used to visualise formants.
|Vowel (IPA)||Formant f1||Formant f2|
|i||240 Hz||2400 Hz|
|y||235 Hz||2100 Hz|
|e||390 Hz||2300 Hz|
|ø||370 Hz||1900 Hz|
|ɛ||610 Hz||1900 Hz|
|œ||585 Hz||1710 Hz|
|a||850 Hz||1610 Hz|
|ɶ||820 Hz||1530 Hz|
|ɑ||750 Hz||940 Hz|
|ɒ||700 Hz||760 Hz|
|ʌ||600 Hz||1170 Hz|
|ɔ||500 Hz||700 Hz|
|ɤ||460 Hz||1310 Hz|
|o||360 Hz||640 Hz|
|ɯ||300 Hz||1390 Hz|
|u||250 Hz||595 Hz|
|Vowel||Main formant region|
|e||400–600 and 2200–2600 Hz|
|i||200–400 and 3000–3500 Hz|
Studies of the frequency spectrum of trained singers, especially male singers, indicate a clear formant around 3000 Hz (between 2800 and 3400 Hz) that is absent in speech or in the spectra of untrained singers. It is thought to be associated with one or more of the higher resonances of the vocal tract. It is this increase in energy at 3000 Hz which allows singers to be heard and understood over an orchestra, which peak at much lower frequencies of around 500 Hz. This formant is actively developed through vocal training, for instance through so-called voce di strega (IPA: [ˈvoːtʃe di ˈstrɛːga]) or "witch's voice" exercises and is caused by a part of the vocal tract acting as a resonator.
- Fant, G. (1960). Acoustic Theory of Speech Production. Mouton & Co, The Hague, Netherlands.
- Titze, I.R. (1994). Principles of Voice Production, Prentice Hall, ISBN 978-0-13-717893-3.
- Ladefoged, Peter (2006) A Course in Phonetics (Fifth Edition), Boston, MA: Thomson Wadsworth, p. 188. ISBN 1-4130-2079-8
- Ladefoged, Peter (2001) Vowels and Consonants: An Introduction to the Sounds of Language, Maldern, MA: Blackwell, p. 40. ISBN 0-631-21412-7
- Deterding, David (1997) 'The Formants of Monophthong Vowels in Standard Southern British English Pronunciation', Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 27, pp. 47-55.
- Hayward, Katrina (2000) Experimental Phonetics, Harlow, UK: Pearson, p. 149. ISBN 0-582-29137-2
- Catford, J.C. (1988) A Practical Introduction to Phonetics, Oxford University Press, p. 161. ISBN 978-0198242178
- Sundberg, J. (1974) “Articulatory interpretation of the ‘singing formant’,” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 55, 838-844.
- Frisell, Anthony (2007). Baritone Voice. Boston: Branden Books. p. 84. ISBN 0-8283-2181-7.
- "Vocal Ring, or The Singer's Formant". The National Center for Voice and Speech. Retrieved 2008-04-07.
- Sundberg, Johan (1987). The science of the singing voice. DeKalb, Ill: Northern Illinois University Press. ISBN 0-87580-542-6.
- Formants for fun and profit
- Formants and wah-wah pedals
- What is a formant? A discussion of the three different meanings of the word 'formant'
- Formant tuning by soprano singers from the University of New South Wales
- The acoustics of harmonic or overtone singing from the University of New South Wales
- Materials for measuring and plotting vowel formants
- Acoustics of the Vowel A discussion of possible formant variations without affection of the phoneme identity.
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If you can't stand the heat ...
(Page 2 of 2)
In the 1880s, the closed range was hooked up to gas and in the 1890s, to electricity. Food historian Rachel Laudan, author of the forthcoming book "Power Cuisine and History'' says, "No other change in kitchen technology compares to this - the closed gas or electric stove. It made the kitchen cleaner and pleasanter; you could begin cooking with the turn of a knob instead of needing to allow a couple of hours to get the fire going. It transformed cooking methods."Skip to next paragraph
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Ms. Laudan adds that the enclosed stove "led to the great North Euro-American invention, the cake-cookie-pie complex. Before this, baking was a specialist trade. Admittedly, home baking also relied on chemical raising agents, refined white flour, refined white sugar, all of which had become cheap and widely available in the previous half century."
Home refrigerators and freezers arrived in American homes somewhat later. In the US, the Shakers built some of the first ice houses, using sawdust and straw to keep large chunks of ice from melting too quickly. Individual families used a smaller version, the icebox, an insulated box kept cool as a large chunk of ice, delivered weekly, evaporated.
Ice-making machines began to be patented in the 1830s. Refrigeration was being developed about the same time. In 1867, a prototype refrigerated rail car was patented, and soon trains and ships had refrigeration compartments.
After World War I, many Americans began replacing their home iceboxes with refrigerators that had a small freezing compartment. "American housewives took to the mechanical refrigerator as fast as their finances would allow," writes Sylvia Lovegren in her book "Fashionable Food." Those early refrigerators were easier to clean and regulated temperature better than the old-fashioned icebox had. Women could store food more easily, even freezing small quantities, and therefore needed to shop less often.
"With the car and the supermarket, the refrigerator made weekly [rather than daily] shopping possible," Laudan says, adding that the home refrigerator "started America's enchantment with the chilled," from cold drinks to ice cream.
By the mid-1950s, more than 80 percent of American households had a refrigerator, compared to only 8 percent of English households, Ms. Lovegren notes.
Home cooks began buying commercially frozen foods in the 1930s, after Clarence Birdseye started selling his line of "frosted foods." (The word "frozen" was associated with food that had gone bad because of cold weather.)
Most of the gadgets modern cooks take for granted were invented in the past 150 years. In the second half of the 1800s, "Eggbeaters, cherry stoners, apple parers and corers, butter churns, meat choppers - all these and more were patented in large numbers," but few households owned them, Strasser writes.
Laudan sees the application of the small electric motor to kitchen appliances as an important development.
By the 1930s, housewives could buy electric devices ranging from chafing dishes, waffle irons, hot-plates, mixers, toasters, and even a free-standing portable oven. "Electric gadgets were the darlings of the 1930s, evidence of the modern age even in the midst of Depression," Lovegren writes.
By the 1970s, American cooks had even more gadgets at their disposal, such as the food processor, the microwave, and the slow cooker, best known by the brand name Crock-Pot.
Lora Brody is the author of "Lora Brody Plugged In: The Definitive Guide to the 20 Best Kitchen Appliances.'' Her pick for the most important modern kitchen appliance? "The easy answer would be the food processor, but my answer would be the slow cooker. Nothing has as many applications as the slow cooker."
The microwave was the largest and perhaps the most important of the kitchen gadgets that became popular in the 1970s. While some brush it off as a device to heat water and reheat frozen food, Smith notes that 64 percent of American homes now have a microwave oven.
Lovegren says, "I think in this century, the microwave is without a doubt the big evolutionary leap because it's made reheating take-out food and frozen entrees possible," which is leading to "the death of cooking in the modern world."
"I think it will take a while, but most people I see around me, except for immigrants or people with strong ethnic backgrounds, don't do any cooking," with the exception of entertaining, she says.
Preparing elaborate dishes for dinner parties is "like a fun hobby or an accomplishment like in Jane Austen [novels] when everyone comes over and the ladies show how prettily they can play the piano," Lovegren says.
Laudan is more circumspect about how the microwave will affect cooking. "We won't know its full impact for another few decades - inventions take that long to find their place - but it's clearly implicated in the move away from meals and toward snacking."
(c) Copyright 2000. The Christian Science Publishing Society
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Studied Homeopathic Remedies
- Classical Homeopathic Remedy
Diarrhea, or loose bowel movements, can occur for many reasons. Food poisoning and infections are the most common causes of acute diarrhea. Chronic diarrhea may be caused by ongoing illnesses of the digestive tract, such as inflammatory bowel disease and irritable bowel syndrome.
Appropriate treatment involves addressing the cause of the diarrhea, if possible. In many cases, however, all that can be done is to treat the symptoms.
Prolonged or severe diarrhea can be dangerous, especially in small children and seniors. The greatest risk is severe dehydration. This can often be corrected through the use of special oral solutions, but in some cases intravenous fluids may be required.
Scientific Evaluations of Homeopathic Remedies for Diarrhea
Two trials investigating the treatment of childhood diarrhea with homeopathic remedies were performed in Leon, Nicaragua, and a third one was performed in Nepal, all by a single research group. Overall, the results suggest benefit with homeopathic treatment determined by
The first study followed 81 Nicaraguan children aged 6 months to 5 years, each of whom had acute diarrhea.1
Each child had a classical homeopathic evaluation and then was assigned an individual remedy in the potency 30c, or placebo. The results showed statistically significant improvement in the treated group as compared to the placebo group. (Both groups were also treated with standard oral fluid solutions to counteract dehydration.)
Positive results were also reported in a very similar study of 126 Nepalese children.2
However, a trial of much the same design but including only 33 children, failed to find meaningful evidence of benefit.3
Note that for statistical reasons, studies with fewer participants are relatively likely to miss actual benefits; therefore, this study does not, in fact, tend to invalidate the other two.
Another study by these researchers enrolled 292 Honduran children with acute diarrhea, and tested a fixed combination containing five popular homeopathic remedies.4
The combination remedy failed to prove more effective than placebo.
Traditional Homeopathic Treatments for Diarrhea
classical homeopathy, there are many possible homeopathic treatments for diarrhea, to be chosen based on various specific details of the person seeking treatment.
When a child has diarrhea that is characterized by profuse, foul-smelling stools that are watery, gushing, and painless, and he has a great thirst for large quantities of cold water, then his condition may fit the
for the homeopathic remedy
Podophyllum. He might also be fidgety and restless.
However, if a child is generally hot and desires cold drinks, and has colicky, slimy, foul-smelling diarrhea with green stools that look like green grass, her condition might fit the symptom picture for the homeopathic remedy
When a child is restless, anxious, and fearful, feels much worse around midnight and has painful diarrhea with burning sensations, he may fit the symptom picture for homeopathic
Arsenicum. Other characteristic symptoms include a red, sore anus, discomfort that is relieved by hot applications, and the complaint of feeling chilly, especially on his arms and legs.
Other Natural Options
For herbs, supplements, and other alternative treatments that may be useful for this condition, see the
For a thorough explanation of homeopathy, including dilution of therapies, see the
Jacobs J, Jimenez LM, Gloyd SS, et al. Treatment of acute childhood diarrhea with homeopathic medicine: a randomized clinical trial in Nicaragua.
Jacobs J, Jimenez LM, Malthouse S, et al. Homeopathic treatment of acute childhood diarrhea: results from a clinical trial in Nepal.
J Altern Complement Med. 2000;6:131–139.
Jacobs J, Jimenez LM, Gloyd SS, et al. Homeopathic treatment of acute childhood diarrhea: a randomized clinical trial in Nicaragua.
Br Homeopath J. 1993;82:83–86.
Jacobs J, Guthrie BL, Montes GA et al. Homeopathic combination remedy in the treatment of acute childhood diarrhea in honduras.
J Altern Complement Med. 2006;12:723-32.
Last reviewed July 2012 by EBSCO CAM Review Board
Please be aware that this information is provided to supplement the care provided by your physician. It is neither intended nor implied to be a substitute for professional medical advice. CALL YOUR HEALTHCARE PROVIDER IMMEDIATELY IF YOU THINK YOU MAY HAVE A MEDICAL EMERGENCY. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider prior to starting any new treatment or with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.
Copyright © EBSCO Publishing. All rights reserved.
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Why Do You Need Vitamin D?
In order to absorb calcium and promote bone growth, your body needs vitamin D. Without it, you can end up with soft, brittle bones which is known as rickets in children, or you can get fragile, misshapen bones as an adult which is referred to as osteomalacia. Vitamin D deficiency has also been linked to various other health risks such as cancer, heart disease, depression, and weight gain.
Aside from helping you build strong bones, vitamin D also helps regulate the immune and neuro-muscular systems, while also increasing the vitality of human body cells.
Did you know that the sun can affect your vitamin D intake? Adequate exposure to sunlight allows your body to produce its own vitamin D. As a result, people who live in the northern areas are at risk due to lack of regular sunlight. Furthermore, darker skin does a better job at absorbing sunlight so if your skin is fair, make sure you get enough sun so you can be as healthy as possible!
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Declared dead in the 1970s, brought back to life by the environmental movement it did much to inspire, Lake Erie is once again expiring, killed by industrial agriculture. Specifically, phosphorous from synthetic fertilizers, which the aforementioned environmental movement never gained the clout to regulate. After having been reduced by two-thirds with various buffering and conservation practices, phosphorous levels in Lake Erie are, according to an Ohio State University expert, “back up to when it was considered a dead lake.”
The expert, Jeff Reutter, director of the Ohio Sea Grant and Stone Laboratory, was speaking this week at the State of the Lakes Ecosystem Conference in Erie, Pennsylvania. He did not have to explain to the conference why the phosphorous causes problems — it stimulates the growth of algae, some of which produce deadly toxins, all of which create dense mats that kill virtually everything else in the water.
Nor did he have to explain where it comes from; fertilizer, mainly, plus some commercial detergents and some waste-water treatments. What he and others are trying to explain is why the phosphorous/algae situation has got so much worse so fast? [I reported on the problem a few months ago in Losing the War on Pond Scum]
The emerging answer is that global climate change, that ubiquitous threat multiplier, is at work here as well. It gets warmer earlier in the year on Lake Erie now, and stay warmer longer, giving the algae more time to multiply. “We are seeing blooms as early as April and as late as October,” says Reutter. But much bigger contributors, he says, are the bigger, more frequent storms and heavier rainfalls of recent years, which have been washing ever more phosphorous into the lake.
(Here’s a mystery never explained to me: virtually every ounce of phosphorous that washes into our waters was bought to stimulate crops, and therefore its loss represents a very real economic loss to the practitioners of industrial agriculture. Why have they not fixed this? Is it so much easier to get more subsidies than to take measures to stop throwing money away?) more
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Anemia is a condition in which the body does not have enough healthy red blood cells. Red blood cells provide oxygen to body tissues.
Causes, incidence, and risk factors
While many parts of the body are essential to making red blood cells, most of the work is done in the bone marrow. Bone marrow is the soft tissue in the center of bones that helps form blood cells.
Healthy red blood cells last between 90 and 120 days. Parts of your body then remove old blood cells. A hormone called erythropoietin made in your kidneys signal your bone marrow to make more red blood cells.
Hemoglobin is the oxygen-carrying protein inside red blood cells. It gives red blood cells their red color. People with anemia do not have enough hemoglobin.
Possible causes of anemia include:
- Certain medications
- Chronic diseases such as cancer, ulcerative colitis, or rheumatoid arthritis
- Genes -- some forms of anemia, such as thalassemia, can be inherited
- Kidney failure
- Blood loss (for example, from heavy menstrual periods or stomach ulcers)
- Poor diet
- Problems with bone marrow such as lymphoma, leukemia, or multiple myeloma
- Problems with the immune system that cause the destruction of blood cells (hemolytic anemia)
- Surgery to the stomach or intestines that reduces the absorption of iron, vitamin B12, or folic acid
Possible symptoms include:
Some types of anemia may have other symptoms, such as:
Signs and tests
The doctor will perform a physical examination, and may find:
- Pale skin
- Rapid heart rate
Some types of anemia may cause other findings on a physical exam.
Blood tests used to diagnose some common types of anemia may include:
Other tests may be done to identify medical problems that can cause anemia.
Treatment should be directed at the cause of the anemia, and may include:
- Blood transfusions
- Corticosteroids or other medicines that suppress the immune system
- Erythropoietin, a medicine that helps your bone marrow make more blood cells
- Supplements of iron, vitamin B12, folic acid, or other vitamins and minerals
The outlook depends on the cause.
Severe anemia can cause low oxygen levels in vital organs such as the heart, and can lead to a heart attack.
Calling your health care provider
Call your health provider if you have any symptoms of anemia, or any unusual bleeding.
Marks PW, Glader B. Approach to anemia in the adult and child. In: Hoffman R, Benz EJ, Shattil SS, et al, eds. Hematology: Basic Principles and Practice. 5th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Elsevier Churchill Livingstone; 2008:chap 34.
James R. Mason, MD, Oncologist, Director, Blood and Marrow Transplantation Program and Stem Cell Processing Lab, Scripps Clinic, Torrey Pines, California. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Inc.
The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed medical professional should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. © 1997-
A.D.A.M., Inc. Any duplication or distribution of the information contained herein is strictly prohibited.
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The worst bushfires in Australia's history
Bushfires have long been part of the Australian landscape but some of the worst will always stay in our minds.
In Australia, severe bushfires often occur after record high temperatures, low relative humidity and strong winds. (Getty)
BUSHFIRES ARE PART OF the Australian landscape. They have been around for an estimated 60 million years and they are a regular cycle in our climate.
This year's relatively wet conditions may help keep devastating bushfires at bay in forested regions near the coast, all the while setting up ideal conditions for burning throughout central Australia. But predicting the severity of a given bushfire season is never an easy task.
"The weather conditions that set the scene for prolific unmanaged fire in the landscape are the same weather conditions that make the urban environment really vulnerable," says Justin Leonard, a CSIRO research scientist who specialises in bushfire urban design.
Worst fires have high temperatures, low humidity and strong winds
The most devastating fires are usually preceded by record high temperatures, low relative humidity and strong winds, which create ideal conditions for the rapid spread of fire. Though much of Australia has come out of severe drought and much of the outback is green, this spells trouble for bushfires, as grasslands have significantly increased - providing a ready fuel source for bushfires.
In urban areas, fine fuels such as mulch, timbre decks and housing materials dry out in high heat and low humidity, which helps feed the flames. But not all urban areas are at high risk.
"Menacing bushfires that cause death and house loss aren't universal across Australia," Justin says. "They're quite focused to smaller regions on the Australian continent, and that's mainly because the severe fire weather that sets the scene for really bad fires [in urban areas]...only occurs in certain areas."
The Northern Territory, for example, has avoided fire-related deaths despite the widespread yearly presence of bushfires throughout the state. (See a time lapse video of bushfires in Australia over the last decade).
Researchers attribute this to relatively mild fire weather conditions, the state's sparse population and community awareness.
While New South Wales, Canberra, South Australia and Tasmania have all experienced devastating bushfires in recent years, it is Victoria—particularly in regions near Melbourne—that stands out as a hotbed for bushfire activity. Four of the five deadliest fires on record in Australia have been in Victoria.
Five deadliest bushfires on record
Bushfires are ranked according to the number of fatalities.
1. Black Saturday (VIC), 7-8 Feb 2009
Black Saturday resulted from some of the worst fire conditions ever recorded in Victoria. Record-high temperatures and strong winds after a season of intense drought set the bush alight across the state, causing widespread devastation, 173 fatalities and the destruction of more than 2000 homes. See the related gallery of before and after the recovery.
2. Ash Wednesday (VIC, SA), 16-18 Feb 1983
Widespread drought, gale-force winds, high temperatures and low relative humidity set the scene for a series of fires across Victoria and south-eastern South Australia. Accidents and arsonists started most of the fires, which spread rapidly through scenic residential regions near Melbourne and Adelaide, resulting in the death of 75 people and the destruction of nearly 1900 homes.
3. Black Friday (VIC), 13-20 Jan 1939
Drought conditions and water shortages also preceded Black Friday, but the usual combination of high temperatures, strong winds, and low humidity finally triggered fires throughout bush communities near Melbourne. Well-meaning locals and graziers made the problem worse by trying to use controlled burns to protect themselves from disaster, only to see their good intentions help spread the flames. In all, 71 people were killed and 650 houses were destroyed. A Royal Commission investigation into the fires led to increased fire awareness and prevention efforts throughout Australia.
4. Black Tuesday (TAS), 7 Feb. 1967
An unusually abundant spring covered Tasmanian forest floors with litter, providing excess fuel for the bushfire season. Strong northerly winds and high temperatures coupled to help fuel at least 80 different fires across southern Tasmania, which swept over the south-east coast of the state and came within 2km of central Hobart. The fires killed 62 people and razed almost 1300 homes.
5. Gippsland fires and Black Sunday (VIC), 1 February-10 March 1926
Large areas of Gippsland caught fire, culminating in the Black Sunday fires on 14 February that killed 31 people in Warburton, near Melbourne. Over the two-month period, a total of 60 people were killed.
VIDEO: Time lapse of Australia's bushfires
Raging bushfires started 60 million years ago
Aboriginal bushfire burn-off theory hosed down
Radical fire plan for the Kimberley
Bushfire simulation improves prediction
Research boosts fire management theories
Bushfire research improves prediction methods
Rare spider orchid sprouts after Black Saturday bushfires
Rare gum rises from Black Saturday ashes
Fire alarm: living with bushfires
GALLERY: Black Saturday - before and after
...More bushfire stories
...More stories about natural disasters
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Browse through our Glossary!
A small fruit from Asia that has been sun-dried, turning the bright red, leathery outer shell to a brown color and drying the white grape-like flesh inside into a crisp texture, similar to a raisin. Although the white succulent fruit covers a small to large seed, do not confuse the seed for a nut. This seed contains a toxin and is not to be consumed. If it is consumed fresh, peel the thin sturdy shell away from the fruit and remove the inner seed. If the white fruit is allowed to ripen and dry, it is then considered to be a "Lychee Nut" and is served like a dried fruit snack or nut eaten out of hand. This fruit is also known as litchi nut, lichi nut, lichee nut, and lechee nut. When referred to simply as lichi, leechee, lechia, lychee, litchi, or lichee, it usually means the fresh fruit. Select bright red-fleshed outer shells that are not green. The fresh fruit is perishable and should not be stored for more than several days in the refrigerator. Canned lychee fruit with the seed removed and packed in a thick syrup is often available in food stores.
Ratings, Reviews & Comments
There currently aren't any reviews or comments for this term. Be the first!
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Their grant from the U.S. Department of Education’s National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research (NIDRR) is funding a new Rehabilitation Engineering Research Center (RERC) on Accessible Public Transportation. The center will develop ways to empower consumers and transit service providers in the design and evaluation of accessible transportation equipment, information services and physical environments.
The center’s principal investigator and co-director is Aaron Steinfeld, a systems scientist at Carnegie Mellon’s Robotics Institute who works on human-robot interaction and intelligent transportation systems in the university’s Quality of Life Technology Engineering Research Center.
Steinfeld will be co-directing the new center with his father Edward Steinfeld, a professor of architecture at UB who heads the Center for Inclusive Design and Environmental Access (IDEA). The IDEA Center improves the design of environments and products by making them more usable, safe and appealing to people with a wide range of abilities. The center is a world leader in universal design, an important component of the new RERC’s work. The team also includes the United Spinal Association, an organization that focuses on improving the quality of life of Americans with spinal cord injuries and disorders, which will focus on developing transportation regulations and standards.
“This grant establishes a partnership between the IDEA Center at UB, known internationally as a center of excellence in universal design, with the Robotics Institute at Carnegie Mellon University, known internationally as a center of excellence in robotics,” said Edward Steinfeld. “We expect this partnership to make a significant impact on the usability of public transportation for all riders. We will be completing research that is extremely timely and needed by the industry. We have business partners, including manufacturers and consumer advocacy organizations, that will help to implement research findings and disseminate information that directly improve transportation services, vehicles and facilities.”
The Niagara Frontier Transportation Authority (NFTA) in Buffalo and the Port Authority of Allegheny County in Pittsburgh will assist the researchers as they develop new technologies and concepts. An important area of research will be the design of access and interiors for buses. California–based Gillig Corp., the nation’s largest manufacturer of heavy-duty mass transit buses, will incorporate, at their own expense, the modifications designed by the RERC into a new NFTA bus. The bus will be a prototype containing new interior concepts that are ready for commercialization.
“One of the key aspects of the project is to get input from transit users,” said Carnegie Mellon’s Aaron Steinfeld. “We will be evaluating ways to enable transit users and providers to be citizen scientists to collect and utilize data about the transit experience.”
The team will create a public Web site where riders can report on their experiences and collaborate with transit providers on ways to improve the transportation system. The team also will use advances in machine learning to develop software that can assist riders in reaching their destinations.
For more information on the new RERC on Accessible Public Transportation, see http://www.rercapt.org/
About Carnegie Mellon
Carnegie Mellon is a private research university with a distinctive mix of programs in engineering, computer science, robotics, business, public policy, science and social science, fine arts and the humanities. More than 10,000 undergraduate and graduate students receive an education characterized by its focus on creating and implementing solutions for real problems, interdisciplinary collaboration, and innovation. A small student-to-faculty ratio provides an opportunity for close interaction between students and professors. While technology is pervasive on its 144-acre Pittsburgh campus, Carnegie Mellon is also distinctive among leading research universities for the world-renowned programs in its College of Fine Arts. A global university, Carnegie Mellon has campuses in Silicon Valley, Calif., and Qatar, and programs in Asia, Australia and Europe. For more, see http://www.cmu.edu.
About SUNY Buffalo’s IDEA Center
The IDEA Center at SUNY Buffalo is dedicated to improving the design of environments and products by making them more usable, safer and appealing to people with a wide range of abilities throughout their life spans. Originating in the practices of accessible or “barrier free” design and “normalization,” the concept of universal design seeks to make the everyday world more accessible and usable to a broad range of people, including people with disabilities and other often overlooked groups. The IDEA Center provides resources and technical expertise in architecture, product design, facilities management, and the social and behavioral sciences to further these agendas.
About the NIDRR
Created in 1978, the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research (NIDRR) in Washington, D.C., is one of three components of the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (OSERS) in the U.S. Department of Education. The NIDRR operates in concert with the Rehabilitation Services Administration (RSA) and the Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP). The mission of the NIDRR is to generate new knowledge and promote its effective use to improve the abilities of people with disabilities to perform activities of their choice in the community, and also to expand society’s capacity to provide full opportunities and accommodations for its citizens with disabilities.
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June 15, 2012 People make complex judgements about a person from looking at their face that are based on a range of factors beyond simply their race and gender, according to findings of new research funded by the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC).
The findings question a long-held belief that people immediately put a person they meet into a limited number of social categories such as: female or male; Asian, Black, Latino or White; and young or old.
Dr Kimberly Quinn at the University of Birmingham found that people 'see' faces in a multiple of ways. This could have wider importance in understanding stereotyping and discrimination because it has implications on whether and how people categorise others.
Categorisation is not done purely on the physical features of the face in front of us, but depends on other information as well, including whether the person is already known and whether the person is believed to share other important identities with us.
"How we perceive faces is not just a reflection of what's in those faces," Dr Quinn said. "We are not objective; we bring our current goals and past knowledge to every new encounter. And this happens really quickly -- within a couple of hundred milliseconds of seeing the face."
Dr Quinn and her colleagues explored social categories such as sex, race and age; physical attributes such as attractiveness; personality traits such as trustworthiness; and emotional states such as anger, sadness and happiness.
She found that although social categories are used to gather information on faces, these can be easily undermined. This research found that we reject simple stereotypes when something about the situation alerts us to the fact the stereotype does not tell the whole story. If we take, for example, a racial group and the corresponding stereotype of members of that group as unintelligent, seeing a person in that group playing an intellectual game such as chess would tell us to cancel out the stereotype.
In order to investigate the causes, mechanisms, and results of social categorisation, Dr Quinn used techniques from cognitive psychology and neuroscience to investigate how people process faces. The research was designed to provide insight into when and why people categorise others according to social group membership.
Their findings differ from previous research that adopted a 'dual process' approach and assumed people initially categorised faces based on factors such as gender, race or age before determining whether to stereotype them or to see them as unique individuals.
Dr Quinn's findings were more consistent with a single process that initially focuses on 'coarse' information that is easy to detect, and then immediately starts to include more fine-grained processing as time elapses. This model allows for either categorisation or more individuated processing to emerge, and does not assume that categorisation always comes before recognising unique identities -- thereby allowing for more diverse outcomes than previously thought.
Further information: http://www.esrc.ac.uk/my-esrc/grants/RES-061-23-0130/read
Other social bookmarking and sharing tools:
Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.
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STAY IN TOUCH WITH FAMILY AND FRIENDS
Call anywhere, any time, any phone USA or Canada for 1.9 cents a minute. Top quality connection.
SAVE YOUR RELATIONSHIP
== Unusual Marriage Self-Help Book
== It's Not Hopeless; Bring back your love
== Save The Marriage eBook
== Break Free From The Affair
HAVE BETTER RELATIONSHIPS
== 1000 Questions For Couples
== 500 Lovemaking Tips & Secrets
== 300 Creative Dates - By Oprah Expert
== The Sexually Skilled Husband
1.02 BULLY -- TYPES AND CATEGORIES OF ABUSIVE BEHAVIOR
MEANING: One who forces another to do his/her will while often humiliating the person in the process.
PERSONAL NOTE FROM RICK DOBLE: We all know what a bully is, yet a bully is just an obvious, overt abuser. It is only recently that we have realized how destructive bullies are at school, for example. Teasing, taunting, lording over another person, using power to control those beneath one are all abusive behaviors as well as bullying. The tragedy at Columbine in 1999 was due in part to bullying. Bullying is a perfect example of a behavior that was tolerated for centuries and viewed as harmless. Now societies see it for what it has always been: very destructive dysfunctional behavior that affected everyone involved and needed to be stopped. If we want our children to believe in a society with rules that are fair, bullying cannot be tolerated because it is not fair and goes against the rules.
RELATED WORDS AND PHRASES: intimidate, menace, threaten, domineering, cruel, brutal=== Definition and article about Bullying
=== More about bullies, bully and bullying
Types Of Abuse
Table Of Contents
Personal Attacks & Ad Hominem Arguments
Priest, Church, Clerical
Blog Of Personal Observations
Table Of Contents
Link To Us
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Elements of Interior Design
by Jeanette Joy Fisher
What are the elements of interior design?
Interior designers study
the elements or principles of interior design from many perspectives.
Traditional studies include the history of furnishings emphasizing period
architectural and furniture design styles. Today, interior designers study
socially responsible design, environmental or green design, along with Feng
Shui and India's holistic design
Design Psychology exceeds "traditional" interior design practice by considering
the effects of interior design elements on our five senses, as well as our emotions.
Rather than decorating to impress or to follow a certain style, you can choose
specific lighting, color, patterns, and other design elements to support your
happiness and well-being.
Design Psychology includes an understanding of both physiological and
psychological effects of interior design elements. For instance, our pituitary gland
releases tranquilizing hormones when we view sky blue. Knowledge of
physiological effects of color can be applied to home makeovers to ensure a
room uplifts, calms, or energizes.
Our physiological reaction to design elements leads to our psychological
response. We all know that a trickling waterfall not only looks pretty, but
relaxes those nearby. But do you know that certain lighting choices make you feel
irritable, while other lighting decisions comfort? You know that colors
influence your emotions. Are you aware that undulating patterns uplift the spirit,
while some geometric patterns cause anxiety?
Design Psychology you can help you choose
interior design elements to bring about emotional support in your home
makeover. You encourage happiness based on the way your senses-- vision,
hearing, touch, smell, and even taste--react to specific choices of interior
Your Home for Happiness with Design Psychology
Design Psychology Elements
- First, learn
about lighting -- the most important factor in residential design.
- Next, use
colors appropriate to the natural setting, lighting, and desired emotional
response. This takes you one step further than color psychology.
- Then think about reactions to patterns already in the space and add
harmonious patterns based on nature; patterns proven to make people happy.
design elements in your home also come into play -- sounds, accessories,
furnishings and arrangements for comfort.
Once you understand how your home decorating choices influence your emotions, you can follow your own
inspiration and creatively employ design elements.
Just as master artists study the physical body and anatomy, your background
knowledge in Design Psychology prepares you with underlying theory. Equipped,
you're ready to makeover your home for joyous living.
Copyright © 2006 Jeanette J. Fisher. All Rights Reserved.
Join our Teleclasses
and get expert help with your home makeover project.
Home Decorating Articles
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Validate comes from the Latin validus, meaning strong.
Verify comes from veritus, meaning true.
We often say that an argument founded on strong principles is valid. For instance:
"I cannot see the stars. I have no way of knowing if they're still there. For all I know, they might have disappeared, and scientists around the world are lying when they say they're there."
"Your argument is valid, but I'm pretty sure scientists have better things to do."
On the other hand, we could say,
Scientists today verified that the stars did in fact disappear during daylight, when astronauts aboard the shuttle "Scepticism" travelled above the atmosphere for the first time and found that no stars above the daylight side were visible.
The biggest difference is in the hypothesis. A valid hypothesis is one which appears to have supporting evidence, or which has not been disproven*. A verified hypothesis is one which has been proven (in this case, the anti-hypothesis).
Let's say that your hypothesis is that the user has entered their email address correctly. The address is valid if it's well-formed, or if you can send an email to it - it exists - but only verified as the user's address once the link sent in the email is clicked.
Or perhaps your hypothesis is that entries in a form are correct. It might be valid if all mandatory fields are filled, but only verified once the business rules associated with the different fields have been checked too.
Because verification necessarily involves validation, there may be some flexibility about what you define as valid. The purpose of validation is usually to provide quick feedback about what might be wrong, whereas the purpose of verification is to make sure it's right.
(*Can anyone verify that "disproven" is a word? Please validate my assumption.)
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What is the Ashford Green Corridor?
Nine out of ten people in the UK
live in towns and cities, so green spaces in urban areas are very
important. They provide a pleasant, relaxing environment for people
and habitats for wildlife.
Ashford is lucky to have a haven
for people and wildlife, a green space that runs right through the
town: the Ashford Green Corridor. The Green Corridor is made up of
parks, recreation grounds and other green spaces alongside the
rivers that flow through Ashford.
The Green Corridor has been
designated as a Local Nature
Reserve, and is being looked after by a
partnership of organisations.
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My immigrant ancestor, Nicanor Gonzalo Sanchez-Tereso was born on 10 January 1791 in Herencia, Spain. He married Anna Marie Weber in 1815 in Bad Kreuznach, Germany. They had at least 7 children in between 1819 and 1833 while living in Germany. They immigrated to the US after the revolution and ended up settling in Keokuk county, IA. Sadly, they both died a couple of years after arriving.
I decided that I wanted to learn a bit more about the town of Herencia, where the Sanchez-Tereso family lived for at least a couple of hundred years. Nicanor’s ancestor, Juan Sanchez Tereso, was born there in 1620. (Related families that also lived in this area were: Gomez-Lobo, Lopez-Naranjo, Fernandez-Canadas, Martinez-Ojeda, Rodriguez-Polanco, Martinez-Oxeda, Garcia-Navas, Rodriguez Del Tembleque, Diaz De Ubeda, Martinez-Viveros and many more hyphenated names!)
Herencia is in the Province of Ciudad Real in the autonomous community of Castile-La Mancha, about 150 km south of Madrid. It has about 9,000 inhabitants. Fairly small.
I found a couple of websites for Herencia: www.herencia.net and www.herencia.es. The first seems to have more local news/events. The second had information on history, a map of the town, and pictures.
I had to use Google Translate to figure out what the sites said. I have taken Russian, German, and a little French, but Spanish is an absolute mystery to me. The words were translated so that I could get the gist of it, but it just sounded awkward. It’s much better than pulling out a dictionary though, isn’t it? I won’t complain.
- Herencia is translated as “Heritage” or “Legacy” (according to Google Translate). Now, isn’t that a cool name for a town?
- In 1239, after the Battle of Los Navas de Tolosa, the Kingdom of Castile began the repopulation of the Southern Plateau. The town of Herencia is given its charter. It has about 150 residents at this time.
- In 1568, a granary was built.
- They had vineyards and produced a lot of wine.
- In 1604, there is a population crisis because of poor harvests and typhoid epidemics.
- In 1786 there was an epidemic of malaria. Life expectancy at this time period was about 50.
- In 1790, the first of the windmills was built. By the early 1800′s, there were 11 windmills in/around Herencia.
- I love this translation: “In 1,798, the master of the alphabet, D. Alfonso García Rosel, teaches 90 children of all ages, including 12 of the poorest, who do not receive any money.” I wonder if my Nicanor (who was born in 1791) may have been one of these children.
- In 1808, they record that there are only 3 remaining windmills. It says that this may be due to the destruction by French troops during the War for Independence.
I also found a site that has an album of pictures from the area. Lots of windmills, reminiscent of Don Quixote. Actually, the setting of Don Quixote is in this vicinity. It was neat to see what the area looks like. I would love to visit someday!!
Here is a translation of what the Herencia.es site had to say about the relation of Don Quixote to the area:
If the heirs of Cervantes had to collect intellectual property rights for the use of the names mentioned in Don Quixote, his would be one of the largest fortunes. In Legacy there is no corner that does not contain any reference to Cervantes’s fiction, from the stamp of their handmade cheeses, until the inevitable street and Plaza Cervantes. The very name of the people is in itself a valuable legacy.It is best to walk to the Plaza of Spain, where is the Church of the Immaculate Conception, then visit the Church of Our Lady of Mercy and walk the streets, that have a certain symmetry, with white as dominant color of the cityscape.. At the time of rest and food it is essential the presence of cheese Inheritance of universal popularity. Surely there will be no better place to buy a manchego cheese and taste
The most exciting thing that I found is a bit of information on the church where my ancestors attended: the Church of the Immaculate Conception. The church that is currently standing was built in the 18th century, which means that it is the same one that Nicanor and his family attended.
I have added visiting this place as number 153 on my life list.
Other questions I have about this area are: How was it affected by the Napoleonic Wars? This is the time period that Nicanor (later known as Nicholas) was living there. He would have been 16 when the Peninsular War started and 23 when it ended. Was he a soldier? Would he have gone to Germany as a soldier? Did he move there after the war, looking for a new life? He married in 1815 in Germany, after the wars ended.
I really know very little about this time period/place. I think that I only briefly studied it in high school and obviously didn’t retain anything. Everything I know about the Napoleonic Era was learned from watching BBC movies and reading Jane Austen novels.Not a complete education, for sure.
Luckily, we will be studying Napoleon and the world in his time this January in our homeschool. Hopefully I will learn something too! I have a wonderful book entitled Historical Atlas of the Napoleonic Era. It has so many wonderful maps and paintings in it. I highly recommend it if you are looking for a book on this time period. I’m obviously not an expert though.
I looked at the map of Spain in the chapter titled “The Spanish Ulcer”, and there was definitely chaos all around where the Sanchez-Tereso’s were living. Even if they didn’t fight in the wars, they had to be affected by the things going on around them. Another thing I need to research is Nicanor’s siblings. Other than their birth and baptismal dates, I know absolutely nothing about them. Did they stay in Spain or did they move also?
I wonder if there are records of soldiers for this time period. Hmm. Things to think about. Any suggestions on where to look for further information? Does anyone know of any good books (in English) that give a good overview on daily life during this time period in Spain? Anyone want to speculate on why Nicanor moved to Germany?
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In Part I, I examined the background of German street name changes in Chicago. In this post, I want to discuss how I found the exact name changes that occurred.
There are some good resources for studying the history of Chicago’s streets online. The most useful resource William Martin’s Chicago Streets guide, which the Chicago Historical Society has placed online (it is also available at the genealogy reference desk here at the Newberry.) Martin listed every street that has existed in Chicago, and each street’s former or later names. However, the guide does not list the date of name changes.
For example, it shows that McLean Street formerly went by a number of names: Bryon Ave. Canal Place, Caver Street, Coblentz Street, Powell Park, Tondern Street, C street, Ovitt Place. But the guide does not explain when those changes happened.
Finding more precise details of a street name change requires a visit to the Municipal Reference Collection on the 5th floor of the Harold Washington Library Center – the main branch of the Chicago Public Library. At the reference desk, there is a photocopied card file of Chicago’s streets. For each street, it gives a reference to the City Council ordinance that changed the name.
To start my search, I looked up Coblentz to see when it was renamed. The entry for Coblentz indicated that its name was changed June 17, 1918. The reference library also has print and fiche copies of the City Council Proceedings. Checking the Proceedings for June 17, 1918, I found the full text of the ordinance. The council agreed unanimously to the following changes:
Berlin street, change to Canton street, from North Hoyne avenue to North California avenue
Clara place, change to Canton street, from North Western Avenue to North Maplewood avenue
Ems street, change to Colvin street, from North Leavitt street to North Maplewood avenue
Frankfort street, change to Charleston street from North Robey street to North Maplewood avenue
Lubeck street, change to Carolina street from North Robey street to North Western avenue
Coblentz street, change to Carver street from North Robey street to North Western avenue
Rhine street, change to Coyne street from North Leavitt street to Milwaukee avenue
So now I understood when the German names were removed. Surprisingly, they were not replaced with the current names, such as Dickens and Shakespeare. So when were the current names adopted? And why were the German names replaced with street names beginning with ‘C’?
To find the answer to the first question, I went back to the card file at the municipal library and looked up McLean Street.
The card index for “McLean street” indicated that on October 7, 1936, Carver was changed to McLean. Hundreds of other names were also changed that day, as the City Council unified “broken link” street names. On Oct. 6, the Chicago Tribune reported on the debate in City Council.
Mayor Edward Kelly was pushing a bill to connect many of the broken link streets- so that streets that ran along the same latitude would carry a single name. The renaming was a prerequisite for a federal grant for new street signs, and the mayor was anxious to push it through.
Many aldermen were opposed to the change, perhaps because their constituents wanted to keep their street names.
Some of the objection was sentimental. Alderman Coughlin objected to “changes which will eliminate names intimately connected with my childhood days.” Under the heading “Heart-Rending Tale,” the Tribune recorded Coughlin’s objection to renaming Lytle street. “ I played ball with the late Charles Comisky on Lytle street, and that street is dear to me.”
Others objected for territorial reasons. Alderman Keen argued with Alderman Crowe over changing Iowa street to Chestnut Street:
“Whoever suggested these changes must have had the gold coast in mind” declared Keane. “What’s the idea of changing names in my ward to fit those little streets over on the lake shore?”
“We were trying to preserve the older street names” declared Crowe, who represents the Pearson and Chestnut street residents. “We thought that extending these exclusive gold coast names to the west side would increase property values there. And besides, who ever heard of Iowa street?
“Iowa street is the greatest street in Chicago” declared Ald. Keane.
Apparently, Keane’s stirring defense of Iowa street carried the day, as it still exists, parallel to Chestnut west of Wood street.
The renaming of “broken links” was part of a longtime effort to rationalize Chicago’s street names and addresses, spearheaded by a man named Edward P. Brennan.
His greatest achievement was the implementation of the standard address grid in 1909.
Brennan also supported a street-naming plan devised by John C. Reilly, the Superintendent of the city Bureau of Maps.
Reilly proposed that Chicago adopt an alphabetical pattern of street names. In the plan, the north-south street names in the first mile west of the Indiana border were to begin with “A”, names in the 2nd mile would begin with “B” and so on.
It appears that the “C” names applied to the east-west streets in Bucktown may have been part of similar plan, although I haven’t found any record of such a plan.
Chicago Tribune articles:
“Aldermen on Spot; Votes vs. Street Names.” Oct. 6, 1936
“109 More Street Names Changed by City Council.” Oct. 8, 1936, pg. 3
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the Physics Education Technology Project
This interactive simulation allows users to explore how people view colors. The first part of the simulation explores the use of three monochromatic lights of varied intensity to produce multiple colors. The second part of the simulation allows you to filter white light and monochromatic light and study how the filter determines what colors pass through to the eyes. The color of both the light and the filter can be controlled.
This simulation is part of a large and growing collection. It has been designed using principles from physics education research and refined based on student interviews.
%0 Electronic Source %D August 11, 2006 %T PhET Simulation: Color Vision %I Physics Education Technology Project %V 2013 %N 18 May 2013 %7 1.0 %8 August 11, 2006 %9 application/java %U http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/color-vision
Disclaimer: ComPADRE offers citation styles as a guide only. We cannot offer interpretations about citations as this is an automated procedure. Please refer to the style manuals in the Citation Source Information area for clarifications.
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American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition
- adj. Lower in position or rank; secondary.
- adj. Chiefly British Holding a military rank just below that of captain.
- adj. Logic In the relation of a particular proposition to a universal with the same subject, predicate, and quality.
- n. A subordinate.
- n. Chiefly British A subaltern officer.
- n. Logic A subaltern proposition.
Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia
- Having an inferior or subordinate position; subordinate; specifically (military), holding the rank of a junior officer usually below the rank of captain.
- n. A subaltern officer; a subordinate.
- adj. Of a lower rank or position; inferior or secondary.
- n. a subordinate
- n. UK a commissioned officer having a rank below that of captain; a lieutenant or second lieutenant
- n. logic A subaltern proposition; a proposition implied by a universal proposition. For example, some crows are black is a subaltern of all crows are black.
GNU Webster's 1913
- adj. Ranked or ranged below; subordinate; inferior; specifically (Mil.), ranking as a junior officer; being below the rank of captain.
- adj. (Logic) Asserting only a part of what is asserted in a related proposition.
- n. A person holding a subordinate position; specifically, a commissioned military officer below the rank of captain.
- n. (Logic) A subaltern proposition.
- adj. inferior in rank or status
- n. a British commissioned army officer below the rank of captain
- From Late Latin subalternus, from Latin sub- + alternus, from alter. (Wiktionary)
- French subalterne, from Old French, from Late Latin subalternus : Latin sub-, sub- + Latin alternus, alternate (from alter, other; see al-1 in Indo-European roots). (American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition)
“The term subaltern suggests an interest in social class but more generally it is also a methodological orientation that opens up the study of logics of subordination.”
“I am sure (if you get newspapers in Ceylon) jump into your mind the moment I mention the word subaltern, and I may as well tell you that in associating me with any one of these deeds at the present time you are entirely wrong.”
“Now, there has been an enormous amount of ink spilled on the question of why the Latin American subaltern studies group split up -- no doubt more ink thank the group itself spilled while it existed.”
“Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar was born in 1891, an untouchable in an India run by the British – that is to say a subaltern twice over, subjugated by an imperial government and by high-caste Indians.”
“When the authors of the previously mentioned books pen their own words through self-publication or through "ghetto" publishers, are they in a better position to speak a subaltern voice?”
“The subaltern was a lean young redhead from the north continent, his fair face spattered with gold freckles from the tropic sun.”
“A subaltern is a commissioned officer in the army, under the rank of captain.”
“Meantime the chief of police called his subaltern and placed in his hands the peculiar descriptions.”
“He was going down the hill with Rhullieres when I said to him, "Mon General, you expose yourself too much; that which is duty in a subaltern is a fault in a general.”
“His talk radio conservatism is tinged with the fanaticism of someone who comes from a "subaltern" group.”
These user-created lists contain the word ‘subaltern’.
A list of words that are odd or words that I have looked up.
lower; somewhat; secondary; supporting
Being a list of words which have "specifically" in their definitions.
I love you Christopher Hitchens, but all your big words are making me feel dumb.
My Favorite Words
Words taken from Infinite Jest by David Foster Wallace.
Looking for tweets for subaltern.
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Miró Rivera Architects design a necropolis in the Dead Sea
An awareness of death and our response to it made us humans in the beginning and have long held the power to define cultures and create places that transcend time. Our collective respect for the dead and where they are laid to rest reaches across different cultures like no other human experience. It is the commonality of this reverence that guides the creation of Yarauvi, a necropolis in the Dead Sea.
Yarauvi is a place where any person regardless of nationality, race, religion, age or affluence can be laid to rest. By choosing this site as a final resting place, any citizen of the world can contribute to a growing monument to tolerance, reconciliation and unity.
Families will bid farewell to their loved ones from a dock at the southern banks of the Dead Sea. From there, the dead, accompanied by a few mourners, will be transported to Yarauvi by boat. The boat enters the necropolis at its base and travels through a ceremonial unicursal labyrinth that leads to the center point of the necropolis, where the dead are lifted to the space above.
The accompanying mourners will also enter the necropolis this one time - during the interment of their loved ones. The necropolis is a parabolic structure of concentric rings supported on a raft-like armature below the water line, which allows it to float in the buoyant salty waters of the Dead Sea. Inside, the necropolis is a bowl shaped space open to the sky. Individual sarcophagi will progressively fill the stepped structure, laid out in a concentric configuration facing one another.
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Crossposted from the Worldwatch Institute's Nourishing the Planet.
We know that trees can help mitigate climate change by sequestering carbon dioxide from the earth’s atmosphere. But what is less widely understood is how many of these trees can also help to bring an end to hunger and poverty.
Today, Nourishing the Planet takes a look at five varieties of tree that you have likely never heard of, but that are helping to alleviate hunger and poverty and protect the environment.
1. Black Plum: Black plums are common across tropical sub-Saharan Africa’s coastal savannas and savanna woodlands. The black plum tree is not domesticated, but it is widely utilized and protected, and is often found at the center of West African villages. The black plum is useful in agroforestry and organic farming. It is nitrogen fixing, meaning it adds nitrogen to the soils it grows in. Whether the tree is growing in fields or along boundaries, crops can benefit from natural soil nutrients. Leaves from the tree are also used as nutrient-rich mulch.
Best Way to Eat It: The fruit makes good quality jellies and jams, as well as a black molasses. A beverage similar in flavor to coffee is also made from roasted fruits. Young, leafy shoots from the tree are picked, boiled, seasoned, and eaten like spinach.
Black Plum in Action: Black plum trees’ fruit and leaves support wildlife and its nitrogen fixing abilities encourage soil health. Its deep roots protect soils from erosion, benefitting other plant life and helping rebuild degraded ecosystems.
2. Ebony: Ebony wood is world renowned for its dense fine-grain quality and rich dark color. It is prized for use in musical instruments, such as pianos and violins, and is considered superior for woodcarving. The tropical species—including Africa’s most common, the jackalberry (Diospyros mespiliformis)—produce the finest ebony wood and a fruit akin to the persimmon.
Best Way to Eat It: The fruits are commonly eaten fresh, dried, or pulped for sauces. They can be used in porridges and toffee, brewed into beer, fermented into wine, and distilled into an ebony brandy. In Namibia they are made into a hot liqueur called ombike.
Ebony in Action: The roots of the jackalberry tree are made into a mixture for treating dysentery and fever and getting rid of parasites. The mixture has also been used to help treat leprosy in Southern Africa. Ebonies are also protecting African communities from famine. The tree’s deep roots keep its leaves green during drought, which can be emergency fodder for grazing livestock when grasses dry up.
3. Marula: The marula tree is found throughout 29 sub-Saharan African countries—from Cape Verde to Ethiopia to South Africa. While the tree is not domesticated, the marula tree has been intentionally cultivated in the wild for hundreds of years, and its distribution closely matches human migration patterns.
Best Way to Eat It: In the center of each fruit is a large nut stone, which contains a soft macadamia-like nut kernel. The highly nutritious kernels, which are eaten raw and roasted, are rich in antioxidants.
Marula in Action: In South Africa alone, around 500 tons of marula fruit is commercially processed for juice and 2,000 tons for Amarula Cream every year. In Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, and South Africa, fruits are often collected and sold by villagers to marula processing facilities.
4. Dika: Indigenous to West Africa, a Dika tree can grow to be as tall as 40 meters and produces a small green and yellow fruit that looks, at first glance, like a small mango. When forests are cleared in West Africa for firewood or for farmland, the Dika trees are, more often than not, left untouched. Farmers have too much to gain from harvesting the tree’s fruits and seeds.
Best Way to Eat It: Resembling smooth walnuts, Dika seeds are cracked open by harvesters to collect the edible kernel contained inside. These kernals can be eaten raw or roasted, but most are processed and pounded into Dika butter or compacted into bars or pressed to produce cooking oil.
Dika in Action: Each year, thousands of tons of “Dika nuts” are harvested throughout Western Africa, providing a critical income to millions of farmers and harvesters throughout West Africa.
5. Moringa: Serving not only as a reliable source of food, moringa also provides lamp oil, wood, paper, liquid fuel, skin treatments, and the means to help purify water. The moringa tree comprises 4 different edible parts: pods, leaves, seeds, and roots. The green-bean looking pods are the most sought-after parts, not only because of their taste - similar to asparagus - but also because they are highly nutritious. Moringa trees are also used in agroforestry and mixed cropping because the shade can protect other crops from the sun and, while smoke from household fires can pollute the air, the soft, spongy moringa wood burns cleanly with little smoke or odor, making it a cleaner source of fuel.
Best Way to Eat It: People commonly boil the tiny leaflets and eat them like spinach. Like the pods, the leaves contain vitamins A and C as well as more calcium than most other greens. These leaves also contain such high levels of iron that doctors frequently prescribe them for anemic patients.
Moringa in Action: The moringa tree is best known for its endless supply of food, but one of the most innovative uses of the plant has been to treat water and wastewater. Researchers at Leicester University in the United Kingdom, have found that mixing crushed moringa seeds with polluted water help settle silt and other contaminants. This is highly cost effective because the seeds can replace the expensive imported material usually used for water purification in rural areas. The seed filtered water still needs a final filtration before it is completely drinkable, but the seeds make the process easier and help other water filters last longer.
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The GED test is designed to measure critical thinking skills in five areas.Typically, the test is given over three nights or, if offered during the day, two days. The test covers:
Language Arts Writing: Part I is multiple choice questions regarding grammar and writing. (50 questions 75 minutes) Part II is writing an essay on an assigned topic. (45 minutes)
Social Studies: U.S. History, World History, Civics and Government, Economics, and Geography (50 questions 70 minutes)
Science: Life Science, Earth and Space Science, and Physical Science (50 questions 80 minutes)
Language Arts Reading: Nonfiction, Fiction, Poetry, and Drama (40 questions 65 minutes)
Mathematics: Part I with calculator--Casio fx-260 only. (25 questions 45 minutes) Part II without calculator (25 questions 45 minutes) Topics include: Numbers and Operations, Measurement and Data Analysis, Geometry, and Algebra
To pass the GED, you must score a total of 2,250 points with a minimum of 410 points in each of the five test categories or an average of 450 points out of the five tests. That means students must score at least 410 on each test and in addition, score an extra 200 points. These 200 points may be spread over all the tests ( average of 450 a test) or can be achieved collectively on one or more tests. The highest score possible on a single test is 800. Essays are graded on a 1-4 scale with 2 being a passing score. If you do not score a "2" on the essay, Part I of the Writing test will not be scored. If a score of 2250 is achieved, yet any ONE test is below 410 points, then you must test again until a score of 410 is achieved. You may test up to three times in one year. If you do not pass one subject, your other subject scores will be retained, and you need only make up that one subject test.
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This past year has certainly illustrated the urgent need of preparation. From an early frost to tornadoes to extreme drought conditions, we’ve experienced it all.
This September will mark the ninth annual National Preparedness Month, an annual campaign led by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) to encourage all Americans to take the necessary steps toward emergency preparedness. The Cooperative Extension Service through the Extension Disaster Education Network (EDEN) is a partner in this campaign.
EDEN links Extension educators across the country allowing them to use and share disaster resources. Click on EDEN’s website at www.eden.lsu.edu to find a variety of materials to use to help Michigan residents be prepared for disasters.
To find specific materials to promote National Preparedness Month, go to eden.lsu.edu/Resources/NPM/Pages/default.aspx.
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FL Mershberger (1990) An interpretation of Michelangelo's Creation of Adam based on neuroanatomy: "God, in the process of creating Adam, gives him the gift of ‘intellect,’ symbolized by the brain."
In the Renaissance, artists studied anatomy almost by necessity in order to capture a more lifelike portrayal of the human body in their art. But did they go a step further and try to incorporate neuroscience (in form of anatomically correct brain) in their paintings?
Here's a neat post from Street Anatomy exploring a recent article published by neuroscientists about brain imagery in Renaissance religious masterpieces:
During the Renaissance, scholars began to rely more on empirical evidence, especially in the anatomical sciences. The teachings of Galen, which were often based on studies of animals rather than humans, dominated for centuries. It wasn’t until Da Vinci and Vesalius came along that anatomy was jump-started once again. Artists were especially fascinated, but with most of their commissions coming from the religious clergy, how could they show off their deeper knowledge of the human body without being sacreligious? They had to hide it in their artwork.
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Anyone who has an iPad or Macbook knows the incredible battery life that they get. With Macbooks getting 6-7 hours and iPads up to 10 hours, it’s no surprise why they dominate the portable device market.
Consumers who fully charge their iPad tablet every other day can expect to pay $1.36 for the electricity needed annually to power the device, according to an assessment by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI).
The analysis shows that each model of the iPad consumes less than 12 kWh of elelctricity over the course of a year, based on a full charge every other day. By comparison, a plasma 42″ television consumes 358 kWh of electricity a year. EPRI conducted the analysis in Knoxville, Tenn., at its power utilization laboratory. Costs may vary depending on what region that a consumer resides and the price of electricity in a particular location.
But if people are using iPads instead of televisions to play video games, or ditching their desktop computers for iPads, the shift to tablets could mean lower overall power consumption. A desktop computer uses 20 times more power than an iPad
But there’s an even cheaper way to go than the iPad. EPRI calculated the cost of power needed to fuel an iPhone 4 for year: just 38 cents.
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Ever since Karl Marx penned his ideas about the gains that could be made by centralising the means of production some one and a half centuries ago, many a mind have gone to great lengths attempting to prove him right. His ideas saw their first application during the industrialisation of the Soviet Union in the 1930′s, when private ownership of farms and factories was rapidly being dismantled through forced collectivisation. The political leadership had set as its goal transforming the giant agricultural economy into a modern industrial state in the shortest possible time. The number one priority was establishing a strong factory base that would be able to sustain a strong military and catapult the Soviet Union into the superpower status that was required to conquer the planet for Communism.
Well, truth be told, Russia did experience very strong economic growth during the 1930′s, as a consequence of this state control of the economy. Though I’m not enough of a history buff myself to determine just which figures are accurate, the Soviet GDP grew at a rate of between 5% and 15% a year, although starting in the late 20′s from a level that was far behind Western economies. To achieve this goal, millions upon millions of people saw themselves becoming serfs, however, and millions more would die in state gulags or be outright executed; such was the respect shown for liberty and human rights when the state leadership had set a goal to achieve.
The Western world had long since been industrialised, hence the Soviets had at their disposal the technology required for the transformation, as well as the empiric knowledge gained through the process. Industrialisation had naturally meant great hardships for the workers, who responded by organising both strikes as well as forming political parties calling for better working and living conditions. Stalin wouldn’t let any protests of that sort interfere with his plans, but instead had a brutal police force called the Cheka established to enforce his will upon his nation. So with the blueprints from Western industrialisation, Stalin was able to make the desired transformation of his country, although with millions of people perishing in the process.
So, what does this have to do with the world we live in today? I’m sad to say that even though socialism in Marx’ meaning and the abolishment of private property is completely dead, socialism has taken on a new form. While the likes of Marx and Stalin aren’t able to outright confiscate the means of production the way they used to, they have however learned how to confiscate the fruits of reproduction – the children. In most of the Western world, there’s been a slow but gradual shift away from the role of the nuclear family in raising children, a role that’s being replaced by public day-care and public school; in Sweden, the process started as early as in the 1920′s and reached its zenith in the 70′s, when it was linked to women’s liberation and hailed as a breakthrough for equal rights.
One can’t but help to notice a parallell in these two phenomena. In the past, the Soviets and other Communist governments seized private property as they required it for their political aims; today Sweden and other countries don’t respect the rights of parents to raise their own children since it wants to subject them to its own ideals, rearing methods and values. The stated vision is a society where one has cured all social ills by removing all potential risk factors during a person’s childhood – social workers are there to monitor and supervise families so that their offspring grow up to be the sort of members of society the government desires, in a style true to the worst fears of Aldous Huxley.
To quote chapter 5 of the Swedish Social Services Act, the section on minors:
“The social council shall
- in close cooperation with the homes encourage a versatile development of personality and a favourable physical and social development of children and youth.”
When you add into the equation the fact that under Swedish law, parents are prohibited from both spanking and grounding their children, while the social workers without much in the way of legal complications can seize these same children, you realise that the state has indeed positioned itself as the primary guardian, even though this SS act is touted as being for the protection of the children. Or, to put it in simple terms: The state has socialized the children.
In Swedish day-care and schools (they’re all bound by the same curriculum, and homeschooling is pretty much illegal), children are taught quite a radical perspective on life and the world, one their parents often don’t agree with very much. For example, recently international news were made when a class of eight-graders were forced to write essays where they described their sexual fantasies, an assignment that isn’t too uncommon in today’s Sweden. See here for the story. Some two or three years ago at the high school Strömbackaskolan, male high school students were forced to write gay love letters which were later published in a book. The school law doesn’t allow you to opt out of such activities.
With the high Swedish taxes, both parents are often forced to work full-time jobs to make ends meet, which usually leaves most of the parenting in the hands of the state; roughly 90% of children spend their first couple of years in public day-care. And for the socioeconomically disadvantaged families that don’t have jobs, their children are quite often outright taken into foster care. A research study quoted in other blog posts of mine found that one in seven of what one could call “welfare mothers” had their children taken into foster care before they were seven years old. Hence it’s virtually impossible keeping the state away from your children here in Sweden, whether you’re gainfully employed or not.
Naturally, to justify this intrusion into family life, the government presents studies supposedly showing the gains that have been made in communities where the state has taken an active role in this area. Just like the gains made by the Soviet state during the 30′s, the gains here are also of one kind: they’re generally from disadvantaged American minority communities with immense social problems inherent in the families studied. It’s easy to come out ahead if you compare yourself to the born losers. The same sort of gains can’t be made in well-established families, however. Pointing to the actual data would be too major an undertaking for this article, but more and more studies are appearing which show that children become less psychologically healthy the earlier they leave their own home and enter day-care. Home-schooling, which for a long time has been on the rise in the USA and is still gaining ground, is also an area where ordinary parents have proven to be better teachers than the public school system; so much for socialism in this area.
The stagnation that the Soviet Union later experienced in its economy, falling far behind the Western world, is obviously parallelled in state child welfare as well. Just as the Soviet state failed when it tried to direct what was going to be produced and who was going to produce it, the modern welfare state also fails when it attempts to set goals for family life and take custody away from parents. The children deprived of their biological connections are the real victims. For examples of human rights abuses within Swedish child “welfare,” see the Friends of Domenic blog and the Nordic Committee for Human Rights website. Every year, more and more alarming reports come out about the state of mental health of Swedish youth, suspiciously following the centralisation of child-rearing and schooling they got the first taste of. The state is not a good parent.
Please let the children of today be spared being forced into your human kolkhozes.
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|Reference Title||Final Benefit - Cost Analysis for the Farm and Ranch Lands Protection Program (FRPP)|
|Authors||United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service|
The Farm and Ranch Lands Protection Program (FRPP) is an important tool available to farmers, ranchers, and their communities to preserve the agricultural landscape. |
This report is a benefit-cost analysis of the program. Overall, the results of this analysis suggests that FRPP assistance to local farmland protection programs bears positive net benefits in areas where citizens place a high value on their amenities, regardless of whether they face low- or high-density development pressures. The presence of active farmland retention programs is empirical evidence that local decision makers anticipate positive net benefits from protecting farmland, such as preventing undesirable changes to the landscape and adverse impacts on the natural environment that can result from development.
Lots of stats about farmland being developed.
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BILL OF RIGHTS: FREEDOM OF THE PRESS
This issue is one of a series on the Bill of Rights. It explores freedom of the press through U.S. history. Meet John Peter Zenger, a newspaper editor in pre-Revolutionary America who was arrested for libel but eventually cleared of any wrongdoing. Read about the first issues of national security and censorship of the press during the Civil War. Explore what the definition of "press" means in the 21st century and how it affects how we use the Internet. You can read about how freedom of the press has both been the subject of and been used to censor some "classic" children's literature. Follow some suggestions to create your own newspaper.
Paperback 48 pgs. Full Color
Suggested for ages: 9-14
Product Code: COB9901
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EMAIL SIGN UP!
Most Popular This Week
Today's Top News
Yes, Global Warming Systemically Caused Hurricane Sandy
Yes, global warming systemically caused Hurricane Sandy — and the Midwest droughts and the fires in Colorado and Texas, as well as other extreme weather disasters around the world. Let’s say it out loud, it was causation, systemic causation.
Systemic causation is familiar. Smoking is a systemic cause of lung cancer. HIV is a systemic cause of AIDS. Working in coal mines is a systemic cause of black lung disease. Driving while drunk is a systemic cause of auto accidents. Sex without contraception is a systemic cause of unwanted pregnancies.
There is a difference between systemic and direct causation. Punching someone in the nose is direct causation. Throwing a rock through a window is direct causation. Picking up a glass of water and taking a drink is direct causation. Slicing bread is direct causation. Stealing your wallet is direct causation. Any application of force to something or someone that always produces an immediate change to that thing or person is direct causation. When causation is direct, the word cause is unproblematic.
Systemic causation, because it is less obvious, is more important to understand. A systemic cause may be one of a number of multiple causes. It may require some special conditions. It may be indirect, working through a network of more direct causes. It may be probabilistic, occurring with a significantly high probability. It may require a feedback mechanism. In general, causation in ecosystems, biological systems, economic systems, and social systems tends not to be direct, but is no less causal. And because it is not direct causation, it requires all the greater attention if it is to be understood and its negative effects controlled.
Above all, it requires a name: systemic causation.
Global warming systemically caused the huge and ferocious Hurricane Sandy. And consequently, it systemically caused all the loss of life, material damage, and economic loss of Hurricane Sandy. Global warming heated the water of the Gulf and Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean, resulting in greatly increased energy and water vapor in the air above the water. When that happens, extremely energetic and wet storms occur more frequently and ferociously. These systemic effects of global warming came together to produce the ferocity and magnitude of Hurricane Sandy.
The precise details of Hurricane Sandy cannot be predicted in advance, any more than when, or whether, a smoker develops lung cancer, or sex without contraception yields an unwanted pregnancy, or a drunk driver has an accident. But systemic causation is nonetheless causal.
Semantics matters. Because the word cause is commonly taken to mean direct cause, climate scientists, trying to be precise, have too often shied away from attributing causation of a particular hurricane, drought, or fire to global warming. Lacking a concept and language for systemic causation, climate scientists have made the dreadful communicative mistake of retreating to weasel words. Consider this quote from “Perception of climate change,” by James Hansen, Makiko Sato, and Reto Ruedy, Published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences:
…we can state, with a high degree of confidence, that extreme anomalies such as those in Texas and Oklahoma in 2011 and Moscow in 2010 were a consequence of global warming because their likelihood in the absence of global warming was exceedingly small.
The crucial words here are high degree of confidence, anomalies, consequence, likelihood, absence, and exceedingly small. Scientific weasel words! The power of the bald truth, namely causation, is lost.
This no small matter because the fate of the earth is at stake. The science is excellent. The scientists’ ability to communicate is lacking. Without the words, the idea cannot even be expressed. And without an understanding of systemic causation, we cannot understand what is hitting us.
Global warming is real, and it is here. It is causing — yes, causing — death, destruction, and vast economic loss. And the causal effects are getting greater with time. We cannot merely adapt to it. The costs are incalculable. What we are facing is huge. Each day, the amount of extra energy accumulating via the heating of the earth is the equivalent of 400,000 Hiroshima atomic bombs. Each day!
Because the earth itself is so huge, this energy is distributed over the earth in a way that is not immediately perceptible by our bodies — only a fraction of a degree each day. But the accumulation of total heat energy over the earth is increasing at an astronomical rate, even though the temperature numbers look small locally — 0.8 degrees Celsius so far. If we hit 2.0 degrees Celsius, as we may before long, the earth — and the living things on it — will not recover. Because of ice melt, the level of the oceans will rise 45 feet, while huge storms, fires, and droughts get worse each year. The international consensus is that by 2.0 degrees Celsius, all civilization would be threatened if not destroyed.
What would it take to reach a 2.0 degrees Celsius increase over the whole earth? Much less than you might think. Consider the amount of oil already drilled and stored by Exxon Mobil alone. If that oil were burned, the temperature of the earth would pass 2.0 degree Celsius, and those horrific disasters would come to pass.
The value of Exxon Mobil — its stock price — resides in its major asset, its stored oil. Because the weather disasters arising from burning that oil would be so great that we would have to stop burning. That’s just Exxon Mobil’s oil. The oil stored by all the oil companies everywhere would, if burned, destroy civilization many times over.
Another way to comprehend this, as Bill McKibben has observed, is that most of the oil stored all over the earth is worthless. The value of oil company stock, if Wall St. were rational, would drop precipitously. Moreover, there is no point in drilling for more oil. Most of what we have already stored cannot be burned. More drilling is pointless.
Are Bill McKibben’s and James Hansen’s numbers right? We had better have the science community double-check the numbers, and fast.
Where do we start? With language. Add systemic causation to your vocabulary. Communicate the concept. Explain to others why global warming systemically caused the enormous energy and size of Hurricane Sandy, as well as the major droughts and fires. Email your media whenever you see reporting on extreme weather that doesn’t ask scientists if it was systemically caused by global warming.
Next, enact fee and dividend, originally proposed by Peter Barnes as Sky Trust and introduced as Senate legislation as the CLEAR Act by Maria Cantwell and Susan Collins. More recently, legislation called fee and dividend has been proposed by James Hansen and introduced in the House by representatives John B, Larson and Bob Inglis.
Next. Do all we can to move to alternative energy worldwide as soon as possible.
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- Okay, now it is time to make a big
jump. We need to go from a simple application to a serious one
that is more representative of the kinds of applications you
will build in real life.
- To do so, we will take advantage of
the AWT class package that is distributed with the JDK.
- As I said in the pre-requisite article
Web Programming 101, one of the big benefits of using Java is
the ability it gives you to create web-based graphical user
- GUIs are one of the nicest things about
modern-day programming. Instead of forcing the user to deal
with strange command-line input such as in this
can present the user with a user-friendly interface such as that
designed by Macintosh and then taken for Windows. GUIs make using
a computer fun instead of a skill.
- For the rest of the day we will focus
on using the Java AWT packages to build user interfaces.
- However, before we can
begin, we need to understand how you can get information about
all of the functionality available to you from the AWT libraries
because there is no way that we can go over all the methods,
fields and constructors of all the java objects (This is
literally a book's worth of information).
- Fortunately, you don't need to buy a
book to know everything you need to about java user-interface
design! All you need to do is understand how to use the online
API reference that is generated by a java utility called
- Hopefully you downloaded the
documentation when you downloaded the JDK. But if not, it is
Of particular interest to you will be the java.awt package
in which you will find the majority of classes that we will
discus in this tutorial.
- As we said, the online documentation
provides everything you need to know about
all of the objects java gives you to build user interfaces.
Specifically, it provides you with the public API you will use.
- Let's look at the documentation for the AWT
Button, widget for example.
Decrypting the Inheritance Hierarchy
- You will also notice about a dozen
methods that you can use to manipulate the button object.
- All public methods are available to you
using dot notation and the parameters you need to pass to them
are listed. For example, you know that if you use the setLabel()
method, you will have to pass a string as a parameter.
Notice also that if you click on the method, you will get a detailed
description including its return type.
Using the Online Documentation by Example
|Actually, you could bypass the import statement
by referring to the absolute path of Button such as
java.awt.Button myButton = new java.awt.Buttton();
However, the import statement will save you a lot of typing
since it creates a shortcut for you.
public class TestFrame
public static void main(String args)
Frame f = new Frame();
Button b = new Button("Hello Cyberspace");
Previous Page |
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Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy Types
Reference Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy Opens New Window is a genetic disease in which the heart muscle grows abnormally, making the heart muscle thicken. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is described as either obstructive or nonobstructive.
- Nonobstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. The heart muscle is abnormally thick but not to the extent that any part of it crowds the lower heart chambers (Reference ventricles Opens New Window). The thicker muscle simply cannot relax properly. This means that less blood can enter the chambers and less blood is circulated to the body. Also, abnormal heart rhythms may develop. Most people with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy have this type.
- Obstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Portions of the heart muscle become so thick that they bulge out into the lower heart chambers (ventricles). Blocked blood flow and smaller, less effective ventricles result, especially during exercise, when the heart has less time to relax and fill. Thickened heart muscle may also interfere with how the heart valves open and close, particularly the mitral valve, which divides the left upper chamber (atrium) from the left ventricle.
|By:||Reference Healthwise Staff||Last Revised: Reference July 23, 2012|
|Medical Review:||Reference Rakesh K. Pai, MD, FACC - Cardiology, Electrophysiology
Reference Robert A. Kloner, MD, PhD - Cardiology
Reference George Philippides, MD - Cardiology
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Archaeologists unearth a graveyard of ancient shipwrecks in the Black Sea
Oct. 27, 2008
In the depths of the Black Sea lies a landscape of eternal darkness. With no light and no oxygen in the sea's anoxic layer, no life can survive, except perhaps the ghosts of ancient mariners whose ships foundered thousands of years ago.
"Archaeologists have long-suspected the unique composition of the Black Sea held the promise of a perfectly preserved graveyard of shipwrecks, due to the lack of oxygen in the sea's dead zone," says Dan Davis, a doctoral candidate in the Department of Classics and research assistant with the Institute of Classical Archaeology (ICA) at The University of Texas at Austin.
Because the environment cannot support the organisms that typically feast on organic materials, such as wood and flesh, there is an extraordinary opportunity for preservation, including shipwrecks and the cargos they carried.
But it wasn't until Dr. Robert Ballard—head of the Institute of Archaelogical Oceanography at the University of Rhode Island best known for his discovery of the wreck of Titanic—embarked on a series of deepwater surveys of the Black Sea in 1999, that the speculation was proven true.
By 2003, Ballard had discovered several ancient shipwrecks off the coast of Sinop, Turkey. The most famous of these, Sinop D, is a sixth-century Byzantine merchant ship found in the Black Sea's anoxic waters at a depth of 325 meters. The ship's discovery made international headlines as the best-preserved ancient shipwreck ever found.
"Suddenly, coming out of the gloom, we saw the mast of that ancient shipwreck—this mythical kind of ship that we'd read about was possible, but no one had ever found one," Ballard says in the National Geographic television special "Ghost Ships of the Black Sea," which aired last June. "You're just mesmerized. Even though you're a scientist, even though you've done this a zillion times, you're still overwhelmed because it's so special."
Ballard and his team could do no more than look at the ancient shipwreck at the initial discovery, but he and his team planned to return in subsequent years with the technology to excavate the exciting find.
To aid in his quest, Ballard tapped the expertise of the university's Institute of Classical Archaeology, which has a long-term presence on the north coast of the Black Sea at the 2,500-year-old city of Chersonesos in Ukraine.
Since 1992, ICA has excavated and preserved the ancient site, under the leadership of the institute's founder and director Dr. Joseph Carter and in partnership with the National Preserve of Tauric Chersonesos. Other units across campus also have provided support, including the Center for Russian, East European and Eurasian Studies (CREEES), Harry Ransom Center, School of Architecture and School of Information.
"Ballard's deepwater research adds a new dimension that complements our excavations on land," Carter says. "At the land site, we're looking at the crops people were growing and what items they were trading, but the cargo of these ancient shipwrecks may be able to tells us with whom they were trading."
The city of Chersonesos offers unprecedented insight into the ancient world because it has been home to the Greeks, Romans, Byzantines and Slavs, and survived invasions by the Mongols and Ottoman Turks, among others.
"The Black Sea has been a geopolitical hotspot for centuries," explains Dr. Thomas Garza, chairman of the Department of Slavic and Eurasian Studies and director of CREEES. "Because so many diverse nations line its shores, it's been a nexus of trade and a cultural crossroads throughout history."
Graduate student joins Ballard's expedition
As a result of Ballard's collaboration with the university, Davis had the chance to join the legendary oceanographer's subsequent expeditions to the Black Sea.
Davis' extensive background in nautical archaeology and experience as a deep-sea rescue diver with the U.S. Navy made him a natural choice for the team, Carter says.
In 2006, Ballard and the team returned to survey the area for more shipwrecks, and last year began excavations on Sinop D, and Chersonesos A, a 10th-century shipwreck found off southern Crimea at a depth of 135 meters.
Although Davis had participated in archaeological excavations throughout the United States, Europe and the Mediterranean, nothing prepared him for the level of preservation of the Black Sea shipwrecks.
"The wood of these ships is preserved in a way that you would never find on a shipwreck anywhere else on the planet," Davis says. "It's an extremely exciting environment to explore. But it's also very eerie, since there's the high probability in the anoxic layer there will be human remains of people who went down with the ships."
Aboard the NATO research vessel Alliance, Davis served as one of the watch supervisors for the team's 2007 survey. A National Geographic film crew documented their work.
With the aid of remote sensing technology and Hercules, a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) equipped with a high definition camera, mechanical arms and a variety of tools, the team began excavation of the two deepwater shipwreck sites.
At Chersonesos A, the team excavated the ship's cargo of nearly 200 jars commonly found at Byzantine sites on the shores of the Black Sea, including Chersonesos. The bright orange color of the nearly 1,000-year-old jars was completely preserved, to the team's amazement.
"What they contained is a mystery, but wine is a possibility," Davis says. "Our theory is the ship may have been transporting wine for a vineyard associated with a Byzantine monastery, since we've seen depictions of monks holding jars that look similar to what we found."
From there, the team sailed to the deeper site, Sinop D, which was the focus of the 2007 survey. The team hoped to answer questions about the ship's construction, its cargo, and how the anoxic conditions had affected its preservation.
Enigmatic Sinop D puzzles researchers
The team quickly put Hercules to work carefully dredging the site and collecting sediment cores to analyze organic materials in the mud. But the deep mud covering the shipwreck remained a significant obstacle.
"The cargo of Sinop D is completely buried," Davis says. "The sediment covering the ship is gelatinous on top and turns into a really thick goo as you dig deeper. The ship could be completely full of cargo but we have methodological issues we're trying to workout in terms of how we're going to excavate and preserve our findings."
Davis, whose dissertation explores a new theory of commercial navigation in the ancient Greek and Roman world, also analyzed the ship's construction in hope of identifying its sailing capabilities.
"Determining whether the ship had a square sail or a lateen (triangular) sail will give us insight into maritime navigation strategies in the ancient world," Davis says.
The development of the lateen sail revolutionized ancient seafaring because, unlike a square sail, it enabled mariners to sail both with and against the wind.
"Previously, scholars believed that ancient seafarers hugged the shorelines," Davis explains, "but my research argues that open-sea sailing was actually a common occurrence. The growing record of shipwrecks in deep water far from shore, such as Sinop D, reflects this practice."
One of the most enigmatic timbers of the ship is a long spar, whose function remains a mystery to the researchers. Unfortunately, the team ran out of time before they could finish fully uncovering the spar, but Davis is hopeful that future excavations may reveal its purpose.
"Sinop D has yet to reveal many secrets, including the contents of the cargo hold," Davis says. "The obstacle to answering these questions is the deep mud in which the ship is buried. Careful excavation is possible, but we're not taking any chances.
"As archaeologists, we have the responsibility not only to explore and record sites, but to document them for all time. Since excavation is an inherently destructive process, we have to do it right the first time because there's no going back."
Ballard and his team plan additional excavations of Sinop D and Chersonesos A in 2009 and 2010. In the meantime, the researchers have a new target.
This fall, the team returned to the Black Sea on a mission to locate the Armenia, a Soviet hospital ship sunk by German aircraft in 1941. The President of Ukraine, Viktor Yushchenko, is eager to locate the wreck to honor those who died, Davis says.
The Black Sea was a major theater for naval skirmishes in World War II, and the sinking of the Armenia was one of the war's biggest maritime disasters.
"In less than 10 minutes, more than 7,000 people died in the sinking and the people on the shore could do nothing but watch the tragedy unfold," Davis says. "If the ship is in the anoxic layer, there's a good possibility that we'll find thousands of wounded passengers in a high state of preservation."
The Black Sea's graveyard of lost ships offers untold opportunities for research that archaeologists and scholars have only just begun to explore, in part due to the new ROV technologies that have only recently become available for deepwater excavations.
"Many of the methodologies and technologies we're using in nautical archaeology were originally developed by treasure salvers motivated by profit. But now scholars and archaeologists are finally catching up and even surpassing them, thanks to the help of Ballard and the Institute for Exploration," Davis says.
Though deepwater explorers like Ballard and Davis are at the forefront of their field, the ocean's depths remain unconquered. Their expedition was dogged by tempestuous weather conditions and mechanical problems, which serve as a reminder of human frailty in the face of the awesome power of the sea.
Yet Davis remains optimistic about the future of underwater archaeology as new technology makes deepwater excavations of the world's largest graveyard a reality.
"The ocean has yet to reveal many secrets from our hidden seafaring past," Davis says. "But it's the mystery, the challenge and the thrill of discovery that keep us going."
For more information, contact: By Jennifer McAndrew
Banner photo: ROV Hercules excavates shipwreck Sinop D in the Black Sea.
Note the ship's mast in the foreground and the low visibility caused by marine "snow,"
a continuous shower of dead organisms falling from the upper layers of the sea.
Photo courtesy Institute for Archaeological Oceanography, University of Rhode Island
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I can defenitly see how imagining a buddha when angry can temporarily distract one from impure thoughts but how does this prevent the thoughts from arising in the future.
I hope I am not butting in here. I gather the discussion is about dealing with unwholesome mental states, such as resentment, that arise during daily interactions?
This goes to #6 in the 8-fold path, usually referred to as Right Effort. A more detailed explanation is the fourfold right struggle. The struggle involves:
1. Blocking the unwholesome mental states before they arise.
2. Letting go of or abandoning unwholesome mental states that have arisen.
3. Cultivating wholesome mental states that have yet to arise.
4. Maintaining wholesome mental states that have arisen
Dosa or dvesha; hostility or hatred is one category of afflictions (klesha) or unwholesome (akushala) mental states. Resentment (upanaha) or anger (pratigjha) can arise in response to annoying actions of others, or even inanimate things, like bad weather, that interfere with our plans. Nursing a grudge can make us spiteful (pradasha). Envy (issa, irsya), a resentment toward the successes or well being of others, is another common form of hostility. Sometimes, people can become dominated by feelings of enmity (vyapada) and develop 'a chip on the shoulder' that tends to provoke uneasiness in others. They might also fly into rage (krodha) at the slightest offense. In extreme cases, people can become dominated by malevolence (vihimsa) toward specific groups or others in general
iirc, in the Path of Purification, Budagosa recommended cultivating tolerance (khanti / kshanti) as means of dealing with felling of resentment or hostility. Khanti or Buddhist tolerance is patience with things that do not necessarily deserve patience. It is synonymous with forbearance and similar to forgiveness, The Chinese for tolerance is 忍辱; which means to endure offenses, insults, or abuse. People generally do what they do because of their own karma, We get annoyed because we see our self as the target of rudeness or inconsiderate deeds committed by others, We think ii is happening to us. In reality, we are usually no more their target than we are the target of bad weather. Budagosa compared harboring resentment to seizing a hot ember with the intent of throwing it at the offender. We get burnt.
Another way of countering anger is to cultivate the mental states known as the 4 palaces of Brahma; loving kindness, compassion, appreciative joy, and equanimity. There are fairly easy and powerful meditations and chants to arouse loving kindness (metta, maitri) and compassion (karuna) within ourselves. There are also practices to radiate or suffuse kindness and compassion outwardly. The effect of the latter on others can be quite remarkable.
There are downsides. Loving kindness can be mistaken for or mixed up with sexual attraction. Lust (kama) is a 'hot' desire, and a near enemy of the warm affection of loving kindness. Metta / maitri is like parental or fraternal love. Also, compassion can make one too emotional. Emotional attachment (raga) can be a near enemy of both compassion (karuna -- empathy with and sadness for the suffering of others) and appreciative joy (mudita -- joy in the well being of others). Cultivating 'cool' and mildly aloof detachment (viraga) and equanimity (upekkha / upeksha) serve as balances for emotionalism. They also strengthen our tolerance level, and counteract the complications or temptations of inappropriate sexual lust.
One other thing on tolerance, We can also get angry at our own mistakes, or even feel anxiety and depression (kukkucca, kaukritya). It is healthy to be patiently forbearing with oneself too.
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Dancer and the Dance
Lincoln Kirstein, the finest historian of the dance and one of its greatest ideologues, has observed that in the 19th century what the prestige of ballet really amounted to was the reputation of the dancer; and that even when there were great choreographers (notably Petipa) and great dance scores (from Adam, Delibes and Tchaikovsky), dance was still almost entirely identified for the large theatrical public with the personality and virtuosity of great dancers. That triumphant mutation in dance taste and in the composition of dance audiences which occurred just before World War One, in response to the authoritative intensity and exoticism of the Ballets Russes, did not challenge the old imbalance of attention – not even with the subsequent invention by Diaghilev of dance as an ambitious collaboration, in which major innovative artists outside the dance world were brought in to enhance this theatre of astonishment. The score might be by Stravinsky, the decor by Picasso, the costumes by Chanel, the libretto by Cocteau. But the blow of the sublime was delivered by a Nijinsky or a Karsavina – by the dancer. According to Kirstein, it was only with the advent of a choreographer so complete in his gifts as to change dance for ever, George Balanchine, that the primacy of the choreographer over the performer, of dance over the dancer, finally came to be understood.
Kirstein’s account of the more limited perspectives of dance publics before Balanchine is, of course, not incorrect. But I would point out that the exaltation of the performer over all else pervaded not only dance in the 19th (and early 20th) century but all the arts that have to be performed. Recalling the effusive identification of dance with the dancer – say, with Marie Taglioni and with Fanny Elssler – one should recall as well other audiences, other raptures. The concert audiences ravished by Lizst and Paganini were also identifying music with the virtuoso performer: the music was, as it were, the occasion. Those who swooned over La Malibran in the new Rossini or Donizetti thought of opera as the vehicle of the singer. (As for the look of opera, whether it was the staging, the decor, or the often incongruous physique of the singer – this hardly seemed worthy of discussion.) And the focus of attention has been modified in these arts, too. Even the most diva-besotted portion of the opera public of recent decades is prepared to slice work from performance and, within performance, vocal prowess and expressiveness from acting – making the distinctions fused by the inflatedly partisan rhetoric of extreme reactions (either ecstasy or the rudest condemnation) that surrounded opera performance, particularly early performances of a new work, in the 19th century. That the work is now routinely seen as transcending the performer, rather than the performer transcending the work, has come to be felt not just in dance, because of the advent of a supremely great choreographer, but in all the performing arts.
And yet, this being said, there seems to be something intrinsic to dance that warrants the kind of reverential attention paid in each generation to a very few dancers – something about what they do that is different from the achievements of surpassingly gifted, magnetic performers in other arts to whom we pay homage.
Dance cannot exist without dance design: choreography. But dance is the dancer.
The relation of dancer to choreographer is not just that of executant or performer to auteur – which, however creative, however inspired the performer, is still a subservient relation. Though a performer in this sense, too, the dancer is also more than a performer. There is a mystery of incarnation in dance that has no analogue in the other performing arts.
A great dancer is not just performing (a role) but being (a dancer). Someone can be the greatest Odette/Odile, the greatest Albrecht one has ever seen – as a singer can be the best (in anyone’s memory) Tosca or Boris or Carmen or Sieglinde or Don Giovanni; or an actor can be the finest Nora or Hamlet or Faust or Phaedra or Winnie. But beyond the already grandiose aim of giving the definitive performance of a work, a role, a score, there is a further, even higher standard which applies to dancers in a way I think does not apply to singers or actors or musicians. One can be not just the best performer of certain roles but the most complete exhibit of what it is to be a dancer. And this Baryshnikov is in our time.
In any performing art which is largely repertory – that is, the performance of works from the past (including the very recent past) – interest naturally flows to the contribution of the performer or executant. The work already exists. What is new, each time, is what this performer, these performers, bring to it in the way of new energies, changes in emphasis or interpretation. How they make it different, or better. Or worse. The relation of work to performer is a musical-structural one: theme and variations. A given play or opera or sonata or ballet is the theme: all readings of it will be, to some extent, variations.
But here as well, although the dancer does what all performers or executors of a work do, dance differs from the other performing arts. For the standard against which dancers measure themselves, their performances, is not simply that of the highest excellence – as with actors and singers and musicians. The standard is nothing less than perfection.
In my experience, no species of performing artist is as self-critical as a dancer. I have gone backstage many times to congratulate a friend or acquaintance who is an actor or a pianist or a singer on his or her superlative performance; invariably my praise is received without much demurral, with evident pleasure (my purpose, of course, is to give pleasure), and sometimes with relief. But each time I’ve congratulated a friend or acquaintance who is a dancer on a superb performance – and I include Baryshnikov – I’ve heard first a disconsolate litany of mistakes that were made: a beat was missed, a foot not pointed in the right way, there was a near-slippage in some intricate partnering manoeuvre. Never mind that perhaps not only I but everyone else failed to observe these mistakes. They were made. The dancer knew. Therefore the performance was not really good. Not good enough.
In no other art can one find a comparable gap between what the world thinks of a star and what the star thinks about himself or herself; between the adulation that pours in from outside and the relentless dissatisfaction that goads one from within. The degree and severity of dancers’ self-criticism is not simply a case of performers’ raw nerves (virtually all great performing artists are worriers, skilled at self-criticism), of artistic conscience – a déformation professionelle. It is, rather, integral to the dancer’s formation professionelle. Part of being a dancer is this sometimes cruelly self-punishing objectivity about oneself, about one’s shortcomings, as viewed from the perspective of an ideal observer, one more exacting than any real spectator could ever be: the god Dance.
Every serious dancer is driven by notions of perfection – perfect expressiveness, perfect technique. What this means in practice is not that anyone is perfect, but that performance standards are always being raised.
The notion of progress in the arts has few defenders now. If Balanchine was the greatest choreographer who ever lived (an unverifiable proposition firmly held by many balletomanes, myself among them), it is surely not because he came after Noverre and Petipa and Fokine, because he was the last (or the most recent) of the breed. But there does seem to be something like linear progress in the performance of dance – unlike the other performing arts largely devoted to repertory, such as opera. (Was Callas greater than Rosa Ponselle or Claudia Muzio? The question does not make sense.) There seems no doubt that the general level of dancing in unison in companies like the Kirov and the New York City Ballet (who have probably the two best corps de ballet in the world) and the prowess and power and expressiveness of the leading dancers in today’s great ballet companies (the two just mentioned, the Paris Opera Ballet, the Royal Ballet and the American Ballet Theatre – among others) are far higher than the level of the most admired dancing of the past. All dance writers agree that, a few immortal soloists apart, the dancing in Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes was technically quite limited by today’s standards.
Raising the level is the function of the champion: a considerable number of people found they could run the four-minute mile once Roger Bannister had done it. As in sport or athletics, the achievement by a virtuoso dancer raises the achievable standard for everybody else. And this is what Baryshnikov, more than any other dancer of our time, has done – not only by what he can do with his body (he has, among other feats, jumped higher than anyone else, and has landed lower), but what he can show, in the maturity and range of his expressiveness.
Dance demands a degree of service greater than in any other performing art, or sport. While the daily life of every dancer is a fulltime struggle against fatigue, strain, natural physical limitations and those due to injuries (which are inevitable), dance itself is the enactment of an energy which must seem, in all respects, untrammelled, effortless, masterful and at every moment fully mastered. The dancer’s performance smile is not so much a smile as simply a categorical denial of what he or she is actually experiencing – for there is some discomfort, and often pain, in every major stint of performing. This is an important difference between the dancer and the athlete, who have much in common (ordeal, contest, brevity of career). In sport, the signs of effort are not concealed: on the contrary, making effort visible is part of the display. The public expects to see, and is moved by, the spectacle of the athlete visibly pushing himself or herself beyond the limits of endurance. The films of championship tennis matches or of the Tour de France or any comprehensive documentary about athletic competition (a splendid example: Ichikawa’s Tokyo Olympiad) always reveal the athlete’s strain and stress. (Indeed, the extent to which Leni Riefenstahl, in her famous film on the 1936 Olympic Games, chose not to show the athletes in this light is one of the indices that her film is really about politics – the aestheticising of politics in totally ordered mass spectacle and in imperturbable solo performance – and not about sport as such.) That is why news of an athlete’s injuries are a matter of general knowledge and legitimate curiosity on the part of the public, while news of dancers’ injuries is not, and tends to be suppressed.
It is often said that dance is the creation of illusion: for example, the illusion of a weightless body. (This might be thought of as the furthest extension of a phantasm of a body without fatigue.) But it would be more accurate to call it the staging of a transfiguration. Dance enacts being both completely in the body and transcending the body. It is, or seems to be, finally, a higher order of attention, where physical and mental attention become the same.
Supremely great dancers like Baryshnikov (among woman dancers, I would think first of Suzanne Farrell) project a state of total focus, total concentration, which is not simply – as for an actor or a singer or a musician – the necessary prerequisite for producing a great performance. It is the performance, the very centre of it.
Merce Cunningham and Lincoln Kirstein have both offered as a definition of dance: a spiritual activity in physical form. No art lends itself so aptly as dance does to metaphors borrowed from the spiritual life. (Grace, Elevation ...) Which means, too, that all discussions of the dance, and of great dancers, including this one, fit dance into some larger rhetoric about human possibility.
One practice is to pair off the greatest dancers as representing two ideal alternatives. The most astute dance writer of the 19th century, Théophile Gautier, so contrasted the reigning dancers of his era, Elssler and Taglioni. Elssler was pagan, earthy; Taglioni was spiritual, transcendent. And critics a decade ago, when absorbing the arrival of a second male Kirov refugee of genius in our midst, tended to compare Nureyev and Baryshnikov in the same way. Nureyev was Dionysian, Baryshnikov was Apollonian. Such symmetries are inevitably misleading, and this particular one does an injustice to Nureyev, who was a supremely gifted and expressive dancer and, in the early years, an ideal partner (with Fonteyn), as well as to Baryshnikov. For although Baryshnikov has perhaps never in his career been an ideal partner, it has to be said – without any disrespect to the grandeur of Nureyev’s dancing and to his heroic tenacities – that the younger dancer proved to be a genius of another magnitude.
Of a magnitude without parallel. Guided by his generosity, his intellectual curiosity, and his unprecedented malleability as a dancer, Baryshnikov has given himself to more different kinds of dancing than any other great dancer in history. He has danced Russian ballet, Bournonville, the British recensions (Ashton, Tudor, MacMillan), Balanchine, Roland Petit, and a range of Americana from jazz dancing (a duo with Judith Jamison, choreographed by Alvin Ailey) to Robbins, Tharp and Karole Armitage. He may, on occasion, have been abused or misused by his choreographers. But ultimately it is not possible to abuse him. Even when the role is not right, he is always more than the role. He is, almost literally, a transcendent dancer. Which is what dance strives to be about.
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(2 of 2)
In their eagerness to return to what people remembered as normality, few noticed the dimensions of onrushing economic disaster. Europe was not only incapable of resistance to the Soviets but was also engaged in a desperate ordeal for survival that had nothing to do with the communist threat. The U.S. had already poured more than $10 billion into Europe just to ward off freezing and starvation, but that amount barely sufficed. By 1947 it was clear that aid had to be linked to a long-range plan to make Europe economically self-supporting. Between 1948 and 1952, the U.S., through the Marshall Plan, distributed more than $13 billion to 16 countries. Britain, France and Germany accounted for half the total. Moscow rejected participation.
The Marshall Plan was a bargain at the price; its achievement was nothing less than the salvation of Western Europe's democracies. Two years after the aid began flowing, overall European industrial production had risen 45% higher than in 1947 and 25% higher than in the last prewar year, 1938. Bevin called the plan "a lifeline to sinking men."
Europe's economic pulse revived from a flicker to a beat. American officials demanded economic cooperation: here is the pie, the recipients were told; you must cut it among yourselves. In the process of arguing over how to split the aid, old rivals bared their economic plans and secrets to one another.
It was the first small step toward European economic integration.
That act might not have been possible without the timely and inadvertent assistance of Joseph Stalin. It was the Soviet leader's ambition for conquest that persuaded the U.S. Congress to spend whatever was deemed necessary to stop him. And it was fear of Stalin that drove Europeans together for self-protection.
The U.S. was a reluctant superpower. Even as American dollars poured out, Washington made no pledge to defend Europe. Where the Red Army had stopped, sprawled across Eastern and Central Europe, Soviet power reigned and probed westward. Only when a communist insurgency threatened to overthrow the British-backed monarchy in Greece and when Soviet pressure grew on Turkey did the U.S. finally react. On March 12, 1947, Harry Truman announced a program of economic and military aid to both countries. In what became known as the Truman Doctrine, the President said it was henceforth U.S. policy "to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation."
Yet Stalin struck again, this time on June 24, 1948; with scant warning, the Soviets blockaded Berlin. The U.S. mounted an unprecedented airlift of some 500 C-47s, C-54s and other craft that over 11 months flew into Berlin a total of 1.6 million tons of food, clothing, fuel and other necessities, until Stalin relented and reopened the roads.
The Berlin crisis institutionalized the cold war. On July 6, 1948, the U.S. entered into discussions with its major allies to establish a military alliance, and on April 4, 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty was signed by 12 countries. West Germany joined in 1955. No one expected an immediate Soviet attack, nor were the U.S. and its war-weary European partners ready to invest in a military buildup. NATO essentially amounted to the U.S.'s throwing its nuclear cloak over Western Europe.
Fifty years later, it seems astonishing that the architecture of Europe's postwar order was established in so short a time. It would be a mistake, however, to give U.S. and European diplomacy a logic and coherence that it never actually possessed. Under exceptional circumstances, an extraordinary generation of leaders merely improvised as they went along. The luck of history was with them. Except for Britain, the political landscape had been wiped clean. In France, Italy, the Netherlands and Belgium, Old Guard leaders and their parties were tainted by defeat or collaboration. And in the war's aftermath, none of the old vested interests had yet come back strong enough to block bold reforms.
The U.S. bestrode the world not, of course, to everyone's satisfaction. Europe's wounded pride did not suffer American hegemony gladly. Still, the Pax Americana inaugurated an era of unprecedented prosperity that fostered the old dream of unity. It lasted 44 years, not so long a run as the Roman Empire, but not a bad one in this ravaged century.
Next Maurice Schumann
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J. Robert Oppenheimer is one of the iconic figures of the 20th century, a brilliant physicist who led the effort to build the atomic bomb for his country in a time of war and who later found himself confronting the moral consequences of scientific progress.
When he proposed international controls over atomic materials, opposed the development of the hydrogen bomb, and criticized plans for a nuclear war, his ideas were anathema to powerful advocates of a massive nuclear buildup during the anti-Communist hysteria of the early 1950s. They declared that Oppenheimer could not be trusted with America's nuclear secrets.
In this magisterial biography, 25 years in the making, the authors capture Oppenheimer's life and times, from his early career to his central role in the Cold War.
©2005 Kai Bird and Martin J. Sherwin; (P)2007 Blackstone Audio Inc.
"The definitive biography...Oppenheimer's life doesn't influence us. It haunts us." (Newsweek)
"[A] profoundly fascinating, richly complex, and ineffably sad American life.... Bird and Sherwin are without peer...in capturing the humanity of the man." (Booklist)
"A work of voluminous scholarship and lucid insight, unifying its multifaceted portrait with a keen grasp of Oppenheimer's essential nature.... It succeeds in deeply fathoming his most damaging, self-contradictory behavior." (New York Times)
Kai Bird and Martin Sherwin have written an outstanding biography in "American Prometheus." It relates the story of J. Robert Oppenheimer from childhood through the Manhattan Project. The book delves into the complexity of this man's personality and motivations. It thoroughly covers his political activism and his professional career. Biography lovers will not be disappointed. The writing is fast paced, the reading is very good, and Oppenheimer comes alive. Perhaps the most valuable contribution the book makes is placing Oppenheimer in political and historic context. The reader learns alot about the era as his life unfolds.
NOTE: My downloaded copy of the book seemed to be edited. The book is still worth the effort, but short portions were apparently re-recorded and inserted into the audio in places. The warmth of the reader(who was excellent by the way) changes abruptly and then jerks back. The pace changes for very brief periods where insertions are made. The volume abruptly changes and then returns. It was a distraction to my ears at least. Don't miss this book if you have an interest, however, for this reason alone.
Although a true marathon listen, this was a fascinating trip throug the history of the atomic bomb centered on J. Robert Oppenheimer's life with many intricate and brilliant connections to the political agenda of the times. I learned more from this book than I did in high shool and although it took may weeks to finish, I would read this book again and will also recommend it to others for a very enjoyable, extremely well written, complex book. A true pleasure.
This is a haunting story of a brilliant man, and what the ugly demagogues of the 50's did to him. It captures the man, his charisma, phenomenal mind, surprising shortcomings, and as well his era with it's endless martinis, cigarettes, political naivite and grey-flannel evil. Truly a compelling "read."
Bad editing is my only complaint about this one. Great book, but you can really tell when they re-recorded something or took a break in the recording. Very poorly done and really interupts what is otherwise an outstanding book. I would highly recomend this if you have any interest in Oppie, Physics or civil liberties.
This book above all is a full and detailed review of a brilliant man's life, including his successes, failures, weaknesses and strengths. Its volume is necessary because of the immense complexity of Oppenheimer's work and relationships. It reveals that great intellect can lead to heroic deeds (manhattan project) and unfortunate missteps (his marital and familial relationships). Most impressively, the authors take great effort to provide insight into the unfortunate McCarthy era and its effect on individuals and the nation as a whole.
The book is a fine description of an extremely unusual man, and it is read with an appropriate level of feeling. The reader, though, should have learned how to pronounce the names of persons and places. A significant number are pronounced incorrectly.
I found the choppy editing of the audio distracting, and the reader's attempts at foreign pronunciation forced. Sometimes it seemed that the pronunciation was corrected, such as it was, by obviously reinserting the word into the audio stream. In addition, the reader's habit of taking on the voices of the various speakers was not entirely successful.
In the end, it was hard on the ears and I stopped listening after three or four hours. Too bad, since the best was yet to come, I hear.
The book itself is quite interesting and well worth it. Unfortunately, the audio editing is not good. The cuts are noticeable as the narrator's volume and tone changes, something I have not observed on any other book I've listened to. There was also at least one occasion where a line was repeated because of poor editing. Finally, the narrator mangles foreign words, especially French one, which is quite distracting.
If you have enough patience for this very thorough biography, then you will be rewarded. By the end, I had come to believe that I had a good grasp of who Oppenheimer was, and what he had contributed to the scientific community. I also really, really hated McCarthyism, and felt that the country had done the man a deservice. I had heard much about the events of the Manhattan Project before hearing this, but I knew very little about the early days of post-war bomb development. I found those details especially rivetting.
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Jupiter's moon Europa hides an ocean of water beneath its icy
crust that might harbour extraterrestrial life.
Unfortunately, a big price tag has kept alive the fictional
decree in Arthur C Clarke's Space Odyssey series
to leave Europa
alone: No robot has ever landed on, drilled into or orbited the
chilly world. Only a handful of spacecraft have flown by.
A panel of scientists determined
in 2011 that Nasa's plans to explore the moon with a
single spacecraft, called the Jupiter Europa Orbiter, or
JEO, would cost about $4.7 billion (£2.98 billion). That amount of
cash, they wrote, "is so high that both a decrease in mission scope
and an increase in Nasa's planetary budget are necessary to make it
But even before the panel slammed the mission's financial
feasibility, astrobiologist Pabulo Henrique
Rampelotto of Brazil's Federal University of Pampa was
plotting to save exploration of Europa.
In a study published 13 July in Astrobiology,
Rampelotto argues that nixing one large orbiter and instead sending
three small spacecraft -- two orbiters and a probe carrying surface
impactors -- could spread out both the cost and the risk while
hitting all of JEO's science goals, and then some.
"[T]he main advantages are the complete access to the
habitability of Europa, simpler mission design and low cost for
each mission," Rampelotto wrote in an email to Wired.com. "Europa
is considered the prime candidate in the search for life in our
solar system. Its ocean may be in direct contact with the rocky
mantle beneath, where the conditions could be similar to those on
Earth's biologically rich sea floor."
Both Nasa and the European Space Agency hope to explore Europa
and Ganymede, another of Jupiter's moons, sometime in the next two
decades because both bodies may hide a liquid ocean. In the joint
space exploration plan, called the Europa Jupiter System
Mission, Nasa would launch JEO within this decade. Around the
same time that spacecraft launches, Europe would rocket its
own Jupiter Ganymede
Orbiter into deep space.
Budget hawks, however, aren't buying into Nasa's $4.7 billion
dream. Accounting for other higher-priority missions, JEO would
stretch further Nasa's shrinking annual planetary science budget of
"I believe you will not find someone who continues to support
the $4.7 billion … mission concept," Rampelotto said. "And that is
interesting because before the release, no one was considering the
possibility of an alternative mission concept."
Rampelotto beat the panelists to the punch by proposing
his three-spacecraft mission.
If built and launched within the next few years, mission one --
an orbiter to measure the thickness of Europan ice and see how deep
its oceans go -- could reach Europa between 2020 and 2025. A second
orbiter would launch a few years later, map the surface in visible
and infrared light, and determine if any organic chemicals are
"Mission two is technically easier than mission one and could be
launched very soon too," Rampelotto wrote. "After we have those
results from missions one and two, mission three would be mature
enough to be launched."
That mission would pound the
surface with impactors, penetrate between one and ten metres of
ice, and then beam data about the ice's composition to Earth. It's
unlikely any impactor would reach the subsurface ocean, however,
because the thinnest ice may be 2.9km thick. Even below that depth,
only lakes of water far
above the ocean may be locked in the icy crust.
"But, if delivered in potential landing sites where liquid water
from the ocean could have recently reached the surface or near
surface, we could analyze indirectly the ocean composition,
including signals of life," Rampelotto wrote.
Rampelotto's plan to barnstorm Europa offers no concrete costs
for each mission, which he said would require "advanced studies" to
determine. So the idea isn't without its critics. "Nasa team
leaders have advised me that penetrators are difficult and risky to
deliver and the best option continues to be a lander," Rampelotto
Bob Pappalardo, a planetary
scientist who studies Europa and is helping Nasa develop future
missions to the moon, said Rampelotto's scheme is a logical one
during tight budgetary times. But he noted saving money by
splitting up a big mission into smaller ones brings about another
issue: fear of commitment.
"The reality is that Nasa is not going to want to fund or begin
a program of missions, based on the reaction to the Mars sample return
suggestion," said Pappalardo, who wasn't involved in
Rampelotto's study. "That went over like a lead balloon [at the
White House], in terms of being a long-term budgetary
Pappalardo hopes that, if there are signs of a recovering U.S.
economy in the next few years, they will spur the current
presidential administration to open its tight wallet.
"Right now the goal is to do anything at Europa," he said. "I
really hope we'll come back to our senses soon. I don't see the
vision for planetary science that was present in the past."
"We need to be planning on the future," he said. "As it stands,
in a few years, we won't be launching anything. We're in danger of
losing our leadership in planetary science."
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A pirogue is a small, flat-bottomed boat of a design associated particularly with the Cajuns of the Louisiana marsh. In West Africa they were used as traditional fishing boats. These boats are not usually intended for overnight travel but are light and small enough to be easily taken onto land. The design also allows the pirogue to move through the very shallow water of marshes and be easily turned over to drain any water that may get into the boat. A pirogue has "hard chines" which means that instead of a smooth curve from the gunwales to the keel, there is often a flat bottom which meets the plane of the side. The pirogue is usually propelled by paddles that have one blade (as opposed to a kayak paddle, which has two). It can also be punted with a push pole in shallow water. Small sails can also be employed. Outboard motors are increasingly being used in many regions.
The word comes from the Spanish word piragua [piˈɾaɣwa]. Traditionally, it was just another name for dugout canoes, but it came to refer to a specific type of canoe. Naturally, in Louisiana the boats were constructed of cypress, but suitable natural lumber is no longer readily available. Plywood is the common material for modern pirogues. Many modern duck hunters and fisherman in the swamps of south Louisiana use pirogues made of fiberglass, some of which are outfitted with small outboard motors or even "Go-Devils", a type of motor with a pivoting drive shaft for use in very shallow waters.
In his 1952 classic song Jambalaya, Hank Williams refers to the pirogue in the line "me gotta go pole the pirogue down the bayou". Johnny Horton, an avid Louisiana fisherman who celebrated Cajun customs and culture, also mentions pirogues in his 1956 song "I Got a Hole in My Pirogue."
Doug Kershaw's 1961 hit "Louisiana Man" includes the line "..he jumps in his pirogue headed down the bayou". Many online lyrics sites mis-understand this line, saying 'hero' or sometimes 'biro' instead.
On the Lewis and Clark expedition, pirogues were used during the entire journey. Henry D. Thoreau writes of using heavy pirogues in his book "The Maine Woods".
Military uses
In 626, when the Avars were besieging Constantinople, the Slavonians crossed the Golden Horn in their pirogues and landed on the shore of the Lower Blachernae, and in spite of all defensive measures that were taken, looted churches.
Pirogue designs
There is not one pirogue design, but several. Besides small pirogues as seen above, there are also pirogues that can hold up to ten men with paddles and also feature a main sail. These too, however, are not designed (and should not be used) for open waters. They are best used near shore.
- Pirogues: time-tested craft for hunters and fishermen accessed 10 June 2008
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Advanced CT scans and wax modeling have revealed the face of King Richard III
Showing a hint of a smile, a prominent chin, and slightly arched nose, the facial reconstruction is based on a skull found along with other bones just 2 feet beneath a car park in Leicester, UK, last September.
The reconstruction follows confirmation that the skeleton was that of the king killed in battle more than 500 years ago.
According to Richard Buckley, the lead archaeologist on the project at the University of Leicester, DNA tests had proved “beyond reasonable doubt” that the bones were those of the last Plantagenet king.
The model was created by digitizing a three-dimensional image of the complete skull and using the bone structure to estimate the thickness of the various layers of muscle and skin.
“When the 3D digital bust was complete it was replicated in plastic using a rapid prototyping system,” Caroline Wilkinson, professor of craniofacial identification at Dundee University, UK, said.
The head was painted and textured with prosthetic eyes. Using portraits as reference, the researchers created a realistic and royal appearance by dressing the king with a wig, hat and clothing.
According to historian John Ashdown-Hill, the model is so lifelike that it is “almost like being face to face with a real person.”
Although the essential features of Richard are quite similar to those shown in various depictions of the king, of whom no contemporary portraits exist, the model reveals a more pleasant and younger face.
Indeed, many of the later portraits of Richard showed him with a rather mean face — quite appropriate for the bloodthirsty usurper depicted by Shakespeare.
“It doesn’t look like the face of a tyrant… He’s very handsome. It’s like you could just talk to him, have a conversation with him right now,” Philippa Langley, a member of the Richard III Society who instigated the search for the skeleton, told Channel 4′s documentary “King in a Car Park.”
Richard III was killed in 1485 in the Battle of Bosworth, which was the last act of the decades-long fight over the throne known as War of the Roses. The king was defeated by Henry Tudor, who became King Henry VII.
Examinations of the skeleton revealed that Richard III was 5 feet, 8 inches tall and had a slender, almost feminine physique.
He suffered from scoliosis, a severe curvature of the spine, in line with the hunchback king described by Shakespeare.
The skeleton of England’s last medieval king may be reburied in Leicester Cathedral, which is a just short distance away from the car park where it was found.
The Cathedral is expected to approve the re-interring request later this year.
Images: The reconstructed face. Credit: Getty; Richard III’s skull. Credit: University of Leicester.
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How do banks calculate the amount of interest paid on a loan? In this lesson, students will view a Livescribe Pencast to learn how to find the dollar amount in interest that is due at maturity. This lesson uses different time periods such as days, months, and years in the calculation as well as varying interest rates.
- Calculate simple interest on small loans.
- Convert the interest rate expressed in percent to a decimal.
- Express time as a ratio when time is expressed in days and months.
- Find the total amount due in dollars when the loan matures.
Suppose you want to get a loan to buy a car? What would you want to know about the loan? Would you want to know the amount of your monthly payments? Would you want to know how much you would have to repay including interest? In this lesson, students will learn how to calculate simple interest.
When banks use simple interest, they consider the principal, the interest rate, and the length of time of the loan. Students will learn how banks calculate the amount in dollars to be repaid, when money is borrowed.
So, how do banks calculate the amount of interest paid on a loan? In this lesson, students will view a Livescribe Pencast and/or Youtube Video to learn how to find the dollar amount in interest that is due at maturity. This lesson uses different time periods such as days, months, and years in the calculation as well as varying interest rates.
Simple Interest: Watch a Youtube video on how to calculate simple interest (if your school allows it).
Simple Interest Livescribe Pencast: Watch a Livescribe Pencast on how to calculate simple interest and use the formula: I = PRT.
Simple Interest Worksheet: This activity is to be completed during step four of the Process section of the lesson.
1.Show students how to calculate simple interest using the formula: I=PRT. Explain that "P" is the Principal and is the amount you borrow; "R" is the Rate in percent; "T" is the Time in years.
2. Perform several problems with your students using various interest rates and time periods.
3. As a supplementary resource, show students this Simple Interest YouTube Video or view the Livescribe Pencast on the right (by clicking the "play" button) that contains the instruction the students will need to perform the calculations.
4. Assign the Worksheet.
5. (Optional): Ask the students to complete the extension activity.
In this lesson, your students have learned how to calculate simple interest. This knowledge will help them make informed financial decisions when using credit.
As your class has seen, the higher the interest rate or the longer the time period of the loan, the higher the interest in dollars. Students will find it wise to shop around for the best rate that will allow them to use the principal but make repayment easier.
Evaluate the Simple Interest Worksheet based on the number correct.
1. Have the students check the answers to the worksheet using the interest calculated on the EconEdLink website: Interest Calculator. (Note: Students will enter 6 months as ".5" since the time on the calculator is in years. They will have to make similar entries for days.)
2. Have the students inquire at their bank what the interest rate is on a home with a 30-year mortgage and have them report it to the class. Also, have the students inquire at their bank what the interest rate is on an automobile loan for three years and report it to the class. Make sure the students take in the proper mortgage and automobile loan situations to their bank, and have them record these rates on something that they can bring back to class.
“This lesson is on calculating simple interest. The video is easy to understand and students can refer to it if they need to. The worksheet is challenging enough for middle school with lots of experience on fractions. I recommend it.”
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By REV. LUNA L. DINGAYAN
SECOND OF TWO PARTS
“Be compassionate as your Father in heaven is compassionate,” — Luke 6:36
This would lead us to the question, what is holiness in the first place? Essentially, to be holy means to be different, to be set apart. For instance, Israel was a holy nation because the Israelites were set apart from other peoples in the world, with a noble purpose as mentioned by Apostle Peter in his first letter, “to proclaim the wonderful acts of God, who called you out of darkness into his own marvelous light” (Ex. 19:6; I Peter 2:9-10).
Therefore, to be holy is to have a special relationship with the one who called us to be holy. This does not mean, however, that the unholy ones or those who are not set apart are evil, rather it simply means that they are not called or are not set apart or have no special relationship to God for a particular purpose.
By the way, it is not only people but also places, animals, and even time that can be holy or set apart. For instance, the temple is holy or set apart for believers to use; the lamb is holy or set apart for sacrifices; the Sabbath is holy or set apart for people to have time to rest.
There are clear demarcation lines between what is holy and unholy; and these are governed by a system of purity laws, as stipulated in the Book of Leviticus, the so-called Book of Holiness, especially Leviticus 17-26.
Leviticus 19:2 says, “Be holy, because I, the LORD your God, am holy.” This shows that the holiness of Israel as a people comes from God. The Israelites are not holy in themselves; they are holy only in so far as God made them holy or set them apart. The emphasis is not on how human beings approach God through sacrifices and other rituals and ceremonies; rather the emphasis is on how God approaches human beings and makes them holy.
In other words, to be holy is to obey God’s laws. Leviticus 20:8 says, “Obey my laws, because I am the LORD and I make you holy.” Now, the essence of the laws of holiness is found in Leviticus 19:18, which says “Love your neighbor as you love yourself.” Therefore, to be holy as God is holy is to love our neighbors, and to love our neighbors is to do justice and show them honesty and compassion (cf. Lev. 25).
All the outward rituals and ceremonies, and prohibitions of eating and drinking have to be understood in this light. For the Israelites, the system of purity laws is important because it provides them identity and orientation. It also strengthens and protects their identity against the dominant culture of the various empires that subjugated them.
Jesus’ criticism of holiness and the purity system
Now, holiness and the whole purity system become problematic when these are misunderstood and misused. Religious leaders could easily misuse the purity laws to strengthen their power by deciding or influencing who or what is holy and unholy, pure and impure, clean and unclean, healthy and sick. They could claim the power to decide as to who is “in” or “out.”
Although the purity system was widely accepted among the Israelites, the prophetic movement, however, had a different emphasis. Instead of the purity system, the prophets emphasized the Exodus tradition.
Prophet Amos, for instance, criticized the purity system and said it becomes meaningful only if “justice flows like a stream, and righteousness like a river that never goes dry,” (Cf. Amos 5:21-24).
The Jesus’ movement stood up with the prophetic tradition. Hence, instead of proclaiming holiness, Jesus Christ our Lord rather proclaimed wholeness, as concretely shown in his table fellowship with sinners and prostitutes and the healing of the unclean.
Holiness divides people, but wholeness unites people. And so, instead of saying, “Be holy as your Father in heaven is holy”, Jesus Christ our Lord rather said, “Be compassionate as your Father in heaven is compassionate,” (Lk.6:36). For Jesus. the essence of holiness is compassion, justice, and honesty, which he regarded as the weightier aspects of the Law (cf. Mt. 23:23). Without justice, honesty, and compassion, all our observance of holiness and purity laws would redound into empty rituals and ceremonies devoid of meaning and significance. To be holy, therefore, is to be just, honest, and compassionate.
Hence, I said in my sharing with people in the churches that our Seminary emphasizes the training of our students not to be “holy” as popularly understood, not to be trained like the Scribes and Pharisees, but to be compassionate, to be just and honest to people like Jesus Christ our Lord. For this is what our Lord Jesus Christ did in his time; he taught his disciples and the people following him to be “compassionate as (the) Father in heaven is compassionate” (Lk.6:36). This is the reason why Christ our Lord criticized the Scribes and the Pharisees for emphasizing holiness or the purity laws, and forget the weightier aspects of the law, which is honesty, justice, and mercy or compassion (cf. Mt. 23:23).
Using the prophecies of Isaiah, Jesus also criticized the Scribes and Pharisees for teaching human rules as though they are laws of God, and for putting aside God’s commands and obeying human teachings (Cf. Mk. 7:6-8). Apparently, for Jesus the purity laws of holiness imposed by the Scribes and the Pharisees were not necessarily the laws of God.
For instance, Jesus even criticized the food laws. He said, “There is nothing that goes into you from the outside which can make you ritually unclean. Rather, it is what comes out of you that make you unclean…For from the inside, from your heart, come the evil ideas which lead you to do immoral things, to rob, kill, commit adultery, be greedy, and do all sorts of evil things; deceit, indecency, jealousy, slander, pride, and folly – all these evil things come from inside you and make you unclean,” (Mk.7:14-23).
Oftentimes, people today who claim to be “holy” or even striving to be “holy” tend to be self-righteous and judgmental of other people. They tend to be unforgiving and quite difficult to understand. This is the same kind of attitude we find among the Scribes and the Pharisees during Jesus’ time.
They accused Jesus for being “unholy,” because he associated himself with the so-called sinners and outcasts of society (cf. Mt. 9:10-13). Jesus Christ our Lord, though he may be accused of being “unholy” and breaker of purity laws, was full of compassion and forgiveness, especially for the poor, the sinners, and outcasts of society. #
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Plumbing may be defined as practice, materials, and fixtures used in the installation, maintenance, and alteration of all piping, fixtures, appliances, and appurtenances in connection with sanitary or storm drainage facilities, the venting system, and the public or private water supply systems. Plumbing does not include the trade of drilling water wells, installing water softening equipment, or the business of manufacturing or selling plumbing fixtures, appliances, equipment, or hardware. A plumbing system consists of three separate parts: an adequate potable water supply system, a safe, adequate drainage system and ample fixtures and equipment.
The generalized inspection of a home is concerned with a safe water supply system, an adequate drainage system, and ample and proper fixtures and equipment. This explains features of a residential plumbing system and the basic plumbing terms the inspector must know and understand to identify properly housing code violations involving plumbing and the more complicated defects that he will refer to the appropriate agencies.
Pressure absorbing devices that eliminate water hammer. They should be installed as close as possible to the valves or faucet and at the end of long runs of pipe.
Air Gap (Drainage System)
The unobstructed vertical distance through the free atmosphere between the outlet of a water pipe and the flood level rim of the receptacle into which it is discharging.
Air Gap (Water Distribution System)
The unobstructed vertical distance through the free atmosphere between the lowest opening from any pipe or faucet supplying water to a tank, plumbing fixture, or other device and the flood level rim of the receptacle.
An air lock is a bubble of air which restricts the flow of water in a pipe.
The flow of water or other liquids, mixtures, or substances into the distributing pipes of a potable water supply from any source or sources other than the intended source. Back siphonage is one type of backflow.
The flowing back of used, contaminated, or polluted water from a plumbing fixture or vessel into a potable water supply due to a negative pressure in the pipe.
Any part of the piping system other than the main, riser, or stack.
A vent connecting one or more individual vents with a vent stack.
The part of the lowest piping of a drainage system that receives the discharge from soil, waste, or other drainage pipes inside the walls of the building (house) and conveys it to the building sewer beginning 3 feet outside the building wall.
Any physical connection or arrangement between two otherwise separate piping systems, one of which contains potable water and the other either water of unknown or questionable safety or steam, gas, or chemical whereby there may be a flow from one system to the other, the direction of flow depending on the pressure differential between the two systems. (See Backflow and Back siphonage.)
An area containing a series of one or more trenches lined with coarse aggregate and conveying the effluent from the septic tank through vitrified clay Pine or perforated, non-metallic pipe, laid in such a manner that the flow will be distributed with reasonable uniformity into natural soil.
Any pipe that carries waste water or water-borne waste in a building (house) drainage system.
Flood Level Rim
The top edge of a receptacle from which water overflows.
A device that discharges a predetermined quantity of water to fixtures for flushing purposes and is closed by direct water pressures.
A device located at the bottom of the tank for flushing water closets and similar fixtures.
Potable water that is heated to at least 120F and used for cooking, cleaning, washing dishes, and bathing.
Contrary to sanitary principles injurious to health.
A device designed and installed so as to separate and retain deleterious, hazardous, or undesirable matter from normal wastes and permit normal sewage or liquid wastes to discharge into the drainage system by gravity.
An exterior drainage pipe for conveying storm water from roof or gutter drains to the building storm drain, combined building sewer, or other means of disposal.
The principal artery of the venting system, to which vent branches may be connected.
See Public Sewer.
The word pertains to devices making use of compressed air as in pressure tanks boosted by pumps.
Water having no impurities present in amounts sufficient to cause disease or harmful physiological effects and conforming in its bacteriological and chemical quality to the requirements of the Public Health Service drinking water standards or meeting the regulations of the public health authority having jurisdiction.
P & T (Pressure and Temperature) Relief Valve
A safety valve installed on a hot water storage tank to limit temperature and pressure of the water.
A trap with a vertical inlet and a horizontal outlet.
A common sewer directly controlled by public authority.
An auxiliary vent that permits additional circulation of air in or between drainage and vent systems.
A watertight receptacle that receives the discharge of a building's sanitary drain system or part thereof and is designed and constructed so as to separate solid from the liquid, digest organic matter through a period of detention, and allow the liquids to discharge into the soil outside of the tank through a system of open-joint or perforated piping, or through a seepage pit.
A sewerage system comprises all piping, appurtenances, and treatment facilities used for the collection and disposal of sewage, except plumbing inside and in connection with buildings served and the building drain.
The pipe that directs the sewage of a house to the receiving sewer, building drain, or building sewer.
The vertical piping that terminates in a roof vent and carries off the vapors of a plumbing system.
An extension of a solid or waste stack above the highest horizontal drain connected to the stack. Sometimes called a waste vent or a soil vent.
A sewer used for conveying rain water, surface water, condensate. cooling water, or similar liquid waste.
A trap is a fitting or device that provides a liquid seal to prevent the emission of sewer gases without materially affecting the flow of sewage or waste water through it.
A device to prevent backflow (back siphonage) by means of an opening through which air may be drawn to relieve negative pressure (vacuum).
The vertical vent pipe installed to provide air circulation to and from the drainage system and that extends through one or more stories.
The loud thump of water in a pipe when a valve or faucet is suddenly closed.
Water Service Pipe
The pipe from the water main or other sources of potable water supply to the water-distributing system of the building served.
Water Supply System
The water supply system consists of the water service pipe, the water-distributing pipes, the necessary connecting pipes, fittings, control valves, and all appurtenances in or adjacent to the building or premises.
A vent that receives the discharge of waste other than from water closets.
A pipe connecting upward from a soil or waste stack to a vent stack for the purpose of preventing pressure changes in the stacks.
Main Features of an Indoor Plumbing System
The primary functions of the plumbing system within the house are as follows:
- To bring an adequate and potable supply of hot and cold water to the users of the dwelling.
- To drain all waste water and sewage discharged from these fixtures into the public sewer, or private disposal system.
It is, therefore, very important that the housing inspector familiarize himself fully with all elements of these systems so that he may recognize inadequacies of the structure's plumbing as well as other code violations.
Elements of a Plumbing System
Water Service: The piping of a house service line should be as short as possible. Elbows and bends should be kept to a minimum since these reduce the pressure and therefore the supply of water to fixtures in the house. The house service line should also be protected from freezing. The burying of the line under 4 feet of soil is a commonly accepted depth to prevent freezing. This depth varies, however, across the country from north to south. The local or state plumbing code should be consulted for the recommended depth in your area of the country.
The materials used for a house service may be copper, cast iron, steel or wrought iron. The connections used should be compatible with the type of pipe used.
- Corporation stop - The corporation stop is connected to the water main. This connection is usually made of brass and can be connected to the main by use of a special tool without shutting off the municipal supply. The valve incorporated in the corporation stop permits the pressure to be maintained in the main while the service to the building is completed.
- Curb stop - The curb stop is a similar valve used to isolate the building from the main for repairs, nonpayment of water bills, or flooded basements. Since the corporation stop is usually under the street and would necessitate breaking the pavement to reach the valve, the curb stop is used as the isolation valve.
- Curb stop box - The curb stop box is an access box to the curb stop for opening and closing the valve. A long-handled wrench is used to reach the valve.
- Meter stop -The meter stop is a valve placed on the street side of the water meter to isolate the meter for installation or maintenance. Many codes require a gate valve on the house side of the meter to shut off water for house plumbing repairs. The curb and meter stops are not to be used frequently and can be ruined in a short time if used very frequently.
- Water meter - The water meter is a device used to measure the amount of water used in the house. It is usually the property of the city and is a very delicate instrument that should not be abused. Since the electric system is usually grounded to the water line, a grounding loop-device should be installed around the meter. Many meters come with a yoke that maintains electrical continuity even though the meter is removed.
Hot and Cold Water Main Lines: The hot and cold water main lines are usually hung from the basement ceiling and are attached to the water meter and hot-water tank on one side and the fixture supply risers on the other. These pipes should be installed in a neat manner and should be supported by pipe hangers or straps of sufficient strength and number to prevent sagging. Hot and cold water lines should be approximately 6 inches apart unless the hot water line is insulated. This is to insure that the cold water line does not pick up heat from the hot water line. The supply mains should have a drain valve or stop and waste valve in order to remove water from the system for repairs. These valves should be on the low end of the line or on the end of each fixture riser.
The fixture risers start at the basement main and rise vertically to the fixtures on the upper floors. In a one-family dwelling, riser branches will usually proceed from the main riser to each fixture grouping. In any event the fixture risers should not depend on the branch risers for support but should be supported with a pipe bracket. Each fixture is then connected to the branch riser by a separate line. The last fixture on a line is usually connected directly to the branch riser.
Hot Water Heaters: Hot water heaters are usually powered by electricity, fuel oil, gas, or in rare cases, coal or wood. They consist of a space for heating the water and a storage tank for providing hot water over a limited period of time. All hot water heaters should be fitted with a temperature-pressure relief valve no matter what fuel is used. This valve will operate when either the temperature or the pressure becomes too high due to an interruption of the water supply or a faulty thermostat.
Pipe Sizes: The size of basement mains and risers depends on the number of fixtures supplied. However, a 3/4 inch pipe is usually the minimum size used. This allows for deposits on the pipe due to hardness in the water and will usually give satisfactory volume and pressure.
The water supply brought into the house and used is discharged through the drainage system. This system is either a sanitary drainage system carrying just interior waste water or a combined system carrying interior waste and roof runoff.
Sanitary Drainage System:
The proper sizing of the sanitary drain or house drain depends on the number of fixtures it serves. The usual minimum size is 6 inches in dial diameter. The materials used are usually cast iron, vitrified clay, plastic, and in rare cases, lead. For proper flow in the drain the pipe should be sized so that it flows approximately one-half full. This ensures proper scouring action so that the solids contained in the waste will not be deposited in the pipe.
- Sizing of house drain - The Uniform Plumbing Code Committee has developed a method of sizing of house drains in terms of "fixture units." One ''fixture unit" equals approximately 71 D2 gallons of water per minute. This is the surge flow-rate of water discharged from a wash basin in 1 minute. All other fixtures have been related to this unit.
Sanitary Drain Sizes
- Grade of house drain - A house drain or building sewer should be sloped toward the sewer to ensure scouring of the drain. The usual pitch of a house or building sewer is 1 D4 inch fall in 1 foot of length.
- Fixture and branch drains - A branch drain is a waste pipe that collects the waste from two or more fixtures and conveys it to the building or house sewer. It is sized in the same way as the house sewer, taking into account that all water closets must have a minimum 3-inch diameter drain, and only two water closets may connect into one 3-inch drain.
All branch drains must join the house drain with a "Y" -type fitting. The same is true for fixture drains joining branch drains. The "Y" fitting is used to eliminate, as much as possible, the deposit of solids in or near the connection. A build-up of these solids will cause a blockage in the drain.
- Traps - A plumbing trap is a device used in a waste system to prevent the passage of sewer gas into the structure and yet not hinder the fixture's discharge to any great extent. All fixtures connected to a household plumbing system should have a trap installed in the line.
The effect of sewer gases on the human body are known; many are extremely harmful. Additionally, certain sewer gases are explosive. A trap will prevent these gases from passing into the structure. The depth of the seal in a trap is usually 2 inches. A deep seal trap has a 4-inch seal.
The purpose of a trap is to seal out sewer gases from the structure. Since a plumbing system is subject to wide variations in flow, and this flow originates in many different sections of the system, there is a wide variation in pressures in the waste lines. These pressure differences tend to destroy the water seal in the trap. To counteract this problem mechanical traps were introduced. It has been found, however, that the corrosive liquids flowing in the system corrode or jam these mechanical traps. It is for this reason that most plumbing codes prohibit mechanical traps.
There are many manufacturers of traps, and all have varied the design somewhat. The "P" trap is usually found in lavatories, sinks, urinals, drinking fountains, showers, and other installations that do not discharge a great deal of water.
The drum trap is another water seal-type trap. They are usually used in the 4x5-inch or 4x8-inch sizes. These traps have a greater sealing capacity than the "P" trap and pass large amounts of water quickly. Drum traps are commonly connected to bathtubs, foot baths, sitz baths, and modified shower baths.
The "S" 1 and the 3h "S" trap should not be us in plumbing installations. They are almost impossible to ventilate properly, and the 3h "S" trap forms a perfect siphon.
The bag trap, an extreme form of "S" trap, is seldom found.
Any trap that depends on a moving part for its effectiveness is usually inadequate and has been prohibited by the local plumbing codes. These traps work, but their design usually results in their being higher priced than the "P" or drum traps. It should be remembered that traps are used only to prevent the escape of sewer gas into the structure. They do not compensate for pressure variations. Only proper venting will eliminate pressure problems.
A plumbing system is ventilated to prevent trap seal loss, material deterioration. and flow retardation.
Trap seal loss
The seal in a plumbing trap may be lost due to siphonage (direct and indirect or momentum), back pressure, evaporation, capillary attraction, or wind effect. The first two named are probably the most common causes of loss. If a waste pipe is placed vertically after the fixture trap, as in an "S" trap, the waste water continues to flow after the fixture is emptied and clears the trap. This is caused by the pressure of air on the fixture water's being greater than the pressure of air in the waste pipe. The action of the water discharging into the waste pipe removes the air from that pipe and thereby causes a negative pressure in the waste line. In the case of indirect or momentum siphonage, the flow of water past the entrance to a fixture drain in the waste pipe removes air from the fixture drain. This reduces the air pressure in the fixture drain, and the entire assembly acts as an aspirator such as the physician uses to spray an infected throat.
The flow of water in a soil pipe varies according to the fixtures being used. A lavatory gives a small flow and a water closet a large flow. Small flows tend to cling to the sides of the pipe, but large ones form a slug of waste as they drop. As this slug of water falls down the pipe the air in front of it becomes pressurized. As the pressure builds it seeks an escape point. This point is either a vent or a fixture outlet. If the vent is plugged or there is no vent, the only escape for this air is the fixture outlet. The air pressure forces the trap seal up the pipe into the fixture. If the pressure is great enough the seal is blown out of the fixture entirely. Figures 6-17 and 6-18 illustrate this type of problem.
Vent pipe installation is similar to that of soil and waste pipe. The same fixture unit criteria are used. Vent pipes of less than 11 D4 inches in diameter should not be used. Vents smaller than this diameter tend to clog and do not perform their function.
- Individual fixture ventilation - This type of ventilation is generally used for sinks, lavatories, drinking fountains, and so forth
- Unit venting - The unit venting system is commonly used in apartment buildings. This type of system saves a great deal of money and space when fixtures are placed back to back in separate apartments.
- Wet venting - Wet venting of a plumbing system is common in household bathroom fixture grouping. It is exactly what the name implies: the vent pipe is used as a waste line.
Total drainage system
Up to now we have talked about the drain, soil waste, and vent systems of a plumbing system separately. For a working system, however, they must all be connected.
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It has been said above that the name or the emblem or the picture of a god or demon could become an amulet with power to protect him that wore it, and that such power lasted as long as the substance of which it was made lasted, if the name, or emblem, or picture was not erased from it. But the Egyptians went a step further than this, and they believed that it was possible to transmit to the figure of any man, or woman, or animal, or living creature, the soul of the being which it represented, and its qualities and attributes. The statue of a god in a temple contained the spirit of the god which it represented, and from time immemorial the people of Egypt believed that every statue and every figure possessed an indwelling spirit. When the Christianized Egyptians made their attacks on the "idols of the heathen" they proved that they possessed this belief, for they always endeavoured to throw down the statues of the gods of the Greeks and Romans, knowing that if they were once shattered the spirits which dwelt in them would have no place wherein to dwell, and would thereby be rendered homeless and powerless. It will be remembered that it is stated in the Apocryphal Gospels that when the Virgin Mary and her Son arrived in Egypt there "was a movement and quaking throughout all the land, and all the idols fell down from their pedestals and were broken in pieces." Then all the priests and nobles went to a certain priest with whom "a devil used to speak from out of the idol," and they asked him the meaning of these things; and when he had explained to them that the footstep of the son of the "secret and hidden god" had fallen upon the land of Egypt, they accepted his counsel and made a figure of this god. The Egyptians acknowledged that the new god was greater than all their gods together, and they were quite prepared to set up a statue of him because they believed that in so doing they would compel at least a portion of the spirit of the "secret and hidden god" to come and dwell in it. In the following pages we shall endeavour to describe the principal uses which the Egyptians made of the figures of gods, and men, and beasts, to which magical powers had been imparted by means of the performance of certain symbolic ceremonies and the recital of certain words of power; and how they could be employed to do both good and evil.
One of the earliest instances of the use of a magical figure is related in the Westcar Papyrus,1 where we read that Prince Khf-R told Khufu (Cheops) a story of an event which had happened in the time of Neb-ka or Neb-kau-Ed, a king of the IIIrd dynasty, who reigned about B.C. 3830. It seems that this king once paid a visit to one of his high officials called ba-aner, whose wife fell violently in love with one of the soldiers in the royal train. This lady sent her tirewoman to him with the gift of a chest of clothes, and apparently she made known to him her mistress's desire, for he returned with her to ba-aner's house. There he saw the wife and made an appointment to meet her in a little house which was situated on her husband's estate, and she gave instructions to one of the stewards of ba-aner to prepare it for the arrival of herself and her lover. When all had been made ready she went to the house and stayed there the whole day drinking and making love with the man until sunset; and when the evening had come he rose up and went down to the river and the tirewoman bathed him in the water thereof. But the steward, who had made ready the house, declared that he must make the matter known unto his master, and on the following morning as soon as it was light, he went to ba-aner and related to him everything which had happened. The official made no answer to his servant's report, but ordered him to bring him certain materials and his box made of ebony and precious metal. Out of the box he took a quantity of wax, which was, no doubt, kept there for purposes similar to that to which a portion of it was now to be put, and made a model of a crocodile seven spans long, and then reciting certain magical words over it, he said, "When the man cometh down to bathe in my waters seize thou him." Then, turning to the steward, he gave the wax crocodile to him and said, "When the man, according to his daily wont, cometh down to wash in the water thou shalt cast the crocodile in after him"; and the steward having taken the wax crocodile from his master went his way.
And again the wife of ba-aner ordered the steward who had charge of the estate to make ready the house which was in the garden, "for," she said, "behold, I am coming to pass some time therein." So the house was made ready and provided with all good things, and she came with the man and passed some time with him there. Now when the evening was come the man went down to the water to wash according to his daily wont, and the steward went down after him and threw into the water the wax crocodile, which straightway turned into a living crocodile seven cubits (i.e., about twelve feet) in length, and seized upon the man and dragged him down in the water.
Meanwhile ba-aner tarried with his king Neb-kau-R for seven days, and the man remained in the depths of the water and had no air to breathe. And on the seventh day ba-aner the kher heb1 went out with the king for a walk, and invited His Majesty to come and see for himself a wonderful thing which had happened to a man in his own days; so the king went with him. When they had come to the water ba-aner adjured the crocodile, saying, "Bring hither the man," and the crocodile came out of the water bringing the man with him. And when the king remarked that the crocodile was a horrid looking monster, ba-aner stooped down and took it up into his hand, when it straightway became a waxen crocodile as it was before. After these things ba-aner related to the king what had happened between his wife and the man whom the crocodile had brought up out of the water, whereupon the king said to the crocodile, "Take that which is thine and begone"; and immediately the crocodile seized the man and sprang into the water with him, and disappeared in its depths. And by the royal command ba-aner's wife was seized, and having been led to the north side of the palace was burnt, and her ashes were cast into the stream. Here then we have already in the IIIrd dynasty the existence of a belief that a wax crocodile, over which certain words had been said, could change itself into a living reptile at pleasure, and that a man could be made by the same means to live at the bottom of a stream for seven days without air. We may also notice that the great priestly official, the kher heb, was so much in the habit of performing such acts of magic that he kept in a room a box of materials and instruments always ready for the purpose; and, apparently, neither himself, nor his king, nor his servant, thought the working of magic inconsistent with his high religious office.
But at the time when ba-aner was working magic by means of wax figures, probably to the harm and injury of his enemies, the priests were making provision for the happiness and well-being of the dead also by means of figures made of various substances. According to one very early belief the dead made their way to a region called Sekhet-Aaru, where they led a life which was not very different from that which they had led upon earth. From the pictures of this place which are painted on coffins of the XIth dynasty, we see that it was surrounded by streams of water, and that it was intersected by canals, and that, in fact, it was very much like an ordinary well-kept estate in the Delta. The beings who lived in this place, however, had the same wants as human beings, that is to say, they needed both food and drink, or bread-cakes and ale. The existence of bread and ale presupposed the existence of wheat and barley, and the production of these presupposed the tilling of the ground and the work of agricultural labourers. But the Egyptian had no wish to continue the labours of ploughing and reaping and preparing the ground for the new crops in the world beyond the grave, therefore he endeavoured to avoid this by getting the work done vicariously. If words of power said over a figure could make it to do evil, similarly words of power said over a figure could make it to do good. At first a formula1 was composed, the recital of which was supposed to relieve the deceased from the necessity of doing any work whatsoever, and when the deceased himself had said, "I lift up the hand of the man who is inactive. I have come from the city of Unnu (Hermopolis). I am the divine Soul which liveth, and I lead with me the hearts of the apes," his existence was thought to be without toil. But, since the inhabitants of Sekhet-Aaru needed food and drink, provision must be made for their production, and the necessary labours of the field must, in some manner, be performed. To meet the difficulty a small stone figure of the deceased was buried with him, but before it was laid in the tomb the priests recited over it the words of power which would cause it to do for the deceased whatever work he might be adjudged to perform in the kingdom of Osiris, Later, these words were inscribed upon the figure in hieroglyphics, and later still the figure was provided with representations of the rope basket, and plough
, and flail
, such as were employed by the Egyptian labourer in carrying field produce, and in ploughing, and in threshing grain. The formula1 or words of power which were inscribed on such figures varied at different periods, but one of the oldest, which was in use in the XVIIIth dynasty, makes the deceased say to the figure, which was called "Shabti":--
"O thou Shabti figure of the scribe Nebseni, if I be called, or if I be adjudged to do any work whatsoever of the labours which are to be done in the underworld by a man in his turn--behold, any obstacles (or opposition) to thee will be done away with there--let the judgment fall upon thee instead of upon me always, in the matter of sowing the fields, of filling the water-courses with water, and of bringing the sands from the east to the west." After these words comes the answer by the figure, "Verily I am" here, and [will do] whatsoever thou biddest me to do." The Egyptians were most anxious to escape the labours of top-dressing2 the land, and of sowing the seed, a work which had to be done by a man standing in water in the sun, and the toilsome task of working the shadf, or instrument for raising water from the Nile and turning it on to the land. In graves not one figure only is found, but several, and it is said that in the tomb of Seti I., king of Egypt about B.C. 1370, no less than seven hundred wooden ushabtiu inscribed with the VIth Chapter of the Book of the Dead, and covered with bitumen, were found. The use of the shabti figure continued unabated down to the Roman period, when boxes full of ill-shaped, uninscribed porcelain figures were buried in the tombs with the dead.
The next instance worth mentioning of the use of magical figures we obtain from the official account of a conspiracy against Rameses III., king of Egypt about B.C. 1200. It seems that a number of high officials, the Overseer of the Treasury included, and certain scribes, conspired together against this king apparently with the view of dethroning him. They took into their counsels a number of the ladies attached to the court (some think they belonged to the harm), and the chief abode of these ladies became the headquarters of the conspirators. One official was charged with "carrying abroad their words to their mothers and sisters who were there to stir up men and to incite malefactors to do wrong to their lord"; another was charged with aiding and abetting the conspiracy by making himself one with the ringleaders; another was charged with being cognizant of the whole matter, and with concealing his knowledge of it; another with "giving ear to the conversation held by the men conspiring with the women of the Per-khent, and not bringing it forward against them," and so on. The conspiracy soon extended from Egypt to Ethiopia, and a military official of high rank in that country was drawn into it by his sister, who urged him to "Incite the men to commit crime, and do thou thyself come to do wrong to thy lord"; now the sister of this official was in the Per-khent, and so she was able to give her brother the latest information of the progress of the disaffection. Not content with endeavouring to dethrone the king by an uprising of both soldiers and civilians, Hui, a certain high official, who was the overseer of the [royal] cattle, bethought him of applying magic to help their evil designs, and with this object in view he went to some one who had access to the king's library, and he obtained from him a book containing formul of a magical nature, and directions for working magic. By means of this book he obtained "divine power," and he became able to cast spells upon folk. Having gained possession of the book he next looked out for some place where he could carry on his magical work without interruption, and at length found one. Here he set to work to make figures of men in wax, and amulets inscribed with words of magical power which would provoke love, and these he succeeded in introducing into the royal palace by means of the official Athirm; and it seems as if those who took them into the palace and those who received them were under the magical influence of Hui. It is probable that the love philtres were intended for the use of the ladies who were involved in the conspiracy, but as to the object of the wax figures there is no doubt, for they were intended to work harm to the king. Meanwhile Hui studied his magical work with great diligence, and he succeeded in finding efficacious means for carrying out all the "horrible things and all the wickednesses which his heart could imagine"; these means he employed in all seriousness, and at length committed great crimes which were the horror of every god and goddess, and the punishment of such crimes was death. In another place Hui is accused of writing books or formul of magical words, the effect of which would be to drive men out of their senses, and to strike terror into them; and of making gods of wax and figures of men of the same substance, which should cause the human beings whom they represented to become paralysed and helpless. But their efforts were in vain, the conspiracy was discovered, and the whole matter was carefully investigated by two small courts of enquiry, the members of which consisted, for the most part, of the king's personal friends; the king's orders to them were that "those who are guilty shall die by their own hands, and tell me nothing whatever about it." The first court, which consisted of six members, sat to investigate the offences of the husbands and relatives of the royal ladies, and those of the ladies themselves, but before their business was done three of them were arrested because it was found that the ladies had gained great influence over them, that they and the ladies had feasted together, and that they had ceased to be, in consequence, impartial judges. They were removed from their trusted positions before the king, and having been examined and their guilt clearly brought home to them, their ears and noses were cut off as a punishment and warning to others not to form friendships with the enemies of the king. The second court, which consisted of five members, investigated the cases of those who were charged with having "stirred up men and incited malefactors to do wrong to their lord," and having found them guilty they sentenced six of them to death, one by one, in the following terms:--"Pentaura, who is also called by another name. He was brought up on account of the offence which he had committed in connexion with his mother Thi when she formed a conspiracy with the women of the Per-khent, and because he had intent to do evil unto his lord. He was brought before the court of judges that he might receive sentence, and they found him guilty, and dismissed him to his own death, where he suffered death by his own hand." The wretched man Hui, who made wax figures and spells with the intent to inflict pain and suffering and death upon the king, was also compelled to commit suicide.1
The above story of the famous conspiracy against Rameses III. is most useful as proving that books of magic existed in the Royal Library, and that they were not mere treatises on magical practices, but definite works with detailed instructions to the reader how to perform the ceremonies which were necessary to make the formul or words of power efficacious. We have now seen that wax figures were used both to do good and to do harm, from the IIIrd to the XXth dynasty, and that the ideas which the Egyptians held concerning them were much the same about B.C. 1200 as they were two thousand five hundred years earlier; we have also seen that the, use of ushabtiu figures, which were intended to set the deceased free from the necessity of labour in the world beyond the grave, was widespread. That such figures were used in the pre-dynastic days when the Egyptians were slowly emerging into civilization from a state of semi-barbarism is not to be wondered at, and it need not surprise us that they existed as a survival in the early dynasties before the people generally had realized that the great powers of Nature, which they deified, could not be ruled by man and by his petty words and deeds, however mysterious and solemn. It is, however, very remarkable to find that the use of wax figures played a prominent part in certain of the daily services which were performed in the temple of the god Amen-R at Thebes, and it is still more remarkable that these services were performed at a time when the Egyptians were renowned among the nations of the civilized world for their learning and wisdom. One company of priests attached to the temple was employed in transcribing hymns and religious compositions in which the unity, power, and might of God were set forth in unmistakable terms, and at the same time another company was engaged in performing a service the object of which was to free the Sun, which was deified under the form of R, and was the type and symbol of God upon earth, from the attacks of a monster called pep!
It will be remembered that the XXXIXth Chapter of the Book of the Dead is a composition which was written with the object of defeating a certain serpent, to which many names are given, and of delivering the deceased from his attacks. In it we have a description of how the monster is vanquished, and the deceased says to him, "R maketh thee to turn back, O thou that art hateful to him; he looketh upon thee, get thee back. He pierceth thy head, he cutteth through thy face, he divideth thy head at the two sides of the ways, and it is crushed in his land; thy bones are smashed in pieces, thy members are hacked from off thee, and the god Aker hath condemned thee, O pep, thou enemy of R. Get thee back, Fiend, before the darts of his beams! R hath overthrown thy words, the gods have turned thy face backwards, the Lynx hath torn open thy breast, the Scorpion hath cast fetters upon thee, and Mat hath sent forth thy destruction. The gods of the south, and of the north, of the west, and of the east, have fastened chains upon him, and they have fettered him with fetters; the god Rekes hath overthrown him, and the god Hertit hath put him in chains."1 The age of this composition is unknown, but it is found, with variants, in many of the copies of the Book of the Dead which were made in the XVIIIth dynasty. Later, however, the ideas in it were developed, the work itself was greatly enlarged, and at the time of the Ptolemies it had become a book called "The Book of Overthrowing pep," which contained twelve chapters. At the same time another work bearing the same title also existed; it was not divided into chapters, but it contained two versions of the history of the Creation, and a list of the evil names of pep, and a hymn to R.2 Among the chapters of the former work was one entitled, "Chapter of putting the fire upon pep," which reads, "Fire be upon thee, pep, thou enemy of R! The Eye of Horus prevails over the accursed soul and shade of pep, and the flame of the Eye of Horus shall gnaw into that enemy of R; and the flame of the Eye of Horus shall consume all the enemies of the Mighty God, life! strength! health! both in death and in life. When pep is given to the flame," says the rubric, "thou shalt gay these words of power:--Taste thou death, O pep, get thee back, retreat, O enemy of R, fall down, be repulsed, get back and retreat! I have driven thee back, and I have cut thee in pieces.
R triumphs over pep. Taste thou death, pep.
R triumphs over pep. Taste thou death, pep.
R triumphs over pep. Taste thou death, pep.
R triumphs over pep. Taste thou death, pep."
These last sentences were said four times, that is to say, once for each of the gods of the cardinal points. The text continues, "Back, Fiend, an end to thee! Therefore have I driven flame at thee, and therefore have I made thee to be destroyed, and therefore have I adjudged thee to evil. An end, an end to thee! Taste thou death! An end to thee! Thou shalt never rise again." Such are the words of power, and these are followed by the directions for performing the ceremony, which read thus:--
"If thou wouldst destroy pep, thou shalt say this chapter over a figure of pep which hath been drawn in green colour upon a sheet of new papyrus, and over a wax figure1 of pep upon which his name hath been cut and inlaid with green colour; and thou shalt lay them upon the fire so that it may consume the enemy of R. And thou shalt put such a figure on the fire at dawn, and another at noon, and another at eventide when R setteth in the land of life, and another at midnight, and another at the eighth hour of the day, and another towards evening; [and if necessary] thou mayest do thus every hour during the day and the night, and on the days of the festivals and every day. By means of this pep, the enemy of R, shall be overthrown in the shower, for R shall shine and pep shall indeed be overthrown." And the papyrus and the figure "having been burnt in a fire made of khesau grass, the remains thereof shall be mixed with excrement and thrown upon a fire; thou shalt do this at the sixth hour of the night, and at dawn on the fifteenth day [of the month]. And when the figure of pep is placed in the fire thou shalt spit upon him several times each hour during the day, until the shadow turneth round. Thou shalt do these things when tempests rage in the east of the sky as R setteth, in order to prevent the coming onward of the storms. Thou shalt do this and so prevent the coming of a shower or a rain-storm, and "thereby shall the sun be made to shine."
In another part of this book the reciter is told to say the following "firmly with the mouth":-- "Down upon thy face, O pep, enemy of R! The flame which cometh forth from the Eye of Horus advanceth against thee. Thou art thrust down into the flame it of fire and it cometh against thee. Its flame is deadly to thy soul, and to thy spirit, and to thy words of power, and to thy body, and to thy shade. The lady of fire prevaileth over thee, the flame pierceth thy soul, it maketh an end of thy person, and it darteth into thy form. The eye of Horus which is powerful against its enemy hath cast thee down, it devoureth thee, the great fire trieth thee, the Eye of R prevaileth over thee, the flame devoureth thee, and what escapeth from it hath no being. Get thee back, for thou art cut asunder, thy soul is shrivelled up, thy accursed name is buried in oblivion, and silence is upon it, and it hath fallen [out of remembrance]. Thou hast come to an end, thou hast been driven away, and thou art forgotten, forgotten, forgotten," etc. To make these words to be of effect the speaker is told to write the names of pep upon a new papyrus and to burn it in the fire either when R is rising, or at noon, or at sunset, etc. In another part of the work, after a series of curses which are ordered to be said over pep, the rubric directs that they shall be recited by a person who hath washed himself and is ceremonially clean, and when this has been done he is to write in green colour upon a piece of new papyrus the names of all the fiends who are in the train of pep, as well as those of their fathers, and mothers, and children. He must then make figures of all these fiends in wax, and having inscribed their names upon them, must tie them up with black hair, and then cast them on the ground and kick them with the left foot, and pierce them with a stone spear; this done they are to be thrown into the fire. More than once is it said, "It is good for a man to recite this book before the august god regularly," for the doing of it was believed to give great power "to him, both upon earth and in the underworld." Finally, after the names of pep are enumerated, be who would benefit by the knowledge of them is bidden to "make the figure of a serpent with his tail in his mouth, and having stuck a knife in his back, cast him down upon the ground and say, "'pep, Fiend, Betet.'" Then, in order to destroy the fiends who are in the train of pep, other images or figures of them must be made with their hands tied behind them; these are to be called "Children of inactivity." The papyrus then continues, "Make another serpent with the face of a cat, and with a knife stuck in his back, and call it 'Hemhem' (Roarer). Make another with the face of a crocodile, and with a knife stuck in his back, and call it 'Hauna-aru-her-hra.' Make another with the face of a duck, and with a knife stuck in his back, and call it 'Aluti.' Make another with the face of a white cat, and with a knife stuck in his back, and tie it up and bind it tightly, and call it 'pep the Enemy.'" Such are the means which the Egyptians adopted when they wanted to keep away rain and storm, thunder and lightning, and mist and cloud, and to ensure a bright clear sky wherein the sun might run his course.
Under the heading of "Magical Figures" must certainly be included the so-called Ptah-Seker-Ausar figure which is usually made of wood; it is often solid, but is sometimes made hollow, and is usually let into a rectangular wooden stand which may be either solid or hollow. The three gods or trinity of Ptah, Seker (Socharis), and Ausar (Osiris), are intended to represent the god of the sunrise (Ptah), the god of the night sun (Seker), and the god of the resurrection (Osiris). The name Ptah means "Opener," and is usually applied to the sun as the "opener" of the day; and the name Seker means "He who is shut in," that is to say, the night sun, who was regarded as the sun buried temporarily. Now the life of a man upon earth was identified with that of the sun; he "opened" or began his life as Ptah, and after death he was "shut in" or "coffined," like it also. But the sun rises again when the night is past, and, as it begins a new life with renewed strength and vigour, it became the type of the new life which the Egyptian hoped to live in the world beyond the grave. But the difficulty was how to obtain the protection of Ptah, Seker, and Osiris, and how to make them do for the man that which they did for themselves, and so secure their attributes. To attain this end a figure was fashioned in such a way as to include the chief characteristics of the forms of these gods, and was inserted in a rectangular wooden stand which was intended to represent the coffin or chest out of which the trinity Ptah-Seker-Ausar came forth. On the figure itself and on the sides of the stand were inscribed prayers on behalf of the man for whom it was made, and the Egyptian believed that these prayers caused the might and powers of the three gods to come and dwell in the wooden figure. But in order to make the stand of the figure as much like a coffin as possible, a small portion of the body of the deceased was carefully mummified and placed in it, and it was thought that if the three gods protected and preserved that piece, and if they revivified it in due season, the whole body would be protected, and preserved, and revivified. Frequently, especially in the late period, a cavity was made in the side of the stand, and in this was laid a small roll of papyrus inscribed with the text of certain Chapters of the Book of the Dead, and thus the deceased was provided with additional security for the resurrection of his spiritual body in the world to come. The little rolls of papyrus
are often inscribed with but short and fragmentary texts, but occasionally, as in the case of the priestess Anhai, a fine large papyrus,1 inscribed with numerous texts and illustrated with vignettes, was placed inside the figure of the god, who in this instance is in the form of Osiris only.2 It seems that the Ptah-Seker-Ausar figure was much used in the late period in Egypt, for many inscribed examples have been found which are not only illegible, but which prove that the artist had not the remotest idea of the meaning of the things which he was writing. It is possible that they were employed largely by the poor, among whom they seem to have served the purpose of the costly tomb.
Returning once more to the subject of wax figures, it may be wondered why such a very large proportion of the figures of the gods which were worn by the living and attached to the bodies of the dead as amulets are made of almost every kind of substance except wax. But the reason of this is not far to seek: wax is a substance which readily changes its form under heat and pressure, and it is also possible that the fact of its having been employed from time immemorial for making figures which were intended to work harm and not good to man, induced those who made amulets in the forms of the gods to select some other material. As a matter of fact, however, several figures of gods
Ptah-Seker-Ausar figure with cavity containing a portion of a human body mummified.
(British Museum, No. 9736).
made of wax to serve as protective amulets are known, and a set of four, representing the four children of Horus, now preserved in the British Museum, are worthy of notice. The four children of Horus, or the gods of the four cardinal points, were called Mestha, Hpi, Tuamutef, and Qebhsennuf, and with them were associated the goddesses Isis, Nephthys, Neith, and Serqet respectively. Mestha was man-headed, and represented the south, and protected the stomach and large intestines; Hpi was dog-headed, and represented the north, and protected the small intestines; Tuamutef was jackal-headed) and represented the east and protected the lungs and the heart; and Qebhsennuf was hawk-headed, and represented the west, and protected the liver and the gall-bladder. The various internal organs of men were removed from the body before it was mummified, and having been steeped in certain astringent substances and bitumen were wrapped up in bandages, and laid in four jars made of stone, marble, porcelain, earthenware, or wood. Each jar was placed under the protection of one of the four children of Horus, and as it was hollow, and its cover was made in the form of the head of the god who was represented by it, and as the jar by means of the inscription upon it became an abode of the god, it might well be said that the organ of the deceased which was put in it was actually placed inside the god. The custom of embalming the intestines separately is very old, and several examples of it in the XIth dynasty are known; even at that early period the four jars of mummified intestines were placed in a funeral chest, or coffer, which was mounted on a sledge, and drawn along in the funeral procession immediately after the coffin. In later times we find that many attempts were made to secure for the deceased the benefit of the protection of these four gods without incurring the expense of
The Four Children of Horus.
Osiris rising from the funeral chest holding the symbol of "life" In each hand.
(From the Papyrus of Ani, plate 8.)
stone jars; this could be done by burying with him four models or "dummy" jars, or four porcelain figures of
the four gods
or four wax ones.
For some unknown reason the set referred to above was made of wax.1 The four children of Horus played a very important part in the funeral works of the early dynasties; they originally represented the four supports of heaven, but very soon each was regarded as the god of one of the four quarters of the earth, and also of that quarter of the heavens which was above it. As the constant prayer of the deceased was that he should be able to go about wherever he pleased, both on earth and in heaven, it was absolutely necessary for his welfare that he should propitiate these gods and place himself under their protection, which could only be secured by the recital of certain words of power over figures of them, or over jars made to represent them.
But of all the Egyptians who were skilled in working magic, Nectanebus, the last native king of Egypt, about B.C. 318, was the chief, if we may believe Greek tradition. According to Pseudo- Callisthenes, and the versions of his works which were translated into Pehlevi, Arabic, Syriac, and a score of other languages and dialects, this king was famous as a magician and a sage, and he was deeply learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians. He knew what was in the depths of the Nile and of heaven, he was skilled in reading the stars, in interpreting omens, in casting nativities, in telling fortunes, and in predicting the future of the unborn child, and in working magic of every kind, as we shall see; he was said to be the lord of the earth, and to rule all kings by means of his magical powers.
Whenever he was threatened with invasion by sea or by land he succeeded in destroying the power of his enemies, and in driving them from his coasts or frontiers; and this he did by the following means. If the enemy came against him by sea, instead of sending out his sailors to fight them, he retired into a certain chamber, and having brought forth a bowl which he kept for the purpose, he filled it with water, and then, having made wax figures of the ships and men of the enemy, and also of his own men and ships, he set them upon the water in the bowl, his men on one side, and those of the enemy on the other. He then came out, and having put on the cloak of an Egyptian prophet and taken an ebony rod in his hand, he returned into the chamber, and uttering words of power he invoked the gods who help men to work magic, and the winds, and the subterranean demons, which straightway came to his aid. By their means the figures of the men in wax sprang into life and began to fight, and the ships of wax began to move about likewise; but the figures which represented his own men vanquished those which represented the enemy, and as the figures of the ships and men of the hostile fleet sank through the water to the bottom of the bowl, even so did the real ships and men sink through the waters to the bottom of the sea. In this way he succeeded in maintaining his power, and he continued to occupy his kingdom in peace for a considerable period. But it fell out on a day that certain scouts came and informed Nectanebus that a multitude of the nations of the East had made a league together against Egypt, and that their allied forces were at that moment marching against him. When the king heard the news he laughed, and having said some scornful words about his enemies, he went into his private chamber, and pouring water into the bowl began to work magic in the usual way. But when he had spoken the words of power, he looked at the wax figures, and saw, to his dismay, that the gods of Egypt were steering the enemies' ships, and leading their soldiers to war against himself. Now as soon as Nectanebus saw this, he understood that the end of the kingdom of Egypt was at hand, for hitherto the gods had been wont to hold converse with him readily, and to lend him their help whenever he had need of it. He then quitted the chamber hastily, and having shaved off his hair and his beard, and disguised himself by putting on common apparel, be took ship and fled to Pella in Macedonia, where he established himself as a physician, and as an Egyptian soothsayer.
Omitting, for the present, any reference to the contents of the IVth chapter of Pseudo- Callisthenes, in which the casting of the nativity of Olympias by Nectanebus is described, we come to the passage in which the story of the way in which he sent a dream to the queen by means of a wax figure is told. His object was to persuade the queen that the Egyptian god Amen would come to her at night. To do this he left her presence, and going out into the desert he collected a number of herbs which he knew how to employ in causing people to dream dreams, and having brought them back with him be squeezed the juice out of them. He then made the figure of a woman in wax, and wrote upon it the name of Olympias, just as the priest of Thebes made the figure of pep in wax and cut his name upon it. Nectanebus then lit his lamp, and, having poured the juice of the herbs over the wax figure of the queen, he adjured the demons to such purpose that Olympias dreamed a dream in which the god Amen came to her and embraced her, and told her that she should give birth to a man-child who should avenge her on her husband Philip. But the means described above were not the only ones known to Nectanebus for procuring dreams, for when he wanted to make Philip of Macedon to see certain things in a dream, and to take a certain view about what he saw, he sent a hawk, which he had previously bewitched by magical words, to Philip as he lay asleep, and in a single night the hawk flew from Macedonia to the place where Philip was, and coming to him told him what things he should see in his dream, and he saw them. On the morrow Philip had the dream explained by an expounder of dreams, and he was satisfied that the child1 to whom his wife Olympias was about to give birth was the son of the god Amen (or Ammon) of Libya, who was regarded as the father of all the kings who ascended the throne of Egypt, who did not belong to the royal stock of that country.2
Here, in connexion with the Egyptian use of wax figures, must be mentioned one or two stories and traditions of Alexander the Great which are, clearly, derived from Egyptian sources. The Arab writer, Abu-Shker, who flourished in the XIIIth century of our era, mentions a tradition that Aristotle gave to Alexander a number of wax figures nailed down in a box, which was fastened by a chain, and which he ordered him never to let go out of his hand, or at least out of that of one of his confidential servants. The box was to go wherever Alexander went, and Aristotle taught him to recite certain formul over it whenever he took it up or put it down. The figures in the box were intended to represent the various kinds of armed forces that Alexander was likely to find opposed to him. Some of the models held in their hands leaden swords which were curved backwards, and some had spears in their hands pointed head downwards, and some had bows with cut strings; all these were laid face downwards in the box. Viewed by what we know of the ideas which underlay the use of wax figures by the Egyptians and Greeks, it is clear that, in providing Alexander with these models and the words of power to use with them, Aristotle believed he was giving him the means of making his enemies to become like the figures in the box, and so they would be powerless to attack him.1
In the Grco-Roman period2 wax figures were used in the performance of magical ceremonies of every kind, and the two following examples indicate that the ideas which underlay their use had not changed in the least. If a lover wished to secure the favours of his mistress, he is directed to make a figure of a dog in wax mixed with pitch, gum, etc., eight fingers long, and certain words of power are to be written over the place where his ribs should be. Next it was necessary to write on a tablet other words of power, or the names of beings who were supposed to possess magical powers; on this tablet the figure of the dog must be placed, and the tablet is made to rest upon a tripod. When this has been done the lover must recite the words of power which are written on the dog's side, and also the names which have been inscribed on the tablet, and one of two things will happen: i.e., the dog will either snarl and snap at the lover, or he will bark. If he snarls and snaps the lover will not gain the object of his affections, but if he barks the lady will come to him. In the second example the lover is ordered to make two waxen figures; one in the form of Ares, and the other in the form of a woman. The female figure is to be in the posture of kneeling upon her knees with her hands tied behind her, and the male figure is to stand over her with his sword at her throat. On the limbs of the female figure a large number of the names of demons are to be written, and when this has been done, the lover must take thirteen bronze needles, and stick them in her limbs, saying as he does so, "I pierce" (here he mentions the name of the limb) "that she may think of me." The lover must next write certain words of power on a leaden plate, which must be tied to the wax figures with a string containing three hundred and sixty-five knots, and both figure and plate are to be buried in the grave of some one who has died young or who has been slain by violence. He must then recite a long incantation to the infernal gods, and if all these things be done in a proper manner the lover will obtain the woman's affections.'
From Egypt, by way of Greece and Rome, the use of wax figures passed into Western Europe and England, and in the Middle Ages it found great favour with those who interested themselves in the working of the "black art," or who wished to do their neighbour or enemy an injury. Many stories are current of how in Italy and England ignorant or wicked-minded people made models of their enemies in wax and hung them up in the chimney, not too close to the fire, so that they might melt away slowly, and of how the people that were represented by such figures gradually lost the power over their limbs, and could not sleep, and slowly sickened and died. If pins and needles were stuck into the wax figures at stated times the sufferings of the living were made more agonizing, and their death much more painful.
Sharpe relates1 that about the end of the VIIth century king Duffus was so unpopular that "a company of hags roasted his image made of wax upon a wooden spit, reciting certain words of enchantment, and basting the figure with a poisonous liquor. These women when apprehended declared that as the wax melted, the body of the king should decay, and the words of enchantment prevented him from the refreshment of sleep." The two following extracts from Thomas Middleton's The Witch2 illustrate the views held about wax figures in England in the time of this writer.3
"Heccat. Is the heart of wax
Stuck full of magique needles?"
Stadlin. 'Tis done Heccat.
Heccat. And is the Farmer's picture, and his wives,
Lay'd downe to th' fire yet?
Stadlin. They are a roasting both too.
Then their marrowes are a melting subtelly
And three monethes sicknes sucks up life in 'em."
(Act i., scene 2.)
"Heccat. What death is't you desire for Almachildes?
Duchesse. A sodaine and a subtle.
Heccat. Then I have fitted you.
Here lye the guifts of both; sodaine and subtle:
His picture made in wax, and gently molten
By a blew fire kindled with dead mens' eyes
Will waste him by degrees."
(Act v., scene 2)
Mr. Elworthy in his very interesting book "The Evil Eye"1 relates some striking examples of the burning of hearts stuck full of pins for magical purposes in recent years. Thus an old woman at Mendip had a pig that fell ill, and she at once made up her mind that the animal had been "overlooked"; in her trouble she consulted a "white witch," i.e. a "wise" man, and by his orders she acted thus. She obtained a sheep's heart, and having stuck it full of pins1 set it to roast before a fire, whilst her friends and neighbours sang:--
It is not this heart I mean to burn.
But the person's heart I wish to turn,
Wishing them neither rest nor peace
Till they are dead and gone."
At intervals her son George sprinkled salt on the fire which added greatly to the weirdness of the scene, and at length, when the roasting had been continued until far into the night, a black cat jumped out from somewhere and was, of course, instantly declared to be the demon which had been exorcised. Again, in October, 1882, a heart stuck full of pins was found in a recess of a chimney in an old house in the village of Ashbrittle; and in 1890 another was found nailed up inside the "clavel" in the chimney of an old house at Staplegrove.
The art of making such figures King James I. attributes to the "Divell," and says in describing the things which witches are able to "effectuate by the power of their master1":--"To some others at these times hee teacheth, how to make pictures of waxe or clay: That by the roasting thereof, the persons that they beare the name of, may be continually melted or dried away by continuall sicknesse. . . . They can bewitch and take the life of men or women, by roasting of the pictures, as I spake of before, which likewise is verie possible to their Maister to performe, for although (as I said before) that instrument of waxe have no vertue in that turne doing, yet may hee not very well, even by the same measure that his conjured slaves, melts that waxe at the fire, may hee not, I say at these same times, subtily, as a sprite, so weaken and scatter the spirites of life of the patient, as may make him on the one part, for faintnesse, so sweate it out the humour of his bodie: And on the other parte, for the not concurrence of these spirites, which causes his digestion, so debilitate his stomacke, that this humour radicall continually sweating out on the one part, and no new good sucke being put in the place thereof, for lacke of digestion on the other, he at last shall vanish away, even as his picture will die at the fire? And that knavish and cunning workeman, by troubling him, onely at sometimes, makes a proportion, so neere betwixt the working of the one and the other, that both shall end as it were at one time." Thus we have seen that the belief in the efficacy of wax figures is at least six thousand years old, and judging from passages in the works of modern writers its existence is not unknown in our own country at the present time.
This chapter may be fittingly ended by a notice of the benefits which accrued to a Christian merchant in the Levant from the use of a wax figure. According to an Ethiopic manuscript in the British Museum1 this man was a shipowner as well as a merchant, and be was wont to send his goods to market in his own ships; in his day, however, the sea was infested with pirates, and he lost greatly through their successful attacks upon his vessels. At length he determined to travel in one of his own ships with a number of armed men, so that he might be able to resist any attack which the pirates might make, and punish them for their robberies in times past. . Soon after he had sailed he fell in with a pirate vessel, and a fight at once took place between his crew and the robbers, in the course of which he was shot in the eye by an arrow; he stopped the combat and then sailed for a port which was situated near a monastery, wherein the Virgin Mary was reported to work miracles by means of a picture of herself which was hung up in it. When the merchant arrived in port he was so ill through the wound in his eye that he could not be moved, and it was found that a portion of the arrow which had struck him remained embedded in it; and unless he could obtain the Virgin's help speedily he felt that his death was nigh. In this difficulty a certain Christian came to the ship and made a wax figure of the merchant, and, having stuck in one eye a model of the arrow which had struck him, carried the figure to the monastery, which was some miles off, and caused the monks to allow him to bring it nigh to the picture of the Virgin. When this had been done, and prayers had been made to her, the figure of the Virgin stretched out its hand, and straightway pulled the model of the arrow out of the eye of the wax figure of the merchant in such a way that no broken fragment remained behind. When the wax figure had been taken back to the ship, it was found that the piece of broken arrow had been extracted from the merchant's eye at the very moment when the Virgin had drawn out the arrow from the eye of the wax figure. The merchant's eye then healed, and he recovered his sight.
67:1 Ed. Erman, pp. 7 and 8.
69:1 I.e., the priestly official who performed the most important of the funeral ceremonies; he was always a man of great learning, and generally of high rank.
71:1 I.e., Chapter V. of the Book of the Dead.
72:1 I.e., Chapter V. of the Book of the Dead.
72:2 This is, 1 think, the meaning of bringing the sand from the east to the west.
77:1 See Devria, Le Papyrus Judiciaire de Turin in Journal Asiatique, 1865; and Chabas, Le Papyrus Magique Harris, p. 169 ff.
79:1 See Chapters of Coming Forth by Day, p. 89.
79:2 I have given a hieroglyphic transcript of both works, with translations, in Archologia, Vol. LII.
81:1 Theocritus has preserved for us a proof that the Greeks made use of wax figures at an early date. Thus in Pharmakeutria (1. 27 ff.) the lady spinning her wheel and addressing the Lynx says, "Even as I melt this wax, with the god to aid, so speedily may he by love be molten!" (Lang's Translation, p. 12).
86:1 This papyrus is preserved in the British Museum (No. 10,472).
86:2 British Museum, No. 20,868.
90:1 Nos. 15,563, 15,564, 15,573, and 15,578 in the Second Egyptian Room.
95:1 i.e., Alexander the Great.
95:2 For further mention of dreams, see the last chapter in this book.
96:1 See my Life and Exploits of Alexander the Great (one volume edition), p. xvi.
96:2 The Greeks used incantations at an early date, as we may see from Pindar, Pythia, iv. 213; this writer lived in the first half of the fifth century before Christ.
97:1 I owe the facts of these two examples of the use of wax figures and the two spells for procuring visions and dreams (see p. 96), and the example of the use of the sphere of Democritus (p. 230), to Mr. F. G. Kenyon, Assistant Keeper in the Dept. of MSS., British Museum.
98:1 See C. K. Sharpe, Witchcraft in Scotland, London, 1884, p. 21.
98:2 London, 1778.
98:3 Born about 1570, died about 1626.
99:1 London, 1895, pp. 53, 56.
100:1 In the Worth Riding of Yorkshire evil influences were averted by means of a living black cock which "was pierced with pins and roasted alive at dead of night, with every door, window, and cranny and crevice stuffed up" (see Blakeborough, Wit, Character, Folk-lore and Customs of the North Riding of Yorkshire, London, 1898, p. 205).
101:1 The following words are put into the mouth of Epistemon in Dmonologie, in Forme of one Dialogue, London, 1603, Second Booke, Chap. V. pp. 44, 45.
102:1 Oriental 646, fol. 29b ff.
Who are we?
Tour Egypt aims to offer the ultimate Egyptian adventure and intimate knowledge about the country. We offer this unique experience in two ways, the first one is by organizing a tour and coming to Egypt for a visit, whether alone or in a group, and living it firsthand. The second way to experience Egypt is from the comfort of your own home: online.
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One of the U.K.'s most critically endangered butterflies is making a comeback thanks to a profit making partnership between private landowners and conservation organizations.
The heath fritillary -- a rare species exclusive to the south of England that thrives in cleared woodland environments -- has declined sharply over the past 25 years as forest clearing has become less common.
But population numbers are on the rise again after the introduction of a forestry management scheme that enables rural landowners to cash in by creating butterfly habitats on their property.
"We were down to 12 colonies (of heath fritillary) in 1995 and most of those were very small," says Dr. Martin Warren, chief executive of Butterfly Conservation, the organization behind the projects implementation.
"Since then we've been able to work with landowners to get the management back up again and we are now looking at 25 colonies in the same area."
The conservation scheme works by first sourcing locations where there are remnants of heath fritillary colonies.
Those who own the land identified during this process -- be they individuals, businesses or wildlife trusts -- are then approached for permission to carry out the conservation work.
This primarily consists of clearing the areas pinpointed of their indigenous plant life and repopulating them with the lighter foliage the heath fritillary requires to prosper.
If landowners agree to take part in the project, they are then able to sell on the discarded lumber that accumulates during the clearing and ensuing maintenance process at a profit.
"A lot of this is about persuasion," says Warren. "You have to deal with loads of different people who all have their own agenda and financial constraints."
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|New Photos||Animal News||Animal Sounds||Animal Movies||Upload Photo||Copyright||Korean|
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|Image Info||Original File Name: Yellow Warbler (Dendroica petechia)-001.jpg Resolution: 1536x1024 File Size: 685057 Bytes Date: 2007:05:19 12:19:59 Camera: Canon EOS-1D Mark II (Canon) F number: f/11.3 Exposure: 1/125 sec Focal Length: 700/1 Upload Time: 2007:11:07 02:26:49|
|Author||Name (E-mail): Unknown|
|Subject||Yellow Warbler (Dendroica petechia) - Wiki|
|Email : E-Card | Poster | Web Master Delete Edit Info Admin|
Yellow Warbler (Dendroica petechia) - Wiki
The Yellow Warbler, Dendroica petechia, is a New World warbler. It is the most widespread Dendroica warbler, breeding in almost the whole of North America and down to northern South America.
Systematics and description
The Yellow Warbler has 35 subspecies, which can be divided into three main groups:
The Yellow Warbler proper (aestiva group) breeds in the whole of North America as far south as central Mexico in open, often wet, woodland or shrub. It is migratory, wintering in Central and South America. This form is a very rare vagrant to western Europe. It is 11.5 cm long and weighs 9 g. The summer males of this group are greenish above and yellow below, with red breast streaking. The various aestiva group races vary mainly in brightness.
The Mangrove Warbler (erithacoroides group) is larger at 12.5 cm and weighs 11 g. It is resident in the mangrove swamps of coastal Central America and northern South America. The summer males differ from aestiva group warblers in that they have rufous hoods. The races in this group vary in the extent and hue of the hood.
The Golden Warbler (petechia group) is resident in the mangrove swamps of the West Indies. The summer males differs from aestiva group warblers in that they have a rufous crown or hood. The races in this group vary in the extent and hue of the head patch.
Other plumages of all races are essentially greenish above and a duller yellow below, although young males soon acquire breast and, where appropriate, head colouration.
The song is a musical sweet sweet sweet, I'm so sweet, although it varies considerably between races. The call is a soft or harder ship.
These birds feed on insects and spiders, but northern races will also take some berries, namely in their winter quarters.
Yellow Warblers nest in trees, building a cup nest. Birds of the aestiva group lay 3???6 eggs, but the two other groups, which breed in mangroves, lay fewer eggs, as would be expected for tropical races.
The Yellow Warbler is a regular host of the Brown-headed Cowbird, a nest parasite, and it has evolved strategies to combat such nest parasitism. Upon discovering a cowbird egg laid in its nest, the warbler will often build a new layer to the nest, covering up the cowbird egg (and its own eggs, if they have been laid). In other circumstances, the bird may desert the nest altogether.
|Copyright Info||AnimmalPicturesArchive.com does not have the copyright for this image. This photograph or artwork is copyright by the photographer or the original artist. If you are to use this photograph, please contact the copyright owner or the poster.||
|CopyLeft © since 1995, Animal Pictures Archive. All rights may be reserved.|
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Date: May 2011
Creator: Crawford, Katlyn Marie
Description: This thesis analyzes and demonstrates the similarities and differences between some of the national symbols of France and the United States. This includes the shared and borrowed aspects of each one and the ways in which each culture is reflected through, and built around them. The flags, national anthems, and several national icons such as France's Marianne and Uncle Sam are discussed. This analysis deals with the historical contexts and cultural meanings of the symbols, showing the changes each has undertaken in form and in national and international importance. Through the study of national symbols, this thesis reveals the similarities along with the differences between the two nations, which are often perceived as being highly dissimilar and even opposing in belief systems, cultures, and histories.
Contributing Partner: UNT Libraries
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New Defibrillator Implanted Just Under the Skin
FRIDAY Sept. 28, 2012 -- The first defibrillator that doesn't require a hard-wired connection to the heart has been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, the agency said Friday in a news release.
Standard defibrillators -- designed to deliver an electric pulse and suppress a rapid or irregular heartbeat -- have used an electrical wire called a lead that's inserted through a vein directly into the heart.
The S-ICD system, by contrast, uses a lead that's implanted just below the skin along the bottom of the rib cage. It's not sanctioned for people who require a pacemaker, the FDA warned.
Approval was based on a 321-person study in which 78 cases of spontaneous arrhythmia (irregular heartbeat) were either resolved by the defibrillator or resolved on their own, the FDA said.
The device manufacturer -- San Clemente, Calif.-based Cameron Health Inc. -- must conduct a five-year post-approval study on the defibrillator's long-term safety and effectiveness, the agency said.
To learn more about heart defibrillators, visit the U.S. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute.
Posted: September 2012
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State-supported crafts seem like a dream to most of us. In these challenging economic times, arts organizations struggle to stay funded and afloat themselves, much less to support individual artisans. But beginning in the mid-19th century, the Swedish government funded textile arts programs, ensuring that the country’s long tradition of hand weaving would continue and that design influences like Art Deco and Art Nouveau wouldn’t overshadow Sweden’s historic weaving patterns and motifs.
The programs meant that rural women could learn to weave and earn an income while doing so. One of them was award-winning rug weaver Märta Måås-Fjetterström, who in 1905, at the age of 32, was named director of a weaving workshop in Malmo. The purpose of these workshops was to preserve traditional designs, but Måås-Fjetterström wanted to create her own — and her insistence on innovation led to her being fired in 1911.
In 1919 she started her own studio and designed textiles for the home, which were woven by women in Malmo district. Her designs reflected Swedish traditions, including a nod to nature and the colors and light of summer, but also incorporated elements of the Oriental rugs she studied. These innovative designs stood out in an era when tradition reigned, as well as because few women were designing at the time. In the next decade her work was exhibited at the Paris Expo and the Metropolitan Museum of Art. In 1934, when she was more than 60 years old, she had a major show of her work in Stockhholm and Swedish art critics took notice.
Måås-Fjetterström died in 1941, but left more than 700 designs, as well as instructions for their creation. Her workshop paved the way for other innovative women designers, including Barbo Nilsson, Marianne Richter, Ann-Mari Forsberg, and others. Each new designer built on Måås-Fjetterström’s work, while bringing her own aesthetic to the workshop. Rugs with the initials of these innovative designers woven into the corner continue to be sought after by collectors and interior designers alike. And the support provided by the Swedish government for crafts workers meant that people with an interest in weaving could make a living while learning the art, ensuring a high level of professionalism and skill. As noted by Kim Hostler of Hostler Burrows in an article in the June 2011 Elle Décor, “Because of socialism, people didn’t have to worry about whether they could afford good schools or health care. If they loved a craft, they could afford to pursue it and still have a decent quality of life.”
Rugs are still woven by hand at Märta Måås-Fjetterström AB studio. A combination of tradition and innovation continues, as well: wool is dyed using recipes collected by Märta Måås-Fjetterström and Barbo Nilsson, and each year the company names a Swedish textile artist MMF Artist of the Year and produces one copy of a rug of their design. The company started by a headstrong Swedish weaver melds the imagery and skill of the country’s textile history with the vision and innovation of today’s artists.
Do you think state-supported crafts could produce skilled craftsmen and women today?
A lifelong sewer/knitter and former weaver/spinner, Linzee Kull McCray, a.k.a. lkmccray, is a writer and editor living in Iowa. She feels fortunate to meet and write about people, from scientists to stitchers, who are passionate about their work. Her freelance writing appears in Quilts and More, Stitch, UPPERCASE, American Patchwork and Quilting and more. For more textile musings, visit her blog.
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How could anyone be convinced to spend money on any program designed to reduce losses to Dutch elm disease when the disease wasnt even here?
Minnesota was considered by many to be too far north for Dutch elm disease to be a problem. It was thought that the smaller European elm bark beetle, which had been the primary vector throughout the eastern states, would have difficulty surviving the harsh winters of Minnesota. It was almost impossible to convince people of the potential hazards of the disease when it was still well removed from the states borders.
How could anyone be convinced to spend money on any program designed to reduce losses to Dutch elm disease when the disease wasnt even here? It wasnt even possible to convince people to stop planting elms, and nurseries were still promoting the elm as an easily transplanted fast growing tree that was resistant to pests and tolerant of harsh urban environments. It was also promoted as a tree that grows tall, beautiful, and lasts for more than a century.
In fact, nurseries continued producing and selling elms even after the disease entered Minnesota.
We will never know exactly when Dutch elm disease first occurred in the state, but we do know it was found in the state for the first time in the early summer of 1961. This finding was identified from some branches from the Highland area of St. Paul, brought in by a tree service company. As far as was known at that time, only one tree was affected and it had wilted in 1960.
More diseased trees were found in 1961 in the Monticello area near the Mississippi River. That several trees were infected at that location suggested that the fungus had been there for at least a year, possibly longer. It is reasonable to assume that the fungus could have been present in one or more of Minnesotas southern tier counties, which were relatively near infested Iowa counties.
Dutch elm disease was also brought into Litchfield, probably in 1961. Many think that it likely arrived there in an automobile of a person returning from a visit to relatives in Illinois, a fact that was learned about accidently in 1987. While the evidence was circumstantial, it was learned that elm wood was brought to Litchfield from Illinois in that year, and a Litchfield elm died of Dutch elm disease shortly after.
The introductions of Dutch elm disease into St. Paul and Monticello were almost certainly the result of people moving the Dutch elm disease fungus, Ceratocystis ulmi, from some relatively distant location, either on beetles or in wood contaminated with the fungus. This belief comes from knowing that the nearest existing confirmed location of Dutch elm disease to St. Paul in 1961 was 100 miles into Wisconsin. The Monticello location was 140 miles distant from the nearest known source.
It took 30 years or longer for the fungus to move to Minnesota from Ohio and other eastern states. Thus this state had ample time to take appropriate steps to reduce or delay the ultimate losses. But people failed to believe that the beetles could survive in Minnesota.
Elms dominated yards, streets, and parks as the shade tree of choice across the upper midwest, from Iowa to Canada and Wisconsin to the Dakotas. Minnesota had about 140 million elm trees in 1950.
Our citizens and leaders should have acknowledged Minnesotas obvious reliance on elms in our urban forests and prepared for the possibility of infection. Minnesota had relied almost entirely on the American elm for its parks, its streets, and wherever people wanted shade trees.
As early as 1912, in its 30th annual report the Minneapolis Board of Park Commissioners called for planting 2,104 trees, all elms. By the time Dutch elm disease struck in this state, Minnesota had close to 140 million elm trees, and little else, lining its streets and streams. The predominance of elms, as the shade tree of choice, stretched from Iowa to Canada and Wisconsin to the Dakotas.
What could have been done in the 1950s or earlier to minimize the possibility of future elm tree losses in Minnesota? Most obviously, we first could have stopped planting elms. Elms in nurseries should have been destroyed and no new elms planted.
A second necessary precaution would have been halting the movement of elm logs, elm firewood, or any form of elm with bark. It should all have been halted, possibly by regulation, but preferably by the potentially far more effective creation of public support through publicity and public education.
Third, sick and dying elms should have been eliminated from cities and parks as much as possible.
Fourth, elms should have been discriminated against in wild and forested areas. Every logging operation should have prescribed removal of elm. Whenever possible, these trees should have been utilized or burned.
A few ineffective attempts were made to establish procedures which would have reduced the elm population, especially those elms thought to be most vulnerable to attack by bark beetles. These attempts were made by a Dutch elm disease committee formed in the 1950s, with representatives from the Minnesota Departments of Agriculture and Natural Resources, and from the University of Minnesota.
The committee considered the steps which should be taken and encouraged appropriate actions. Unfortunately, nurseries were reluctant to cooperate. They continued selling elms, and new suburbs, parks and streets were planted with elms. No formal government restrictions were enacted. Nor was there any publicity urging voluntary restriction of shipment of elm with bark into Minnesota.
All attempts to convince the legislature of the importance of initiating control programs, such as sanitation, were to no avail. Some individual legislators were interested and concerned, but other priorities took preference over concern about a tree disease which was not here and which many thought would be of little consequence.
After a few meetings the Dutch elm disease committee effectively ceased to function, but efforts by its members continued periodically, trying to convince the State Legislature that measures were needed to prepare for the possibility of the arrival of Dutch elm disease.
Even after the disease was found in Minnesota there were excellent opportunities to take steps to reduce or slow subsequent disease losses. The state had almost a decade in which the disease remained at low levels and could have been managed. In the city of St. Paul, from 1961 through 1968 only 30 positive cases were officially reported. The disease was not found in Minneapolis until 1963.
Unfortunately, any enthusiasm for control programs was severely lacking. In fact, it seemed that the slow rate of increase simply confirmed the beliefs held by many that the European elm bark beetle would not survive well in Minnesota, and that the disease would never gain momentum.
Beetles which carry the Dutch elm disease-causing fungus are only abut one-eighth of an inch long. The holes they leave behind as they burrow into dead elm wood are barely the size of pen point.
As late as 1961, a letter from a University of Minnesota entomologist to the members of the Dutch elm disease committee urged that the initiation of sanitation procedures was not yet too late, but that time was running out: If sanitation measures are not started immediately and effectively the devastation may shock the residents of this area. When this happens it will be too late to do something about the problem. 1
During the decade of the 1960s a maximum effort would have prevented the disastrous losses of elm trees experienced by Minnesota in the 1970s. There were, in fact, unfortunate delaying activities that interfered with proper sanitation. One was the notion that an elm need not be condemned or eradicated unless confirmed by laboratory diagnosis to be positive for Dutch elm disease. The laboratory exercise was essentially of little value and dependence on it slowed control programs and provided citizens with a basis for arguing that their tree not be removed.
It really made no difference whether an elm tree died from Dutch elm disease or from any other cause every dead or dying elm should have been eradicated. Bark beetles carrying the Dutch elm disease fungus invaded dead and dying trees irrespective of the cause of a trees demise and each new generation of beetles emerged to carry the Dutch elm disease fungus to healthy trees. All species of elms in which bark beetles can live, not just American elms, needed to be included in a sanitation program.
Carefully managed burning should have been the disposal method of choice for beetle and fungus infected elm wood, but air pollution considerations severely restricted its use.
Even Siberian elms, which are not often killed by the Dutch elm disease fungus, will harbor bark beetle populations and fungus inoculum. Because Siberian elms are very susceptible to winter injury they often sustain considerable amounts of dieback which, while not disastrously harming the tree, is invaded by bark beetles carrying the Dutch elm disease fungus. The next generation of beetles, their progeny, emerge from these resistant elms carrying large numbers of spores of the disease fungus.
Burning has been the most expeditious method of eradicating elm material in which beetles could develop. Unfortunately, a then growing concern about our environment caused otherwise reasonable restrictions to be enacted against burning. Exceptions should have been granted to allow the burning of elm wood which could not be otherwise utilized. Reasonable numbers of fires and amounts of smoke should have been considered an acceptable environmental price to pay for being able to quickly eliminate large volumes of contaminated elm material.
History has proven that all other systems for disposal of large quantities of elm wood have been both more expensive and far less efficient than burning. If managed properly, in consideration of the energy situation, the people of the state of Minnesota could even have saved considerable amounts of money by burning elm locally, rather than insisting on its being hauled to distant disposal sites.
It was not until 1971 that the State Legislature became concerned about Dutch elm disease. Even then, that concern was initiated and sustained by a small core of effective individual legislators. In particular, state representative Tom Berg initiated legislative involvement by forming a committee and holding extensive hearings on the subject prior to the convening of the legislature that year.
With its head start on the legislative session, the committee assembled a proposal and prepared a bill for legislative action. It moved slowly through the process, but it was ultimately passed. More than once it appeared that the bill would be tabled or voted down, but its supporters kept alive the legislation which eventually funded and set in place the largest program ever enacted by a single state to deal with a single tree disease. The bill did technically provide for programs dealing with oak wilt as well as Dutch elm disease, only a minimal effort was expended on the oak wilt problem.
At the same time that the State Legislature recognized the seriousness of Dutch elm disease and took action, congressmen from this part of the country responded at the federal level. In October of 1975, then United States Senator Walter Mondale, of Minnesota, introduced legislation to help at the congressional level. William Steigler, of Wisconsin, introduced the same legislation in the United States House of Representatives.
In accordance with the Americans with Disabilities Act, this material is available in alternative formats upon request. Please contact your University of Minnesota Extension office or the Extension Store at (800) 876-8636.
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The Fram Museum’s altazimuth was used by Fridtjof Nansen and Hjalmar Johansen on their North Pole journey in 1895, after they had left the Fram, which was frozen in the polar ice at 84 degrees north. The instrument has a wooden container.
An altazimuth is a device for measuring altitude and azimuth.
The word comes from 'altus' in Latin meaning hill and 'ass-sunûth' that means way in Arabic.
It is often called a universal instrument because it replaces several instruments (quadrant, theodolite, transit instrument).
Azimuth is the angle of a vertical circle that a celestial body forms with the meridian. A celestial body can be the sun, a star and so forth.
Astronomers and sailors usually find azimuth from north to east from 0 to 360 degrees), which is the same as the true bearing of the navigation tables.
An altazimuth consists of a pair of binoculars that can be rotated about a vertical axis and a horizontal axis.
Ref.: Norwegian Encyclopedia, www.snl.no, Kaare Aksnes, 20-12-08
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Question: "Who were Priscilla and Aquila?"
Answer: The story of these two friends of the apostle Paul is told in Acts 18. Aquila, a Jewish Christian, and his wife, Priscilla, first met Paul in Corinth, became good friends of his, and shared in his work. Eventually the Corinthian church met in their home. These two remarkable people belong in the pantheon of Christian heroes, and their ministry is both an encouragement and an example for us.
When we first meet Aquila and Priscilla, we are told that they had come to Corinth from Italy as victims of Roman persecution, not for their Christian faith but because Aquila was a Jew. The Emperor Claudius expelled all Jews from Rome, and no doubt Jews deemed it unsafe to remain in any part of Italy. Aquila and Priscilla found their way to Corinth and settled there, pursuing their trade as tentmakers. When Paul, a tentmaker himself, came to Corinth, he went to see them, no doubt having heard of their faith in Christ. Paul lived and worked with them while founding the Corinthian church.
After a year and a half, Paul left for Ephesus and took Aquila and Priscilla with him. The couple stayed in Ephesus when Paul left, again establishing a church in their home (1 Corinthians 16:9). Then an eloquent preacher named Apollos came through Ephesus. Apollos was mighty in the Scriptures, but he only knew the baptism of John. This means Apollos knew Christ had come and fulfilled Johnís prophecies, but he didnít know the significance of Christís death and resurrection, the ministry of the indwelling Holy Spirit, or the mystery of the church containing both Jews and Gentiles. Priscilla and her husband took Apollos aside and explained these things to him (Acts 18:24-26). Both Aquila and Priscilla possessed an in-depth understanding of doctrine learned from Paul, and this husband and wife team was able to pass it on to another Christian and build him up in the faith.
These two remarkable people set an example for us of hospitality, seen in opening their home to Paul and using their house as a meeting place for churches wherever they went. We are also impressed by their passion for Christ and their hunger for knowledge of Him.
Another hallmark of the lives of Priscilla and Aquila is their desire to build others in the faith. Paulís last reference to them is in his last letter. Paul was imprisoned in Rome and writing to Timothy one last time. Timothy was pastoring the church at Ephesus, and Aquila and Priscilla are there with him, still faithfully ministering (2 Timothy 4:19). To the end, Aquila and Priscilla were offering hospitality to other Christians, spreading the gospel they had learned from Paul, and rendering faithful service to the Master.
© Copyright 2002-2013 Got Questions Ministries.
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Praise for the previous edition:
"...an excellent first-step resource for students and researchers...The material is comprehensive, objective...the writing is clear...recommended for academic and public libraries..."—American Reference Books Annual
"Recommended for school and public libraries."—Christian Library Journal
When a criminal offense includes the element of bias, it is regarded as a hate crime. In 1993 the Supreme Court approved penalty enhancement schemes for hate crimes in Wisconsin v. Mitchell. Recognizing these crimes as acts committed against entire communities, 45 U.S. states now impose additional penalties for hate crimes.
The Supreme Court and state courts have put important constitutional limits on the enforcement and prosecution of hate crimes statutes, and Congress has repeatedly debated whether to enact a federal hate-crimes law. But lawmakers, courts, and ordinary Americans continue to disagree over which crime victims hate crimes laws should protect. Meanwhile, critics insist that the law should make no distinction between bias crimes and ordinary crimes. Hate Crimes, Revised Edition provides students and general readers with the resources necessary to define, understand, and research one of the most contentious topics in the United States today. A glossary, appendixes, and a chronology round out this accessible and timely resource.
- A complete background on the incidence of hate crimes
- An overview of hate-crime legislation and judicial opinions regarding these laws at both the state and national levels
- The public debate over the desirability, constitutionality, and justifiability of penalty enhancement for perpetrators of hate crimes
- The public debate over whether hate-crimes laws should protect crime victims based on disability, status as an immigrant, sexual orientation, or gender identity
- Extracts from documents such as the FBI Uniform Crime Report (2006) and the Local Law Enforcement Hate Crimes Prevention Act (2007).
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Nonfiction Reading Comprehension: Grades 5-6 (Resource Book Only) eBookGrade 5|Grade 6
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This book provides students in grade 5 6 with practice in reading nonfiction selections and testing for comprehension with reading selections in science, history, geography, economics, and informational text.
Submit a review
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Abundant questions, scarce answers
A year has passed since I reported from the World AIDS Conference in Geneva about "lipodystrophy syndrome."
Much has happened since then. Within the last year, four conferences have been held where researchers have addressed lipodystrophy and presented some data. But we still have not agreed on a name or definition of the condition, nor do we understand the mechanism causing it, and we certainly have no clear idea about how to treat it.
What is lipodystrophy?
Lipodystrophy, defined as any disturbance of fat metabolism, is associated in some variation with many medical conditions, including HIV/AIDS.
While the term "lipodystrophy" is not accurate in its current usage in regard to HIV drug complications, it is widely used since no better word or definition of the condition has yet come along to replace it.
The condition is sometimes referred to as lipoatrophy (loss of fat), fat redistribution or fat maldistribution syndrome, among other things.
We do know we are seeing a variety of physical and biochemical changes in people with HIV infection. Speculation that these changes may not be related to each other appears to be gaining validity. What we have been observing over the last two years may be more than one syndrome.
Regardless of what may be the ultimate cause and mechanism, monitoring changes is very important. Be sure that you and your doctor fully document any changes on your medical record and as best as possible clearly identify the underlying cause of each of these changes.
Physical changes associated with lipodystrophy syndrome are related to body shape and body composition, mostly body fat losses and fat gains. No consensus yet exists on the best way to measure body changes.
BIA (bio-electric impedance analysis), CAT (computerized axial tomography) scan, DEXA (dual x-ray absorptiometry), and anthropometric, which includes skinfold measurements and waist-hip ratio, are ways currently being used. You and your physician should routinely look at the areas of your body that may potentially change to at least visually monitor them.
Parts of the body where changes in body fat may occur include:
A set of researchers at the First International Workshop on Adverse Drug Reactions and Lipodystrophy in HIV held in June in San Diego reported that they had documented rates of body fat changes, with abdominal obesity being the most common.
The order of less common changes seen were thinning of the extremities, buttocks, sunken cheeks, developing a moon face and buffalo hump. Others reported that overweight individuals were more likely to experience fat accumulation, while those who are underweight were more likely to experience fat loss under the skin.
Risk of fat redistribution was found to be greater among older individuals, those who had lived a long time with HIV and those who had been using long-term combination antiretroviral therapy.
Trends in gender differences were reported. Women were more likely to experience fat accumulation (98 percent) than men (76 percent), and men were more likely to experience fat loss under the skin (80 percent) than women (73 percent).
It seems that gender, age and pre-therapy weight all play roles in the types of fat changes that occur.
Hemophiliacs were reported to be at greater risk of experiencing changes in fat distribution. (Because hemophiliacs who are living were usually infected before 1985, they are older and likely to be on medications longer.)
Biochemical effects associated with lipodystrophy are metabolic changes: the way that nutrients are processed. Changes that have been seen include the following:
Blood glucose (sugar)
Blood lipids (fat)
Trends in gender differences have been seen. Men are more likely to have increased blood fats, triglycerides (84 percent) and cholesterol (53 percent), when compared to women (32 percent, 28 percent, respectively).
Abnormal lab values may require modifications in diet and exercise. Additional medications may be prescribed to control and avoid further complications. Problems associated with these metabolic abnormalities are numerous and pose life-compromising and threatening conditions: coronary artery disease, stroke, diabetes mellitus, renal failure, and death.
Every individual with HIV infection should have his or her fasting blood sugar and lipid panel monitored quarterly, after fasting for 8 to 12 hours.
P.I.s and lipodystrophy
Lipodystrophy syndrome appears to occur in 35 to 50 percent of those with more than three years of use of protease inhibitors. It appears to occur somewhat less frequently among those on combination therapy that does not include a protease inhibitor. Until a consensus emerges on a lipodystrophy definition, these percentages will vary greatly.
Morris Schambelan, M.D., from the University of California at San Francisco reported on data from the Third International Conference on Nutrition in HIV Infection, held in Cannes, France in April. According to Schambelan, fasting triglyceride and cholesterol rise and insulin sensitivity decreases after the starting of protease inhibitors before any body composition changes are identified. This finding means that metabolic changes occur first and may cause body fat composition changes, and that it is unlikely that body fat changes cause metabolic abnormalities.
However, a report by Donald Kotler, M.D., from St. Lukes-Roosevelt Medical Center in New York City found that changes of body fat are not necessarily associated with high lipid levels. Thierry St. Marc of Lyons, France, reported that body fat changes may be significantly associated with changes in serum insulin concentration, which is a laboratory test usually not measured or obtained in typical clinical practices. St. Marc also showed that high triglyceride levels were significantly associated with losses of fat.
Frank Goebel, Ph.D. from Ludwig-Maximillians-University in Munich, Germany, reported that insulin resistance ranges from zero for people not on combination antiretroviral therapy, to 25 percent for people taking a nucleoside reverse transciptase inhibitor (NRTI), to 50 percent when taking an NRTI in combination with an non-NRTI (NNRTI). The rate rises to 55 percent for those taking the triple combination of NRTI, NNRTI and protease inhibitor.
Many drugs implicated
Numerous reports at the lipodystrophy conference confirmed that all NRTI drugs are associated with some body fat changes.
One study reported that 14 percent of patients who had never taken protease inhibitors experienced fat loss compared to 51 percent of patients who were or had taken protease inhibitors.
Further, studies have indicated some combinations to be more strongly associated in these changes. d4T (Zerit®) has been associated with fat changes that are two- to three times the rate of other NRTIs. The longer time on d4T was statistically associated with the amounts of lower leg subcutaneous fat (fat right under the skin). According to M. Galli, M.D. and others from University of Milan, Italy, the highest associated incidence rates of fat redistribution were d4T (26 percent), 3TC (18 percent), ddC (15 percent), and both AZT and ddI (9 percent).
Over the last few years there have been reports of mitochondrial toxicity by NRTIs.
In your gut, food gets mechanically cut into smaller pieces, mixed with water and enzymes to be chemically digested breaking down the complicated larger nutrients of carbohydrates, protein and fats into much smaller molecules of glucose, amino acids and triglycerides. These molecules are then carried through the bloodstream to be used or stored after a series of further metabolic processes.
With the help of insulin, glucose enters the cell and then through a series of systematic steps uses oxygen to further break down and produce energy, by-products and waste products. These last steps, called electron-transport or oxidation, take place in the mitochondria, the "power plant" of the cell.
What seems to be occurring is that NRTIs and the nucleotide adefovir (not yet approved by the Food and Drug Administration), adversely affects mitochondrial DNA, which is important in the maintaining mechanics of the mitochondria that produces energy. One of the adverse results is the production of excess by-product, lactic acid, which normally would be further oxidized and not accumulate.
Symptoms of lactic acidosis are nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and hyperventilation. In the extreme, lactic acidosis can be fatal. Other conditions that may be related to mitochondrial toxicity include polyneuropathy, myopathy, steatosis, pancreatitis, pancytopenia and proximal tubal dysfunction. Co-existing nutrient deficiencies of riboflavin and acetyl-carnitine and other factors may further contribute to NRTI toxicity.
Nutritional sources of riboflavin (vitamin B2) are eggs, lean meat, milk, broccoli and enriched breads and cereals. We usually recommend a routine vitamin and mineral supplement and an additional B-complex vitamin supplement. Riboflavin is the vitamin that turns urine that vivid yellow color. Five to 10 times the recommended daily allowance (RDA) has been sufficient in other conditions to correct riboflavin deficiency. Many typical multiple vitamin-mineral supplements or B-complex preparations are more than adequate to correct the condition if it exists.
Nutritional sources for carnitine are red meat, pork, chicken, fish, milk and cheese. Fruits, vegetables and grains are a much poorer source. If supplementing, L-carnitine should be chosen and absolutely not R-carnitine. Many nutritionists prefer to recommend the pharmaceutical grade Carnitor rather than an over-the-counter supplement.
While some trends are beginning to appear, no clear treatment recommendations exist. Any steps people take are still experimental. Constant reminders through all the conference reports urge caution against reaching premature conclusions.
The role of protease inhibitors and NRTIs in lipodystrophy syndrome, and the syndrome itself, has been very distressing to many. Researchers, clinicians and nutrition and treatment advocates urge clients not to stop taking medications without a full discussion with the treating physician. It is clear that stopping medications quickly leads to viral rebound and an increase in the risk of developing drug resistance to medications.
Body image is an important part of maintaining one's self esteem and determining one's health behaviors. Some people may prefer a larger body size normally and more so to avoid any possible hint of HIV infection. Some may strive for an underweight body size and even refuse therapy to maintain it.
Being overweight or underweight have negative health effects. Daily, we must make decisions to eat healthful foods and avoid unhealthful ones, to exercise, and, if you are doing so, take steps to stop smoking. Optimizing your body's health is still your first and foremost priority.
This article has been reprinted at The Body with the permission of AIDS Project Los Angeles (APLA).
This article was provided by AIDS Project Los Angeles. It is a part of the publication Positive Living.
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But have they heard the forecast?
While Britain battens down the hatches in preparation for an icy blast from the north, the bats at WWT London Wetland Centre have been making the most of the mild weather so far this winter.
There were 36 recordings of bats flying over the Centre’s main lake during the two weeks from December 21. Bats hibernate throughout the winter and only come out to feed if the weather warms up, an indication of the current mild weather. Three species of bat, including the Nathusius’ pipistrelle which is nationally rare, were recorded on a bat detector.
Just as unusually, on New Year’s Eve a warden at WWT London Wetland Centre found a confused juvenile slow worm in a refugia; the earliest – or latest? – sighting ever recorded at the wildlife reserve. Slow worms, which are actually lizards, are regularly seen throughout the warmer spring, summer and autumn months but hibernate from October until March.
Even fungi have come out of hiding, fooled into thinking it is still autumn. The beautiful Blue Roundhead mushroom has been spotted, an interesting find for the New Year to add to the excitement of discovering the near threatened species, Poplar Bells, at the Centre for the first time in late November.
And signs of spring are already beginning to appear with catkins swaying from the branches of hazel trees in the Centre’s grounds.
It remains to be seen how the animals and plants will cope when winter returns with a vengeance this weekend.
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You can view the current or previous issues of Diabetes Health online, in their entirety, anytime you want.
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When the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT) and United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) were published in the 1990s, it was made clear that to reduce the eye, kidney and nerve complications of diabetes, average glucose levels must be much lower. However, in these trials, the incidence of low blood glucose levels increased when lower A1C goals were attempted.
So, for the patient with diabetes, a balance is forced. The fear of high blood glucose levels and long-term complications make us try to drive the blood glucose levels down, while the dangers inherent in pushing glucose levels too low and suffering the short-term complications of hypoglycemia make us try to drive the glucose levels up.
It is clear that in order to achieve recommended glucose goals, we must give more attention to the physiological replacement of insulin. In other words, we have to learn to think like a pancreas.
Basal Bolus Physiology
In the fasting state, a small amount of insulin is needed to match the glucose that is made by the liver. This insulin is often referred to as the basal, or background, insulin.
The basal insulin level needed to keep glucose levels normal is not constant, at least in type 1 diabetes. During the evening and early morning hours, there is an increased insulin resistance, requiring higher insulin levels to maintain normal glucose levels. This so-called Dawn Phenomenon of increased insulin resistance is due to increased growth hormone or cortisol.
With meals, an increased amount of insulin is released in a two-part wave that is important to achieve ideal after-meal blood glucose levels. The first phase is the initial 10 minutes following the start of a meal. In the second phase, insulin levels slowly rise to meet the requirement of moving glucose into these tissues.
For people with diabetes, after-meal high blood glucose is dependent on the carbohydrate content of the meal. Regardless of the type of carbohydrate, the total carbohydrate load appears to be the best indicator of the after-meal glucose increase.
Therefore, proper dosing of bolus insulin requires the diabetic to match the insulin injection dose with the carbohydrates in a meal to achieve the best after-meal blood glucose control.
Basal Insulin Choices
NPH, Lente and Ultralente
For decades, insulin such as NPH, Lente and Ultralente has been available for basal insulin. These three insulins are modified into a cloudy suspension to create a prolonged action, and therefore they can be given once or twice a day.
Compared to the newer insulin analogs, the aforementioned are inexpensive. They have the disadvantage of having an unwanted peak action and a pharmacodynamic action that may vary as much as 50 percent from one injection to the next. The unwanted choice is between higher targets for glucose control or frequent meals to prevent hypoglycemia.
Lantus (insulin glargine) is an analog designed to have a desirable basal flat profile after injection, compared with the shorter duration of action and early peak of NPH insulin. Lantus is a clear insulin, unlike other long-acting insulins currently available. Compared to NPH, Lantus is associated with less weight gain and less hypoglycemia at any given level of blood glucose control. The duration of action for Lantus can range from 13 to more than 24 hours, but the average is less than 24 hours. Because of this and the need for different basal rate levels during a 24- hour period, Lantus is given twice a day for some type 1s.
Bolus Insulin Choices
Until recently, Regular insulin was the only bolus insulin. Readily available and inexpensive as compared to the newer analogs, it is not without problems when compared to the newer analog insulins. Because of the delay in onset of action, bolus insulin must be injected at least 30 minutes before eating. This delayed onset may lead to misjudging the amount needed for the meal’s carbohydrate load.
Humalog and NovoLog
Several rapid-acting insulin analogs, namely Humalog (insulin lispro), NovoLog (insulin aspart) and Apidra (insulin glulisine), are or will soon be available. There does not appear to be a clinical difference in how they perform once they are injected. Their onset is within 15 minutes after injection, with a peak at 60 minutes and a duration of four or five hours. They may be given immediately before the meal. Increased doses do not seem to prolong its action, so there is no need to project its effect into the next meal as for Regular insulin. Because of the rapid action of these analogs, they are the most commonly used insulins in pump therapy.
Initial Insulin Dosing
Resistance to adopting basal bolus therapy often seems to lie with the primary care physician. Since the provider is the one who initiates treatment, it is important that he or she believes that basal bolus dosing is the best approach.
The diabetes care team must discuss these important facts with the person with diabetes: that although one or two injections a day may be easier, that’s not how a normal pancreas acts. A normal pancreas delivers a bolus of insulin for each meal and a variable small amount all during the 24-hour period to meet the body’s basal insulin needs. The “best” treatment requires an injection before each meal and one or two basal insulin injections each day.
Once educated, both patient and provider are usually convinced of the merits of basal bolus dosing. Basal bolus dosing allows the person with diabetes to achieve a lower A1C with less likelihood of hypoglycemia. It allows for greater flexibility and eliminates the need to eat frequent meals in order to prevent hypoglycemia.
0 comments - Jun 1, 2005
Diabetes Health is the essential resource for people living with diabetes- both newly diagnosed and experienced as well as the professionals who care for them. We provide balanced expert news and information on living healthfully with diabetes. Each issue includes cutting-edge editorial coverage of new products, research, treatment options, and meaningful lifestyle issues.
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"The magnetic field or magnetic direction may be perceived as a dark or light spot which lies upon the normal visual field of the bird," Heyers said, "and which, of course, changes when the bird turns its head."
The study was published in a recent issue of the Public Library of Science journal PLoS ONE.
More Navigational Tools
Scientists not involved with the study said it is impressive and well done, but cautioned that there are more pieces to the puzzle of how birds navigate on their long migrations.
"An animal that has to migrate over great distances needs to have both a compass and a map," said Cordula Mora, a biologist who recently completed her postdoctoral research at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.
Mora's work suggests that birds may use magnetic crystals in their beaks to sense the intensity of the magnetic field and thus glean information on their physical location. (Related news: "Magnetic Beaks Help Birds Navigate, Study Says" [November 24, 2004].)
"If you have a compass, you know where north, south, east, [and] west [are], but you don't know where you are, so you don't know where you should be going," she said.
Study author Heyers said "both [map and compass] systems may act in concert."
Robert Beason is a wildlife research biologist with the U.S. Department of Agriculture in Sandusky, Ohio, and an expert on bird navigation.
He noted that stars may also either fully or in part provide the birds with their visual bearing—not the magnetic field.
The next step is to figure out where all this information comes together in the bird brain, he noted.
"That's probably going to tell us where the navigation center for birds is," he said.
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SOURCES AND RELATED WEB SITES
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After a year of political turbulence, ethnic violence and the ousting of President Kurmanbek Bakiyev, Kyrgyzstan is creating a new model of government. A whopping 83 candidates have registered to run in the October 30 presidential election, although many are expected to drop out.
The candidates are now required to collect at least 30,000 signatures, pay an electoral deposit of more than $2,000 and pass a televised Kyrgyz language test by September 25 in order to be considered contenders.
This will be the first presidential election since the deadly April 2010 uprising — when a coup overthrew the president — but this time, with a new purpose. Kyrgyzstan announced last year it would attempt to forge Central Asia’s first parliamentary democracy, in the hopes of calming political turmoil.
"The event will be watched with interest throughout Central Asia as yet another chapter of a wild democratic experiment that’s been convulsing Kyrgyzstan for the past six years," said Asia Society Bernard Schwartz Fellow Philip Shishkin.
This shifting of power to the parliament comes after nearly two decades of authoritarian rule that ended with Bakiyev's overthrow. Unfortunately for those hoping the polls will bring political and economic stability, Shishkin said, the country's problems “won’t go away with a single presidential election.”
While noting that Kyrgyzstan is the freest place in Central Asia, Shishkin cautioned that worrying signs still abound: "Kyrgyz nationalism is on the rise; corruption is rampant; and the parliament, now the source of most political power, has made some silly moves, such as censoring the media."
For many a larger concern is the ethnic, economic, and political divides that may limit the progress of the country’s post-election stabilization. Shishkin poses two questions:
“Is democracy worth it? Or is the old autocratic system entrenched elsewhere in Central Asia better suited for the region’s economic development?”
Share your answers below.
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Tropical Storm Hanna over United States East Coast
Tropical Storm Hanna did not reach hurricane strength before making landfall near the South Carolina-North Carolina state line in the pre-dawn hours of September 6, 2008. Instead it hovered just on the brink of minimal Category 1 hurricane status. The storm continued up the East Coast bringing rain and winds.
This image captured by the MODIS on the Terra satellite shows the storm on September 6, 2008 just after noon. The storm moved very quickly - on Sept 5th, the eye of the storm was about 250 kilometers east of the Florida-Georgia state line. In just under a day, the weakening center of the storm was located west-northwest of Norfolk, Virginia, and Hampton Roads Harbor—more than 730 kilometers (more than 455 miles) north-northeast.
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In the months after the Intolerable Acts, events began to move quickly. The First Continental Congress met in September 1774, and accomplished two things: it passed a boycott of British goods and called for a Second Continental Congress to meet the next May. Britain, the colonies' major trading partner, increased its military presence in response. The soldiers and the restless colonists came into increasing tension. On 19 April 1775, the tension snapped with a single shot heard around the world, as the battles of Lexington and Concord plunged the colonies into the Revolutionary War.
The Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia in May 1775, less than a month after the first bloodshed. When the Virginia delegation arrived, it caused quite a stir. Not only was it the most opulent delegation (Virginia's planter elites were the wealthiest of all the colonists) it was also the most famous. We're talking eighteenth-century rock stars here. George Washington, the hero of the French and Indian War and perhaps the most respected man in America, arrived in full military uniform, ready to lead the war against Britain. His co-delegate Patrick Henry was the continent's most famous orator for spearheading the fight against the Stamp Act. And the leader of the Virginia delegation, Jefferson's cousin Peyton Randolph, was so highly esteemed by colonial politicians that he had been elected president of the First Continental Congress and was immediately elected president of the Second as well.
Notably absent was Thomas Jefferson. It is notable for us anyway; at the time, no one would have expected to see him there. He still wasn't a big enough deal to be a Virginia representative, and besides, he preferred staying home. But when his cousin Randolph was called back to Virginia to become president of the House of Burgesses. Jefferson was sent in his stead. He was widely seen as Randolph's political heir; if Randolph was coming home, it made perfect sense to the other Virginia delegates that Jefferson should take his place in Congress.
Jefferson was not exactly thrilled to go. He felt like the real work of the revolution was taking place at home, in Virginia, where they were drafting a new state constitution. He hated cities, missed his wife, and did not like public speaking. Thus, Jefferson took what would be the most consequential trip of his life begrudgingly. Almost from the day he arrived, he wrote letters back to Virginia begging to be recalled.
While he waited for Virginia to send someone to replace him, Jefferson worked as Congress's draftsman. His reputation as a writer (what John Adams called his "peculiar felicity of expression") had preceded him, and so he landed most of Congress's written assignments, drafting memoranda and writing declarations. It bothered him less than the Congress' other work—at least he didn't have to speak in public, and it left him plenty of time to read. There was, then, nothing unusual when he found himself assigned to a committee charged with producing a draft for a declaration of independence; indeed, it would have been surprising if he hadn't been assigned to the job. Nothing unusual either in his writing the entire document alone: the other committee members had more important things to do, and besides, Jefferson had already basically written the thing for Congress already.4 Earlier in the year he had written A Declaration of the Causes and Necessity for Taking Up Arms, and in May and June of 1776, had been working on a draft of a new constitution for Virginia. Jefferson slammed out a draft in a couple days, ran it by John Adams and Benjamin Franklin, and went back to dreaming about how he was going to get out of Philadelphia.
Years later, his authorship of the Declaration of Independence would become the cornerstone of Jefferson's fame. At the time the Declaration was not such a big deal. When it was brought to the floor on the 2nd of July, Congress spent two days editing the particulars of Jefferson's indictment of George III. The preamble, the most famous part of the Declaration today, made it through editing mostly unchanged. Nevertheless, Jefferson felt that Congress did more harm than good with its tinkering. They struck out two claims in particular that he hated to see go. The first was a criticism of the British people for not helping the colonists fight their King. And the second was a criticism of slavery.
Jefferson's relationship to slavery was difficult to understand, even at the time. Like all wealthy Virginians, he kept slaves. And, also like most wealthy Virginians, he felt that slavery was an evil institution. It wasn't that slaves were equal to free men—Jefferson made it very clear that he believed whites were smarter and better developed than blacks—just that slavery itself was a moral evil that should be ended. The problem, as Jefferson saw it, was that there wasn't really any practical way to end slavery. Former slaves couldn't live next to their white masters; that would be nothing but an invitation to civil war. Besides, slaves were necessary for the economic structure the South had then developed. As he aged, Jefferson settled into a studied indecision on the question of slavery; he criticized it in moral terms whenever he could, but never took any action on it, and left the problem's resolution to future generations. But the young Jefferson of the Second Continental Congress was not yet quite so jaded. Congress's decision to strike his denunciation of slavery from the Declaration made him mad.
Thus when the Declaration of Independence was finally published, on the Fourth of July, 1776, Jefferson was disappointed. Luckily, its author's frustrations did little to mar its reception: the Declaration was read aloud in meeting halls and public squares across the land, and provided a model for the separate states as they organized their governments. It even made a bit of splash internationally; after the end of the Revolutionary War, the Declaration took on new life as an international legal document. When Jefferson's authorship became known, in 1784, it catapulted him to instant fame.
In the summer of 1776, though, the promise of future renown was not enough to keep Jefferson working in Philadelphia. Jefferson had wanted out, and still wanted out. In September, Virginia finally sent him a replacement, and Jefferson rushed home.
His work in Philadelphia had earned him a bit of a reputation back in Virginia, and he came back a more prominent political figure than he had left. As befit a shy draftsman, he set himself to revising the Virginia legal code, trying to bring it into line with his emerging vision of democratic society. Jefferson wanted to create a world in which all white males had the opportunity to live the classical statesman's ideal. He wanted a world of free, independent individuals. With that goal in mind, he set out to eliminate the things he felt stood in the way of making that world possible. He drafted laws to end the practice of entailment, which prevented heirs from breaking up estates and so fostered the creation of landed elites, and tried to protect freedom of thought. He even lobbied for a public education system. If we look at the logic of Jefferson's reforms, we can start to see the outlines of what would later be called his Republican political program. Jefferson's democracy would be made up of private citizens coming together to take care of business. They would need to be free citizens, as in the classical ideal—free to support themselves, and free to think. And since they were going to come together to make political decisions, they would need to be educated enough to make those decisions well.
It was an interesting idea. But as Jefferson was about to learn, to become a viable political vision, it was going to need to some work.
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UNODC is cosponsor of the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS - UNAIDS
Bangladesh: empowering women to deal with drug use, HIV and AIDS in their families
In Bangladesh, drug use, especially by injection, is one of the key contributors to the spread of HIV. In 2008, 11.1 per cent of all reported HIV infections were associated with injecting drug use. Unprotected sex is another factor leading to the spread of sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. High rates of illiteracy among women make it more difficult for them to know about the risks of HIV infection and possible protection strategies. Educating women about HIV and AIDS and about sexual and reproductive health, therefore, is essential for their own safety.
In addition, as a result of persistent discrimination, many women continue to be denied the power to negotiate certain situations that would allow them to reduce the risk of becoming infected with HIV. Women who use illicit drugs suffer even more because of the intensity of stigma and discrimination often associated with such drug use. Women are also disproportionately affected by domestic violence, rape and other forms of physical abuse, as well as from a lower social status, more limited educational opportunities and even from crimes such as human trafficking. In general, women present a relatively small segment of drug users, but their situation is of particular concern. The stigma and discrimination they face is disproportionately intense and keeps them from seeking and accessing the health and educational services they need.
Where services are available, too few specifically meet the needs of women, who are then left without concrete options to protect themselves. To respond to this grave situation, UNODC, in partnership with the Government of Bangladesh and civil society partners, implements a model comprehensive package for women who use drugs and women who regularly have sex with men who use drugs. The package includes accessible, non-judgmental, friendly and gender-sensitive services provided by mainly female staff to the women. Further, the interventions are tailored towards outreach, information dissemination, education and primary health-care services that meet women's specific needs.
The story of Asma*, who has been using these services, captures and highlights some of the efforts supported by UNODC and the impact those efforts are having on female drug users in Bangladesh.
"My name is Asma and I am the wife of a drug user. When I got married three years ago, my husband's drug habit was kept a secret by his relatives and closely guarded from me. I have seen my husband use heroin for six long years. As his craving for drugs gradually grew, so did violence at home. He would extort the little money I would save for the house and if I resisted, he would beat me. During those years, the trauma of discrimination that we faced was more painful than the beatings and effects of drug use. The neighbours alienated us and stopped all interaction. I felt helpless, alone and had no idea where to go for help. I needed to share my problems and receive the right advice.
"A few months ago, I learned about the drop-in centre supported by UNODC and its treatment facilities for drug users through an outreach worker. She informed me that many women in a similar situation like me went to the centre for help. Like those women, I started frequenting the drop-in centre, where I learned about the risks of becoming infected with HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases, about how I could get jaundice and about protection strategies. I also received counselling, free medication and treatment from well-trained female doctors after I contracted an infection. Apart from this, I learned how to read and write my name. Today, I help in spreading these prevention messages among other women in the area where I am living. Through all the women's social groups and networks that I have come in contact with through the drop-in centre, I motivate other women not only to educate themselves about health issues, but to claim their social and economic rights as well.
"Visiting the centre has been instrumental in getting my life back and reversing the social attitude that women should not be educated about health issues mainly relating to sexually transmitted diseases. Sharing my problems with female doctors and other women has helped me feel more motivated and accepted. Today, I motivate and support my husband to seek treatment and counselling. I also participate in making decisions that relate to the household, which is a significant step for me. I have realized that social attitudes towards women can change for the better if women themselves become the catalysts for change but not without the support of such interventions."
In Bangladesh, UNODC supports the national response to HIV and AIDS through its project entitled "Prevention of transmission of HIV among drug users in SAARC countries", which has been made possible thanks to the contributions of the Australian Agency for International Development.
*Name has been changed to protect privacy.
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I was in a major art supply store the other day and just stood in awe in front of the acrylic paint section. I was marveling at the different types of paint now available, fast acrylics of every colour in every possible consistency. Hard paints, soft blending paints, liquids: guaranteed. It is not that long ago when artists had to create and mix their own pigments, never being absolutely sure of the properties of their ingredients, and whether they would last.
It was of interest therefore to read of the work going on with modern equipment to track down faded or disappeared colours in works of art. In particular, the now almost colourless sky of Wimslow Homer’s “Oh To Be A Farmer’s Boy” has been shown to have been a brilliant red and orange.
In preparing for the Art Institute’s major Homer exhibition, conservators discovered, using X-ray fluorescence spectrometry and visual examination through a microscope, that the painting’s white skies were originally painted in unstable red and orange dyes that have almost completely faded.
That’s neat. But modern techniques allow for even more improvements in method. Just a few years ago, given such information, the restorers would have been busy re-painting the original. Now, we can retain the original as it has become (important in my judgment) and the conservators can use sophisticated software to display to the public their idea of the original painting. This is what they have done with the Homer exhibition. Good stuff.
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From The Works of William Shakespeare. Vol. 16. Ed. Evangeline Maria O'Connor. J.D. Morris and Co.
Shakespeare has made Ariel an Elemental Being of the higher order, identified with the upward-tending elements of Air and Fire, and with the higher nature of man; and he has made Caliban an Elemental Being of
the lower order, identified with the downward-tending
elements of Earth and Water, and the lower nature of man.
The identification is too detailed to be fanciful. The very name of Ariel is borrowed from air, and he is directly addressed: "Thou, which art but air." The identification with fire is not less complete: when describing the lightning Ariel does not say that he set the ship a-fire, but that the ship was "all a-fire with me": —
Now in the waist, the deck, in every cabin,
I flamed amazement: sometime I'ld divide
And burn in many places.
We can see in him just the qualities of air and fire. He is invisible, but, like the lightning, can take shape as he acts. Like air and fire he can penetrate everywhere, treading the ooze of the salt deep, running upon the
sharp wings of the north, doing business in the veins of earth when it is baked with frost. His natural speech is music, or waves of air. His ideas are the ideas associated with the atmosphere — liberty and omnipresence: to be "free as mountain winds," to fly on the bat's
back merrily, couch in the cowslip's bell, live under the blossom that hangs on the bough. Like the atmosphere he reflects human emotions without feeling them.
Ariel. If you now behold them, your affections
Would become tender. Prospero. Dost thou think so, spirit? Ariel. Mine would, sir, were I human.
The analogy extends to character. Even a character
can be found for the atmosphere: in place of our motive
and passion it substitutes caprice — "the wind bloweth
where it listeth." So Ariel is "moody" or full of moods :
and one of the most difficult incidents of the play — the
quarrel between Prospero and Ariel — takes coherency,
if we see in it Prospero governing this incarnation of
caprice by outcapricing him; there is an absence of moral
seriousness throughout, and a curious irony, by which
Prospero, under the guise of invective, is bringing out
Ariel's brave endurance and delicate refinement, and
in the form of threats gives his rebellious subject more
than he had asked for. Finally, a single passage is sufficient to connect Ariel with the upward tendencies of human nature. We hear the reason of his cruel sufferings at the hands of Sycorax.
For thou wast a spirit too delicate
To act her earthy and abhorr'd commands,
Refusing her grand hests, she did confine thee,
By help of her more potent ministers,
And in her most unmitigable rage.
Into a cloven pine.
Nothing could more clearly paint the instincts of light oppressed by the power of darkness until the deliverer comes.
Moulton: Shakespeare as a Dramatic Artist.
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