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Olympia, WA - Now that school’s out, kids are gearing up for fun in the sun. Whether they’re going to summer camp, taking a vacation trip, or traveling to stay with friends or relatives, they should be protected from vaccine-preventable diseases.
Summer camps in several states have had disease outbreaks recently. For instance, a mumps outbreak that began in a summer camp last August continues in several Northeast states, so mumps is one of the diseases causing concern this year. Crowded living conditions like camps can promote the spread of disease to unvaccinated kids. Parents should make sure their kids have all the immunizations they need, just like they do when starting school each year.
“Parents want their kids to be healthy and safe, especially when they’re away from home,” said State Health Officer Dr. Maxine Hayes, a pediatrician. “Just as you try to protect your kids from sunburns, bug bites, and injuries, you should also protect them from diseases.”
This News is a service of:
Some vaccines that kids don’t need in the U.S. may be needed when they travel to other countries. If your child will be traveling, schedule a visit with your health care provider well in advance of the trip. Most vaccines take time to become effective. Some vaccines must be given in a series over a period of weeks or even months.
Parents should also ask their health care provider about the routine immunizations their child may need. Updating their immunizations also prepares children for the upcoming school year.
Parents may need a copy of their child’s immunization record for summer camp registration. Health care providers can use the CHILD Profile Immunization Registry (http://www.doh.wa.gov/cfh/childprofile/default.htm) to help parents get a copy of their child’s record by printing it directly from the registry.
For help finding a health care provider or an immunization clinic, call your local health agency (www.doh.wa.gov/LHJMap/LHJMap.htm) or the WithinReach (www.withinreachwa.org) Family Health Hotline at 1-800-322-2588. To find a travel medicine clinic, ask your regular health care provider for a referral or call your local health agency.
Required vaccine information (http://www.doh.wa.gov/cfh/Immunize/schools/vaccine.htm) and travelers’ health (http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/) information is available online.
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Suggested Order of Study
The materials on this website are presented a la carte. Pick and choose the categories and lessons, but read this page for some general guidelines.
A Structured Step-by-Step Approach
If you want to become conversational, then what you need is Camino del éxito — a complete conversation course that takes you by the hand and leads you down the "Path of success."
Ours is the only course that is completely integrated with the materials on this website, and it is exactly what you need if you want to speak Spanish conversationally.
As you begin studying pronunciation, pay particular attention to the vowel sounds. Learning these five sounds will have you well on your way to good pronunciation.
Two other sounds that are problematic for English speakers are the "d" and the "r" – but fortunately the corresponding Spanish sounds are easy for the English speaker to duplicate.
Also important are the lessons on "stress" and "linking." Understanding these two topics is especially important for improving your listening abilities.
In general, you will want to study the grammar lessons in the order they are presented. But, that is not an unbreakable rule.
For example, if you are in school, you will probably want to study the topics as they come up in your class. And there may be other times when you simply have a question about Spanish grammar, and there's nothing wrong with skipping ahead (or back) to the appropriate lesson.
Use our verb drills as needed. Remember, the goal is not merely to get to where you can conjugate verbs like some sort of robot. The goal is to incorporate the different tenses into your speech. To achieve that, it will really help if, in addition to answering the questions, you also read the sentences out loud.
We are not big fans of learning long lists of words, simply for the sake of passing a test. On the other hand, it cannot be denied that without the right words, it's difficult or impossible to express your ideas. Try to strike a balance when it comes to vocabulary.
These cultural notes are appropriate for beginners and advanced students alike. But your level will determine how you use these culturally rich stories.
If you are a beginner, you will want to read the English version, and then listen to the short version only. You need to keep in mind that the audio for these has not been artificially slowed down, and so it can be quite challenging for beginners. At first, stick to the short versions, and carefully follow along on the written text.
Advanced students should go straight to the long version and listen to the audio without looking at the transcripts. See how much you can understand. Then consult the transcript to fill in any gaps.
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Your Body Needs Essential Fatty Acids
With the boom of fast food chains, deep fried as well as super coated in sugar foods have become a staple meal of most people especially those living in the city. Top this unhealthy eating with sedentary and unhealthy lifestyle and you have the perfect recipe for disaster. Many people today, even the younger ones are at risk of various serious heart diseases as well as diabetes which can lead to complicated illnesses and even death.
The great news is there has been a movement to combat this problem. More people are becoming conscious about how healthy they are. We are now seeing the media tackle the problem of obesity and unhealthy eating. You see shows like the Biggest Loser and Heavy that aim to educate the people on how to eat healthy and live a healthy lifestyle.
You probably have been hearing about essential fatty acids mentioned in these shows and even in TV ads. But what are they really and how essential are they to our body? You read food labels with essential fatty acids (EFAs) or with Omega 3 or Omega 6 but do you know what these nutrients are?
EFAs are nutritional elements that the human body needs however it is not capable of producing them. We get the EFAs that we need from various food sources. Omega 3 and Omega 6 are two types of EFAs. Omega 3 can be found in fish oils and plant oils while Omega 6 is found in plant oils. Omega 9 is another essential fatty acid that can be produced by the body from ingestion of Omega 3 and Omega 6. One can get Omega 9 from plant oils as well.
In Northern European countries, many people are suffering from degenerative diseases like heart disease, cancer, arthritis, asthma and even certain disorders in the functioning of the brain like depression and the now very common disorder in children ADHD or Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder.
How Beneficial are EFAs?
- EFAs are necessary in many bodily processes. They play a major role in the formation of healthy cell membranes as well as proper cognitive development and functioning of our brain and the nervous system. They are also crucial in the production of hormones and proper thyroid and adrenal activity.
- EFAs also aid in regulating our blood pressure, functioning of the liver as well as inflammatory and immune responses. Omega 6 is known to help blood clot while Omega 3 prevents over clotting. Therefore it is necessary that your body has a balance of these two essential fatty acids.
- EFAs also transport and break down the cholesterol in our body. By preventing build up of cholesterol, heart diseases are avoided. EFAs also benefit the skin and hair.
Omega 6 in Argan Oil
A great source of the Omega 6 is Argan oil. This oil from Morocco has been hailed as a miracle oil and is popular in the beauty industry because of its benefits to the skin and hair. However the Argan oil can also be used in dishes. A drizzle of Argan oil on your salads and grilled dishes would give you a potent dose of the much needed Omega 6.
- Essential Fatty Acids, Just What Are their Benefits?
- Essential Nutrients for the Body
- Is Vitamin E Essential to the Body?
- Can Fat be Good?
- Facial and Body Care for the Winter Season
Filed Under: Argan Oil in General
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Revolutionary weekend planned at Fort Ticonderoga
TICONDEROGA — Explore the Continental Army’s first major initiative during the Revolutionary War at Fort Ticonderoga’s upcoming living history weekend “Onward to Canada: Reinforcements Head North to Join the Attack on St. John.”
The Sept. 1 and 2 living history weekend will recreate how the American army prepared to invade Canada in the fall of 1775. Admission to “Onward to Canada” is included with Fort Ticonderoga’s general admission ticket.
Special programming throughout the weekend will recreate a unique and busy moment in Fort Ticonderoga’s history when the “Old French Fort” served as hub of activity for the fledging American Army and a launching point for an invasion into Canada. Programs will highlight close-order marching; the issuing of muskets, supplies, and clothing to the troops; special tours, weapons demonstrations; and regimental training exercises.
“Visitors can watch as Col. Seth Warner’s Green Mountain Boys are transformed from recruits into a regiment to join Brigadier-General Richard Montgomery’s invasion of Canada. Learn about the practical concerns of getting soldiers and supplies to the front lines during a military campaign in a land of expansive lakes and dense woods. See bateaux in action as they move men and materiel to and from Fort Ticonderoga as we celebrate 1775 and Vermont’s military history,” said Stuart Lilie, Fort Ticonderoga’s director of interpretation. “The event will explore how new soldiers learned to move, think and fight together as a team as they evolved into disciplined soldiers committed to defending the fledgling cause of liberty.”
The objective of the invasion of Canada was to gain military control of the British province of Quebèc, and convince the French-speaking Canadians to join the Revolution on the side of the 13 American colonies. In the fall of 1775, two invasion forces were launched with the goal of meeting in Quebèc. One expedition under the command of Brig. Gen. Richard Montgomery set out from Fort Ticonderoga, besieged and captured Fort St. John and very nearly captured British Gen. Guy Carleton when taking Montreal.
The other expedition left Cambridge, Mass., under Col. Benedict Arnold, and traveled with great difficulty through the wilderness of Maine to Quebèc City. The two forces joined there, but were defeated at the Battle of Quebèc in December 1775.
“Fort Ticonderoga offers an unparalleled and unique experience for visitors to be immersed in a dramatic moment in time,” said Beth Hill, Fort Ticonderoga’s president. “Programs such as ‘Onward to Canada’ highlight the logistical challenges faced by the fledging American army in 1775, the attempt to conquer another nation in the name of liberty, and the effort required to launch such a campaign.”
Fort Ticonderoga is located on Lake Champlain in the six-million acre Adirondack Park. It is a private, not-for-profit historic site and museum that ensures that future generations learn from the struggles, sacrifices and victories that shaped the nations of North America and changed world history. Open since 1909, Fort Ticonderoga engages more than 70,000 visitors annually and is dedicated to the preservation and interpretation of Fort Ticonderoga’s history. Accredited by the American Association of Museums, Fort Ticonderoga offers programs, historic interpretation, tours, demonstrations, and exhibits throughout the year and is open daily |May 18 through Oct. 18.
This season features the fort’s newest exhibit, “Bullets & Blades: The Weapons of America’s Colonial Wars and Revolution,” which highlights more than 150 of the museum’s most important weapons.
Go to www.Fort-Ticon|deroga.org for a full list of ongoing programs or call (518) 585-2821. Funding for the 2012 season is provided in part by Amtrak. Fort Ticonderoga is open from 9:30 a.m. until 5 p.m. daily.
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Location, ST | website.com
National Entertainment Videos
Complete listings of local events.
The Millennial Generation's source for all great things going on around Saratoga County.
Share in the adventures of a former New York City resident and decorator who is in the process of moving upstate but refuses to leave her belief that everyone can live well behind.
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- Horse Racing: Bill proposed to prohibit transportation of horses for slaughter in New York (4)
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"Collaborative efforts of this nature are crucial to obtain reliable data and determine the direction of the future of education."
—Marcy P. Driscoll
Federal grant at FSU to help science teachers foster 'inquiry learning'
by Barry Ray
Three Florida State University programs have joined forces to research how to better prepare teachers to combat science illiteracy in the United States—and they are receiving a helping hand from the National Science Foundation (NSF). Through a $2.4-million award, FSU's College of Arts and Sciences, College of Education and National High Magnetic Field Laboratory will study how to more effectively train teachers in the inquiry processes that are at the core of science and central to science teaching.
Science teacher seeks a kernel of truth while working on a project involving irradiated popcorn as part of a Magnet Lab summer program for teachers. (Photo: Center for Integrating Research & Learning, NHMFL)
The National Science Board reported in January of this year that it is "absolutely essential for our nation's long-term prosperity and security that we remain a world leader in science and technology…(yet) our nation continues to slip further behind in the science and mathematics achievement of U.S. students relative to international peers." The board added that the critical lack of technically trained people in the United States can be traced directly to poor K-12 mathematics and science instruction, and it called for a higher-quality science and mathematics teaching force as the key to closing the achievement gap. The FSU project is aimed at helping to define key components in educating that teaching force.
The Office of Science Teaching Activities in FSU's College of Arts and Sciences and the Center for Integrating Research and Learning at the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory both have developed six-week summer programs to give teachers the opportunity to increase their own scientific knowledge and sharpen their skills at teaching science through hands-on research and experimentation. They are joined by a third partner, FSU's College of Education, to determine how effective such professional-development programs are in showing teachers how to implement the "inquiry learning" approach called for by such organizations as the National Science Board and the National Academy of Sciences. Inquiry learning uses a child's natural curiosity to develop a greater understanding of scientific concepts; it is generally acknowledged as more effective than traditional classroom approaches such as repetition or rote memorization of "facts."
"As the U.S. economy evolves, the demand for workers with strong math and science skills continues to grow," said Ellen Granger, director of the Office of Science Teaching Activities and principal investigator on the NSF grant. "Meanwhile, American students perform relatively poorly in math and science when compared to their peers in other industrialized nations—and the number of Americans pursuing careers in science and engineering has seen a decline. Furthermore, we need a general population that is scientifically literate so that they can understand scientific issues underlying social and political problems and make decisions based on scientifically informed ideas."
Granger's co-investigators on the NSF grant are Patricia J. Dixon, director of the Center for Integrating Research and Learning, and Sherry Southerland, an associate professor of education and program coordinator of the Science Education Program.
"For many teachers, this is their first experience in authentic science research," Dixon said of the magnet lab's summer program. "For them to be able to observe, ask questions, and work toward a conclusion to a problem in a laboratory setting goes a long way, we believe, in helping them to develop their students' appreciation for scientific inquiry. How can you teach what you have not had the opportunity to fully come to understand yourself?"
Southerland will seek to identify the essential features of such programs and their influence on teachers' conceptions and use of inquiry teaching. Toward the middle of the five-year study, her focus will shift to the effectiveness of inquiry to support student science learning when compared to the learning of students in classrooms of teachers who lack such training.
"We need to learn more about how to structure this type of professional development and about its effects on teachers and their students, so that we in turn can learn to better support teachers in developing the teaching skills that are needed if our students are to become knowledgeable about and capable in science," Southerland said.
"Collaborative efforts of this nature are crucial to obtain reliable data and determine the direction of the future of education," said Marcy P. Driscoll, dean of the College of Education. "We think this research will be a valuable tool in advancing professional development for teachers in science education and perhaps other areas as well."
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These paintings were inspired by nature—the ultimate source of beauty and spirituality for artists throughout the centuries. The students whose work was exhibited ranged from kindergarten through sixth grade. Students began their creative journeys by focusing on the structure of the still life. Then, they examined the uniqueness of each flower with its petals, stems, colors, textures, and leaves. Their instructor, Ms. Aktas, then encouraged her students to render what they saw in front of them and to create flowers from their imagination. After completing their drawings, students filled in both natural and imagined colors. Since all of the students have had basic art training, they were able to make informed choices about composition, light, and space. They worked in groups of two or five depending of the size of the finished work. Each artwork took about five weeks to complete. This challenging learning experience helped the Alphonsus students to understand the process of making art as well as learning to work as a team.
Image: Student artwork from Alphonsus Academy, 2006
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Telling Tips is a series of articles from local experts to help you save money, make better decisions and plan for a better future.
1. The area in lower Manhattan called ‘Wall Street’ is named after:
A: The Wall Street Journal
B: The wooden wall built by Dutch colonists to defend New York against invaders
C: The Wallapoo Indians who inhabited the area
D: George Washington, when he met with Congress in that area in the late 1700s and couldn’t get any legislation passed
2. How did the Dow Jones industrial average get its name?
A. To honor Dowelli Jones, the wife of the Revolutionary War naval hero, John Paul Jones
B. To honor Bradley McDow, the economist, and Garett Jones, the Macroeconomist
C. From Charles Henry Dow, Wall Street Journal founder, and Edward Jones, a statistician, who started an average of mostly railroad stocks in 1884
D. From the Dow-Jones land development company, which gave the land to build the New York Stock Exchange
3. Which would you rather have?
A. $100,000 today or…
B. A penny that doubles every day for a 31-day month
4. Who is the saying, “Nothing is certain but death and taxes” attributed to?
A. Julius Caesar
B. Benjamin Franklin
C. Uncle Sam
D. Alexander the Great
5. If you receive an IRS notice that you owe money, you should:
A. Write a check immediately
B. Check to be sure the notice is correct before sending in the money
C. Return to sender, marked “deceased”
6. The advantage of a Roth IRA over a traditional IRA is that with a Roth IRA:
A. Contributions grow tax deferred
B. You can roll a Roth IRA into a traditional IRA
C. Contributions are not tax deductible
D. Qualified distributions from a Roth IRA are tax free
7. Which are the three major credit bureaus in the United States?
A. Experian, Equifax, TransUnion
B. American Express, Master Card, Visa
C. Bank of America, Citibank, Chase Manhattan
8. When you marry, your credit report:
A. Is merged with your spouse’s credit history
B. Stays the same. The only information on both spouses’ reports are joint accounts or those for which one spouse is an authorized user.
C. Shows your spouse’s debt in a separate section
D. Is wiped clean so you can start again
9. If your credit card is stolen and the thief runs up a total debt of $1,000, but you notify the issuer of the card as soon as you discover it is missing, what is the maximum amount that you can be forced to pay according to Federal law?
10. Tax credits are preferable to deductions because:
A. They are computed before you figure your tax bill
B. You don’t have to save receipts to claim credits
C. They cut your tax bill dollar for dollar
1. (B): This barrier was built in 1653 to protect colonists from the British and Native Americans.
2. (C): In November 1882, Charles Henry Dow and Edward Jones started their own financial reporting firm, Dow, Jones & Co., in the basement of a candy store, publishing a two-page summary of the day’s financial news called the “Customers’ Afternoon Letter.”
3. (B): Start with a penny and double it every day. One cent becomes two, which becomes four, which becomes eight and so on. At the end of a 31-day month, you’ll have $10,737,418.24
4. (B): Benjamin Franklin, who actually wrote “Our Constitution is in actual operation. Everything appears to promise that it will last; but in this world nothing is certain but death and taxes.”
Tax Tip: Child in college? Work or live in New York State? You can still make a contribution to the New York State 529 college plan and take a New York State tax deduction. This contribution can mean between $600 and $1,100 in your pocket!
Have a good week.
Joseph Reisman, of Joseph S. Reisman & Associates, has been serving tax prep and business accounting expertise from his Coney Island Avenue office for more than 25 years. Check out the firm’s website.
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June 29, 2012
What You Eat Can Prevent Toxic Accumulations of Arsenic
Millions of people worldwide are exposed to arsenic from contaminated water, and we are all exposed to arsenic via the food we eat. New research published in BioMed Central's open access journal Nutrition Journal has demonstrated that people who ate more dietary vitamin B12 had lower levels of arsenic (measured by deposition in toenails).
Total dietary fat, vegetable fat and saturated fat were also all associated with lower levels of arsenic, while omega 3 fatty acids, such as those found in fish oil, were associated with increased arsenic.
Inside the body arsenic is methylated to aid excretion in urine but arsenic also has an affinity for keratin and can be deposited in hair and nails as they grow. Consequently levels of arsenic preserved in nails or hair can be used as a biomarker for arsenic exposure over periods of months to years.
Researchers from Dartmouth College and the Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth looked at the levels of arsenic in toenails of residents of New Hampshire who all use private groundwater wells as their household water source.
Results of the study showed that arsenic in nails was positively associated with both alcohol and omega 3 fatty acids, however, lower levels of arsenic were found for people who ate greater amounts of vegetable and animal fat. Prof Kathy Cottingham, who directed the study, explained, "While there may be a direct interaction between fats and arsenic preventing absorption or binding to keratin in nails, the results may simply reflect dietary preference, with people who eat a diet rich in fats not eating foods high in arsenic, such as rice."
Animal fat is one type of saturated fat to be cautious when consuming since many factory farming practices add common cancer-causing agents containing arsenic to chicken feed. The same applies for beef where cows are exposed to arsenic through improper handling, soil pollution and environmental toxins.
Joann Gruber, who led the study, noted that, "Humans can be very efficient at removing arsenic from the body. Improved methylation reduces the amount of inorganic arsenic circulating in the body. Surprisingly, we didn't see a reduction in toenail arsenic with other dietary factors known to be necessary for arsenic methylation such as folic acid. This may be because the population we sampled had adequate amounts of these factors in their diet."
The authors are currently working on similar studies in children, through the Children's Environmental Health and Disease Prevention Center at Dartmouth.
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Fast growing small businesses create most new jobs.(Storey. Warwick Business School)
They are usually under-financed and have cashflow problems, which limit their growth phase. They are usually profitable and pay large amounts of corporation tax.
If this sector could be targeted for 100% corporation tax relief, it would save the government money, as far more jobs would be created, and the capital base of such companies would establish quicker and more would survive any sudden downturns.
The growth phase of most fast growing companies (20% per annum or more) is usually about ten years. If growth is defined as growth in sales combined with growth in employment, once a company hits plus 20% they should pay no corporation tax. At plus 10% they should pay half. At plus 5% three quarters. Another condition, no dividends should be payable.
These incentives would persuade far more small companies to plan for growth, increase the country's productivity, and its capital base.
Most entrepreneurs tire after ten years of 20% plus growth. At least these golden years would not be wasted in payment of tax.
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Guest Author - Nikki Phipps
Itís sometimes difficult for children to comprehend the fact that a bulb planted in the garden will one day grow into a beautiful flowering plant. Explain to your kids that bulbs are simply underground storage units from which plants grow. According to many educators, one of the best ways to explain this further is to relate the bulb with a lunch box. This lunch box is filled with enough food for the entire growing season. All excess energy and food is stored for later use, such as next seasonís growth. Once thereís enough energy in the lunch box, the leaves will turn brown and die. At this time, the bulb will enter a dormant state.
There are different types of bulbs and numerous sizes and shapes. Show the kids these various types and allow them to examine each. Have them compare and note their similarities and differences. For example, true bulbs, such as tulips and daffodils, contain a complete miniature plant inside. They have fleshy scales of food that nourish the plant. Cut them open and allow kids to see their insides. For instance, slice a tulip or daffodil bulb in half horizontally. Point out the different rings, which are formed by the scales. If itís close to planting time, the kids should be able to spot the small plant in the center. Plants like crocuses and dahlias come from corms, which are customized stems that contain food. They have eyes, or buds, from which the plant grows. Tuberous plants, such as begonias and lilies, are similar to corms but larger and fleshier. These underground stems store food with eyes on the surface. Irises grow from rhizomes, another type of bulb-like structure. These stems grow at or just below the soil surface. They are easily identified by their horizontal (sideways) appearance as well.
Help kids plant some of their own, either directly in an outside garden or in a container. Discuss their growing habits and requirements. Just like people, bulbs have needs that must be met in order for them to thrive and grow. Each requires a different planting time. For example, spring-flowering bulbs are planted in the fall. Summer and fall-flowering bulbs, on the other hand, are planted in the spring. In northern climates, gardeners must dig up tender summer bulbs and store them in a cool, dark place. In places where winters are warm enough, however, such as in the South, itís perfectly safe to leave these bulbs in the ground. Since fall is not too far away, start thinking about the spring garden now. Once catalogs begin arriving in the mail, let the kids flip through them to find flowering bulbs that they like. Tulips, daffodils, irises, hyacinths, and crocuses are good bulb choices for beginners (Please note that daffodil bulbs are poisonous so take care when planting these with young children). Check their growing requirements, and if they are suited to your area, go for it. When the bulbs arrive or once you get them from the nursery or garden center, plant them as soon as possible. Spring bulbs develop their roots soon after planting, and then lie dormant during much of the winter; therefore, youíll have to explain the importance of having patience. Once spring returns, their waiting will pay off with shoots of daffodils, tulips, crocuses, and more.
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Below are links to various materials we've created to support students' work on the unit theme: Making Connections.
- Unit Bibliography: This is a list of supplementary materials to help you to meet the needs of individual students in your classroom.
- Classroom Activities: To extend instruction, here are some creative activities you can print and use in your classroom.
- Theme Project Organizer: This is a worksheet you can print and distribute to students to help them track their work on the Theme Project.
- Theme Project Links: Here are Internet resources for students to use while working on the Theme Project.
Here are links to Internet resources that can be used to support instruction of the “Think Like a Geographer” feature for this
unit: What Can Antarctica Tell Us About the Earth?
- How do you get to Antarctica? What is it like there? How do glaciers form and what causes ice ages? The answers to all of these questions can be found at this wonderful and informative site from Rice University.
Here are links to Internet resources that can be used to support instruction of the “Citizenship” feature for this unit: How Can We Cooperate?
- The International Boundary and Water Commission
- This site is the official homepage of the International Boundary and Water Commission, the commission formed by the governments of the United States and Mexico to resolve problems and disputes related to the U.S.-Mexico boundary. This site contains a boundary map, updates on the Rio Grande water storage conditions, and summaries on the treaties and agreements forged by the two nations over the last century.
- The United Nations
- This site contains general information about the United Nations, including its history, member states, and its achievements. The full text of the “Universal Declaration of Human Rights” can be found here, too, as well as virtual tours of the UN headquarters in New York and the UN office in Geneva. These pages are part of the official United Nations World Wide Web site.
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The role of game designer in the gaming project.
Anyone who has ever wanted to make his game, wondered where to start?
The game, like many others, begins with ideas or concepts. You develop your vision, come up with a variety of features, write a script and plan the plot, describing gameplay. This is the game design, or rather some of its components. Let's take a closer look, what's the game designer is engaged in various stages of development that will help us to more accurately represent what is game design.
Game designer creates a certain concept and use it to write the primary concept document. It includes, the concept of the game, a brief description of the gameplay and the basic features of the game. Also, at an early stage it is desirable to identify the target audience is largely facilitate the further process of the concept, as defined with the audience, you remove many of the questions the need to implement certain features. The concept document is the basis for the design document (dizdoka). In general, the process of writing documentation during the development of the game is very important, above all it will help you in organizing the work. In concept you should try to succinctly and clearly outline your idea. Remember that you are writing not only for themselves but for other members of your team. The concept is written, you start to work with artists who make the descriptions of your sketches. This process of defining the graphic style of play. Depending on whether you have a producer on the team, the work is being done with it. Do not forget that the game is a product that must be sold. This problem and solves the producer. This is the first step - Pre-production.
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Previous abstract Next abstract
Session 2 - The Solar Photosphere and Magnetic Field.
Display session, Monday, June 10
Velocity fields of convective origin and unresolved velocity fluctuations ("turbulence spots") are distributed on the solar surface in characteristic ways. The velocity field fluctuations (measured as Doppler shifts) show a pattern similar to that of the granulation, while the turbulence spots are concentrated in the intergranular space near the granular borders and are apparently connected with shear flows. Doppler velocity fields as well as turbulence spots are tightly connected with the dynamics of the granular layers but seem to influence the overlying layers. Emerging ordered laminar convective flows produce shear flows which subsequently generate turbulence, apparently a major controller of the atmospheric dynamics of the sun.
A central issue is the extension of the granular dynamics into the overlying photospheric layers.
In this investigation we address mainly the turbulence spots: the change of their distribution with height in the photosphere, their generation, and their relationship to the granular velocity. We are also interested in the granular velocity patterns and their extension into the photospheric layers. Our observational material consists of spectrograms of excellent spectral and spatial quality. Doppler velocity field and turbulence are measured simultaneously at various heights in the photosphere by means of absorption lines of different strength. To investigate the extension of the influence of the granular dynamics into the photospheric layers we use the coherence analysis, which makes use of the characteristic dynamical patterns of the turbulence and Doppler velocity.
We find that the small scale turbulence pattern changes rapidly with height over a scale of one pressure scale height. This result can be seen as a manifestation of lateral diffusion of turbulence in the intergranular space after its generation by the shear flow at granular borders. This explains the turbulent state of the intergranular space.
Program listing for Monday
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BlogsEducation's Fitness Link
Health report card shows what intelligence says about your health.
You exercise and eat healthy, but are your neighbors keeping up? Or are they just giving your county a bad name? The 2012 County Health Rankings will give you all the details. This health report card ranks more than 3,000 counties in the U.S. on over 30 measures. Things like the quality of healthcare, exercise and smoking rates, unemployment and poverty, availability of bike paths, and even the number of fast food restaurants. The study, published by the University of Wisconsin Population Health Institute and the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, compared counties within each state, and found several trends throughout the country. The educational levels of the residents directly impacted the overall health of the community. Counties with more college-educated people had lower rates of premature death, smoking, physical inactivity, and obesity. These counties also had the lowest number of children living in poverty, and fewer people who reported being in poor or fair health. Northern states had the highest rates of excessive drinking of alcohol, while southern states had the highest rates of teen births and children living in poverty teen. Unemployment was lowest in the Northeast, central Plains, and Midwest. The Northeast and upper Midwest had the lowest rates of motor vehicle crashes. Key among these findings, say researchers, is that joblessness and poverty are “absolutely connected” to the community’s overall health.
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Jan. 25, 2012 While it may appear that infants are helpless creatures that only blink, eat, cry and sleep, one University of Missouri researcher says that studies indicate infant brains come equipped with knowledge of "intuitive physics."
"In the MU Developmental Cognition Lab, we study infant knowledge of the world by measuring a child's gaze when presented with different scenarios," said Kristy vanMarle, an assistant professor in the Department of Psychological Sciences in the College of Arts and Science. "We believe that infants are born with expectations about the objects around them, even though that knowledge is a skill that's never been taught. As the child develops, this knowledge is refined and eventually leads to the abilities we use as adults."
In a review of related scientific literature from the past 30 years, vanMarle and Susan Hespos of Northwestern University found that the evidence for intuitive physics occurs in infants as young as two months -- the earliest age at which testing can occur. At that age, infants show an understanding that unsupported objects will fall and that hidden objects do not cease to exist. Scientific testing also has shown that by five months, infants have an expectation that non-cohesive substances like sand or water are not solid. In a previous publication, vanMarle found that children as young as 10 months consistently choose larger amounts when presented with two different amounts of food substance.
"We believe that infants are born with the ability to form expectations and they use these expectations basically to predict the future," vanMarle said. "Intuitive physics include skills that adults use all the time. For example, when a glass of milk falls off the table, a person might try to catch the cup, but they are not likely to try to catch the milk that spills out. The person doesn't have to consciously think about what to do because the brain processes the information and the person simply reacts. The majority of an adult's everyday interactions with the world are automatic, and we believe infants have the same ability to form expectations, predicting the behavior of objects and substances with which they interact."
While the intuitive physics knowledge is believed to be present at birth, vanMarle believes parents can assist skill development through normal interaction, such as playing and talking with the child and encouraging him/her to interact with objects.
"Despite the intuitive physics knowledge, a parent probably cannot do much to 'get their child ahead' at the infant stage, including exposing him or her to videos marketed to improve math or language skills," vanMarle said. "Natural interaction with the child, such as talking to him/her, playing peek-a-boo, and allowing him/her to handle safe objects, is the best method for child development. Natural interaction with the parent and objects in the world gives the child all the input that evolution has prepared the child to seek, accept and use to develop intuitive physics."
Other social bookmarking and sharing tools:
- Susan J. Hespos, Kristy vanMarle. Physics for infants: characterizing the origins of knowledge about objects, substances, and number. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 2012; 3 (1): 19 DOI: 10.1002/WCS.157
Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.
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is a form of Japanese Massage Therapy
Best Alternative and Preventive Medicine
Founder of Shiatsu, Tokujiro Namikoshi
Sensei (right) and his son Toru with Dr. Palmer at the Palmer College
of Chiropractic in Iowa.
is Shiatsu Therapy?
"Shiatsu" is a Japanese word meaning "finger
pressure". It is a "hands-on" therapy used both as a
conventional medicine and as a preventative / alternative therapy.
| Definition of Shiatsu Massage
"Shiatsu technique refers to the use of
fingers and palms of one's hands to apply pressure to particular
sections on the surface of the body for the purpose of correcting the
imbalances of the body, and for maintaining and promoting health. It is
also a method contributing to the healing of specific illnesses."
- From "The
Theory and Practice of Shiatsu"
published by the Ministry of Health in Japan, in 1957.
Shiatsu Massage Therapy
perform Shiatsu by pressing with their thumbs, fingers and palms on
Shiatsu points throughout the body to enhance the body's natural
healing ability and prevent the progression of disease. Shiatsu points
are called "Tsubo" in Japanese and their location
and the effect
of Shiatsu on them is based on an understanding of modern Anatomy and
Physiology. These points are effective in treating all body systems
including the Integumentary, Muscular, Nervous, Circulatory, Skeletal,
Endocrine, and Digestive systems. They are applicable only to Shiatsu
Therapy and are not related to ancient "Chinese Meridians" for
Acupuncture, Moxibustion or Anma therapy.
The Japanese expression "Shindan Soku Chiryo" means
"Diagnosis and Therapy Combined" and is the essence of Shiatsu. The
thumbs, fingers and palms of trained and experienced Shiatsupractors
are sensitive enough to detect, on contact, irregularities in the skin,
muscles or body temperature. Relating to the Cutaneovisceral Reflexes
in the course of practical experience, Shiatsupractors are able to
locate abnormalities and ascertain their degree, as well as determining
the condition of the organs. When detecting abnormalities,
Shiatsupractors apply Shiatsu as a treatment at the same time. The
amount of pressure and its tempo are gauged to apply the appropriate
pressure for each patient - sometimes strong or soft - quick or slow.
Lacking the sensitivity of the hand, knuckles, elbows, knees and feet
are not used for application of pressure during treatments by
Shiatsupractors. Mastering the essence of Shiatsu requires many years
of practical experience and is the goal of a Shiatsupractor.
Namikoshi Sensei, The
founder of Shiatsu (1905-2000)
Sensei (1905-2000). He was the founder of Shiatsu massage therapy. His
mother suffered from rheumatism and, as a young boy of seven, he used
his bare hands to heal her. With this experience as a base, he created
the Shiatsu method of healing. He gave treatment to countless thousands
of people, including many active Japanese Prime Ministers, and also to
foreign visitors such as Marilyn Monroe and Muhammad Ali. Meanwhile, he
established the Japan Shiatsu College and educated many world famous
Shiatsu practitioners, instructors and authors, including Shizuto
Masunaga, who wrote "Zen-Shiatsu", Kensen Saito, who wrote "Shiatsu
Doh", Ryokyu Endo, who wrote "Tao Shiatsu" and Kiyoshi Ikenaga, who is
the author of "Tsubo Shiatsu".
Namikoshi Sensei also founded the Japan Shiatsu Association and the
International Shiatsu Association.
Tokujiro Namikoshi Sensei (Right) in Hokkaido Japan in
tha Founder of the Canadian College of Shiatsu Therapy
born in Tokyo Japan in 1966. He is a Licensed Shiatsu Practitioner by
the Ministry of Health in Japan and a Registered International Shiatsu
Instructor with the International Shiatsu Association. He graduated
from the Japan Shiatsu College in 1986 and studied Shiatsu directly
from Tokujiro Namikoshi sensei. He moved to Toronto, Canada in 1996 and
taught Shiatsu at the Shiatsu Academy of Tokyo Toronto. In 1998,
Kiyoshi established the Canadian College of Shiatsu Therapy in North
Vancouver BC Canada. He is also the founder of the Canadian Shiatsu
Society of BC.
of Shiatsu Therapy
Namikoshi Sensei, the Founder of Shiatsu Massage Therapy, was born
November 3rd, 1905 in Kagawa prefecture on Shikoku Island, Japan. When
he was 7 years old, his family moved to Hokkaido where the weather was
cold and harsh. His mother "Masa" developed rheumatoid arthritis as a
result of hard physical labour and the change from a warm to a cold,
damp climate. There was no doctor or medicine available due to the
isolation. Tokujiro, only 7 years of age, tried to ease his mother's
pain. He discovered that she felt better when he pressed on her body
with his thumbs, rather than stroking or rubbing. He concentrated his
pressure on points which he found on the cervical region of her spine
as well as the middle and lower back. As he applied himself, he also
learned the relationship between the Adrenal glands and rheumatism.
Eventually Masa's rheumatoid arthritis was cured by Tokujiro's
treatment. She lived in good health to be 88 years of age.
From his study and practice he subsequently
developed a scientific
anatomical and physiological theory which explained his treatment. This
unique Japanese hands-on therapy, he called "SHIATSU" (meaning thumb
and finger pressure in Japanese). He then opened his Shiatsu clinic in
Sapporo in 1925 and in Tokyo in 1933. In 1953, he was invited to
introduce his Shiatsu at the Palmer Chiropractic School in Iowa, U.S.A.
There he developed a good relationship with Dr. B.J. Palmer who was a
founder of Chiropractic.
Toru Namikoshi Sensei, who is a son of
Tokujiro, stayed at the Palmer
Chiropractic School for 7 years to study and compare Shiatsu and
Chiropractic. After he returned to Japan from the U.S., he contributed
to the development of Shiatsu Therapy based on modern Anatomy and
In 1940, Tokujiro established his school,
the Japan Shiatsu College in
Tokyo, and began to train Shiatsupractorｮs/ Shiatsu
Practitioners. This was the first Training school in the world for Shiatsupractorｮ
Shiatsu Practitioners. In 1955, the Japan Shiatsu College was
officially licensed by the Ministry of Health in Japan. At present, the
3 year Registered Shiatsu Therapist program requires students to be in
full attendance for 2500 hours. Upon successful completion of the
program the students are eligible to take the government examination.
In fact, there is only one type of Shiatsu
Massage Therapy in the world
today, the original Japanese Shiatsu Therapy of Namikoshi Sensei, but
there are many derivatives. The most popular and best know of these
derivatives is Zen-Shiatsu developed by Shizuto Masunaga Sensei. He
graduated from the Japan Shiatsu College in 1958 and devised his style
of Shiatsu based on the Chinese Meridians. It is known around the world.
In 1955, Shiatsu Therapy was first
authorized by the Ministry of Health
in Japan. At that time the Ministry mistakenly assumed that Shiatsu and
Western massage were partially Anma, a type of Acupressure massage from
ancient China. In 1964, The Ministry of Health in Japan realized that
Japanese Shiatsu and Western massage didn't belong to Traditional
Chinese Medicine and amended the law so that Anma from China, Shiatsu
from Japan and Massage from the West were all realized as different and
unique therapies. Finally, Shiatsu Therapy obtained legal
acknowledgement as a unique therapy.
Today, the Ministry of Health in Japan
Moxibustion, Anma, Massage and Shiatsu as "Alternative Therapies" which
it regulates under the license system. This licensing system has
promoted a misunderstanding that Shiatsu belongs to traditional Chinese
Medicine. This is because the Japanese Ministry of Health considers
Japanese Shiatsu, Western Massage and Anma, (all hands on therapies) to
be in one category, As such, they all come under one license.
Practitioners are required to pass
government exams. Every student in
Japan who wants to become a Shiatsu Practitioners or a Registered
Massage Therapist must learn the Chinese Meridians to pass the
examination. Students who pass are officially called an "Anma, Massage
and Shiatsu Practitioners".
It is important to recognize that Shiatsu
and Western massage do not
belong to Traditional Chinese Medicine. Shiatsu Therapy was first
authorized by the Japanese Ministry of Health in 1955. At that time,
the Ministry considered Anma (a type of acupressure massage from
China), Western Massage and Shiatsu all as one inclusive therapy. It
was not until 1964 that Shiatsu and Western Massage were recognized by
the Ministry of Health in Japan as distinctly different therapies not
belonging to Traditional Chinese Medicine.
Although the word "Shiatsu" is originally
Japanese, its meaning has
come to be understood in English speaking counties and throughout the
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Examples of the number of photos, songs, videos and any other files that can be stored on a hard drive are provided for illustrative purposes only. Your results will vary based on file size and format, settings, features, software and other factors.
As used for storage capacity, one megabyte (MB) = one million bytes, one gigabyte (GB) = one billion bytes, and one terabyte (TB) = one trillion bytes. Total accessible capacity varies depending on operating environment. As used for buffer or cache, one megabyte (MB) = 1,048,576 bytes. As used for transfer rate or interface, megabyte per second (MB/s) = one million bytes per second, megabit per second (Mb/s) = one million bits per second, and gigabit per second (Gb/s) = one billion bits per second.
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Barley Fiber Improves Blood Sugar Control
Previous studies have shown that beta-glucan from oats, oat bran, barley, and barley bran lowers cholesterol levels
Fiber is known to be one of the most important dietary factors for healthy blood sugar regulation and diabetes prevention. A study,in Nutrition and Metabolism supports this, finding that a drink made with a soluble fiber derived from barley, called barley beta-glucan, improved the body's responsiveness to insulin and improved blood sugar control in people with mildly elevated blood glucose levels.
Fifty overweight or obese adults who had high blood glucose levels but did not meet the criteria for type 2 diabetes participated in the new study. They were coached in therapeutic lifestyle changes with a goal of weight maintenance, and were assigned to receive flavored drinks providing 6 grams per day of barley beta-glucan, 3 grams per day of barley beta glucan, or placebo for 12 weeks.
Barley beta-glucan better for blood sugar
At the end of the trial, the people taking the barley beta-glucan drinks appeared to have better blood sugar control and improved insulin sensitivity compared to placebo:
"This study suggests barley beta-glucan may slow the deterioration of insulin sensitivity for individuals at increased risk for diabetes mellitus," the study's authors said.
Beta-glucan and good health
Beta-glucan is found in foods like mushrooms, oats, yeast, and barley, but the exact structure of the beta-glucan molecule depends on its source. In other words, the beta-glucan found in oats and barley is different from the beta-glucan from mushrooms and yeast, which explains why it appears to have different properties in the body.
Previous studies have shown that beta-glucan from oats, oat bran, barley, and barley bran lowers cholesterol levels. The results from the current study add to other evidence that this same beta-glucan might help people regulate their blood sugar more effectively and prevent type 2 diabetes.
The many shapes of barley
Here are some of the forms of barley you can add to your diet:
(Nutr Metab 2011;8:58)
Maureen Williams, ND, completed her doctorate in naturopathic medicine at Bastyr University in Seattle and has been in private practice since 1995. With an abiding commitment to access to care, she has worked in free clinics in the US and Canada, and in rural clinics in Guatemala and Honduras where she has studied traditional herbal medicine. She currently lives and practices in Victoria, BC, and lectures and writes extensively for both professional and community audiences on topics including family nutrition, menopause, anxiety and depression, heart disease, cancer, and easing stress. Dr. Williams is a regular contributor to Healthnotes Newswire.
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| 0.944733
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When it comes to culture, the question is sometimes asked: what is culture, exactly? Is culture what people do on a daily basis, namely, live? Or is culture, rather, a lofty expression of the more sophisticated and complex ideas developed by the intellectual elite of any given society? Whether you advocate for the supremacy of high-brow culture, or consider it to be constituted by every aspect of interaction within a social compound, in Spain you will find myriad examples of both kinds, forming a rich and diverse phenomenon.
Rich and Varied Heritage
From the most ordinary habits, such as the variety of dishes that together form a mouthwatering cuisine, to the institutional support for the artistic establishment, Spain holds a surprise around every corner. Ranging from the largely simple and straightforward characteristics of a Mediterranean diet, with plenty of fresh produce from land and sea, to the ingenuity of a number of recipes from the rustic center of the country, such as roast piglet or the famous sopa castellana, to the crafty use of offal throughout the land, Spanish culture is hugely heterogeneous, due both to geographic as well as historical circumstances.
The fascinating mosaic formed by the cultural differences found from region to region across the country extends far beyond matters of eating habits and dress code, however. From patxarán in Navarra, to orujo in Galicia, from sherry in the region between Jerez and Cádiz, to the sweet wine from Málaga, somewhat similar to port wine from Oporto, the various traditions that have defined each of the regions permeate deeply to every aspect of Spanish culture, from what digestive to follow your meal with, to the style and material used to erect buildings in the area.
Popular vs. High-Brow Culture
Intrinsically, the distinction between popular and high-brow culture, which emerges with the question "what is culture?" might not be as drastic as it seems. A good example of this proximity can be found in the characteristics of Spanish architecture. Dating all the way back to Roman times, there are still perfectly solid examples of buildings as ancient as 2000 years old. And then, from Roman to Romanesque, Gothic, Mudéjar, Renaissance and every artistic style to emerge thereafter, Spanish architecture has been shaped as much by aesthetic considerations as it has been by the specific conditions prevalent in the country.
Thus, the emergence of red brick in the region around León as the material of choice in the construction, not only of regular homes but also of official and even religious buildings owed less to taste than to necessity. Similarly, the development of adobe as a viable building material shaped the landscape of the countryside indelibly, much in the same way as the tendencies arrived from the Frankish counties on the other side of the Pyrenees spread from coast to coast and ultimately determined the triumph of Romanesque architecture.
Spectacular as it is, Spanish architecture is indebted in equal measure to circumstances of daily life, such as the coexistence of Muslim, Christian and Hebrew communities, and to the conscious development of aesthetic ideals. This is true of architecture, but it is equally the case with the literature that sprung in parallel with the culture that produced it as a reflection (in both meanings of the word) of the reality of its time. As a matter of fact, this is true of a vast majority of Spanish culture, from the forging of true national forms of expression, such as flamenco, to the paintings of grand masters, such as Goya.
Spanish: A Lot More than a Language
We understand that when you come to Spain to learn Spanish, it's not only about the language... you also want to see and experience new places, take plenty of pictures, meet new people and immerse yourself in the country's fascinating cultural scene. After all, some of the world's top museums and wholly unique festivals are found in Spain. Nevertheless, in order to get a genuine taste of Spanish culture, you need not spend hours in libraries and dusty rooms: just go out there, communicate with the people and experience first hand the cultural paradise that is Spain.
In order for you to be able to do just that, our schools, located in Spain's most interesting destinations, are open all year round (yes, even during festival seasons!), and offer classes focusing on such cultural facets as literature and art history, organizing all sorts of interesting cultural activities and excursions for our valued students!
Below you can read up about a wide range of Spanish cultural topics, ranging from history and festivals to food and drink and everything in between.
Feria de Abril
Pamplona: Running of the bulls
Spanish Characters & Symbols
|Miguel de Cervantes|
Federico García Lorca
Fernando de Rojas
Lope de Vega
Miguel de Unamuno
|Luis de Góngora|
"Generation of '27"
|Spanish Dance History||Flamenco Dance|
|Spanish Music History|
|Spanish Eating Customs|
Authentic Spanish Recipes
History of Spanish Food
Bartolomé Esteban Murillo
El 3 de Mayo
Famous Spanish Buildings
|Museo Reina Sofia|
Ciudad de las Artes y las Ciencias
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Posted November 11, 2002 Atlanta
Communications & Marketing
Contact Lisa Grovenstein
Large, massive structures could be built in space simply by using radio waves that create force fields to move materials and assemble them into various structures. Once bonded in place, the structures could lay the groundwork for human settlement in space and a space-based economy, according to Narayanan Komerath, an aerospace engineer at Georgia Tech.
A large number of objects can be arranged into shapes to form structures in reduced-gravity environments using radio and electromagnetic waves, according to Komerath, who is a professor in Georgia Tech’s School of Aerospace Engineering. The structures could range from micrometer-scale discs to kilometer-scale habitats.
Komerath recently presented his team’s work in Atlanta during a conference of the NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts (NIAC), which explores ideas that could potentially result in funding from NASA. The team, which named the project “Tailored Force Fields,” found that structures could be built in small, enclosed gas-filled containers using sound waves. But in the vacuum of space, electromagnetic waves could be used.
“The development of a comprehensive space-based economy is the best way to achieve the goals of human exploration and development of space,” Komerath said. “In such an economy, humans would gradually find more reasons to invest in space-based businesses and eventually to live and work in space for long periods, interacting for the most part with other humans located in other space habitats.”
Concepts for extracting materials and power from the Moon and asteroids are already being developed. But Komerath says the idea of using force fields could solve some of the long-term problems of inhabiting space, such as the construction of a massive shield to protect humans from radiation, the danger and expense of humans laboring in space and skepticism about the prospects for building an economy in space.
According to Komerath’s idea, robotic craft would be sent to Earth’s asteroid belt to break up an asteroid into small pieces. Formations of satellites would follow and form a radio-wave resonator that would begin moving the debris into various structures. Komerath estimates that it would take approximately one hour to form a rubble cloud into a 50-meter long enclosed structure, and could hold for another 12 hours while the pieces are fused together.
Sound Waves as Construction Machines
The idea follows earlier flight experiments conducted by the team that tested the effects of intense sound on a variety of particles in near-zero gravity conditions. Results from the technique – called “acoustic shaping” – proved the basic theory that sound waves could form raw material into walls of specified shape.
These experiments have been performed inside rectangular boxes containing various materials including Styrofoam pieces, porous grains, aluminum oxide spheres and aluminum spheres. These experiments have been performed on the ground and aboard NASA’s KC-135 Reduced Gravity Flight Laboratory.
Komerath says that light is already used in microscopes to hold nanosized particles and microwaves could shift millimeter-sized material, but radio waves would be needed to move brick-sized stones. An engineer by training, Komerath admits that such a concept sounds alien to most engineers, who are taught to think “faster, lighter and smaller” as well as “cheaper and better” for anything related to space.
Komerath’s findings were gathered after a six-month feasibility study funded by a grant from the NIAC. Komerath estimates that a demonstration experiment could be ready for space flight by 2009.
The Georgia Institute of Technology is one of the world's premier research universities. Ranked seventh among U.S. News & World Report's top public universities and the eighth best engineering and information technology university in the world by Shanghai Jiao Tong University's Academic Ranking of World Universities, Georgia Tech’s more than 20,000 students are enrolled in its Colleges of Architecture, Computing, Engineering, Liberal Arts, Management and Sciences. Tech is among the nation's top producers of women and minority engineers. The Institute offers research opportunities to both undergraduate and graduate students and is home to more than 100 interdisciplinary units plus the Georgia Tech Research Institute.
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GCSE Spanish Examinations
Spanish GCSEs – a Guide
The General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) is the name of a set of British examinations, usually taken by secondary school students at age 15–16.
There were initially three tiers for most examinations: ‘Basic’ (renamed ‘Foundation’), ‘Intermediate’, and ‘Higher’ tier. Most subjects moved to two or one tier during the 1990s. Students are entered for a certain tier based on their ability. The tier a student is entered for affects the range of grades that student could attain. Under the current system Foundation tier gives access to G to D and Higher C to A* - failing either tier would result in a U.
There are now three exam boards in England: AQA, Edexcel and OCR. Some examining boards offer a ‘modular’ structure for some subjects. In a modular structure, one or more modular examinations which focus on a sub-set of the syllabus are taken at intermediate stages of the course. Modular examinations may be re-taken to attempt to improve results. In addition to modular examinations, a modular structure may also include final or terminal examinations which examine the whole syllabus.
It is also typical for one or more coursework assignments to be completed throughout the length of the course. Coursework typically contributes around 25% to the final GCSE grade.
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San Francisco’s First Bike Lane Was Striped 40 Years Ago This Week
On May 23, 1971, while 2,000 runners were racing to the finish in the 60th annual Bay to Breakers (the first year women were allowed), a diverse group of neighbors, most of them on bicycles, gathered on Lake Street to celebrate a first for San Francisco: freshly striped bike lanes. Neighbors had been demanding traffic calming measures on their street, and requested that the San Francisco Department of Public Works put in stop signs and bike lanes.
“What the citizens were most aroused about were the vehicular speeds,” according to a 1971 DPW document [pdf] obtained from the archive of the San Francisco Municipal Transportation Agency. The writer of that document noted that “75-100″ neighbors had turned out at a community meeting on January 28, 1971, to voice their concerns.
In a process that took nearly six months (lightning speed by current-day standards), what was then known as the Fire, Safety and Police Committee of the Board of Supervisors approved the traffic calming measures and the stop signs in March of that year. San Francisco’s first on-street bike lanes were installed on Sunday, May 23, 1971.
Old photos of the celebration recently turned over to the San Francisco Bicycle Coalition show groups of happy bicyclists in their everyday attire. Men, women and children on foot and in strollers can be seen playing in the street, along with a marching band. As one bike advocate noted, “sousaphones outnumbered helmets.” That’s because bicycle helmets didn’t exist. The weather forecast for that day was typical: fair skies except low clouds along the coast.
At the time, the bicycle was surging in popularity. Across the country, sales of bicycles doubled. A DPW document from December 7, 1971 [pdf] acknowledged San Francisco’s “great upsurge in bicycle popularity,” but concluded that “it is too soon to determine whether or not it will signal a new era in transportation.”
As Zack Furness pointed out in his book, “One Less Car,” utilitarian cycling in the U.S. “became a more attractive option for many city dwellers and bike advocacy became an effective way to articulate those needs and desires.” It’s no surprise, then, that later that year a group of people formed what would become one of the nation’s oldest bicycle advocacy organizations: The San Francisco Bicycle Coalition. (Check out this piece in the SFBC’s Tube Times [pdf] that chronicles the organization’s history).
One other noteworthy tidbit from the time was that the day after the Lake Street celebration, the San Francisco Board of Supervisors approved “the city’s first bicycle parking space in the huge, underground Civic Center garage,” according to a May 25, 1971 article in the San Francisco Examiner [pdf]. The board voted to charge bicyclists 25 cents, something then-Board President Dianne Feinstein “expressed reservations about,” because “we’re trying to encourage people to use bicycles.”
Special thanks to Mike Sallabery of the SFMTA for digging up the old documents for our readers. Enjoy the photos and the pdfs!
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Dr. Lilian Pintea, the Jane Goodall Institute’s (JGI) vice president of Conservation Science, recently reported from Goma, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), where JGI is leading a workshop. The Conservation Action Plan (CAP) workshop is the first in a series of meetings planned to identify strategies and actions to reduce the threats to great apes and their habitat in a critical landscape of the eastern DRC. The CAP will target more than 66 million acres, which contain approximately 15,000 chimpanzees and somewhere between 3,000-5,000 gorillas.
JGI is leading the CAP in partnership with the Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature (ICCN) and with support from the Arcus Foundation and The World We Want Foundation. In addition to ICCN, JGI is also working with a broad range of international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and national and regional stakeholders.
Dr. Pintea’s Notes from the Field
February 10, 2011
|Workshop participants, including JGI’s Debby Cox, identify threats to chimpanzees within the CAP landscape.
Photo: Lilian Pintea/the Jane Goodall Institute
The workshop is in its fourth day (seven days to go). The JGI-DRC team—particularly Dario Merlo and Debby Cox— has done a fantastic job organizing and engaging critical stakeholders, and ensuring their attendance at the workshop. Representatives from the DRC NGO community, provincial and national government, police force, mining ministry, and additional key stakeholders are all here. It is truly an incredible collection of people that you rarely see at typical conservation meetings.
During the first two days of the ape expert workshop, participants redefined the CAP area (see map), conservation targets and major threats to great apes and their habitat. The project area covers more than 66 million acres (268,814 square kilometers)—more than twice the size of Virginia! The area is so large that I initially thought that the Geographic Information Systems (GIS) software had made a mistake. So, to be certain, I recalculated the coverage three times!
|Map of the CAP landscape
Three conservation targets have been identified: chimpanzees, Grauer’s gorillas and their habitat. Participants have agreed to focus conservation strategies on great ape and habitat distribution, which will be measured by the presence or absence of gorillas and chimpanzees within five-kilometer grids.
The situation for gorillas is much worse than we thought. Grauer’s gorillas live only in the landscape covered by the CAP. We thought there were roughly 5,000 Grauer’s gorillas left in the wild. However, the latest estimates seem much lower. The workshop findings on Grauer's Gorillas are currently being analyzed and will be summarized in a paper to be published in the next two months. Mining and poaching for bushmeat are the greatest threats to the gorillas and chimpanzees.
GIS software combined data from a variety of sources. Maps printed by Esri’s Kurt Eckerstrom provided a great way to visualize and better understand the status of and threats to apes and their habitat. These maps have also helped communicate scientific information across cultures and varied fields of expertise. I was told that one of the main advantages of the participatory mapping exercise was not only record critical knowledge from workshop participants, but also to educate them about great ape conservation needs in that region.
Today is also the second day of the stakeholder meeting for the northern section of the CAP landscape. We are developing and prioritizing specific strategies and actions to reduce the threats to apes and their habitats. George Strunden, JGI’s vice president of Africa Programs, joined us when the workshop began. He did a great job of representing JGI to top government officials during the formal opening of the workshop. I’ve included a few images from the workshop that I thought you would enjoy.
Vice President, Conservation Science
the Jane Goodall Institute
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Cheops: An Extraterrestrial Search
A satellite by the name of Cheops, an acronym for Characterizing Exoplanets Satellite, is currently in the works by the European Space Agency to search for Earthlike planets and, possibily, otherworldly entities. Expected to launch in 2017, this ESA satellite will be surveying solar systems for planets with life-harboring atmospheres by scanning signatures that would indicate a hospitable environment.
Cheops is soon to be one of the first and only satellites of its kind; maintaing a host of capabilities, Cheops' primary functions revolve around targeting solar systems for exoplanets, differentiating these planets as terrestrial or gas giants, and actively identifying key atmospheric conditions for potential life.
The current initiative has been spearheaded by a partnership between ESA, Switzerland, and the contributions of other member states as an effort to manufacteur rapidly developed, low cost, small scale missions into space. Cheops, floating in orbit 500 miles over the Earth’s surface, will be scouring the over 840 exoplanets that we already know about for extraterrestrial, life-affirming qualities.
The SETI team is soon to have a new friend on the scene in humanity's quest to resolve the age-old question: are we alone in this universe?Tweet
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Today’s telecoms, networking vendors, and cloud providers can learn a few things from the past by studying how Intel and AMD responded when their processors evolved so quickly that they couldn’t get data off of them fast enough. Cloud vendors facing a similar problem on a larger scale are discovering that WAN optimization, a form of Application Delivery Networking, will be required for clouds to be efficient and usable.
In the late ’90s, Sun Microsystems coined the term, “The network is the computer.” Although ahead of its time, the company was right — if you take into account today’s relative abundance of bandwidth and the emergence of huge cloud computing operators, the entire Internet starts to look like one big computer.
Rewind the TiVo about 15 years. Intel and AMD were following Moore’s law, doubling performance every 18 months. Even though processors were getting faster, it was getting hard to move data on and off of them. In microprocessor architecture, the system bus is responsible for getting data into and out of the processor. At the time, the aging ISA system bus couldn’t grow in performance as quickly as processors did. In other words, there was a bottleneck that prevented consumers from making full use of the increasingly fast processors.
It’s not a stretch to picture a cloud compute-enabled data center as a giant processor plugged into a giant system bus — the Internet, which varies dramatically in capacity. Cloud computing providers today laugh at Moore’s law because they don’t wait 18 months to double capacity. If they want to (only) double capacity, they simply double the number of servers in the cloud. Oh, and by the way, they still get the benefit of faster processors developed over time.
But these cloud compute providers, liberated from the shackles of Moore’s law, can’t grow network speeds as quickly as they can add servers, creating exactly the same problem that CPU vendors faced when their CPUs grew faster than the system bus. It’s getting worse, too — according to the lesser-known Nielsen’s Law, Internet bandwidth grows at an annual rate of 50 percent, compared with compute capacity, which grows at 60 percent, meaning that over a 10-year time period, computer power grows 100X, but bandwidth grows at 57X. Ouch.
So what did Intel and AMD do when faced with the same problem? They looked for a fix they could apply quickly. The quick fix was to add a cache to the processor, which allowed the CPU to run at full speed and store results in temporary memory until they could move across the slower system bus. It also allowed them to keep selling faster processors while they tackled the longer-term project of improving standards for bus speeds.
Cloud computing vendors need to take the same approach. It will take a long time to increase the speed of the “system bus” — every hop on the Internet between a data center and an end user — so they need to start working on shorter-term solutions. The most obvious one is WAN optimization. When cloud compute providers roll out ADN equipment as a part of their offerings, cloud consumers will instantly see much faster access to cloud compute resources using less bandwidth, which will increase cloud usage and unlock the value of the cloud for real enterprise computing. (Full disclosure: I work for Blue Coat Systems, the market leader in the ADN space.)
The future of cloud networking, and the only way to enable the full value of cloud compute cycles, is in WAN optimization. It’s a strategy that has worked well for Intel and AMD — and it ought to work for Amazon EC2, Microsoft Azure, Rackspace Mosso, and even Google.
If the cloud vendors try to skip the WAN optimization piece, the potent combination of Moore’s law and expanding data center deployments will hopelessly outpace our ability to deploy (and pay for) new broadband infrastructure.
Dave Asprey has focused his career on finding better ways to use data centers, virtualization, cloud computing, and networking. When he’s not busy as VP of Technology and Corporate Development for Blue Coat Systems, you’ll find him at an anti-aging conference.
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When Governor Stevens returned to his capital from the Blackfoot Country, he was to some extent deceived as to the perils which threatened the Puget Sound region. He approved of the energetic course of Mason, and advocated the vigorous prosecution of the war. But from what he had seen east of the Cascades, and from what he knew of the indolent habits of the tribes on the Sound, he was disposed to think the war was to be carried on in the Yakima and Walla Walla valleys rather than at home.
In a special message delivered extemporaneously to the legislative assembly, January 21, 1856, three days after arriving in Olympia, he recited the history of the war as he understood it. The people of the territory, he said, had urged upon congress the importance to them of extinguishing the Indian title to the country. To this the Indians consented with apparent willingness. Being appointed a commissioner to treat with them, he had applied himself to the duty, and successfully treated with the different tribes, explaining to them with the most minute care the terms to which they had agreed. But the Indians had acted treacherously, inasmuch as it was now well known that they had long been plotting against the white race, to destroy it. This being true, and they having entered upon a war without cause, however he might sympathize with the restlessness of an inferior race who perceived that destiny was against them, he nevertheless had high duties to perform toward his own, and the Indians must be met and resisted by arms, and that without delay, for seed-time was coming, when the farmers must be at the plough. The work remaining to be done, he thought, was comparatively small. Three hundred men from the Sound to push into the Indian country, build a depot, and operate vigorously in that quarter, with an equal force from the Columbia to prosecute the war east of the Cascades, in his opinion should be immediately raised. The force east of the mountains would prevent reinforcements from joining those on the west, and vice versa, while their presence in the country would prevent the restless but still faltering tribes farther north from breaking out into open hostilities. There should be no more treaties; extermination should be the reward of their perfidy.
On the 1st of February, in order to facilitate the organization of the new regiment, Stevens issued an order disbanding the existing organization, and revoking the orders raised for the defense of particular localities. The plan of block-houses was urged for the defense of settlements even of four or five families,1 the number at first erected being doubled in order that the farmers might cultivate their land; and in addition to the other companies organized was one of pioneers, whose duty it was to open roads and build block-houses.
The first regiment being disbanded, the reorganization progressed rapidly, and on the 25th the second regiment was organized into three battalions, designated as the northern, central, and southern; the northern battalion to rendezvous at the falls of the Snoqualimich and elect a major, the choice falling upon Captain J. J. H. Van Bokelin.2 It numbered about ninety men, supported by Patkanim and his company of Indian allies, and built forts Tilton and Alden below and above the falls.3 The central battalion was commanded by Major Gilmore Hays, and had its headquarters on Connell's prairie, White River,4 communicating with the rear by a ferry and block-house on the Puyallup, and block-houses at Montgomery's, and on Ye1m prairie, besides one at the crossing of White River, communicating with the regular forces at Muckleshoot prairie and Porter's prairie, farther up the valley.
The southern battalion, organized by Lieutenant- colonel B. F. Shaw, was raised upon the Columbia River, and partly of Oregon material,5 obtained by advertising for volunteers in the Oregon newspapers. Other companies were accepted from time to time as the exigencies of the service required, until there were twenty-one in the field,6 the whole aggregating less than a thousand men. The regiment was assigned to duty, and furnished with supplies with military skill by the commander-in-chief, whose staff-officers, wisely chosen,7 kept the machinery of war in motion, the detention of which so often paralyzed the arms of Governor Curry's volunteers. Between Curry and Stevens there was perfect harmony, the latter often being assisted by the governor of Oregon in the purchase of supplies, a service which was always gratefully acknowledged.
The plan of the campaign as announced by Stevens was to guard the line of the Snohomish and Snoqualimich pass by the northern battalion, to drive the enemy into the Yakima country with the central battalion by the Nachess pass, and to operate east of the Cascade Range with the southern battalion. On the occasion of the governor's reconnaissance of the Sound, which took place in January, the Snoqualimich chief Patkanim tendered his services as an ally, and upon consultation with Agent Simmons was accepted. He at once took the field with fifty-five well- armed warriors, accompanied by Simmons, L. M. Collins, and T. H. Fuller. On the 8th of February they reached Wappato prairie, five miles below the falls of the Snoqualimich, and learning that there was an encampment of the hostile Indians at the falls, Patkanim prepared to attack them, which he did, capturing the whole party. An investigation showed them to be Snoqualimichs, with the exception of three Klikitat emissaries engaged in an endeavor to enlist them on the side of the hostile combination. Patkanim, however, now that he had entered upon duty as an ally of the white people, carried his prisoners to camp at Wappato prairie and tried them each and every one, the trial resulting in the discharge of the Snoqualimichs, and one of the Klikitats, whose evidence convicted the other two and caused them to be hanged. Their heads were then cut off and sent to Olympia, where a price was to be paid.
From the Klikitat who was allowed to live it was ascertained that there were four different camps of the enemy on the east side of White River, at no great distance apart, above the point where the military road crossed it, and that Leschi was at one of them, while the crossing of the river was guarded above and below. This information was immediately sent to Olympia.
Patkanim at once proceeded to White River to attack Leschi, whom it was much desired by the government to arrest. But when he arrived there he found that wily chief alert and on his guard. Being strongly posted in the fork of a small tributary of White River, a sharp engagement followed, resulting in considerable loss. Of the number killed by Patkanim, all but two were on the farther side of the stream, and he was able to obtain but two heads, which were also forwarded to Olympia.. He returned after this battle to Holme Harbor, Whidbey Island, to prepare for further operations, it now being considered that he had fully committed himself to the cause of the white people. He remained faithful, and was of some further assistance, but objected to be commanded by white officers, preferring his own mode of fighting.
About the 13th of February Captain Maloney left Fort Steilaeoom with Lieutenants Davis and Fleming and 125 men, for the Puyallup, where he constructed a ferry and block-house, after which he moved on to White River, Colonel Casey, who had arrived on the steamship Republic in command of two companies of the regular 9th infantry, following a few days later with about an equal number of men.
On the 22d Captain Ford of the volunteers left Steilacoom for White River with his company of Chehalis scouts, in advance of Hays' company, and White's pioneers, who followed after, establishing depots at Yelm prairie and Montgomery's, and moving on to the Puyallup, where they built a blockhouse and ferry, after which, on the 29th, they proceeded to the Muckleshoot prairie, Henness following in a few days with his company, a junction being formed with Casey's and Maloney's commands at that place, Governor Stevens himself taking the field on the 24th, when the volunteers moved to the Puyallup.
Up to this date the war had been confined to the country north of Steilacoom, although a wide-spread alarm prevailed throughout the whole country. But the watchful savages were quick to perceive that by the assemblage of the regular and volunteer forces in the White River country they had left their rear comparatively unguarded, and on the 24th attacked and killed, near Steilacoom, William Northcraft, in the service of the territory as a teamster, driving off his oxen and the stock of almost every settler in the vicinity. On the 2d of March they waylaid William White, a substantial farmer living near Nathan Eaton's place, which was subsequently fortified, killing him and shooting at his family, who were saved by the running-away of the horses attached to a wagon in which all were returning from church. A family was also attacked while at work in a field, and some wounds received. These outrages were perpetrated by a band of forty savages under the leadership of chiefs Stahi and Quiemuth, who had flanked the troops in small detachments, and while Casey's attention was diverted by the voluntary surrender of fifty of their people, most of whom were women and children, whom it was not convenient to support while at war, but which were taken in charge by the Indian department. This new phase of affairs caused the governor's return to Olympia, whence he ordered a part of the southern battalion to the Sound. On the 4th of March, a detachment of regulars under Lieutenant Kautz, opening a road from the Puyallup to Muckleshoot prairie, when at no great distance from White River, discovered Indians and attacked them, Kautz sheltering his men behind piles of driftwood until Keyes reinforced him, when the battle was carried across the river and to the Muckleshoot prairie, where a charge being made, the Indians scattered. There were over a hundred regulars in the engagement, one of whom was killed and nine wounded, including Lieutenant Kautz. The loss of the Indians was unknown.
In the interim the volunteers of the central battalion had reached Connell's prairie, where an encampment was formed. On the morning of the 8th Major Hays ordered Captain White's company of pioneers, fifty strong, to the crossing of White River, to erect a block-house and construct a ferry, supported only by Captain Swindal with a guard of ten men. They had not proceeded more than a mile and a half from camp before the advance under Lieutenant Hicks was attacked by 150 warriors, who made a furious assault just as the detachment entered the woods that covered the river-bottoms, and were descending a hill. Almost simultaneously the main company received a heavy fire, and finding the odds against him, 'White dispatched a messenger to camp, when he was reinforced by Henness with twenty men, and soon after by Martin with fifteen. The battle continuing, and the Indians making a flank movement which could be seen from camp, Van Ogle was dispatched with fifteen men to check it. So rapid were their maneuvers that it required another detachment of twelve men under Rabbeson to arrest them.
The Indians had a great advantage in position, and after two hours of firing, a charge was ordered to be made by a portion of the volunteers, while White's company and Henness' detachment held their positions. The charge was successful, driving one body of the Indians through a deep marsh, or stream, in their flight, and enabling Swindal to take a position in the rear of the main body on a high ridge. It being too dangerous to charge them from their front, where White and Henness were stationed, they being well fortified behind fallen timber on the crest of a hill, Rabbeson and Swindal were ordered to execute a flank movement, and attack the enemy in the rear. A charge being made simultaneously in front and rear, the Indians were completely routed, with a loss of between twenty-five and thirty killed and many wounded. The loss of the volunteers was four wounded.
This battle greatly encouraged the territorial troops. The Indians were in force, outnumbering them two to one; they had chosen their position, and made the attack, and were defeated with every circumstance in their favor.8
This affair was the most decisive of the spring campaign of 1856 on the Sound. After it the Indians did not attempt to make a stand, but fought in small parties at unexpected times and in unexpected places. It would indeed have been difficult for them to have fought a general engagement, so closely were they pursued, and so thickly was the whole country on the east side dotted over with block-houses and camps. The blockhouse at the crossing of White River was completed, the Indians wounding one of the construction party by firing from a high bluff on the opposite bank. A station was made at Connell's prairie, called Fort Hays, by the volunteers, and another, called Fort Slaughter, on the Muckleshoot prairie, by the regulars. A blockhouse was established at Lone Tree point, three miles from the Dwamish, where Riley's company was stationed to guard the trail to Seattle. Later Lieutenant-colonel Lander with company A erected a blockhouse on the Dwamish, fifteen miles from Seattle. Captain Maloney erected one on Porter's prairie, and Captain Dent another at the mouth of Cedar River. The northern battalion, after completing their works on the Snoqualimich and leaving garrisons, marched across the country to join the central battalion by order of the commander-in-chief; and Colonel Shaw of the southern battalion added his force to the others about the last of the month.
At this juncture Governor Stevens proclaimed martial law; his forces were readjusted, and a desultory warfare kept up throughout the entire region. On John Day River, where the enemy had congregated in numbers, Major Layton of the Oregon volunteers captured thirty-four warriors in June, and in July there was some fighting, but nothing, decisive. Colonel Shaw also did some fighting in the Grand Rond country, but there, as elsewhere, the Indians kept the army on the move without definite results.
In these white raids many Indian horses were taken, and all government supplies stopped. Obviously no more effective method of subduing the Indians could be adopted than to unhorse them and take away their supplies. The march of the several detachments of regulars and volunteers through the Indian country forced the neutral and needy Indians to accept the overtures of the United States government through the Indian and military departments, and they now surrendered to the agents and army officers, to the number of 923, comprising the Wasco, Tyghe, Des Chutes, and a portion of the John Day tribes, all of whom were partially subsisted by the government. About 400 of the Yakimas and Klikitats who surrendered to Colonel Wright during the summer were also assisted by the government agents.
Soon after a battle on the Grand Rend, Major Layton mustered out his battalion, the time of the Oregon troops having expired, leaving only Shaw's battalion in the Walla Walla Valley, to hold it until Colonel Wright should be prepared to occupy it with the regular troops, who had not fought nor attempted to fight an engagement during the summer. A scouting party of Jordan's Indian allies, in recovering 200 captured horses, killed two hostile Indians, the sole achievement of a regiment of troops in the field for four months. About the 1st of August Wright returned to Vancouver, leaving Major Garnett in command of Fort Simcoe, and the Indians at liberty to give the volunteers employment, which they were ready enough to do.9
Governor Stevens was unable to push forward any troops east of the Cascade Range for two months after the Oregon troops were withdrawn upon the understanding that Colonel Wright was to occupy the Walla Walla Valley. In the mean time the hostile tribes enjoyed the fullest liberty up to the appearing of the southern battalion, and those previously friendly, being in ignorance of the intention of the authorities toward them, made this an excuse for withdrawing their allegiance.
Lieutenant-colonel Craig, who with his auxiliaries had been using his best endeavors to hold the Nez Percé and Spokanes constant to their professions, met the volunteers in the Walla Walla Valley, and escorted Captain Robie with the supply train under his charge to the Nez Percé country. On the 24th of July Robie returned and communicated to Colonel Shaw, just in from the Grand Rond expedition, the disagreeable intelligence that the Nez Percé had shown a hostile disposition, declaring the treaty broken, and refusing to receive the goods sent thein.10 This would have been unwelcome news at any time, but was most trying at this juncture, when half the force in field was quitting it to be mustered out of service. This exigency occasioned the call for two more companies of volunteers. Subsequent to making the call, Stevens decided to go in person to Walla Walla, and if possible to hold a council. A messenger was at once dispatched to Shaw, with instructions to send runners to the different tribes, friendly and hostile, inviting them to meet him on the 25th; but accompanying the invitation was the notice that he required the unconditional surrender of the warring bands.
Stevens urged Colonel Wright to be present at the council, and to send three companies of regulars, including all his mounted men, to the Walla Walla Valley for that occasion. Wright declined the invitation to participate in the council, but signified his intention of sending Steptoe to Walla Walla to establish a post in that country.
On the 19th of August, Stevens set out from The Dalles with a train of 30 wagons, 80 oxen, and 200 loose animals, attended only by his messenger, Pearson, and the employees of the expedition. A day or two behind him followed the baggage and supply train of Steptoe's command. He arrived without accident at Camp Mason on the 23d, sending word in all directions to inform the Indians of his wish to meet them for a final adjustment of their difficulties at the councilground five miles from Waiilatpu. At the end of a week a deputation of the lower Nez Percé had come in with their agent, Craig. At the end of another week all this tribe were in, but on the same day Father Ravelli, from the Coeur d'Alene Mission, arrived alone, with the information that he had seen and conversed with Kamiakin, Owhi, and Qualchin, who refused to attend the council, and also that the Spokanes and other tribes declined to meet the superintendent, having been instigated to this course by Kamiakin, who had made his headquarters on the border of their country all summer, exercising a strong influence by the tales he circulated of the wrong-doing of the white people, and especially of Governor Stevens, and enmity among the northern tribes.
On the 10th the hostile Cayuses, Des Chutes, and Tyghes arrived and encamped in the neighborhood of the Nez Percé, but without paying the customary visit to Governor Stevens, and exhibiting their hostility by firing the grass of the country they travelled over. They had recently captured a pack train of forty-one horses and thirty packs of provisions from The Dalles for Shaw's command, and were in an elated mood over their achievement.
The council opened on the 11th of September, and closed on the 17th, Stevens moving his position in the mean time to Steptoe's camp for fear of an outbreak. Nothing was accomplished. The only terms to which the war chiefs would assent were to be left in possession of their respective domains. On his way back to The Dalles with his train of Indian goods, escorted by Shaw's command under Goff, on the 19th and 20th several attacks were made and two soldiers killed. Assisted by Steptoe, Stevens finally reached his destination in safety. After this mortifying repulse Governor Stevens returned to the Sound. Wright repaired to Walla Walla with an additional company of troops, and sent word to all the chiefs to bring them together for a council. Few came, the Nez Percé being represented by Red Wolf and Eagle-from-the light, the Cayuses by Howlish Wampo, Tintinmetse, and Stickas, with some other sub-chiefs of both nations. None of the Yakimas, Des Chutes, Walla Wallas, or Spokanes were present; and all that could be elicited from those who attended the council was that they desired peace, and did not wish the treaty of Walla Walla confirmed.
Wright remained at Walla Walla until November, the post of Fort Walla Walla11 being established on Mill Creek, six miles from its junction with the Walla Walla River, where the necessary buildings were completed before the 20th. In November Fort Dalles was garrisoned by an additional company under brevet Major Wise. The Cascade settlement was protected by a company of the 4th infantry under Captain Wallen, who relieved Captain Winder of the 9th infantry. The frontier being thus secured against invasion, the winter passed without many warlike demonstrations.
About the 20th of July the volunteer companies left on the Sound when Shaw's battalion departed for Walla Walla were disbanded, the hostile Indians being driven east of the mountains, and the country being in a good state of defense. On the 4th of August Governor Stevens called a council of Indians at Fox Island, to inquire into the causes of discontent, and finding that the Nisquallies and Puyallups were dissatisfied with the extent of their reservation, not without a show of reason, he agreed to recommend an enlargement, and a resurvey was ordered on the 28th, which took in thirteen donation claims, for which congress appropriated nearly $5,000 to pay for improvements.
Having satisfied the Indians of his disposition to deal justly with them, he next made a requisition upon Colonel Wright for the delivery to him of Leschi, Quiemuth, Nelson, Stahi, and the younger Kitsap, to be tried for murder, these Indians being among those who had held a council with Wright in the Yakima country, and been permitted to go at large on their parole and obligation to keep the peace. But 'Wright was reluctant to give up the Indians required, saying that although he had made no promises not to hold them accountable for their former acts, he should consider it unwise to seize them for trial, as it would have a disturbing effect upon the Indians whom he was endeavoring to quiet. Stevens argued that peace on milder terms would be a criminal abandonment of duty, and would depreciate the standing of the authorities with the Indians, especially as he had frequently assured them that the guilty should be punished; he repeated his requisition; whereupon, toward the last of the month, Major Garnett was ordered to turn over to the governor for trial the Indians named. The army officers were not in sympathy with what they deemed the arbitrary course of the governor, and Garnett found it easy to evade the performance of so uncongenial a duty, the Indians being scattered, and many of them having returned to the Sound, where they gave themselves up to the military authorities at Fort Steilacoom.
A reward, however, was offered for the seizure and delivery of Leschi, which finally led to his arrest about the middle of November. It was accomplished by the treachery of two of his own people, Sluggia and Elikukah. They went to the place where Leschi was in hiding, poor and outlawed, having been driven away by the Yakimas who had submitted to Wright, who would allow him to remain in their country only on condition that he became their slave; and having decoyed him to a spot where their horses were concealed, suddenly seized and bound him, to be delivered up to Sydney S. Ford, who surrendered him to Stevens at Olympia.
The particular crime with which Leschi was charged was the killing of A. B. Moses, the place being in Pierce County. Court had just adjourned when he was brought in, but as Judge Chenoweth, who resided on Whidbey Island, had not yet left Steilacoom, he was requested by the governor to hold a special term for the trial of Leschi, and the trial came off on the o 17th of November, the jury failing to agree. A second trial, begun on the 18th of March 1857, resulted in conviction, and the savage was sentenced to be hanged on the 10th of June. This action of the Governor was condemned by the regular army officers, there being in this case the same opposition of sentiment between the civil and military authorities which had existed in all the Indian wars in Oregon and Washington-the army versus the people.
Proceedings were instituted to carry the case up to the Supreme Court in December, which postponed the execution of the sentence. The opinion of McFadden, acting chief justice, sustained the previous action of the district court and the verdict of the jury. Leschi's sentence was again pronounced, the day of his execution being fixed upon the 22d of January 1858. In the mean time Stevens had resigned, and a new governor, McMullin, had arrived, to whom a strong appeal was made by the counsel and friends of Leschi, but to no effect, 700 settlers protesting against pardon. When the day of execution arrived, a large concourse of people assembled at Steilacoom to witness the death of so celebrated a savage. But the friends of the doomed man had prepared a surprise for them. The sheriff of Pierce county and his deputy were arrested, between the hours of ten and twelve o'clock, by Lieutenant McKibben of Fort Steilacoom, appointed United States marshal for the purpose, and Frederick Kautz, upon a warrant issued by J. M. Baclielder, United States commissioner and sutler at that post, upon a charge of selling liquor to the Indians. An attempt was made by Secretary Mason to obtain the death-warrant in possession of the sheriff, which attempt was frustrated until after the hour fixed for the execution had passed, during which time the sheriff remained in custody with no attempt to procure his freedom.
So evident a. plot, executed entirely between the prisoner's counsel and the military authorities at Fort Steilacoom, aroused the liveliest indignation on the part of the majority of the people. A public meeting was held at Steilacoom, and also one at Olympia, on the evening of the 22d, at which all the persons in any way concerned in the frustration of the sentence of the courts were condemned, and the legislature requested to take cognizance of it. This the legislature did, by passing an act on the following day requiring the judges of the supreme court to hold a special session on or before the 1st of February at the seat of government, repealing all laws in conflict with this act, and also passing another act allowing the judges, Chenoweth and McFadden, Lander being absent from the territory, one hundred dollars each for their expenses in holding an extra session of the supreme court, by which the case was remanded to the court of the 2d judicial district, whither it came on a writ of error, and an order issued for a special session of the district court, before which, Chenoweth presiding, Leschi was again brought, when his counsel entered a demurrer to its jurisdiction, which was overruled, and Leschi was for the third time sentenced to be hanged; and on the 19th of February the unhappy savage, ill and emaciated from long confinement, and weary of a life which for nearly three years had been one of strife and misery, was strangled according, to law.
There is another case on the record according the temper of the time. Shortly after Leschi's betrayal and arrest, Quiemuth, who had been in hiding, presented himself to George Brail on Yelm prairie, with the request that he should accompany him to Olympia, and give him up to Governor Stevens to be tried. Brad did as requested, three or four others accompanying him. Arriving at Olympia at half-past two in the morning, they aroused the governor, who, placing them all in his office, furnished fire and refreshments, locked the front door, and proceeded to make arrangements for conveying the party to Steilacoom before daylight.
Although caution was used, the fact of Quiemuth's presence in the town became known, and several persons quietly gained access to the governor's office through a back door, among whom was James Bunton, a son-in-law of James McAllister, who was killed while conversing with some of Leschi's people. The guard saw no suspicious movement, when suddenly a shot was fired, there was a quick arousal of all in the room, and Quiemuth with others sprang to the door, where he was met by the assassin and mortally stabbed. So dimly lighted was the room, and so unexpected and sudden was the deed, that the perpetrator was not recognized, although there was a warrant issued a few hours later for Bunton, who, on examination, was discharged for want of evidence.12
Few of the Indian leaders in the war on the Sound survived it. Several were hanged at Fort Steilacoom; three were assassinated by white men out of revenge; Kitsap was killed in June 1857, on the Muckleshoot prairie, by one of his own people, and in December following Sluggia, who betrayed Leschi, was killed by Leschi's friends.13 Nelson and Stahi alone survived when Leschi died. His death may be said to have been the closing act of the war on Puget Sound; but it was not until the ratification of the Walla Walla treaties in 1859 that the people returned to their farms in the Puyallup and upper White River valleys.14 So antagonistic was the feeling against Stevens conduct of the war at the federal capital, that it was many years before the war debt was allowed.
The labors of the commission appointed to examine claims occupied almost a year, to pay for which congress appropriated twelve thousand dollars. The total amount of war expenses for Oregon and Washington aggregated nearly six millions of dollars!15 When the papers were all filed they made an enormous mass of half a cord in bulk, which Smith took to Washington in 1857.16 The secretary of war, in his report, pronounced the findings equitable, recommending that provision should be made for the payment of the full amount.17
The number of white persons known to have been killed by Indians18 in Oregon previous to the establishment of the latter on reservations, including the few fairly killed in battle, so far as I have been able to gather from reliable authorities, was nearly 700, besides about 140 wounded who recovered, and without counting those killed and wounded in Washington.19
Two events of no small significance occurred in the spring of 1857, the union of the two Indian superintendencies of Washington under one superintendent, J. W. Nesmith of Oregon, and the recall of General Wool from the command of the department of the Pacific. The first was in consequence of the heavy expenditures in both superintendencies, and the second was in response to the petition of the legislature of Oregon at the session of 1856-7. The successor of Wool was Newman S. Clarke, who paid a visit to the Columbia River district in June.20
Nesmith did not relieve Stevens of his duties as superintendent of Washington until the 2d of June,21 soon after which General Clarke paid a visit to the Columbia River district to look into the condition of this portion of his department.
Nesmith recommended to the commissioner at Washington City that the treaties of 1855 be ratified, as the best means of bringing about a settlement of the existing difficulties, and for these reasons: that the land laws permitted the occupation of the lands of Oregon and Washington, regardless of the rights of the Indians, making the intercourse laws a nullity, and rendering it impossible to prevent collisions between them and the settlers. Friendly relations could not be cultivated while their title to the soil was recognized by the government, which at the same time failed to purchase it, but gave white people a right to settle in the country.
About the middle of April 1858 Colonel Steptoe notified General Clarke that an expedition to the north seemed advisable, if not absolutely necessary, as a petition had been received from forty persons living at Colville for troops to be sent to that place, the Indians in the vicinity being hostile. Two white men en route for Colville mines had been killed by the Palouses, who had also made a foray into the Walla Walla country and driven off the cattle belonging to the army. On the 6th of May Steptoe left Walla Walla with 130 dragoons, proceeding toward the Nez Percé country in a leisurely manner. At Snake River he was ferried across by Timothy, who also accompanied him as guide. At the Alpowah he found thirty or forty of the Palouses, who were said to have killed the two travelers, who fled on his approach. On the 16th he received information that the Spokanes were preparing to fight him, but not believing the report, pursued his march northward22 until he found himself surrounded by a force of about 600 Indians in their war-paint-Palouses, Spokanes, Coeur d'Alenes, and a few Nez Percé. They had posted themselves near a ravine through which the road passed, and where the troops could be assailed on three sides. The command was halted and a parley held with the Spokanes, in which they announced their intention of fighting, saying that they had heard the troops had come to make war on them, but they would not be permitted to cross the Spokane River.
Informing his officers that they should be compelled to fight, Steptoe turned aside to avoid the dangerous pass of the ravine, and coming in about a mile to a small lake, encamped there, but without daring to dismount, the Indians having accompanied them all the way at a distance of not more than a hundred yards, using the most insulting words and gestures. No shots were fired, either by the troops or Indians, Steptoe being resolved that the Spokanes should fire the first gun; and indeed, the dragoons had only their small arms, and were not prepared for fighting Indians.23
Toward night a number of chiefs rode up to the camp to inquire the occasion of the troops coming into the Spokane country, and why they had cannon with them. Steptoe replied that he was on his way to Colville to learn the causes of the troubles between the miners and Indians in that region. This the Indians professed to him to accept as the true reason, though they asserted to Father Joset that they did not believe it, because the colonel had not taken the direct road to Colville.24 But had come out of his way to pass through their country-a fact of which Steptoe was himself unconscious, having trusted to Timothy to lead him to Colville. But though the chiefs professed to be satisfied, they refused to furnish canoes to ferry over the troops, and maintained an unyielding opposition to their advance into the Spokane country. Finding that he should have to contend against great odds, without being prepared, Steptoe determined upon retreating, and early on the morning of the 17th began his return to the Palouse.
In the mean time the Coeur d'Alenes, who were gathering roots in a camas prairie a few miles distant, had been informed of the position of affairs, and were urged to join the Spokanes, who could not consent to let the troops escape out of their hands so easily. As they were about marching, Steptoe received a visit from Father Joset, who was anxious to explain to him the causes which led to the excitement, and also a slander which the Palouses had invented against himself, that he had furnished the Indians with ammunition. It was then agreed that an interview should be had with the principal chiefs; but only the Coeur d'Alene chief Vincent was found ready to meet Steptoe. In the midst of the interview, which was held as they rode along, the chief was called away and firing was commenced by the Palouses, who were dogging the heels of the command. What at first seemed an attack by this small party of Indians only soon became a general battle, in which all were engaged. Colonel Steptoe labored under the disadvantage of having to defend a pack train while moving over a rolling country particularly favorable to Indian warfare. The column moved, at first, in close order, with the supply train in the middle, guarded by a dragoon company, with a company in the front and rear. At the crossing of a small stream, the Indians closing in to get at the head of the column, Lieutenant Gregg, with one company, was ordered to move forward and occupy a hill which the Indians were trying to gain for that purpose. He had no sooner reached this position than the Indians sought to take possession of one, which commanded it, and it became necessary to divide his company to drive them from the new position.
By this time the action had become general, and the companies were separated, fighting by making short charges, and at a great disadvantage on account of the inferiority of their arms to those used by the Indians. As one of the dragoon companies was endeavoring to reach the hill held by Gregg's company, the Indians made a charge to get between them and the hill to surround and cut them off. Seeing the movement and its intention, Lieutenant Gaston, who was not more than a thousand yards off, made a dash with his company, which was met by Gregg's company from the hill, in a triangle, and the Indians suffered the greatest loss of the battle just at the spot where the two companies met, having twelve killed in the charge.25
Among the killed were Jacques Zachary, a brother- in-law of the Coeur d'Alene chief Vincent, and James, another headman. Victor, an influential chief, also of the Coeur d'Alenes, fell mortally wounded. The rage of the Coeur d'Alenes at this loss was terrible, and soon they had avenged themselves. As the troops slowly moved forward, fighting, to reach water, the Indians kept up a constant raking fire, until about 11 o'clock, when Captain Oliver H. P. Taylor and Lieutenant William Gaston were killed.26 To these officers had been assigned the difficult duty of flanking the column. Their loss threw the men into confusion, harassed as they were by the steady fire of the enemy, but a few of them gallantly defended the bodies of their officers and brought them off the field under a rain of bullets.27
It now became apparent that water could not be reached by daylight, and though it was not much past noon, Steptoe was forced to remain in the best position he could obtain on the summit of a hill, on a small inclined plain, where the troops dismounted and picketed their animals. The men were then ordered to lie down flat upon the ground, and do their best to prevent the Indians taking the hill by charges, in which defense they were successful. Toward evening the ammunition, of which they had an insufficient supply, began to give out, and the men were suffering so severely from thirst and fatigue that it was with difficulty the three remaining officers could inspire them to defend themselves.28 Six of their comrades were dead or dying, and eleven others wounded. Many of the men were late recruits, insufficiently drilled, whose courage these reverses had much diminished, if not altogether destroyed.
Nothing remained now but flight. The deal officers were hastily interred; and taking the best horses and a small supply of provisions, the troops crept silently away at ten o'clock that night and hurried toward Snake River, where they arrived on the morning of the 19th. Thence Steptoe returned to Fort Walla Walla.
One of the reasons, if not the principal one, assigned by the Coeur d'Alenes for their excitability and passion was that ever since the outbreak in 1855 they had said that no white settlements should be made in their country, nor should there be any roads through it; and they were informed a road was about to be opened from the Missouri to the Columbia by the United States government in spite of their protest.29 They were opposed, also, to troops being sent to Colville, as they said that would only open the way for more troops, and again for more, and finally for the occupation of the country.
General Clarke, learning from Father Joset that the Coeur d'Alenes were penitent, offered to treat with them on easy conditions, considering their conduct toward Colonel Steptoe; he sent their priest back to them with passports, which were to conduct their chiefs to Vancouver should they choose to come.
But the Coeur d'Alenes did not choose to come. True, they had professed penitence to their priest, begging him to intercede for them, but as soon as his back was turned on them, they, with the Spokanes and Kalispels, led by the notorious Telxawney, brewed mischief. The Coeur d'Alenes openly denied consenting to Father Joset's peace mission, and were incensed that he should meddle with things that did not concern him. After this, attacks on miners and others continued.
In June General Clarke held a consultation of officers at Vancouver, colonels Wright and Steptoe being present, when an expedition was determined upon which should not repeat the blunders of the previous one, and Colonel Wright was placed in command. Three companies of artillery were brought from San Francisco, one from Fort Umpqua, and Captain Judah was ordered from Fort Jones, in California, with one company of 4th infantry. The troops intended for the expedition were concentrated at Fort Walla Walla, where they were thoroughly drilled in the tactics which they were expected to practice on the field, the artillerymen being instructed in light infantry practice, with the exception of a single company, which practised at artillery drill mounted. No precaution was neglected which could possibly secure discipline in battle.
At the same time that the expedition against the Spokanes and Coeur d'Alenes was preparing, another against the Yakimas was ordered, under the command of Major Garnett, who was to move, on the 15th of August, with 300 troops, northward toward Colville, thus assisting to drive the hostile Indians toward one common center. Before leaving Fort Walla Walla, on the 6th of August, Wright called a council of the Nez Percé, with whom he made a 'treaty of friendship,' binding them to aid the United States in wars with any other tribes, and binding the United States to assist them in the same case, at the cost of the government; and to furnish them arms whenever their services were required. The treaty was signed by Wright on the part of the United States, and by twenty-one Nez Perces, among whom were Timothy, Richard, Three Feathers, and Speaking Eagle, but by none of the greater chiefs already known in this history. The treaty was witnessed by six army officers and approved by Clarke.30 A company of thirty Nez Perce volunteers was organized under this arrangement, the Indians being dressed in United States uniform, to flatter their pride as allies, as well as to distinguish them from the hostile Indians. This company was placed under the command of Lieutenant John Mullan, to act as guides and scouts.
On the 7th of August Captain Keyes took his departure with a detachment of dragoons for Snake River, where, by the advice of Colonel Steptoe, fortification was to be erected, at the point selected for a crossing. This was at the junction of the Tucannon with the Snake River. It was built in the deep gorge, overhung by cliff's on either side, 260 and 310 feet in height. The fortification was named Fort Taylor, in honor of Captain O. H. P. Taylor, killed in the battle of the 17th of May. The place would have afforded little security against a civilized foe, but was thought safe from Indian attack. A reservation of 640 acres was laid out, and every preparation made for a permanent post, including a ferry, for which a large flat-boat was provided.
On the 18th Wright arrived at Fort Taylor, and in a few days the march began. The dragoons numbered 190, the artillery 400, and the infantry 90. The last were organized as a rifle brigade, and armed with Sharpe's long-range rifles and minié ball, two improvements in the implements of war with which the Indians were unacquainted. On the 31st, when the army had arrived at the head waters of Cheranah River, a point almost due north of Fort Taylor, 76 miles from that post, and about twenty south of the Spokane River, the Indians showed themselves in some force on the hills, and exchanged a few shots with the Nez Percé, who were not so disguised by their uniforms as to escape detection had they desired it, which apparently they did not. They also tired the grass, with the intention of making an attack under cover of the smoke, but it failed to burn well. They discharged their guns at the rear-guard, and retreated to the hills again, where they remained. Judging from these indications that the main body of the Indians was not far distant, and wishing to give his troops some rest before battle, after so long a march, Wright ordered camp to be made at a place in the neighborhood of Four Lakes, with the intention of remaining a few days at that place.
But the Indians were too impatient to allow him this respite, and early in the morning of the 1st of September they began to collect on the summit of a hill about two miles distant. As they appeared in considerable force, Wright, with two squadrons of dragoons commanded by Major W. N. Grier, four companies of the 3d artillery, armed with rifle muskets, commanded by Major E. D. Keyes, and the rifle battalion of two companies of the 9th infantry commanded by Captain F. T. Dent, one mountain howitzer under command of Lieutenant J. L. White, and the thirty Nez Percé under the command of Lieutenant John Hunan, set out at half-past nine in the forenoon to make a reconnaissance, and drive the enemy from their position, leaving in camp the equipage and supplies, guarded by one company of artillery, commanded by Lieutenants H. G. Gibson and G. B. Dandy, a howitzer manned, and a guard of fifty-four men under Lieutenant H. B. Lyon, the whole commanded by Captain J. A. Hardie, the field officer of the day.31
Grier was ordered to advance with his cavalry to the north and east around the base of the hill occupied by the Indians, in order to intercept their retreat when the foot-troops should have driven them from the summit. The artillery and rifle battalion, with the Nez Perces, were marched to the right of the hill, where the ascent was more easy, and to push the Indians in the direction of the dragoons. It was not a difficult matter to drive the Indians over the crest of the hill, but once on the other side, they took a stand, and evidently expecting a combat, showed no disposition to avoid it. In fact, they were keeping up a constant firing upon the two squadrons of dragoons, who were awaiting the foot-troops on the other side of the ridge.
On this side was spread out a vast plain, in a beautiful and exciting panorama. At the foot of the hill was a lake, and just beyond, three others surrounded by rugged rocks. Between them, and stretching to the northwest as far as the eye could reach, was level ground; in the distance, a dark range of pine- covered mountains. A more desirable battlefield could not have been selected. There was the open plain, and the convenient covert among the pines that bordered the lakes, and in the ravines of the hillside. Mounted on their fleetest horses, the Indians, decorated for war, their gaudy trapping glaring in the sun, and singing or shouting their battle-cries, swayed back and forth over a compass of two miles.
Even their horses were painted in contrasting white, crimson, and other colors, while from their bridles depended bead fringes, and woven with their manes and tails were the plumes of eagles. Such was the spirited spectacle that greeted Colonel Wright and his command on that bright September morning.
Soon his plan of battle was decided upon. The troops were now in possession of the elevated ground, and the Indians held the plain, the ravines, and the pine groves. The dragoons were drawn up on the crest of the bill facing, the plain; behind them were two companies of Keyes' artillery battalion acting as infantry, and with the infantry, deployed as skirmishers, to advance down the bill and drive the Indians from their coverts at the foot of the ridge into the plain. The rifle battalion under Dent, composed of two companies of the 9th infantry, with Winder and Fleming, was ordered to the right to deploy in the pine forest; and the howitzers, under White, supported by a company of artillery under Tyler, was advanced to a lower plateau, in order to be in a position for effective firing.
The advance began, the infantry moving steadily down the long slope, passing the dragoons, and firing a sharp volley into the Indian ranks at the bottom of the hill. The Indians now experienced a surprise. Instead of seeing the soldiers drop before their muskets while their own fire fell harmless, as at the battle of Steptoe Butte, the effect was reversed. The rifles of the infantry struck down the Indians before the troops came within range of their muskets.
This unexpected disadvantage, together with the orderly movement of so large a number of men, exceeding their own force by at least one or two hundred,32 caused the Indians to retire, though slowly at first, and many of them to take refuge in the woods, where they were met by the rifle battalion and the howitzers, doing deadly execution.
Continuing to advance, the Indians falling back, the infantry reached the edge of the plain. The dragoons were in the rear, leading their horses. When they had reached the bottom of the hill they mounted, and charging between the divisions of skirmishers, rushed like a whirlwind upon the Indians, creating a panic, from which they did not recover, but fled in all directions. They were pursued by the dragoons for about a mile, when the latter were obliged to halt, their horses being exhausted. The foot-troops, too, being weary with their long march from Walla Walla, pursued but a short distance before they were recalled. The few Indians who still lingered on the neighboring hilltops soon fled when the howitzers were discharged in their direction. By two o'clock the whole army had returned to camp, not a man or a horse having been killed, and only one horse wounded. The Indians lost eighteen or twenty killed and many wounded.33
For three days Wright rested unmolested in camp. On the 5th of September, resuming his march, in about five miles he came upon the Indians collecting in large bodies, apparently with the intention of opposing his progress. They rode along in a line parallel to the troops, augmenting in numbers, and becoming more demonstrative, until on reaching a plain bordered by a wood they were seen to be stationed there awaiting the moment when the attack might be made.
As the column approached, the grass was fired, which being dry at this season of the year, burned with great fierceness, the wind blowing it toward the troops; and at the same time, under cover of the smoke, the Indians spread themselves out in a crescent, half enclosing them. Orders were immediately given to the pack-train to close up, and a strong guard was placed about it. The companies were then deployed on the right and left, and the men, flushed with their recent victory, dashed through the smoke and flames toward the Indians, driving them to the cover of the timber, where they were assailed by shells from the howitzers. As they fled from the havoc of the shells, the foot soldiers again charged them. This was repeated from cover to cover, for about four miles, and then from rock to rock, as the face of the country changed, until they were driven into a plain, when a cavalry charge was sounded, and the scenes of the battle of Four Lakes were repeated.
But the Indians were obstinate, and gathered in parties in the forest through which the route now led, and on a hill to the right. Again the riflemen and howitzers forced them to give way. This was continued during a progress of fourteen miles. That afternoon the army encamped on the Spokane River, thoroughly worn out, having marched twenty-five miles without water, fighting half of the way. About the same number of Indians appeared to be engaged in this battle that had been in the first. Only one soldier was slightly wounded. The Coeur d'Alenes lost two chiefs, the Spokanes two, and Kamiakin also, who had striven to inspire the Indians with courage, received a blow upon the head from a falling tree-top blown off by a bursting shell. The whole loss of the Indians was unknown, their dead being carried off the field. At the distance of a few miles, they burned one of their villages to prevent the soldiers spoiling it.
The army rested a day at the camp on Spokane River, without being disturbed by the Indians, who appeared in small parties on the opposite bank, and intimated a disposition to hold communication, but did not venture across. But on the following day, while the troops were on the march along the left bank, they reappeared on the right, conversing with the Nez Percé and interpreters, from which communication it was learned that they desired to come with Garry have a talk with Colonel Wright, who appointed a meeting at the ford two miles above the falls.
Wright encamped at the place appointed for a meeting, and Garry came over soon after. He stated to the colonel the difficulties of his position between the war and peace parties. The war party, greatly in the majority, and numbering his friends and the principal men of his nation, was incensed with him for being a peace man, and he had either to take up arms against the white men or be killed by his own people. There was no reason to doubt this assertion of Garry's, his previous character being well known. But Wright replied in the tone of a conqueror, telling him he had beaten them in two battles without losing a man or animal, and that he was prepared to beat them as often as they chose to come to battle; he did not come into the country to ask for peace, but to fight. If they were tired of war, and wanted peace, he would give them his terms, which were that they must come with everything that they had, and lay all at his feet-arms, women, children-and trust to his mercy. When they had thus fully surrendered, he would talk about peace. If they did not do this, he would continue to make war upon them that year and the next, and until they were exterminated. With this message to his people, Garry was dismissed.
On the same day Polatkin, a noted Spokane chief, presented himself with nine warriors at the camp of Colonel Wright, having left their arms on the opposite side of the river, to avoid surrendering them. Wright sent two of the warriors over after the guns, when one of them mounted his horse and rode away. The other returned, bringing the guns. To Polatkin Wright repeated what had been said to Garry; and as this chief was known to have been in the attack on Steptoe, as well as a leader in the recent battles, he was detained, with another Indian, while he sent the remaining warriors to bring in all the people, with whatever belonged to them. The Indian with Polatkin being recognized as one who had been at Fort Walla Walla in the spring, and who was suspected of being concerned in the murder of the two miners in the Palouse country about that time, he was put under close scrutiny, with the intention of trying him for the crime.
Resuming his march on the 8th of September, after travelling nine miles, a great dust where the road entered the mountains betrayed the vicinity of the Indians, and the train was closed up, under guard, while Major Grier was ordered to push forward with three companies of dragoons, followed by the foot- troops. After a brisk trot of a couple of miles, the dragoons overtook the Indians in the mountains with all their stock, which they were driving to a place of safety, instead of surrendering, as required. A skirmish ensued, ending in the capture of 800 horses. With this booty the dragoons were returning, when they were met by the foot troops, who assisted in driving the animals to camp sixteen miles above Spokane Falls. The Indian suspected of murder was tried at this encampment, and being found guilty, was hanged the same day about sunset.
After a consultation on the morning of the 9th, Wright determined to have the captured horses killed, only reserving a few of the best for immediate use, it being impracticable to take them on the long march yet before them, and they being too wild for the service of white riders. Accordingly two or three hundred were shot that day, and the remainder on the 10th.34 The effect of dismounting the Indians was quickly apparent, in the offer of a Spokane chief, Big Star, to surrender. Being without horses, he was permitted to come with his village as the army passed, and make his surrender to Wright in due form.
On the 10th the Coeur d'Alenes made proposals of submission, and as the troops were now within a few days' march of the mission, Wright directed them to meet him at that place, and again took up his march. Crossing the Spokane, each dragoon with a foot soldier behind him, the road lay over the Spokane plains, along the river, and for fifteen miles through a pine forest, to the Coeur d'Alene Lake, where camp was made on the 11th. All the provisions found cached were destroyed, in order that the Indians should not be able, if they were willing, to carry on hostilities again during the year. Beyond Coeur d'Alene Lake the road ran through a forest so dense that the troops were compelled to march in single file, and the single wagon, belonging to Lieutenant Mullan, that had been permitted to accompany the expedition, had to be abandoned, as well as the limber belonging to the howitzers, which were thereafter packed upon mules. The rough nature of the country from the Coeur d'Alene Lake to the mission made the march exceedingly fatiguing to the foot-soldiers, who, after the first day, began to show the effects of so much toil, together with hot and sultry weather, by occasionally falling out of ranks, often compelling officers to dismount and give them their horses.
On the 13th the army encamped within a quarter of a mile of the mission.35 The following day Vincent, who had not been in the recent battles, returned from a circuit he had been making among his people to induce them to surrender themselves to Wright; but the Indians, terrified by what they had heard of the severity of that officer, declined to see him. However, on the next day a few came in, bringing some articles taken in the battle of the 17th of May. Observing that no harm befell these few, others followed their example. They were still more encouraged by the release of Polatkin, who was sent to bring in his people to a council. By the 17th a considerable number of Coeur d'Alenes and Spokanes were collected at the camp, and a council was opened.
Wright's Campaign Map
Wright's Campaign Map
The submission of these Indians was complete and pitiful. They had fought for home and country, as barbarians fight, and lost all. The strong hand of a conquering power, the more civilized the more terrible, lay heavily upon them, and they yielded.
An arbor of green branches of trees had been constructed in front of the commander's tent, and here in state sat Colonel Wright, surrounded by his officers, to pass judgment upon the conquered chiefs. Father Joset and the interpreters were also present. Vincent opened the council by rising and saying briefly to Colonel Wright that lie had committed a great crime, and was deeply sorry for it, and was glad that he and his people were promised forgiveness. To this humble acknowledgment Wright replied that what the chief had said was true-a great crime had been committed; but since he had asked for peace, peace should be granted on certain conditions: the delivery to him of the men who struck the first blow in the affair with Colonel Steptoe, to be sent to General Clarke; the delivery of one chief and four warriors with their families, to be taken to Walla Walla; the return of all the property taken from Steptoe's command; consent that troops and other white men should pass through their country; the exclusion of the turbulent hostile Indians from their midst; and a promise not to commit any acts of hostility against white men. Should they agree to and keep such an engagement as this, they should have peace forever, and he would leave their country with his troops. An additional stipulation was then offered-that there should be peace between the Coeur d'Alenes and Nez Percé. Vincent then desired to hear from the Nez Percé themselves, their minds in the matter, when one of the volunteers, a chief, arose and declared that if the Coeur d'Alenes were friends of the white men, they were also his friends, and past differences were buried. To this Vincent answered that he was glad and satisfied; and henceforth there should be no more war between the Coeur d'Alenes and Nez Percé, or their allies, the white men, for the past was forgotten. A written agreement containing all these articles was then for- many signed. Polatkin, for the Spokanes, expressed himself satisfied, and the council ended by smoking the usual peace pipe.
A council with the Spokanes had been appointed for the 23d of September, to which Kamiakin was invited, with assurances that if he would conic he should not be harmed; but he refused, lest he should be taken to Walla Walla. The council with the Spokanes was a repetition of that with the Coeur d'Alenes, and the treaty the same. After it was over, Owhi presented himself at camp, when Wright had him placed in irons for having broken his agreement made with him in 1856, and ordered him to send for his son Qualchin, sometimes called the younger Owhi, telling him that he would be hanged unless Qualchin obeyed the summons. Very unexpectedly Qualchin came in the following day, not knowing that he was ordered to appear, and was seized and hanged without the formality of a trial. A few days later, when Wright was at Snake River, Owhi, in attempting to escape, was shot by Lieutenant Morgan, and died two hours afterward. Kamiakin and Skloom were now the only chiefs of any note left in the Yakima nation, and their influence was much impaired by the results of their turbulent behavior. Kamiakin went to British Columbia afterward, and never again ventured to return to his own land.
On the 25th, while still at the council-camp, a number of Palouses came in, part of whom Wright hanged, refusing to treat with the tribe. Wright reached Snake River on the 1st of October, having performed a campaign of five weeks, as effective as it was in some respects remarkable. On the 1st of October Fort Taylor was abandoned, there being no further need of troops at that point, and the whole army marched to Walla Walla, where it arrived on the 5th, and was inspected by Colonel Mansfield, who arrived a few days previous.
On the 9th of October, Wright called together the Walla Wallas, and told them he knew that some of them had been in the recent battles, and ordered all those that had been so engaged to stand up. Thirty-five stood up at once. From these were selected four, who were handed over to the guard and hanged. Thus sixteen savages were offered up as examples.
While Wright was thus sweeping from the earth these ill-fated aboriginals east of the Columbia, Garnett was doing no less in the Yakima country. On the 15th of August Lieutenant Jesse K. Allen captured seventy Indians, men, women, and children, with their property, and three of them were shot. Proceeding north to the Wenatchee River, ten Yakimas were captured by Lieutenants Crook, McCall, and Turner, and five of them shot, making twenty-four thus killed for alleged attacks on white men, on this campaign. Garnett continued his march to the Okanagan River to inquire into the disposition of the Indians in that quarter, and as they were found friendly, he returned to Fort Simcoe.
Up to this time the army had loudly denounced the treaties made by Stevens; but in October General Clarke, addressing the adjutant-general of the United States army upon his views of the Indian relations in Oregon and Washington, remarked upon the long-vexed subject of the treaties of Walla Walla, that his opinion on that subject had undergone a change, and recommended that they should be confirmed, giving as his reasons that the Indians had forfeited sonic of their claims to consideration; that the gold discoveries would carry immigration along the foothills of the eastern slope of the Cascades; that the valleys must be occupied for grazing and cultivation; and that in order to make complete the pacification which his arms had effected, the limits must be drawn between the Indians and the white race.36 It was to be regretted that this change of opinion was not made known while General Clarke was in command of the department embracing Oregon and Washington, as it would greatly have softened the asperity of feeling which the opposition of the military to the treaties had engendered. As it was, another general received the plaudits which were justly due to General Clarke.
By an order of the war department of the 13th of September, the department of the Pacific was divided, the southern portion to be called the department of California, though it embraced the Umpqua district of Oregon. The northern division was called the department of Oregon, and embraced Oregon and Washington, with headquarters at Vancouver.37
Walla Walla Valley Map
Walla Walla Valley Map
General Clarke was assigned to California, while General W. S. Harney, fresh from a campaign in Utah, was placed in command of the department of Oregon. General Harney arrived in Oregon on the 29th of October, and assumed command. Two days later he issued an order reopening the Walla Walla country to settlement. A resolution was adopted by the legislative assemblies of both Oregon and Washington congratulating the people on the creation of the department of Oregon, and on having General Harney, a noted Indian fighter, for a commander, as also upon the order reopening the country east of the mountains to settlement, harmonizing with the recent act of congress extending the land laws of the United States over that portion of the territories. Harney was entreated by the legislature to extend his protection to immigrants, and to establish a garrison at Fort Boise. In this matter, also, he received the applause due as much to General Clarke as himself, Clarke having already made the recommendation for a large post between Fort Laramie and Fort Walla Walla, for the better protection of immigrants.38
The stern measures of the army, followed by pacificatory ones of the Indian department, were preparing the Indians for the ratification of the treaties of 1855. Some expeditions were sent out during the winter to chastise a few hostile Yakimas, but no general or considerable uprising occurred. Fortunately for all concerned, at this juncture of affairs congress confirmed the Walla Walla treaties in March 1859, the Indians no longer refusing to recognize their obligations.39 At a council held by Agent A. J. Cain with the Nez Percé, even Looking Glass and Joseph declared they were glad the treaties had been ratified; but Joseph, who wished a certain portion of the country set off to him and his children, mentioned this matter to the agent, out of which nearly twenty years later grew another war, through an error of Joseph's son in supposing that the treaty gave him this land.40 The other tribes also signified their satisfaction. Fort Simcoe being evacuated, the buildings, which had cost $60,000, were taken for an Indian agency. A portion of the garrison was sent to escort the boundary commission, and another portion to establish Harney depot, fourteen miles north-east of Fort Colville,41 under Major P. Lugenbeel, to remain a standing threat to restless and predatory savages, Lugenbeel having accepted an appointment as special Indian agent, uniting the Indian and military departments in one at this post.
General Harney had nearly 2,000 troops in his department in 1859. Most of them, for obvious reasons, were stationed in Washington, but many of them were employed in surveying and constructing roads both in Oregon and Washington, the most important of which in the latter territory was that known as the Mullan wagon-road upon the route of the northern Pacific railroad survey, in which Mullan had taken part. Stevens, in 1853, already perceived that a good wagon road line must precede the railroad, as a means of transportation of supplies and material along the route, and gave instructions to Lieutenant Mullan to make surveys with this object in view, as well as with the project of establishing a connection between the navigable waters of the Missouri and Columbia Rivers. The result of the winter explorations of Mullan was such that in the spring of 1854 he returned to Fort Benton, and on the 17th of March started with a train of wagons that had been left at that post, and with them crossed the range lying between the Missouri and Bitter Root Rivers, arriving at cantonment Stevens on the 31st of the same month. Upon the representation of the practicability of a wagon road in this region, connecting the navigable waters of the Missouri with the Columbia, congress made an appropriation of $30,000 to open one from Fort Benton to Fort Walla Walla. The troubles of the government with Utah, and the Indian wars of 1855-6 and 1858, more than had been expected, developed the necessity of a route to the east, more northern than the route by the South Pass, and procured for it that favorable action by congress which resulted in a series of appropriations for the purpose.42 The removal of the military interdict to settlement, followed by the survey of the public lands, opened the way for a waiting population, which flowed into the Walla Walla Valley to the number of 2,000 as early as April 1859,43 and spread itself out over the whole of eastern Washington with surprising rapidity for several years thereafter, attracted by mining discoveries even more than by fruitful soils.44
1. At Nathan Eaton's the defenses consisted of 16 log buildings in a square facing inwards, the object being not only to collect the families for protection, but to send out a scouting party of some size when marauders were in the vicinity. Stevens, in Sen. Ex. Doe., 66, 32, 34th tong. 1st seas.; Ind. Aff. Rept, 34. Fort Henness, on Mound prairie, was a large stockade with blockhouses at the alternate corners, and buildings inside the enclosure. On Skookum Bay there was an establishment similar to that at Eaton's.
2. The northern battalion consisted of Company G (Van Bokelin's), commanded by Daniel Smalley, elected by the company; Company I, Capt. S. D. Howe, who was succeeded by Capt. G. W. Beam; and a detachment of Company H, Capt. Peabody. Wash. Mess. Gov., 1857, 38-41.
3. To I. N. Ebey belongs the credit of making the first movement to blockade the Snoqualimich pass and guard the settlements lying opposite on Whidbey Island. This company of rangers built Fort Ebey, 8 miles above the mouth of the Snohomish River. He was removed from his office of collector, the duties of which were discharged by his deputy and brother, W. S. Ebey, during the previous winter while he lived in camp, through what influence I am not informed. M. H. Frost of Seattle was appointed in his stead. This change in his affairs, with the necessity of attending to private business, probably determined him to remain at home. George W. Ebey, his cousin, was 23 Lieut in Smalley's company.
4. The central battalion was composed of Company B, Capt. A. B. Rabbeson; Company C, Capt. B. L. Henness' mounted rangers; a train guard under Capt. O. Shead; the pioneer company under Capt. Joseph A. White, 1st Lieut Urban E. Hicks; and Company F, a detachment of scouts under Capt. Calvin W. Swindal. Wash. Mess. Gov., 1857, 28.
5. The southern battalion consisted of the Washington Mounted Rifles, Capt. H. J. G. Maxon, Company D, Capt. Achilles, who was succeeded by Lieut Powell, and two Oregon companies, one company, K, under Francis M. P. Goff, of Marion County, and another, Company J, under Bluford Miller of Polk County. Oregon Statesman, March 11 and May 20, 1856.
8. Rept of Major Hays, in Wash. Mess. Gm , 1857, 290-2.
10. See letters of W. H. Pearson and other correspondents, in Oregon Statesman, Aug. 5, 1856; Oregon Argus, Aug. 2, 1856; Olympia Pioneer and Dem., Aug. 5, 1856. Pearson, who was in the Nez Perce country, named the hostile chiefs as follows: Looking Glass, Three Feathers, Red Bear, Eagle-from-the-light, Red Wolf, and Man-with-a-rope-in-his-mouth.
11. Old Fort Walla Walla of the H. B. Co. being abandoned, the name was transferred to this post, about 28 miles in the interior.
12 Olympia Pioneer and Dem., Nov. 28, 1856; Elridge's Sketch, MS., 9.
13. Olympia Pioneer and Dem., July 3 and Dec. 11, 1857.
14. Patkanim died soon after the war was over. The Pioneer and Democrat, Jan. 21, 1859, remarked: 'It is just as well that he is out of the way, as in spite of everything, we never believed in his friendship.' Seattle died in 1866, never having been suspected. Kussass, chief of the Cowlitz tribe, died in 1876, aged 114 years. He was friendly, and a Catholic. Olympia Morning Echo, Jan. 6, 1876.
15. Deady's Hist. Oregon, MS., 35; Grover's Pub. Life, MS., 59; Oregon Statesman, Oct. 20, 1857, and March 30 and April 6, 1858; H. Ex. Doc., 45, pp. 1-16, 35th cong. 1st sess. The exact footing was $4,449,949.33 for Oregon; and $1,481,475.45 for Washington $5,931,424.78. Of this amount, the pay due to the Oregon volunteers was $1,400,604.53; and to the Washington volunteers $519,593. 06.
16. Said Horace Greeley: `The enterprising territories' of Oregon and Washington have handed into congress their little bill for scalping Indians and violating squaws two years ago, etc., etc. After these [the French Spoliation claims] shall have been paid half a century or so, we trust the claims of the Oregon and Washington Indian-fighters will come up for consideration.' New York Tribune, in Oregon Statesman, Feb. 16, 1858.
17. On the Oregon war debt, see the report of the third auditor, 1860, found in H. Ex. Doc., 11, 36th cong. 1st sess.; speech of Grover, in Cong. Globe, 1858-9, pt ii., app. 217, 35th cong. 2d sees.; letter of third auditor, in H. Ex. Doc., 51, vol. viii. 77, 35th cong. 2d sess.; Statement of the Oregon and Washington delegation in regard to the war claims of Oregon and Washington, a pamphlet of 67 pages; Dowell's Scrap-Book of authorities on the subject; Oregon Jour. Sen., 1860, app. 35-G; Dowell's Or. Ind. Wars, 138-42; Jessup's Rept on the cost of transportation of troops and supplies to California, Oregon, and New Mexico, 2; rept of commissioner on Indian war expenses in Oregon and Washington, in H. Ex. Doc., 45, 35th cong. 1st seas., vol. ix.; memorial of the legislative assembly of 1855-6, in H. Misc. Doc., 77, 34th cong. 1st sees., and H. Misc. Doc., 78, 34th cong. 1st sess., containing a copy of the act of the same legislature providing for the payment of volunteers; report of the house committee on military affairs, June 24, 1856, in H. Rept, 195, 34th cong. 1st sees.; reports of committee, vol. i., H. Rept, 189, 34th cong. 3d sess., in H. Reports of Committee, vol. 3; petition of citizens of Oregon and Washington for a more speedy and just settlement of the war claims, with the reply of the third auditor, Sen. Ex. Doc., 46, 37th cong. 2d sees., vol. v.; Report of the Chairman of the Military Committee of the Senate, March 29, 1860; Rept Com., 161, 36th cong. 1st sess., vol. i.; communication from Senators George H. Williams and W. H. Corbett, on the Oregon Indian war claims of 1855-6, audited by Philo Callender, which encloses letters of the third auditor, and B. F. Dowell on the expenses of the war, Washington, March 2, 1868, in H. Misc. Doc., 88, p. 3-10, ii., 40th cong. 2d sess.: report of sen. corn. on interest to be allowed on the award of the Indian war claims, in Sen. Corn. Rept, 8, 37th cong. 2d sess.; letter of secretary of the treasury, containing information relative to claims incurred in suppressing Indian hostilities in Oregon and Washington, and which were acted and reported upon by the commission authorized by the act of August 18, 1856, in Sen. Ex. Doe., 1 and 2, 42d cong. 2d sess.; report of the committee on military affairs, June 22, 1874, in H. Repts of Corn., 873, 43d cong. 1st sess.; letter from the third auditor to the chairman of the committee on military affairs on the subject of claims growing out of Indian hostilities, in Oregon and Washington, in H. Ex. Doc., 51, 35th cong. 2d sess.; vol. vii., and H. Doc., vol. iv., 36th cong. 1st sess.; communication of C. S. Drew, on the origin and early prosecution of the Indian war in Oregon, in Sen. Misc. Doc., 59, 36th cong. 1st sess., relating chiefly to Rogue River Valley; Stevens' Speech on War Expenses before the Committee of Military Affairs of the House, March 15, 1860; Stevens' Speer on War Claims in the House of Representatives, May 31, 1858; Speeches of Joseph Lane in the House of Representatives, April 2, 1856, and May 13, 185 ; Speech of I. I. Stevens in the house of Representatives, Feb. 31, 1859; Alta California, July 4, 1857; Oregon Statesman, Jan. 26, 1858; Dowell and Gibbs' Brief in Donnell vs Cardwell, Sup. Court Decisions, 1877; Early Affairs Siskiyou County, MS., 13; Swan's N. TV. Coast, 388-91.
18. See a list by S. C. Drew, in the N. Y. Tribune, July 9, 1857. Lindsay Applegate furnishes a longer one, but neither list is at all complete. See also letter of Lieut John Mullan to Commissioner Mix, in Mutton's Top. Mem., 32; Sen. Ex. Doc., 32, 35th cong. 2d sess.
19. I arrived at this estimate by putting down in a book the names and the number of persons murdered or slain in battle. The result surprised me, although there were undoubtedly others whose fate was never certainly ascertained. This only covers the period which ended with the close of the war of 1855-6; there were many others killed after these years.
20. The distribution of United States troops in the district for 1857 was two companies of the 4th infantry at Fort Hoskins, under Capt. C. C. Augur; detachments of the 4th inf. and 3d art. at Fort Yamhill, under Lieut Phil. H. Sheridan; three companies of the 9th inf. at Fort Dalles, Col Wright in command; one co. of the 4th infantry at Fort Vancouver, Colonel Thomas Morris in command; one co. of the 3d art. at the Cascades, under Maj. F. O. Wyse; three companies of the 9th inf., under Maj. R. S. Garnett, at Fort Simcoe; one co. each of the 1st dragoons, 3d art., 4th and 9th inf., Col E. J. Steptoe in command, at Fort Walla Walla; one co. of the 9th inf., under Capt. G. E. Pickett, at Fort Bellingham, on Bellingham Bay, established to guard the Sound from the incursions of northern Indians; one co. of the 9th inf., under Capt. D. Woodruff, in camp near Fort Bellingham, as escort to the northern boundary corn.; one co. of the 4th inf., under Maj. G. O. Haller, at Fort Townsend, two and a half miles from Port Townsend; one company of the 9th inf., under Lieut D. B. McKibben, at Fort Slaughter, on Muckleshoot prairie, near the junction of White and Green rivers; two companies 4th inf., Capt. M. Maloney in command, at Fort Steilacoom; and en route for Fort Walla Walla, arriving in the autumn, one company of the 1st dragoons, under Capt. A. J. Smith, making, with one company at Fort Umpqua, a force of between 1,500 and 2,000 regular troops, to hold in subjection 39,000 Indians.
21. Nesmith found the agents already in charge of the Indians in the Puget Sound district to be E. C. Fitzhugh at Bellingham Bay, G. A. Paige at Kit- sap reservation, M. T. Simmons general agent for Puget Sound, R. C. Fay at Penn's Cove, Whidbey Island, Thomas J. Hanna at Port Townsend (vice E. S. Fowler), W. B. Gosnell in charge of the Nisqually and Puyallup Indians on the Puyallup reservation, S. S. Ford in charge of the Cowlitz, Chehalis, Shoalwater Bay, Willopah, Quilehutes, and other coast tribes in this quarter, A. J. Cain in charge of the Indians on the north side of the Columbia from Vancouver to opposite The Dalles, assisted by A. Townsend, local agent at White Salmon, A. H. Robie in charge of the Yakima district, 'William Craig in charge of the friendly Cayuses, R. H. Lansdale in charge of the Flathead district. The Nez Percé had declined an agent, fearing he might be killed, which would involve the tribe in war, and the other tribes were unfriendly and without agents. A. P. Dennison had charge of the district of eastern Oregon Ind. Aff. Rept, 1857, 323-83.
22. Letter of Steptoe to Gov. McMullin, July 16, 1858, MS.; letter of Lieut Gregg, in Ind. Rept, 1858, 272.
23. Steptoe's Letter to Gov. McMullin, MS.
24. Statement of Father Joset, in Mrs Nichols' Ind. Affairs, MS., 7; report of Colonel Steptoe, in Clarke and Wright's Campaign, 17.
25. The Indian loss in the battle of Steptoe Butte, called Tehotomimme by the Indians-a place about seven miles from the present town of Colfax, was estimated by the Indians at 9 killed and forty or fifty wounded; but Steptoe in his report mentions that Lieut Gregg had seen 12 dead Indians together at one spot, and that many others were seen to fall. Clarke and Wright's Campaign, 18.
26. Mrs Nichol's Indian Affairs, MS., 9. Taylor was a graduate of West Point of 1846, and only a few weeks previous to his death had brought out his wife and children to the Pacific coast. Gaston was a graduate of 1856, and an officer of great promise. Ind. Aff. Rept, 1858, 274.
27. First Sergeant Wm. C. Williams, privates R. P. Kerse and Francis
Poisell, were honorably mentioned for this. 'Williams and another sergeant, Edward Ball, were wounded and missing afterward. They succeeded in eluding the Indians, and reached the Snake River crossing alive. Williams was then killed by the Indians, who permitted Ball to escape and return to Fort Walla Walla. Kip's Army Life, 11. This book of Lieut Lawrence Kip, 3d artillery, is like his Indian Council at Walla Walla in 1855, a small volume containing his personal observations on the operations of the army in the Indian country of Washington. It embraces a number of subjects the origin of the war, the march from The Dales, and the various incidents of the campaign of Col Wright following the disaster of Steptoe's expedition, very pleasantly written.
28. To move from one point to another we had to crawl on our hands and knees, amid the howling of the Indians, the groans of the dying, and the whistling of balls and arrows.' Letter of Lieut Gregg, in Ind. Aff. Rept, 1858, 274.
29. This referred to the wagon-road afterward opened by John Milan, 1st Lieut 2d art., in charge of the construction of a military road from Fort Benton to Fort Walla Walla. See Mullan's Military Road Report. The only point on which Steptoe could congratulate himself in his report on his expedition was that it had undoubtedly saved the lives of Mullan's whole command, who, had they proceeded into the Spokane country as intended, without being warned of the hostility of the Indians, would have been slaughtered. As it was, they remained at The Dalles. Letter of Wright, in Clarke and Wright's Campaign, 22; Report of the Secretary of War, 1838, 331; letter of Steptoe, Id., 330.
30. This treaty was the subject of criticism. Mullan attributed to it the good conduct of the Nez Percé, but particularly as preventing a general coalition of the Indian tribes, 'and a fire in our rear, which if once commenced must end in our total destruction.' Ind. Aff. Rept, 1858, 281.
31. The entire transportation of Wright's command consisted of about 400 mules, 325 belonging to the quartermaster's department, six to each company, and one to each officer. Only the dragoons were mounted. Hip's Army Life, 44.
32. Wright, in his report, says there were 400 or 500 mounted warriors,' and also large numbers of Indians' in the pine woods. Mullan's Top. Mem., 19. Kip says the Indians outnumbered us,' p. 59 of Army Life, but it is not probable. Wright had over 700 fighting men. Subtracting those left to guard the camp, there would still be a number equal to, if not exceeding, the Indians.
33. Report of Secretary of War for 1838, 386-90; report of Wright, in Mullan's Top. Mem., 19-20; Oregon Statesman, Sept. 21, 1853.
34. Brown's Autobiography, MS., 40; Clarke and Wright's Campaign, 393-4; Kip's Army Life, 78.
35. The Coeur d'Alene Mission was situated in a pretty valley in the mountains, with a branch of the Coeur d'Alene River watering it, the mission church standing in the centre of a group of houses, a mill, the residences of the priests, barns for storing the produce of the Indian farms, and a few dwellings of the most civilized of the Indian converts. Mullan's Top. Mem., 37.
36. Clarke and Wright's Campaign, 85.
37. Puget Sound Herald, Nov. 5, 1833; Oregon Statesman, Nov. 2, 1858.
38. Rept of the Secretary of War, 1838, 413; S. F. Bulletin, Dec. 30, 1858; Oregon Laws, 1858-9, iii.; Cong. Globe, 1857-8, app. 560.
39 Puget Sound Herald, April 29, 1859; Oregon Argus, April 30, 1859.
40. See hid. Aff. Rept, 1839, 420.
41. Companies A and K, 9th inf., ordered to establish a wintering place and depot for the escort of the N. W. boundary com., reached this place June 20, 1859. A pleasant spot, one mile square, reserved. Sen. Ex. Doc., 52, 36th cong. 1st sees., 271.
42. Mullan's Military Road Rept, 2-12.
43. Letter of Gen. Harney, in U. S. Mess, and Does, 1859-60. 96.
Source: Bancroft Works, Volume 31, History Of Washington, Idaho, and Montana, 1845-1889, Hubert H. Bancroft, 1890. The History Company, Publishers, San Francisco
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Styrene acrylonitrile Overview Transcript
Styrene acrylonitrile or SAN is a transparent resin made from styrene and acrylonitrile.
SAN is used to make consumable items like cigarette lighters, tooth brush holders and trays in refrigerators. It’s also used to make fan-blades and other items requiring transparency.
China is the main users of SAN in Asia, given its large manufacturing base and position as a leading exporter of finished goods.
SAN usage is expected to grow as demand for consumer items increases each year. Domestic demand in China has become an important outlet for SAN in Asia, as local demand for finished goods and consumer items is set to grow strongly over the next several years.
The market in Asia is essentially spot, with demand and supply conditions often moving prices, although speculation does often accentuate these price movements.
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The Making of Paul: Constructions of the Apostle in Early Christianity
Fortress Press 2010
The influence of the apostle Paul in early Christianity goes far beyond the reach of the seven genuine letters he wrote to early assemblies. Paul was revered–and fiercely opposed–in an even larger number of letters penned in his name, and in narratives told about him and against him, that were included in our New Testament and, far more often, treasured and circulated outside it. Richard Pervo provides an illuminating and comprehensive survey of the legacy of Paul and the various ways he was remembered, honored, and vilified in the early churches. Numerous charts and maps introduce the student to the "family" of Pauline and anti-Pauline Christianities.
- Bibliographical references
- Title: The Making of Paul: Constructions of the Apostle in Early Christianity
- Author: Richard I. Pervo
- Publisher: Fortress Press
- Publication Date: 2010
- Pages: 400
About Richard I. Pervo
Richard I. Pervo, retired Professor of New Testament and Christian Studies at the University of Minnesota, is author of Rethinking the Unity of Luke and Acts, and most recently, Dating Acts: Between the Evangelists and the Apologists. He lives in Saint Paul, Minnesota.
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Easton Illustrated Bible Dictionary
A name applied to the Israelites in Scripture only by one who is a foreigner (Genesis 39:14,17
, etc.), or by the Israelites when they speak of themselves to foreigners (40:15; Exodus 1:19
), or when spoken of an contrasted with other peoples (Genesis 43:32
; Exodus 1:3,7,15
; Deuteronomy 15:12
). In the New Testament there is the same contrast between Hebrews and foreigners (Acts 6:1
; Philippians 3:5
Derivation. The name is derived, according to some, from Eber (Genesis 10:24 ), the ancestor of Abraham. The Hebrews are "sons of Eber" (10:21).
Others trace the name of a Hebrew root-word signifying "to pass over," and hence regard it as meaning "the man who passed over," viz., the Euphrates; or to the Hebrew word meaning "the region" or "country beyond," viz., the land of Chaldea. This latter view is preferred. It is the more probable origin of the designation given to Abraham coming among the Canaanites as a man from beyond the Euphrates (Genesis 14:13 ).
A third derivation of the word has been suggested, viz., that it is from the Hebrew word 'Abhar , "To pass over," whence 'Ebher , In the sense of a "sojourner" or "passer through" as distinct from a "settler" in the land, and thus applies to the condition of Abraham ( Hebrews 11:13 ).
These dictionary topics are from M.G. Easton M.A., D.D., Illustrated Bible Dictionary, Third Edition, published by Thomas Nelson, 1897. Public Domain.
Easton, Matthew George. Entry for 'Hebrew'. Easton Bible Dictionary. http://www.studylight.org/dic/ebd/view.cgi?n=1707. 1897.
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The difficulty of a particular task depends on the specific literacy skills required (also called the task demands) and the characteristics of the written materials used for the task. Some types of task demands are generally less challenging than others. For example, reading words (i.e., basic reading skills) is generally less challenging than making inferences (i.e., inference skills) based on the text that one has read. The written materials also vary in difficulty depending on the text characteristics. The text may sometimes include inhibitors, such as distracting information or less familiar words, which may affect finding the correct response. But highly literate adults are typically able to overcome such problems by relying on the ability to suppress inhibitors and exploit in the text facilitators that may contribute to locating, inferring or calculating a correct response to the assessment task. For example, those adults may parse the question for key terms and then look for the repetition of key terms in the text to find the answer to the question. The 2003 NAAL framework describes all the features of the written materials that may make a NAAL literacy task more or less difficult. View sample assessment questions for examples of inhibitors, facilitators, and computational complexity variables.
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Good posture ranks right up at the top of the list when you are talking about good health. It’s as important as eating right, exercising, getting a good night's sleep and avoiding potentially harmful substances like alcohol, drugs and tobacco. Good posture is a way of doing things with more energy, less stress and less fatigue. Without good posture, you can't really be physically fit.
"Good posture means your bones are properly aligned and your muscles, joints and ligaments can work as nature intended," states Dr. Ben Duke, D.C., Chiropractic Director of Chiro One Wellness Center of Mokena, IL. "It means your vital organs are in the right position and can function at peak efficiency. Good posture also helps contribute to the normal functioning of the nervous system."
Chiropractic care for good posture
Without good posture, your overall health and total efficiency may be compromised. Because the long-term effects of poor posture can affect bodily systems (such as digestion, elimination, breathing, muscles, joints and ligaments), a person who has poor posture may often be tired or unable to work efficiently or move properly.
"Good posture helps us stand, walk, sit, and lie in positions that place the least strain on supporting muscles and ligaments during movement and weight-bearing activities," sayes Duke. Correct posture also:
• Helps us keep our bones and joints in correct alignment so that our muscles are used correctly, decreasing the abnormal wearing of joint surfaces that could result in degenerative arthritis and joint pain.
• Reduces the stress on the ligaments holding the spinal joints together, minimizing the likelihood of injury.
• Allows muscles to work more efficiently, allowing the body to use less energy and, therefore, preventing muscle fatigue.
• Helps prevent muscle strain, overuse disorders, and even back and muscular pain.
Several factors contribute to poor posture-most commonly, stress, obesity, pregnancy, weak postural muscles, abnormally tight muscles, and high-heeled shoes. In addition, decreased flexibility, a poor work environment, incorrect working posture, and unhealthy sitting and standing habits can also contribute to poor body positioning.
Dr. Ben Duke, D.C. and Chiro One Wellness Centers recommend the following posture tips:
How do I sit properly?
• Keep your feet on the floor or on a footrest, if they don't reach the floor.
• Don't cross your legs. Your ankles should be in front of your knees.
• Keep a small gap between the back of your knees and the front of your seat.
• Your knees should be at or below the level of your hips.
• Adjust the backrest of your chair to support your low- and mid-back or use a back support.
• Relax your shoulders and keep your forearms parallel to the ground.
• Avoid sitting in the same position for long periods of time.
How do I stand properly?
• Bear your weight primarily on the balls of your feet.
• Keep your knees slightly bent.
• Keep your feet about shoulder-width apart.
• Let your arms hang naturally down the sides of the body.
• Stand straight and tall with your shoulders pulled backward.
• Tuck your stomach in.
• Keep your head level-your earlobes should be in line with your shoulders. Do not push your head forward, backward, or to the side.
• Shift your weight from your toes to your heels, or one foot to the other, if you have to stand for a long time.
What is the proper lying position?
• Find the mattress that is right for you. While a firm mattress is generally recommended, some people find that softer mattresses reduce their back pain. Your comfort is important.
• Sleep with a pillow. Special pillows are available to help with postural problems resulting from a poor sleeping position.
• Avoid sleeping on your stomach.
• Sleeping on your side or back is more often helpful for back pain.
• If you sleep on your side, place a pillow between your legs.
• If you sleep on your back, keep a pillow under your knees.
"The good news is that most everyone can avoid the problems caused by bad posture," says Duke. "And you can make improvements at any age. Look at your posture…others do!! Straighten up and stay healthy!"
Your doctor of chiropractic can assist you with proper posture, including recommending exercises to strengthen your core postural muscles. He or she can also assist you with choosing proper postures during your activities, helping reduce your risk of injury.
If you or someone you know suffers from poor posture or would like to find out more about the healing power of chiropractic, call Chiro One Wellness Centers for an appointment TODAY at (877) 724-4761 or visit www.ChiroOne.net. Follow Chiro One on Facebook at www.Facebook.com/ChiroOne.
For more information on spinal health, check out Chiro One Wellness Centers' Interactive Spine.
Dr. Ben Duke, D.C. serves as Chiropractic Director of Chiro One Wellness Center of Mokena located at 19636 S. LaGrnage Rd. Mokena, IL 60448. Duke is accepting new patients and can be reached at (708) 478-5822.
April Neill, Director of Public Relations
Chiro One Wellness Centers
Phone: (815) 651-0656
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identity theoryArticle Free Pass
identity theory, in philosophy, one view of modern Materialism that asserts that mind and matter, however capable of being logically distinguished, are in actuality but different expressions of a single reality that is material. Strong emphasis is placed upon the empirical verification of such statements as: “Thought is reducible to motion in the brain.”
The double-aspect theory is similar to this, with one notable exception: reality is not material; it is either mental or neutral. The latter case is illustrated by an undulating line that is both concave and convex at the same time; each aspect is an integral, but only a partial, expression of the total reality.
What made you want to look up "identity theory"? Please share what surprised you most...
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traveling post-office system
Simply begin typing or use the editing tools above to add to this article.
Once you are finished and click submit, your modifications will be sent to our editors for review.
...of transport as each was developed: the stagecoach, steamboat, canals, and railroads; the short-lived Pony Express; and airlines and motor vehicles. It also helped subsidize their development. A traveling post-office system, in which mail could be sorted in transit, was introduced experimentally in 1862, and it made railway mail service the dominant form of mail conveyance well into the 20th...
What made you want to look up "traveling post-office system"? Please share what surprised you most...
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The Torah reading of this week concludes with a discussion of the sin of blaspheming the name of God. The Torah places this prohibition within an anecdotal context, describing an event that occurred in the camp of the Jewish people in the desert of Sinai. Two Jews had a quarrel that rapidly disintegrated into a public fight. The quarrel originally had to do with the ancestry of one of the Jews. When the quarrel between the two Jews finally went out of control, the act of blasphemy of God's name took place. There is, in my opinion, a strong connection and lesson involved in the juxtaposition of these events.
Anti-God utterances and events, so to speak, are rarely if ever, occasioned in a vacuum. It is usually the behavior or speech of a human that evokes a response that eventually refers to God. There are events in life, tragedies or inexplicable events, that may trigger such a response as well. But, overwhelmingly, blasphemy of God's name occurs when human behavior towards other humans is involved. And this is especially true when the subject matter of the dispute between the people involved is connected to matters of religion, ritual, faith and belief. This was the case in the dispute recorded in the Torah reading of this week and it was the insulting of one Jew by another that became the direct cause of the blasphemy of God's name that followed. Bad and false ideas, distortion of laws and tradition, improper behavior, are all entitled to direct and forceful criticism. However, personal demonization and venomous insults, even if allegedly made in the name of a just cause, lead eventually to a desecration and blasphemy of God's name.
There is much shouting and quarrelling in the Jewish world today. The noise is so great that we can no longer hear each other, let alone attempt to understand the other person. And each side feels justified in its pursuit of the quarrel, for there are major and fundamental life issues involved. But when the matter gets out of hand, when it is personalized and is no longer a matter of issues but of people, the blasphemy of God's name is never far distant. Much of our present quarrelling has become institutionalized. It is organizational. There are political parties and social and religious groups within the Jewish people today whose sole apparent purpose is to oppose and personally demonize other Jewish groups and people. That is not much of a raison d'etre to exist. Negativism breeds negativism, hatred breeds hatred, and all of it leads to the cardinal sin in Judaism - the desecration and blasphemy of God's name. We should attempt at all costs to avoid falling into this failing and communal trap. It can, as it did in the case of the original blasphemer recorded in Emor, lead to, God forbid, death and destruction.
Rabbi Berel Wein
Text Copyright © 2000 Rabbi Berel Wein and
Project Genesis, Inc.
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Quit repeating the mistakes of the past and embrace strong strategies for saving Puget Sound. That’s the bottom line message of a letter from prominent local scientists giving their advice on recovering and protecting the Sound.
The letter sent Wednesday is addressed to David Dicks, executive director of the Puget Sound Partnership. That’s the group appointed by Gov. Chris Gregoire to lead the effort to save the Sound by 2020. The Partnership is finalizing a draft action agenda that lays a blueprint for helping the Sound.
The letter was signed by 13 researchers, including the University of Washington’s David Montgomery, who was just awarded a MacArthur Foundation “genius” award for his work in geomorphology.
(W)e have witnessed the failure of past initiatives that promised much but did little to reverse the downward trend in environmental quality of our cherished estuary…
While restoration will be an important piece of healing the Sound, the scientists focus their letter on doing no more harm:
The current abuse of land and water resources must be drastically reduced if we hope to ensure a healthy Puget Sound. This requires us to reduce impervious surface that impairs the hydrology of streams, restrict new clearing and development that would harm remaining undisturbed habitats, restore and conserve healthy living systems, and, to the extent possible, eliminate discharge of pollutants. This requires significant changes in policies, law, and behavior that would continue long after our generation is gone.
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Skip to Main Content
In order to improve and enforce environmental monitoring ability, especially in fields of large scale monitoring and dynamic monitoring, the Environmental Satellite will be launched in 2008 in China. Before the Satellite is launched, necessary pre-research work has to be done. Considering future ecological monitoring demand, we have paid more attention to land use/land cover classification method based on the Satellite's CCD sensor. In this article, we compared the decision tree classification technology with other classic automatic classification technologies using Landsat ETM+ image data and GIS data of Tangshan City in Hebei, China. The result of this study showed: accuracy of decision tree classification compared with the classic automatic classification technologies was improved by 18.29%, Kappa coefficient was increased about 0.1878; classification accuracy was improved about 19.52% when DEM and its derivative data were used as ancillary data in the mountainous area, Kappa coefficient was increased about 0.281; the classification accuracy was improved by 15.86% when the DN(Digital Number) values were converted to at-satellite reflectance values; tasseled cap transformation could cause classification accuracy to be reduced appreciably accompanied by compression of data amount.
Date of Conference: 27-29 June 2011
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X-Ray tomography (CT scanning) is an imaging technique based on density differences. This technique enables us to reveal the internal structure of a rock sample in a non-destructive way. It can be used to inspect the core prior to un-sleeving.
- Non-destructive investigation of internal rock structures.
- Scanning of sedimentary structures, laminations and cross bedding.
- Study of fault and fracture structures.
- Penetration depth of mud filtrate in the core.
- SCAL sample screening for inhomogeneities or abnormalities prior to costly tests.
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Welcome to Teach with Picture Books.
While some of you may have arrived here from my How to Teach a Novel blog, others may have arrived here from Teaching that Sticks, or through my many Squidoo sites such as Interactive Reading Sites, Interactive Math Sites, How to Teach a Novel, and, of course, Teaching with Picture Books.
The main purpose of this site is to help teachers, librarians, tutors, and homeschooling parents in grades 3-8 use picture books to enhance their instruction. If you'd like to know the reasons why you should be using picture books in your classroom, visit the sister site called Teaching with Picture Books Across the Middle Grades.
While Teach with Picture Books is not meant to serve as a review site, I frequently make picture book recommendations to teachers, homeschoolers, parents, and tutors interested in this approach, through both this website and the frequent workshops I present. If you would like me to consider your book for possible inclusion in future posts, please email me. Before you do, however, you should read my disclosure statement.
If you are a publisher of more general teaching resources, I would be happy to consider your submissions (sites, publications, services) for review at my other blog for educators called Teaching that Sticks.
Have a suggestion for a site, teaching resource, or publication on the use of novels? Email me! I'd also be happy to link to your related site.
Courage Has No Color - *It is 1943. Americans are overseas fighting World War II to help keep the world safe from Hitler's tyranny, safe from injustice, safe from discrimination...
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Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia
- n. The state or quality of being bitter, in any of the senses of that word.
GNU Webster's 1913
- n. The quality or state of being bitter, sharp, or acrid, in either a literal or figurative sense; implacableness; resentfulness; severity; keenness of reproach or sarcasm; deep distress, grief, or vexation of mind.
- n. A state of extreme impiety or enmity to God.
- n. Dangerous error, or schism, tending to draw persons to apostasy.
- n. a feeling of deep and bitter anger and ill-will
- n. the property of having a harsh unpleasant taste
- n. a rough and bitter manner
- n. the taste experience when quinine or coffee is taken into the mouth
- bitter + -ness (Wiktionary)
“And as my bitterness began with you, in the end the bitterness is all that is left.”
“He later learned that when cooked with the peel, the bitterness is avoided.”
“Diane your bitterness is showing and it is not attractive.”
“My days in the forest drains all the bitterness from the grind and restores the soul of the hunter gatherer.”
“So White Fang could only eat his heart in bitterness and develop a hatred and malice commensurate with the ferocity and indomitability of his nature.”
“It was horrible, no doubt, but I didn't wallow in bitterness, blame or victimhood.”
“And bitterness is just such a wasted time and emotion.”
“It's intensely anise flavored and the wormwood bitterness is pleasingly apparent at the start.”
“OK, so some might think this is residual Obama bitterness from the primary.”
“There will be heartache and bitterness from the children and other relatives, for years to come.”
These user-created lists contain the word ‘bitterness’.
Words about beer and the making of it.
In this area of expertise nouns are frequently used as adjectives (almond, bacon, cider, diesel, fennel, fresh-cut hay, wool) or new adjectives are formed (appley, berrylike, citrusy, full-bodied, ...
There's a fiction meme (mostly on Livejournal) where writers use words as a prompt for a short story snippet. I've been collecting the words that show up on these lists as prompts for creative writ...
learning new words
Looking for tweets for bitterness.
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WORLD BRIEFING | EUROPE; Heat Waves Are Getting Longer
By ANDREW C. REVKIN
Published: August 7, 2007
Researchers studying western European temperature records have found that the length of heat waves there has doubled since 1880, from 1.5 days to 3 days on average. They also say that the number of summer days that are far hotter than the average for a particular date has tripled. The team described its work in the current issue of the Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres. The scientists, led by Paul M. Della-Marta of the University of Bern in Switzerland, said the findings supported the idea that global warming from human activities could be making Europe more prone to extreme conditions. They recommended that health agencies in the region work on ways to limit human health risks from summer heat.
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Talking with teenagers about fertility can be awkward and uncomfortable. Talking with teenagers and their families about a cancer diagnosis is devastating. How do we do both at the same time and ensure that the importance of fertility preservation is understood in light of the traumatic timing? Studies among adult cancer survivors show that fertility is their most prevalent concern, thus we need to develop a method for relaying this information to young cancer patients and their families in a timely and sensitive manner. In the article, “The Birds and the Bees and the Bank: Talking with Families Amidst a Cancer Diagnosis,” by Gwendolyn P. Quinn, Caprice A. Knapp, and Devin Murphy, in Oncofertility Medical Practice: Clinical Issues and Implementation, the authors propose using a new method for initiating these discussions.
Patients and their families often look to health care providers to guide them in their decision-making process. Receiving a cancer diagnosis is very traumatic and can leave both the patient and their parents in a highly emotional state. They may not remember all that they were told in that initial discussion, but unfortunately decisions need to be made in that moment that will have an impact on their life many years later. Depending on the cancer diagnosis and the treatment protocol, loss of fertility may be a consequence., and needs to be addressed.
Studies show that communicating with patients using interactive tools, increases a patients understanding of the information being presented. Additionally, understanding is further increased, specifically when individual decision-making is involved, using a values clarification exercise or tool. According to the authors, “A values clarification tool (VCT) is often used in environments in which a common shared vision or purpose is required, the goal of which may be to develop the common vision, define roles, or develop long-range plans.” A VCT serves as a primer for future decision-making because it does not asks participants to ponder hypothetical situations, but instead aids them in defining the values and beliefs that influence their behavior. The authors maintain, “The open-ended statements of the VCT encourage patient/parent and administrator to begin a dialogue so that the patient/parent may process the idea of having children first, and then consider their feelings about possibly not being able to have children in their future.”
Allowing young patients to take an active role in making decisions about their fertility by evaluating their own beliefs and behaviors, and processing the idea of potential infertility, can actually serve to empower their decision-making process. Studies show that adolescent and teenage cancer survivors have clear expectations about parenthood and having biological children, yet are not always able to fully express these desires. The VCT can be a helpful tool in initiating these types of discussions. Read, “The Birds and the Bees and the Bank: Talking with Families Amidst a Cancer Diagnosis.” Learn more about your fertility options by visiting our Virtual Patient Navigator.
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Our History and Heritage
What started as a cartoonist’s dream has turned into the largest grassroots conservation organization in the country. Today the National Wildlife Federation (NWF) boasts over 4 million supporters and 47 state affiliates. NWF continues to be the voice of conservation for diverse constituencies that include hunters, anglers, gardeners, bird watchers, scientists, outdoor enthusiasts, and families raising the next generation of habitat stewards.
From climate change to mining reform, from wilderness to energy development, from backyard habitats to connecting people to nature, NWF has the professional expertise and grassroots power to make a difference for wildlife and our children’s future. All of this didn’t happen by chance, however, and understanding our past will propel us into the future.
The Early Years
To understand NWF’s beginning, we must look back to the roots of conservation in this country. American wildlife conservation is grounded in the belief that wildlife belongs to the people, a concept commonly known as the Public Trust Doctrine or the North American Model of Wildlife Conservation.
The Public Trust Doctrine was formally established during an 1872 Supreme Court Case, Martin vs. Wadell. A private landowner, Martin claimed to own both the land alongside and underneath New Jersey’s Raritan River, tracing his title to a grant from King Charles to the Duke of York in 1664 which purported to convey, "all the lands, islands, soils, rivers, harbors, mines, minerals, quarries, woods, marshes, waters, lakes, fishings, hawkings, and fowlings."
Martin claimed that the oystermen, Wadell, owed him for the taking of oysters. In his ruling Chief Justice Robert Taney stated, "[w]hen the people of New Jersey took possession of the reins of government, and took into their own hands the powers of sovereignty, the prerogatives and regalities which before belonged to either the crown or the parliament, became immediately and rightly vested in the state."
Wildlife now belonged to the people but conservation was not yet part of America’s fabric. In the late 19th century on the heels of the Industrial Revolution, market killing of the buffalo, waterfowl, and other wild game species began decimating America’s wildlife to support the growing work force and urban appetites. In response, dedicated hunters and anglers from New York to Montana pushed for the nation’s first game laws, restricting the numbers and methods of take for wildlife.
With laws established to sustain healthy wildlife populations, conservation minded leaders emerged to challenge the values by which American’s perceived wildlife.
After the assassination of President McKinley in 1901, the great hunter and outdoorsman, Theodore Roosevelt, moved into to the White House and the bully pulpit. Roosevelt’s conservation ethic was formed through the eyes of the hunter during trips west to South Dakota and Montana.
In his own words: “Above all, we should realize that the effort toward this end is essentially a democratic movement. It is...in our power...to preserve large tracts of wilderness...and to preserve the game...for the benefit all lovers of nature, and to give reasonable opportunities for the exercise of the skill of the hunter, whether he is or is not a man of means.”
And later: “It is foolish to regard proper game laws as undemocratic. On the contrary, they are essentially in the interests of the people as a whole, because it is only through their enactment and enforcement that the people can preserve the game and prevent its becoming purely the property of the rich. The man of small means is dependent solely upon wise and well-executed game laws for his enjoyment of the sturdy pleasure of the chase.”
Theodore Roosevelt wasn’t all talk, however. He acted on his convictions and before he ended his term as president in 1909, he endowed the United States with 230 million acres of protected landscapes for the conservation of wildlife—approximately 84,000 acres for every day he was in office. With Americans and legislators beginning to embrace the concepts of conservation as a core, fundamental value, the first National Wildlife Refuge, National Forests, National Monuments, and Game Preserves were created.
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The Reformed churches
are Protestant denominations
historically related to one another by a similar Calvinist
system of doctrine. Each of the nations in which the Reformed movement was established has its own church government and most have experienced splits into multiple denominations. A 1999 survey found 746 Reformed denominations worldwide. The Reformed churches which originated in the British Isles are called Presbyterians
. A sub-family of the Reformed churches, called Reformed Baptist[?]
churches, adhere to modified Reformed confessions, and have Baptist
views of the sacraments
and of church government. Congregationalist Churches
are similarly a sub-family of the Reformed churches, historically holding fully Reformed confessions but differing in their form of government. Commitment to teaching the original Calvinism, although it usually continues to be reflected in their official definitions of doctrine, is no longer necessarily typical of these churches.
- The largest branch of the Reformed movement, and the only one of the national Reformed churches to survive without division since the Reformation to the present time. The Hungarian Reformed Church has adopted the Heidelberg Catechism[?] and the Second Helvetic Confession[?] as a definition of their teaching, together the Ecumenical creeds of the Christian Church: Athanasian Creed, Nicene Creed, Chalcedon, and the common creed ("Apostles' Creed"). Regional churches may also adopt the Canons of Dordt[?], and in Transylvania Luther's Small Catechism[?] is adopted.
- In France, the Reformed protestants were called Huguenots. The Reformed Church of France survived under persecution from 1559 until the Edict of Nantes (1598), the effect of which was to establish regions in which Protestants could live unmolested. These areas became centers of political resistance under which the Reformed church was protected until until 1628, when La Rochelle, the protestant center of resistance to Louis XIII[?], was overrun by a French army blockade. After the protestant resistance failed, the Reformed Church of France reorganized, and was guaranteed toleration under the Edict of Nantes until final revocation of toleration in 1685. The periods of persecution scattered French Reformed refugees to England, Germany, Switzerland, Africa and America. A free (meaning, not state controlled) synod of the Reformed Church emerged in 1848 and survives in small numbers to the present time. The French refugees established French Reformed churches in the latin countries and in America.
- The first Reformed churches in France produced the Gallic Confession[?] and French Reformed confession of faith, which served as models for the Belgic Confession of Faith[?] (1563).
- Toleration for the Reformed churches in Germany was established under the Peace of Westphalia, in 1648, but political difficulties at the end of the 17th century almost eliminated them. In the 19th century, by state mandate the Reformed churches were combined with the Lutherans to form an Evangelical Union in Prussia.
- The Dutch Reformed churches have suffered three major splits.
The churches with presbyterian traditions in the United Kingdom
have the Westminster Confession of Faith[?]
as one of their important confessional documents
- The Presbyterian Church in Ireland serves the whole of the island.
- The CRC is a conservative/evangelical denomination founded by Dutch immigrants in the nineteenth century in West Michigan.
- The Presbyterian Church of Canada split from a larger group of the same name that voted to join the United Church of Canada in 1925
- One of the most conservative Reformed/Calvinist denominations in the world, the PRC separated from the CRC in the 1920s in a schism over the issue of common grace.
- The RCA is a liberal/evangelical denomination formed by Dutch immigrants during colonial times.
Most Presbyterian churches adhere to the Westminster Confession of Faith, but the Presbyterian Church (USA), in order to embrace the historical expressions of the whole Reformed tradition as found in the United States, has adopted a Book of Confessions[?]. The BOC contains the Nicene Creed, Apostle's Creed[?], Scots Confession[?], Heidelberg Catechism[?], Second Helvetic Confession[?], Westminster Confession of Faith[?], Westminster Shorter Catechism[?], Westminster Larger Catechism[?], Theological Declaration of Barmen[?], Confession of 1967[?], and A Brief Statement of Faith - PCUSA[?].
The Presbyterian Church (USA) has split a number of times in its history. Many of these historic splits have been resolved. From the continuing branch churches, some have split in turn. Only some of the continuing branches from the main bodies are listed here, with the year of their separation.
The Korean Presbyterian Church which formed the primary body of the Presbyterian General Assembly[?]
(the Reformed Church in Korea) was established by missionaries of the Presbyterian Church (USA), and Canadian and Australian Presbyterians. It is not to be confused with the much more conservative Presbyterian Church in Korea[?]
(Kosin), whose seminary is not recognized by the General Assembly.
The various Reformed churches of Nigeria formed the Reformed Ecumenical Council of Nigeria[?] in 1991 to further cooperation.
International organizations of Reformed churches
For another list of world Reformed churches, see (http://reformed.net/church/orgs).
See also: List of Christian denominations
All Wikipedia text
is available under the
terms of the GNU Free Documentation License
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This paper is about the role of child-development knowledge and research in international efforts to improve the lives and prospects for millions of working children. Article 32 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) is framed in psychological terms. It declares that children must be protected from work that is harmful to their ’physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development’. Most interpretations of the Convention focus on a universal concept of child development. Many textboooks on this issue also seem to assume that there are universal, natural features of child development. This paper, however, presents the case for a sociocultural approach to child development as a more globally appropriate basis for conceptualising the place of work in children’s lives. This approach puts Western developmental knowledge into perspective, encourages caution in generalising research from one part of the world to another and relativises issues of harm and benefit.
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The bingo cards can be printed and laminated to help children learn the books of the New Testament.
These cards have been designed to fit onto business cards. You can either print them onto business card sheets, or use card stock or regular paper and cut them yourself. Print once you have printed the cards, you can print the included backgrounds on the opposite site to keep kids from seeing through the cards.
For the bingo cards it's recommended you laminate the cards after printing. You can then use a dry erase marker or stickers to mark the cards.
Lay the cards out on a table in order. Point to each in turn and have the students say the card. Help them learn to pronounce the names correctly. After reviewing all the cards, turn a few random cards over. Review the whole list again, depending on the students to say the names of the over-turned cards. Turn more over each time until the students can repeat the whole set.
Mix up the set and give the class a time limit to get as many in order as possible. Divide the class into teams if you have lots of students and give each team a set.
Make two sets to make a concentration game. Make the students pronounce each name as they turn them over. For older kids, ask students a review question when they find a matching set.
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Arthritis Q&A by Dr. Shiel
What causes costochondritis? Is there anything that aggravates it (like exercise or diet), or is it possibly viral?
Medical Author: William C. Shiel Jr., MD, FACP, FACR
The cause(s) of costochondritis are not known and may involve several factors. Possible causes include heredity (genetic predisposition), viruses, and trauma (injury).
Costochondritis can be an independent condition by itself or sometimes be a feature of a more widespread disorder. Examples of illnesses that can feature costochondritis include fibromyalgia, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, Reiter's disease, and inflammatory bowel disease.
Costochondritis can be aggravated by any activity that involves stressing the structures of the front of the chest cage. It is generally best to minimize these activities until the inflammation of the rib and cartilage areas has subsided.
I am unaware of any particular diet causing worsening of costochondritis. On the contrary, it is known that fish oils can have a degree of antiinflammation effect. Theoretically they could be of some benefit. This effect is probably minor, however.
Thank you for your question.
Last Editorial Review: 8/20/2008
Get the latest health and medical information delivered direct to your inbox FREE!
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Fine Particle Environment Safety
Name: Ismet H.
Date: August 2004
What are safety the conditions under for work in
environments where fine particles mix with air...please help!
Fine particles in air present a number of safety issues
1. Fine particles in air can explode, because a large surface area of a
combustible substance is
exposed to air. Even metal powders can be dangerous.
2. The chemical composition of the dust is important. Four classic
examples are: asbestos,
silica, coal, cigarettes. Asbestos (at least certain crystaline types) has
been shown conclusively to cause a rare form of lung cancer. Silica dust
causes a lung disease called "silicosis". Coal dust causes a lung ailment
called "black lung disease". Of course cigarette smoke (which is a fine
particle size dust) has been shown to cause lung cancer.
3. The particle size of the suspended substance is important. Large
particles are relatively
safe (assuming the substance is not intrinsically toxic) because large
particles are captured before they enter the lungs. Smaller particles
(sub-micrometer) form what is called in the public health literature as
"respirable dust". These particles remain suspended in inhaled air and are
deposited (some permanently) in the lungs. Extremely small particles
(nanometer size) are even more insidious. Not only do they remain suspended
in inhaled air and are deposited in the lungs, but because of their size is
the same order of magnitude as red blood cells they can move across lung
tissue and enter the blood stream. This makes nano-sized particles of what
otherwise might be considered "harmless" a hazardous material.
"Dirty bombs" are a timely illustration of concern about nano-sized
particles. "Dirty bombs" are fissionable metallic materials (e.g. uranium or
plutonium) wrapped with conventional explosives (e.g. dynamite). These
metals are pyrophoric, i.e. the burn spontaneously when heated. In the case
of Uranium the ignition temperature is only a few hundred degrees Celsius.
When the dynamite is detonated, the fissionable materials ignite forming
nano-sized oxide "smoke". This is not hypothesis. It is thoroughly
documented. Standard "gas masks" offer no protection against particles this
small. If inhaled the radioactive metal oxide dust can pass through the
lining of the lungs directly into the blood stream. This maximizes their
toxicity. These substances emit alpha particles, which are relatively
harmless if the source is sitting on your desk. Alpha particles cannot
penetrate skin for example. However, inhaled or ingested, the same harmless
substance becomes very dangerous because they are now INSIDE THE BODY. What
makes dirty bombs more insidious is that it is almost impossible to
decontaminate an affected area. The nano-sized particles settle out on the
ground and can be re-distributed by wind, machinery or even walking. And
because of their size they tend NOT to settle out, but rather be dispersed
The question of working in a dusty environment is one for the "occupational
safety" experts. It is in the area of "respiratory protection."
Scientists and engineers are not familiar specific guidelines and rules for
keeping people safe in a dusty environment. In fact, we scientists are not
even allowed to choose our own respirators. We have experts who we call who
know all about the problems of toxic and non-toxic dusts and get the right
mask for us.
The most information can be found from OSHA.gov. Also, all the major
respirator and mask manufacturers (e.g., 3M, MSA, Norton) have guidelines to
guide customers to choosing the correct mask.
There are some dusty environments which pose an explosion hazard too. If
you work where there is a lot of coal dust or flour dust, the dust can
explode if there is a spark.
Click here to return to the Engineering Archives
Update: June 2012
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Uroabdomen (Urine leaking in abdominal cavity) in Cats
By: Dr. Anne Marie Manning
Read By: Pet Lovers
The normal urinary tract is composed of two kidneys, two ureters, a urinary bladder and a urethra. As blood flows through the kidneys, waste products are removed and pass through thin tubes called ureters into the bladder. The urinary bladder is a reservoir for these waste products. Blunt trauma such as automobile injury, a kick to the abdomen, or a fall
When the bladder is sufficiently full, there is an urge to urinate and the urine is voluntarily released from the bladder, through the urethra and out the body. Any damage of the urinary tract can lead to leakage of urine outside of the urinary tract, resulting in urine accumulation within the abdomen. This is referred to as uroabdomen or uroperitoneum.
A uroabdomen is a life threatening condition. Accumulation of urine in the abdomen creates serious disturbances in electrolytes such as potassium, which has adverse effects on the heart. Waste products that normally are cleared by the kidneys and eliminated in the urine are retained within the abdomen causing serious elevations in kidney values. Additionally, irritation and inflammation of the lining of the abdomen (peritonitis) results. If a urinary tract infection was present at the time of urine leakage, then septic peritonitis may result.
Uroabdomen can result from various causes, but the most common is related to trauma. Damage to the kidney, ureter, bladder, or urethra may cause urine to leak into the abdomen. Some common forms of trauma that can result in a disruption of the urinary tract include:
Penetrating abdominal trauma with knives, bullets, arrows, needles, scalpels, bite wounds or fractured bone fragments from pelvic trauma
Various diseases can also lead to disruption of the urinary tract and subsequent uroabdomen. Some of these include:
An attempt at palpation or expression of the bladder by the veterinarian may cause the bladder to rupture. This generally occurs only when the bladder wall is compromised or weakened by an underlying problem
Rupture or laceration of the bladder during cystocentesis, placement of a urinary catheter, placement of a peritoneal dialysis catheter or during surgical procedures.
Cancer of the bladder
Unsupervised outdoor animals are at an increased risk for traumatic injuries due to automobiles, malicious individuals or animal attacks. This results in an increased risk of developing uroabdomen.
Cats with Feline Lower Urinary Tract Disease (FLUTD) are at an increased risk as these cats often require bladder palpation and cystocentesis for diagnostic purposes or passage of a urinary catheter for therapeutic purposes.
What to Watch For
External signs of injury such as bruising, broken bones, or changes in behavior that may indicate the pet has been traumatized
Lack of urination or production of very little urine within a 24 hour period following a traumatic event
Distension of the abdomen as urine accumulates
Lethargy, depression, loss of appetite, vomiting, abdominal pain
Increased respiratory rate due to pain
As with any illness, a medical history is taken and a thorough physical examination is performed. Your veterinarian will likely ask how long the pet has been ill, if there is any possibility of trauma, and about your pet's urination habits. The physical examination will concentrate on the abdomen and rear areas of the pet. Normal urination does not mean the pet does not have a ruptured bladder. Small bladder tears can cause leakage of urine into the abdomen but the bladder can still fill and urine can be voided.
Various tests may be necessary to determine if there is fluid in the abdomen, what type of fluid is present and the cause of the fluid accumulation.
A complete blood count (CBC) can help determine the white blood cell, red blood cell and platelet counts. In a uroabdomen, these results may be normal.
A biochemistry profile will evaluate the function of the liver and kidneys and can detect abnormalities in the electrolytes.
Urinalysis is performed if urine is obtained from the bladder.
Abdominocentesis is one of the most important tests performed in diagnosing uroabdomen. A needle is inserted into the abdominal cavity and any fluid present is collected an analyzed. To determine if the fluid is urine, the creatinine level of the fluid is compared to the creatinine level of the blood. Creatinine is a by-product of waste production in the kidneys. Typically excreted in the urine, the level of creatinine will be higher in urine than in the blood. If the creatinine of the fluid is higher than the creatinine of the blood, the fluid is urine.
Blood gas tests are used to determine the acid base status of the pet.
Radiographs +/- contrast radiography are important in determining where a leak has occurred within the urinary tract.
Abdominal ultrasound is sometimes helpful in determining if there is an abnormality within the urinary tract.
Bacterial culture and sensitivity may be needed to determine if there is a bacterial component to the uroabdomen.
Uroabdomen is a serious illness. Aggressive treatment is necessary to prevent continued illness and potential death. Hospitalization with intravenous fluids is the first step in treatment. Antibiotics are often administered to fight any infection. Uroabdomen and the cause of the uroabdomen can be painful, so pain medications are typically administered to help ease the discomfort.
The majority of uroabdomen cases require surgical repair. The animal is anesthetized and the lower abdomen is surgically opened. The urine is suctioned from the abdomen and the tear in the urinary tract is identified. The most common source of urine in the abdomen is from a tear in the bladder. If present, the rupture site of the bladder is sutured.
Tears in the ureters can also be sutured, but this procedure may require the experience and equipment of a veterinary surgeon. If the kidney is badly damaged, surgical removal may be performed.
After surgical repair of the rupture site, the abdomen is flushed and cleaned with sterile saline. All traces of urine should be removed. The urinary tract is then tested to make sure there are no more leaks. The abdominal incision is then closed with sutures or staples.
A urinary catheter is often placed during surgery and left in place for 2-3 days after surgery to keep the urinary bladder and urinary tract empty. This allows the urinary tract to heal.
For some causes of uroabdomen, such as a very small tear in the urinary bladder or a tear of the urethra, medical therapy may be effective. A urinary catheter is placed and left in for 5 to 7 days. The hope is that without the continual irritation of urine, the small tear will have a chance to heal. After 5 to 7 days, the urinary catheter is removed and the pet is allowed to urinate on his own. The pet is closely monitored for poor response and may need surgical repair in the future.
Home Care and Prevention
There is no home care for uroabdomen. Any animal that sustains a blunt trauma or is unable to urinate should be examined by a veterinarian. After treatment, the pet must be closely monitored for normal urination, blood in the urine, straining or painfulness. Vomiting and lack of appetite should prompt a visit to the veterinarian. Some pets may be sent home with a temporary urinary catheter in place. The catheter must be monitored for normal urine flow and the pet must be prevented from attempting to remove the catheter.
The best way to prevent uroabdomen is to reduce the risk of blunt trauma by keeping your cats indoors. Illness that causes uroabdomen usually cannot be prevented.
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Arctic exploration, part 1- Staking a geological claim to Canadian Arctic sovereigntyby Jack Souther
In mid June when I arrived in Churchill, along with the other members of Operation Franklin, the ice on Hudson’s Bay was just beginning to break up. A lead of water had opened along the shore and most of the snow had gone. It would be several more days before our gear was assembled and our two helicopters, HVR and HHU, were stripped down and loaded into an air force cargo plane for the next leg of our journey. The town, just emerging from its long arctic night, was still littered with winter’s debris. Unlike the tidy military barracks where we were billeted the nearby town was a clutter of castoff cartons and cans. The intermittent barking of tethered sled dogs mingled with the incessant drone of an aircraft inching its way to shore.
A few weeks earlier a DC6 had run out of fuel and pancaked onto the ice just short of the runway. Two of the stricken plane's four engines were now droning day and night in a bizarre attempt to taxi it and its own little ice-flow to shore. It was still there when our C119 military cargo plane lifted off the end of Churchill's gravel strip. I never did learn whether the DC6 made that final kilometre to shore. As we banked over the open lead and headed out across the pack ice of Hudson’s Bay my view shifted to the north and my thoughts to the unknown challenge that lay ahead.
Our official mission was to assess the mineral resources, particularly the oil and coal potential of the Queen Elizabeth Islands. Unofficially we were part of an ongoing campaign to assert Canadian Sovereignty over that vast jigsaw of islands and frozen oceans that sits atop the North American Continent. Canada’s hold on the high Arctic has always been tenuous. The Russians and Scandinavian countries have all challenged Canada’s claim to an essentially empty land, and our prime minister was worried about “de facto exercise of U.S. sovereignty” in the region. No, not Stephen Harper — that is a quote from Louis St. Laurent in the cabinet notes of 1953. Operation Franklin was launched in 1955, more than 50 years before Russia’s flag at the North Pole and “scientific expeditions” by the U.S., Denmark, and Norway triggered the current round of angst about Canadian Sovereignty in the high Arctic.
In 1955, during the height of the cold war, Russia’s new fleet of long-range bombers was of more concern than diplomatic challenges. Construction of the U.S.-funded, Canadian-manned Distant Early Warning (DEW) Line was just getting started but as we droned across the vast expanse of barren land I saw no sign of a human presence. Eight hundred kilometres north of Churchill we crossed the Arctic Circle and began our long flight over the ice-bound islands of the Arctic Archipelago. “Global warming” and “climate change” had not yet entered the lexicon of the environmental movement. The northern ocean was still solidly frozen and as we began our letdown into Resolute Bay I spotted several red blotches on the pack ice — places where polar bears had dined on a seal.
May 23, 2013, 5:02 AM
Locals frustrated by damage to village; police log 17 cases of mischief over one night More...
May 23, 2013, 5:01 AM
Task handed to EPI Committee for attention More...
May 23, 2013, 5:00 AM
Work to begin this summer in an effort to update hall, improve customer service More...
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In my post "The Six R’s to Beat the Curse", I included a simple mind map of the Six R’s.
(click on thumbnail to enlarge)
Mind Mapping is a concept that was introduced to me about 5 years ago. Mind mapping is a fantastic way to improve your creativity and retention of ideas. Mind maps work in a way very similar to how the human brain works. One thought leads to an association which leads to another thought, and another. The physical structure of the brain and nervous systems also works in a similar way – an electrical impulse in one neuron is sent through a dendrite to another neuron, then to another neuron. Tony Buzan came up with term mind map (and owns the trademark) though some argue the idea has been around for centuries.
Below is the definition of a mind map from Wikipedia -
A mind map is a diagram used to represent words, ideas, tasks or other items linked to and arranged radially around a central key word or idea. It is used to generate, visualize, structure and classify ideas, and as an aid in study, organization, problem solving, decision making, and writing.
It is an image-centered diagram that represents semantic or other connections between portions of information. By presenting these connections in a radial, non-linear graphical manner, it encourages a brainstorming approach to any given organizational task, eliminating the hurdle of initially establishing an intrinsically appropriate or relevant conceptual framework to work within.
A mind map is similar to a semantic network or cognitive map but there are no formal restrictions on the kinds of links used.
The elements are arranged intuitively according to the importance of the concepts and they are organized into groupings, branches, or areas. The uniform graphic formulation of the semantic structure of information on the method of gathering knowledge, may aid recall of existing memories.
A process for brainstorming, note taking or outlining that closely mirrors the actual structure of the human brain and our thought processes is bound to be dramatically more effective than typical processes such as linear outlines.
Most public speaking coaches will recommend you outline a presentation as a first step, and not go directly to Powerpoint as I once did. Once I began to use mind maps as my main brainstorming and preparation tool for presentations, I found I was able to be much more creative and innovative. I was also able to avoid "writer’s block" and save a great deal of time. My presentations began to have a much more intuitive structure as well. I now mind map projects, training sessions and brainstorming sessions. I have mind maps that link to multiple web sites, Word documents, mp3 files and include multiple pictures. I highly recommend using mind maps instead of outlines (or PowerPoint) as your first step in mapping out a presentation, speech, or white board session.
There are many resources to help you learn mind mapping. The first one I used was by the original developer of the mind map concept, Tony Buzan. His book "The Mind Map Book: How to Use Radiant Thinking to Maximize Your Brain’s Untapped Potential" is an excellent first start. I also listened to the audio book by Michael Gelb entitled "Mind Mapping:How to Liberate Your Natural Genius" . Today, many more resources are readily available thanks to online video and podcasts.
Buzan himself has made several videos on mind mapping. I found a quick intro video on YouTube -
This short video (3 minutes) gives you a great overview of Buzan’s seven laws of mind mapping with excellent examples.
I do use pencil and paper to create mind maps in meetings, but my prefferred method is to use software. MindJet Mind Manager is the best tool I have used by far. In the quick tour overview at the MindJet site you can get an idea of the flexibility and power of this fantastic tool. I found a couple of examples on YouTube of how far you can go with Mind Manager 7. The video below shows some of the powerful features of Mind Manager through a mind map of Great Adventure.
There are many other tools available of course.Tony Buzan now offers iMindMap and there is also Concept Draw, 3D TopicScape and Visual Mind. There are several open source options, including Free Mind. Wikipedia has an extensive list of the different mind mapping software packages available.
I recently discovered two web based packages, Bubbl.us and MINDOMO. Bubbl.us is completley free (for now) and MINDOMO has a free offering and a premium offering.
Whether you prefer to get a more interactive experience with pencil and paper or you want the power of software, give mind mapping a shot the next time you need to outline a presentation or brainstorm for new ideas. I think you will be surprised at how much more creative and innovative you can be with the right tool.
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What is it?
Would you like to create an engaging and inviting learning environment that increases student participation?
Clickers are an in-class audience-polling technology that allows students to provide rapid responses to multiple-choice questions. Students answer questions or problems using handheld wireless devices. The responses are received, aggregated, and can be displayed on the instructor’s computer monitor and an overhead projector screen. During class, students’ names are not associated with responses, so they may answer freely, but responses may also be associated with students’ names for grading purposes.
For your convenience, this Teaching Element is also available as a downloadable pdf.
What is evidence that clickers have a positive impact on learning?
Research in the effective use of Classroom Response Systems has shown:
- Improved retention of course material: Use of clickers increased student performance during a class, but also retention 4 months after the class, in a biology course for non-majors (Crossgrove and Curran, 2008).
- Increased performance on assessments: The rapid feedback afforded by clickers, and subsequent discussions among student peers, helped students who used clickers to obtain significantly higher performance test scores compared with their peers who did not use clickers. (Laxman, 2011)
- Increased student engagement: Students reported that the thoughtful use of clickers increased their content comprehension, increased their class participation and provided important and immediate instructor feedback. (Nagy-Shadman and Desrochers, 2008)
Clickers in Action
Instructors use Clickers to:
Gauge student understanding
- Poll the class to find out their needs and interests, such as whether to review or move on to a new topic
- Evaluate students’ prior knowledge on a topic
- Evaluate conceptual understanding
- Assess student mastery of content to identify concepts that are proving difficult for students to grasp
Promote student input
- Allow students to identify the next step in a complex calculation
- Anonymously facilitate class discussion on controversial or sensitive issues
- Survey students to determine background or opinions
Other benefits of Clickers
- Clickers can provide a quick way for students to validate their own learning, helping them identify areas that need improvement.
- At the beginning of a new content area, you can use some general questions to assess the class’s prior knowledge of the topic.
- Clickers can provide a passive tally of attendance, provided that students bring them to every class.
What else should I think about when using clickers?
- The first time you introduce clickers to a class, start with a few “low-stakes” questions to help students get used to the system and to make sure that the system is working correctly.
- Explain to students why you are using Clickers for an activity; for example, is it to help you find out what they know, or to help them determine what to review?
- Use Clickers for low-stakes assessments rather than a formal quiz, midterm, or final.
- When developing multiple-choice questions, make sure that the “wrong” answers are plausible and require students to think before responding.
- Don’t always show the clicker results as they are being tallied or immediately after -- keeping students in suspense can focus their attention and keep them engaged.
- Point out to students that their incorrect responses can show them the areas they need to focus on.
- When using Clickers to review, sequence questions, starting with simple recall checks and moving on to questions that require more thought and analysis.
- If a significant number of students disagree on what the correct answer is, ask for volunteers to give their reasoning before revealing the correct answer.
Where can I learn more?
Teaching and Learning Studio Resources
Bruff, Derek. Teaching with classroom response systems: Creating active learning environments. Jossey-Bass, 2009.
- Types of Clicker Activities
- Using Clickers in the Classroom (YouTube)
- 7 Things you should know about Clickers (pdf)
- The ActiveClass.com
- Tips for Successful Clicker Use (pdf)
Crossgrove, Kirsten, and Kristen L. Curran. "Using clickers in nonmajors-and majors-level biology courses: student opinion, learning, and long-term retention of course material." CBE-Life sciences education 7.1 (2008): 146-154.
Laxman, Kumar. "A study on the adoption of clickers in higher education." Australasian Journal of Educational Technology 27.8 (2011): 1291-1303.
Nagy‐Shadman, Elizabeth, and Cynthia Desrochers. "Student Response Technology: Empirically grounded or just a gimmick?." International Journal of Science Education 30.15 (2008): 2023-2066.
Request a Consultation:
If you would like to work with an Instruction Design Consultant in the Teaching and Learning Studio please use this consultation request form.
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The use of living species to help infer or constrain specific characters in an extinct species is not a new thing, but Professor Larry Witmer gave this a name in 1995...the Extant Phylogenetic Bracket or EPB for short. Larry gave a name to something we already used, and in doing so penned a paper that will continue to receive citations (references within other published works) that will help it rocket into inter-steller levels of fame. Its hard to pick up a book or read a paper on dinosaurs without seeing EPB (Witmer, 1995) being quoted...even Larry agrees this is a rather useful paper in his career.
|Basic family tree of the dinosaurs and birds....often subject to change!|
In many cases we find additional evidence, such as the scars of muscle attachment on fossil dinosaur bones, that show that the EPB data appear to be appropriate (or not as the case may be). Combining such evidence and EPB with a liberal application of comparative anatomy (back to my dissection fun at Penn!), we can build a theoretical understanding of the complete prehistoric animal, as it was with its soft tissues intact. While evidence supports certain aspects of such extrapolation, in other respects this work is necessarily speculative...something palaeontology is often accused of with wagging fingers (and quite rightly so sometimes). About many points concerning soft tissues, we are completely in the dark. The best known dinosaur enigma is their colour, which is a particularly ephemeral aspect of an animal due to the nature of biological pigmentation and the tendency for such pigments to be lost in the fossilization process...but the Manchester team is hot on the trail of this particular conundrum (more on this later I hope!).
|Amber can often trap beasties, providing excellent preservation |
environments...sadly not big enough for dinosaurs!
Fossilization is a rare phenomenon that occurs to only a tiny fraction of a community’s population of any given place and period, and to none at all in many cases....we are dealing with disjointed sentences of once vast volumes. Nonetheless, if we consider the fossilization of skeletal elements as the standard, then the fossilization of soft-tissue structures is much rarer still. When these unique discoveries are made, this type of fossilization literally “fleshes out” our understanding of the fossil record in many crucial ways. Even a single example of soft-tissue preservation can be of tremendous value in the interpretation of fossil animal types. In each case, special circumstances prevented the ordinary loss of soft tissues. The explanations for certain of these situations have been reconstructed with a high degree of confidence, while the reasons for other localities’ exceptional preservation remain a mystery.
|Dissection of crocs and birds can often tell us much |
about their relatives, the dinosaurs.
If your into the preservation of soft tissue, you might want to track down a paper that the Manchester team published last year (Manning et al 2009) in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B. This is the direction of much of our research today...so watch-out for future papers chasing bio-molecules in the fossil record...with a smattering of EPB!
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1 session - 3 hours of interactive training
Do students really have a clear picture of what a million is? A billion? What about fractions, decimals, and percents? Can students actually picture these concepts in their minds? This course provides unforgettable visual images that establish a context in which students can better explore number sense. Using an investigative reporting format, the student views various areas where numbers are used and number sense is important. Classroom activities and posters extend and reinforce what the course has put in motion.View Complete Course Index (PDF)
• Enables students to develop a context for visualizing large numbers.
• Key concepts include scientific notation and estimation skills.
• Course includes activities and posters to reinforce the lesson.
Online Product Code: 120071
|Single User Price:
Contact a Shadowbox Learning Service Sales Representative for Multi User pricing options.
Do you have older software for which you need training? Contact us and we may have just what your looking for!
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A World of First Nations, Learning
This last installment of the six-part series from the Tyee Solutions Society details how, outside British Columbia, other indigenous people and other jurisdictions are building a record of academic success.
[Editor's note: This Tyee Solutions Society Series has explored how innovative educators across British Columbia are reversing a century of educational exclusion for kids of First Nations or aboriginal heritage—the fastest-growing demographic in the province. For the most part, those innovations were based on ideas from beyond British Columbia's borders, with a local twist. In her concluding report for this series, Katie Hyslop finds a few more ideas from away that could be worth a try here at home.]
British Columbia may have one of the largest aboriginal populations in the country, but it isn't the only province whose first peoples are struggling to reconcile the history of colonialism, forced assimilation and abuse found in the residential school system with the need to educate and prepare their children for life in the 21st century. Nor is ours the only post-colonial government yet to find the right formula for helping those populations get an education.
But that has meant that many of the ideas being implemented by indigenous educators in British Columbia today were taken from other First Nations, across Canada and the world, who are struggling with the same task. Inspiring innovations reported earlier in this series, such as balancing education and culture through the development of language nests and immersion schools, are the result. Here are a few more examples of successful or promising programs that indigenous people and public governments nearby and around the world are using to increase academic success.
Alberta leads the way in aboriginal-focused schools
Alberta has the third highest population of aboriginal people in Canada, and it's growing fast: the demographic jumped 23 percent to nearly 250,000 people from 2001 to 2006. It's also the youngest population, with almost one-third of aboriginals less than 14 years old, making up almost nine percent of children under the Edmonton public school board. But according to Assistant Superintendent Bruce Coggles, that percentage should be a lot higher.
"There's a fairly significant number of First Nations students that for whatever reason choose not to self-identify. They just want to be mainstream students and not want to be part of a sub-group within a system," says Coggles. "Even if we're aware that they're First Nations, they're not part of the population that's tracked."
This applies to aboriginal academic rates, too, so the district doesn't calculate aboriginal graduation rates. Nonetheless, in 1999, the district knew aboriginals weren't graduating at a high enough rate, and were dropping out far too often.
"We just felt we were losing too many students, and had to find a means or a strategy to increase our success level. We know it's a growing part of our population, and we just weren't satisfied with the results. So we were looking at alternatives," says Coggles.
The school board created an aboriginal task force to find solutions. One of the standout programs this created is Amiskwaciy Academy, an aboriginal-focus Grade 7 to Grade 12 school—the first of its kind in Canada.
Located in the old Edmonton Municipal Airport terminal in city's centre, Amiskwaciy Academy opened in 2002 to all students in the district, although the approximately 300 students currently enrolled are all First Nations. There are two elders attached to the school who provide spiritual guidance and student counselling; there's a sweat lodge. Classes are offered on aboriginal drumming, where students have the chance to make their own drums. And every school day starts with a Cree song and a drumming circle for all the students, teachers and staff in the main foyer of the school.
There are aboriginal-focused options for curriculum, but unlike more rural areas, Coggles says most of the students at Amiskwaciy are urbanized and don't connect to indigenous traditions in the same way as their rural peers. "You make assumptions about heritage and assume that there's interest and knowledge in all the traditional ways. There isn't always. So rather than make things mandatory, there's opportunities for students to choose options that can have more traditional content in it," he says.
Initially, the school put more emphasis on recognition of culture and traditions, as well as providing kids with positive role models by hiring a majority of aboriginal teachers—approximately two-thirds of the faculty. The aim was to improve student self-esteem and attendance, and then move on to academics. But Coggles says it's time to switch focus to academics, "because [Amiskwaciy's graduates] have to be able to put their results beside the other high schools and show that their results can be just as good as anybody."
That could mean fewer aboriginal teachers in the future. "At this point," says Coggles, “we're kind of saying the first thing we need is really strong teachers in their subject areas, and if we can get that person and have them First Nations as well, then that's the best of both worlds. But the first and more important thing is to have highly qualified teachers."
Again, Edmonton public school board doesn't track aboriginal academics, so there are no numbers to prove students in the Amiskwaciy program are improving. But Coggles sees signs of success. "We've gone through a few growing pains in getting it established, but we've got more stability," he says. "We're pleased that we're moving in the right direction, but we've got a ways to go yet."
Hawaiian schools make a comeback
At about the same time that British Columbia began forcing First Nations parents to send their children to English-only residential schools, much the same thing was happening in Hawaii. Native Hawaiians were forced into public, English-speaking schools starting in 1896, when their language—?lelo Hawai'I—was made illegal. Although there are differing accounts of what this meant—some sources assert that Hawaiian language newspapers continued to be published while others claim parents were reprimanded for speaking the language to their children—the ban succeeded in reducing ?lelo Hawai'i from the island's predominant language, to one spoken today by six percent of the population, according to the American Community Survey. But that's not an entirely accurate number as there are no statistics available on the number of fluent speakers versus those that know a few words and phrases.
What's clear is that until their language was outlawed, native Hawaiians had maintained a very successful education system on their own, says Kau'ilani Sang, an educational specialist with the State Department of Education's Hawaiian Language Immersion Program.
"Hawaiians have had 'schools' since before Western contact," Sang says. "The imposition of Western beliefs on education, and the banning of the Hawaiian language in schools, led to a demise of one of the most literate nations in the world, with thousands of text documents written in Hawaiian by Hawaiians," she wrote in an e-mail to the Tyee Solutions Society.
A change in the state constitution in 1978, however, not only made ?lelo Hawai'i an official state language, but also mandated a state duty to provide natives with education in their own language and culture. Within a decade, the government began operating Hawaiian immersion schools. Today there are 21 such schools within the public education system, as well as immersion early childhood education and university programs.
The 21 immersion schools integrate indigenous Hawaiian language, culture and history into the curriculum and are taught by a majority of indigenous teachers. In order to teach there, educators must complete a teaching degree, a four-year language program and a Hawaiian studies degree.
"The foundation of most immersion schools is to teach the language with the belief that without the culture you cannot teach the language," Sang says. "If you look at the vision of most of the schools, they're trying to produce proficient Hawaiian language speakers by the time they leave in the 12th Grade."
Only about 2,000 students are enrolled in the 21 schools. With a native Hawaiian population of 80,337, most children go to mainstream schools where teachers are unprepared to include native language and culture in the curriculum. It's just one of the drawbacks to operating a native education system as a subset of the larger public education system.
"It's limited to the preparedness of those on staff," says Sang, "to be compassionate towards trying to revitalize Hawaiian language. And because we're confined to different federal and state laws, our vision for what we're trying to do sometimes gets pushed to the side. So when it comes down to decision-making, there's a lot of advocacy that goes on outside of the system to try and get the system to understand what we're trying to do. And that's the difficult part, because while the system is required to do the job they don't necessarily have the skills or the buy-in to make the right decision."
There are pluses, however, like access to facilities and Department of Education infrastructure. And the program is working: students are leaving the program as fluent speakers, although there are no statistics on indigenous graduation rates in Hawaii, either.
"I'm pretty confident that the success rate in terms of graduation is relatively high—I almost want to say 100 percent. I haven't heard of any teacher or student [who] has failed, but I have heard that students have dropped out," says Sang.
Parental support of education is key: Simon
When it comes to the vitality of traditional language, the Inuit are the exception to the rule: as of 2006, 69 percent of Inuit could converse in their language, with half speaking it regularly at home. But the majority of Inuit children attend public schools, where the main language of instruction is English or French. This hasn't resulted in a loss of traditional language, but it does prove difficult for students whose first language is Inuktitut.
Struggles with language only add to the socio-economic issues facing many Inuit families, such as poverty, overcrowded housing, substance abuse and physical and sexual abuse. As a result, 75 percent of Inuit never finish high school, some of the worst academic outcomes in Canada.
Inuit leaders from across the four Inuit Arctic regions which span northern Canada from Labrador to the Yukon—Inuvialuit, Nunavut, Nunavik and Nunatsiavut—came together with the federal, provincial and territorial governments to develop a National Strategy on Inuit Education, released in mid-June.
The strategy calls for mobilizing parent support for education, increasing bilingual (Inuit and English or French) curriculum and instructors, investing in early education, providing external social supports to students, investing in Inuit-centred curriculum and resources, establishing an Inuit writing system, creating an Inuit university and improving methods for measuring and assessing student success.
Mary Simon, president of Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami (ITK), the national organization representing the Inuit, has targeted results within a decade. "We hope that within five to ten years we will significantly close the gap in high school graduation rates with southern Canada, and experience a corresponding increase in the number of Inuit who graduate from university," Simon wrote in an email to Tyee Solutions Society.
The strategy puts particular emphasis on parental support, saying Inuit organizations and public governments can only do so much to encourage academic success. The rest is up to parents, to motivate and support their child's participation in the school system.
That can be a challenge for some families. "Parents who had negative experiences with the residential school system," Simon observes, "are less likely to be supportive of their children in the current education system. Our National Inuit Education Strategy wants to address this issue by engaging parents in the education of their children, and working with parents to ensure support for students in school."
The plan is still in its early stages. A National Centre for Inuit Education is set to open this fall, followed by the appointment of an Inuit education secretariat to develop the implementation plan, dictating who is responsible for what actions, and its cost. But Simon is confident that will be accomplished by early next year.
Nation to First Nation education aid
Canada's federal government has, to be generous, ground to make up with the country's aboriginal population. It was the Federal Crown that partnered with Christian organizations to introduce residential schools as an overt and nearly successful attempt to erase the "Indian" in children by severing them from their language, culture and families. With the exception of some publicly funded private schools, churches are out of the game today, but the feds still oversee aboriginal education on reserves. And if indigenous education advocates are right, the system they're running is still failing First Nations kids.
That may, finally and perhaps, be about to change. This past June, the Government announced a new partnership with the Assembly of First Nations: a Joint Action Plan for aboriginal education to start with a national panel discussion on that that should entail. The panel has two indigenous representatives—George Lafond, former chief of the Saskatoon Tribal Council and former special assistant to the federal minister of Indian and Northern Affairs and Caroline Krause, an aboriginal educator formerly with the Vancouver school board and the University of British Columbia's faculty of education—and one Caucasian, Scott Haldane, president and CEO of YMCA Canada.
The panel has already begun travelling across the country, speaking with aboriginal parents, children, chiefs, councils and elders; regional and national First Nations organizations; the private sector; the provinces; as well as any interested private parties. They're expected to deliver two reports: a mid-way progress report, and a final report with recommendations by 2011.
Here in British Columbia, aboriginal education advocates give the provincial government some credit for recognizing before their federal counterparts that education is something aboriginals need to be involved with. Victoria has made Aboriginal Education Agreements—pacts signed between school boards and local native governments specifying aboriginal content in school—mandatory for all 60 B.C. school districts. The Ministry of Education has introduced First Nations English, social studies, and math courses. And they've signed an agreement with the First Nations Education Steering Committee and the federal government that says aboriginals have the right to teach their own children. They even passed an act to solidify the agreement.
"The inclusion of authentic aboriginal histories and knowledge throughout the B.C. curriculum enriches the educational experience of all students. Culturally relevant learning allows for the inclusion of local traditional knowledge, histories and aboriginal languages and is key to improving success and achievement for aboriginal students," a Ministry of Education spokesperson told Tyee Solutions Society via email.
Yet critics say it's still not enough. The provincial government doesn't provide enough fundingto adequately support language revitalization programs, for one concern. Few students enrol in First Nations-focused courses in secondary school, in part critics say because the ministry has failed to inform parents and students that the course credits qualify for post-secondary admission. And Aboriginal Enhancement Agreements may be mandatory, but there is no system in place to hold districts to their promises or to measure their progress.
Aboriginal British Columbians are confident they have the knowledge and skills to educate their own children, but not the resources to do so. After years of broken promises from post-colonial governments, matched by broken lives for thousands of First Nations and Métis British Columbians, what's common to these stories of collaboration is that, while indigenous people may have the know-how to bring their children out of the academic shadows, it's much easier on all of us if they don't have to do it alone.
Katie Hyslop, Tyee Solutions Society; reporting made possible through the support of the Vancouver Foundation, McLean Foundation and the British Columbia Teachers’ Federation (funders neither influence nor endorse the particular content of Tyee Solutions’ reporting).
Click here to view the first in this series.
Click here to view the second in the series.
Click here to view the third in the series.
Click here to view the fourth in the series.
Click here to view the fifth in the series.
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Text by Candace Kanes
Images from Maine Historical Society, Camp Winnebago, Camp Runoia, Good Will-Hinkley Home, and Eliot Baha'i Archives
Wohelo, Kippewa, Mataponi, Runoia, Winnebago, Agawam, Kawanhee, Takajo, Mechuwana, and Indian Acres. Summer camps once appealed to urban youths for their exposure to nature and the simple life.
Soon, they focused instead on skills, sports, loyalty, and camp spirit. Summer-long camps and special purpose camps remain popular in Maine. Most go far beyond summer amusements for young people.
The images suggest how the camps -- and campers -- have changed throughout the twentieth century as well as how ideas about the purposes of the camps have developed.
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No starter pistol announces the beginning of a new technological era. There are no cannon blasts or tower bells ringing forth the end of the old and dawn of the new. And yet, if the previous ten years were "The Internet Decade," then the next decade may be dubbed the "Age of the Intranet." Intranets are digital communication networks linking devices, such as computers or handheld devices, to each other and to network-based applications and services, often within a specific geographical location. Much as the global Internet has interconnected computer networks, Intranets provide local connectivity, services, and applications to their users. Intranets are often home or office networks used to interconnect computers. In this chapter, we explore the notion of a "community Intranet" -- an expanded network of networks spanning a neighborhood, municipality, or geographic region. By amplifying community interconnectedness, Intranets promise to enable new forms of political and democratic engagement that expand upon present day networks and models of cooperation. Intranets are often decentralized and ad-hoc, with no one entity owning the entire infrastructure or controlling expansion of or access to the infrastructure. These arrangements create new challenges for surveillance and command and control as well as new opportunities for participatory media and information dissemination.
Intranet systems supplant old notions of networking geographic places by allowing people to be both networked and an integral part of the infrastructure-the creation of "device-as-infrastructure networks." These peer-to-peer communications systems provide unprecedented opportunities, as well as serious concerns, for the future of community organizing, political activism, media production, and communication research. Even as evidence accumulates demonstrating how these technologies encourage civic engagement, their social trajectory is far from determined, and the possibility for a more dystopian outcome cannot be dismissed. While drawing from real-world case studies, including community and municipal wireless networks, Indymedia, the iPhone, geo-locational applications and services, and next-generation wireless devices, this chapter documents the emergence of Intranet technologies, discusses their implications for research, and explores policy implications at this critical juncture in telecommunications development and policy making.
The Intranet Potential
Intranet-enabled communications have the potential to accelerate fundamental changes begun in the 1980s with the advent of widespread public use of pagers and cell phones. Like these cellular systems, Intranets are often fully functioning communications networks, connecting participants to one-another and to locally run services and applications within homes and offices at the local, state, regional, and even national levels. Similar to businesses connecting computers to share Internet connectivity, printer and file server access via a Local Area Network (LAN), community Intranets connect devices to form a community-wide LAN. Intranet technologies create new possibilities for how information is produced, disseminated, and archived by creating a peer-to-peer infrastructure that parallels the rise of peer-to-peer technologies, services, and applications. Sharing media, educational content, and public services via local telecommunications systems, Intranets provide web resources for their respective communities, ranging from the mundane, such as e-mail, webhosting, and filesharing, to the more innovative, such as streaming micro-broadcasting, video chat-rooms, temporary device-hosted LANs, and audio and video telephony. While some Intranets are geographically bounded, others are regional or even global in nature. Often, Intranets rely on darknets and friend-to-friend networking client (i.e., peer-to-peer file-sharing networks predicated upon social networking and trust) -- one example embraced by the open source community is Nullsoft's WASTE, a decentralized file sharing and IM program -- but increasingly they are focused on providing useful services, applications, and media to local communities (Biddle, England, Peinado, & Willman, 2002).
Using local Intranets, communities can set up forums for political debate, artistic display, and educational fare. Streaming video and audio from local events -- from town council and PTA meetings to annual music festivals -- have created entirely new media services and information-sharing options for residents. Intranets enhance local government, education, and civic organizations services, allowing services such as online voter registration and real-time directions to polling stations, bill payment and live tax advice, access to school homework and teacher lesson plans, public service announcements, online newspapers and radio, and instant webcasting of emergency alerts.
Public safety and social service groups, local schools, churches, and municipalities are already beginning to embrace the potentials of these technologies and recent shifts in municipal wireless business models have just begun to tap Intranets' potentials. And, as municipal networking business models continue to evolve, Intranet services and applications will increase in importance, becoming meaningful differentiators among different implementation options.
Figure 1: Illustration
of a Mesh Network
Schools can set up a local wireless network and broadcast a student-produced news program or a theatrical play; a housing project can establish an online media forum to feature local artists, upcoming events, job listings, or educational opportunities; social workers out in the field and municipal workers can dynamically update their caseload files and task lists as they travel around town; religious organizations can webcast services to residents whose health prevents them from attending; electrical, water, gas and parking meters can be remotely read; and, automated congestion-pricing of vehicles and optimal traffic light configurations can be ascertained in real-time.
Perhaps one of the most exciting prospects of Intranet-enabled communications is an enhanced potential for community journalism. As national media outlets increasingly omit local news, Intranets may facilitate a municipal service that provides a daily digital community news bulletin, replete with local beat reporting and investigative news. Community news, most likely delivered via a municipal or community wireless network offering ubiquitous high-speed broadband, could be treated as a public utility, provided each morning in the form of an informational service, and supported by local tax revenues. As local broadcast and print news continue to be eviscerated by national market pressures, the potential for Intranets to provide local journalism will be increasingly valuable.
Many of the projects already utilizing Intranet technologies aim to change the cultural economy of the Internet by creating resources for people to democratize media distribution and information dissemination, often via existing infrastructures and off-the-shelf networking hardware. Unlike the Internet, which disproportionately favors capitalized publishers like the NYTimes.com and CNN.com, Intranets reliance on local networks allow low capital users to host websites, e-mail lists and accounts, stream audio and video programs, and create dynamic media for local consumption -- creating an integrated system that provides affordable access to everyone from independent musicians and journalists to teachers and civic officials (Young, 2003).
The remainder of this chapter provides a glimpse of community Intranets' implications for reconceptualizing the theory and study of emergent communications technologies, with the goal of not just providing a thought-piece of what might be, but also showing how these technologies are already being used and studied.
Community Intranet Case Studies: CUWiN & Chambana.net
An exemplar of Intranet technology is the Champaign-Urbana Wireless Network (CUWiN; see cuwin.net), launched by a coalition of wireless developers in 2000 with a mission to "connect more people to Internet and broadband services; develop open-source hardware and software for use by wireless projects world-wide; and, build and support community-owned, not-for-profit broadband networks in cities and towns around the globe." Although the CUWiN Foundation is a non-profit organization headquartered in the small town of Urbana, Illinois, it has received considerable national and international attention during its years of successful open-source development. Through the ongoing support the Acorn Active Media Foundation (see: acornactivemedia.org), CUWiN has integrated the wireless network with a host of different services.
In Spring 2000, a group of software programmers, radio techies, system administrators, and community activists began discussing ways to set up a community-operated wireless network using widely available, off-the-shelf hardware. After two years of intensive work, CUWiN's software development allowed the first multi-hop, bandwidth sharing, wireless cloud to become operational, creating shared access to the Internet from multiple locations. This milestone marked the first time a single Internet connection (in this case, donated by the Urbana-Champaign Independent Media Center Foundation; see: ucimc.org) was utilized from houses located a half-kilometer away from one-another, with traffic routed through an intermediary wireless node. This technology later became known as "mesh" wireless networking.
CUWiN went on to deploy additional wireless routers (often called "nodes") in the community and develop the system software to deal with real-world conditions. This initial deployment brought CUWiN's first major press coverage and created opportunities for over two-dozen new organizations to partner with the project. Realizing that scaling up the system would require major upgrades, CUWiN received an exploratory grant in 2003 from the Threshold Foundation to buy much-needed additional equipment as a proof-of-concept for deployment in impoverished communities. Henceforth, CUWiN has been building a new generation of hardware chosen for its durability, price, and suitability for this application. The initial exploratory grant allowed CUWiN to double the number of nodes in the test bed network to try out software improvements under in-vivo conditions. Continuing collaborations with the Acorn Active Media Foundation have led to the development of lower-cost equipment and the implementation of free public Internet access in areas throughout downtown Urbana.
In 2004, CUWiN received a $200,000 grant from the Information Program of the Open Society Institute to develop networking software as a model case for transfer to other communities. That same year the Center for Neighborhood Technology began using CUWiN's software in the economically disadvantaged, minority Chicago suburb, North Lawndale, to help bridge their digital divide by bringing broadband connectivity to many residents for the first time. Over 50 different communities are considering using CUWiN's software worldwide, and key facets of CUWiN's technology have been integrated into many open source wireless technologies. As these open source technologies have continued to stabilize, the number of organizations and communities looking to use them for Internet service and Intranet applications in their neighborhoods has increased dramatically.
Figure 2: CUWIN Coverage Map
Today, the CUWiN foundation project has over 200 members and 100 developers, and has deployed systems in multiple locations around Illinois, across the United States, and internationally. In CUWiN's local community, there is a long waiting list to join the network and the City of Urbana has allocated funding to build additional nodes and added them to extend the CUWiN network in the downtown region. This may represent the first time that a municipality has actively deployed an open-source, open-architecture wireless solution, thus helping to further advance these technologies.
As isolated wireless "clouds" grow within the City of Urbana, distinct areas will merge, creating a single trans-neighborhood, interconnected wireless community. This process of conglomerization of distinct wireless clouds creates a community Intranet capable of providing multi-media services to network users, as described in more detail in the next section. CUWiN has also formed numerous partnerships with university research laboratories to develop next-generation wireless technologies, and is now working with a diverse array of groups, from the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research in South Africa to the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign (UIUC) in its own back yard.
Community Intranets are as diverse as the constituencies they serve. In Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, the Chambana.net project is a proving ground for next-generation Intranet services and applications. Chambana.net is built and maintained by the Acorn Active Media Foundation (Acorn) and creates an community LAN that interconnects the local mesh wireless network with multi-media resources located at the Urbana-Champaign Independent Media Center (UCIMC). Chambana.net hosts scores of websites for local organizations as well as web portal capabilities, hundreds of e-mail lists, serves tens of thousands of users, integrates an IRC server and file storage capabilities, streams audio and video, provides telephony capabilities, and is a platform for darknet participants and local IT developers. By directly integrating the local low power FM radio station, WRFU 104.5 FM (Radio Free Urbana), the project allows such innovations as the streaming of live shows from the performance venue, which are also simulcast through the radio station and the Internet. By harnessing the Intranet capabilities of this system, this community Intranet allows local and global participants to communicate via the chat servers with audience members, sound engineers, etc. The project allows Intranet participants to access video files they have been editing at the UCIMC's production center from their laptop computer at a local cafe. Soon social networking and geolocation multi-media web portal functionality will allow media producers to upload their work to local wireless hotspots and comment on each other's work.
Figure 3: The Chambana.net Infrastructure and Community Intranet
The power of Intranets lies in their potential for supporting new forms of communication. As the functionality of mobile devices increases, Intranet usage will expand as well. Together, CUWiN and the Chambana.net project provide a natural laboratory for Intranet services and applications. By integrating media production and information dissemination, they support a return to localism -- the potential to blend participatory media production with the reach of regional networking.
Intranets represent a clear shift away from the broadcast model, enabling two-way flow of information, community and shared ownership of communications infrastructure, and more services and applications than existing telecommunications systems. In Urbana, the Independent Media Center, CUWiN, Chambana.net, Acorn Active Media Foundation, UCIMC, and WRFU 104.5 FM (see: wrfu.net) and a host of allied organizations are using these new technologies to advance democratic communications.
In response to these emergent digital communications, vibrant new strands of communications theory have begun to coalesce, while traditional barriers between participatory action, policy and regulatory debate, and technological innovation are breaking down. Feedback loops among developers, implementers, policy reformers, and community organizers are placing pressure on decision-makers in Washington, DC to substantially reform our telecommunications policies to better match on-the-ground realities. Telecommunications reforms in 2008 are set to extend Intranet capabilities from the margins of "techno-geekery" into the mainstream.
Current battles over access to the television white spaces (unused frequencies between existing broadcast channels; see Meinrath & Calabrese, 2007) have pitted public interest groups (who want to foster more democratic communications) and hi-tech firms (who want to sell next-generation wireless equipment) against the National Association of Broadcasters and its allies (who want to protect their current business models and prevent competition). The 700MHz spectrum auction that was concluded in March 2008 created, for the first time, an "open platform" band that requires the license-holder (in this case Verizon) to open its network to all compatible devices. With Google's Android phone and the continuing work of the Open Handset Alliance (a coalition of over 30 corporations working on next-generation open cellular hardware), community Intranets are poised to become an everyday part of normal life. And with the increasing functionality of next-generation hand-held computers, device-as-infrastructure networking is rapidly becoming an everyday reality.
Meanwhile, contemporary researchers are increasingly drawing from current telecommunications and regulatory deliberations, familiarizing themselves with new and emergent technologies, and immersing themselves in the communities they study. A promising development in communications theory since the late 1990s is the emergence of the field of community informatics (CI), which is particularly well-suited to address issues raised by Intranet technologies and digital media-production practices. Howard Rheingold underscores the importance of formulating a new field as a potential starting point for new communications theories that is "based on actual findings by people who have tried to use online media in service of community, then reported on their results." He notes that "In the absence of such systematic observation and reporting by serious practitioners, public discussion will continue to oscillate between ideological extremes, in a never-ending battle of anecdotal evidence and theoretical rhetoric" (Keeble & Loader, 2002, p xx). Emphasizing the cross-disciplinary and emergent aspects of CI, Keeble and Loader (2002) define "community informatics" as:
...a multidisciplinary field for the investigation and development of the social and cultural factors shaping the development and diffusion of new ICTs and its effects upon community development, regeneration and sustainability. It thereby combines an interest in the potentially transforming qualities of new media with an analysis of the importance of community social relations for human interaction. (p.3)
CI draws from a wide range of source material and expertise based on the understanding that new and emergent technologies often fall outside traditional disciplinary boundaries. Therefore, expertise concerning their use, impacts, and diffusion are found through a participatory action research methodology (Meinrath, 2004). Similarly, since CI is, first and foremost, involved in the systematic study of contemporary technologies and social phenomena, it relies on the work of "community activists, webmasters and Internet enthusiasts, policy-makers, digital artists, science-fiction writers, media commentators [in addition to] a wide variety of academics including sociologists, computer scientists, communications theorists, information systems analysts, political scientists, psychologists, and many more" (Keeble & Loader, 2002, p. 3). Beyond media research, these new technologies also have a profound impact on the formation and nature of communities. One of the most overlooked facets for determining whether technological innovation is empowering to its users is whether it is open and how that openness is operationalized.
Open vs. Closed Technologies and Network Architectures
At its heart, one of the most significant barriers to the potential of Intranets comes down to the differences between closed and open technologies. These notions often bring to mind issues related to open source and proprietary software (e.g., Linux versus Windows), but the distinction is more encompassing. Stolterman (2002) defines the important attributes thusly:
A closed technology is one that does not allow the user to change anything after it has been designed and manufactured. The structure, functionality and appearance of the artifact are permanent...The technology is a relatively stable variable in social settings.... An open technology allows the user to continue changing the technology's specific characteristics, and to adjust, and or change its functionality. When it comes to an open technology, changes in functionality pose a question not only of change in the way the existing functionality is used or understood but also of a real change in the artifact's internal manifestation. (Stolterman, 2002, p. 45)
The Internet, generally speaking, was conceived and remains an open and designable technology. One can "add, embed, contain or surround the artifact with other technology in a way that radically changes it." (Stolterman, 2002, p. 45). This aspect has contributed to the successes of so-called "Web 2.0" applications. Unfortunately, this openness is also under attack, as moves by Comcast to block Bittorrent communications, the blocking of pro-choice text messaging by Verizon, and the editing of a live Pearl Jam's concert by AT&T all exemplify. Unfortunately, the "gentlemen's agreements" that have been sold as "solutions" (that these corporations will not engage in these practices again) do nothing to prevent these sorts of anti-competitive, anti-free speech, and anti-democratic actions from being repeated at a later date. Thus, a growing list of public interest organizations have grown increasingly worried that by abdicating their responsibility to prevent this sort of corporate malfeasance, the Federal Communications Commission and other regulatory agencies are all but guaranteeing that these sorts of behaviors will continue.
In fact, without the advent of the landmark Carterphone decision to allow interconnection of "foreign attachments" to the AT&T telephone network, wireline communications may well have taken a different turn -- even preventing the emergence of the Internet in its present form. Prior to Carterphone, the FCC tariff governing interconnecting devices stated, "No equipment, apparatus, circuit or device not furnished by the telephone company shall be attached to or connected with the facilities furnished by the telephone company, whether physically, by induction or otherwise" (FCC 68-661). The growth and successes of the Internet are predicated upon an open architecture (Cooper, 2004; Kahin & Keller, 1997) that facilitates the interconnection of a variety of different devices and technologies (Louis, 2000; Meinrath, 2005). While AT&T may have wanted end-to-end control over every part of their network, the FCC wisely concluded that the best interests of the general public would be achieved by ensuring that innovation could not be stifled by AT&T and that end-users could decide for ourselves which devices and technologies we wanted to attach to the telephone network.
In fact, the Internet stands as a remarkable reminder of the potential power (and problems) of network effects (Hiller & Cohen, 2002; Nuechterlein & Weiser, 2007) and the promise that this new "networked information economy" (Benkler, 2003) makes possible. As Benkler (2003) sums up:
For over 150 years, new communications technologies have tended to concentrate and commercialize the production and exchange of information, while extending the geographic and social reach of information distribution networks... The Internet presents the possibility of a radical reversal of this long trend. It is the first modern communications medium that expands its reach by decentralizing the distribution function. Much of the physical capital that embeds the intelligence in the network is diffused and owned by end users. (p. 1250).
While thus far true for much of the wireline communications infrastructure, this analysis breaks down within the wireless realm (Meinrath & Pickard, 2008). Wireless communications are a particularly interesting case study since the transport medium -- the public airwaves -- is not only publicly owned, but also, for data communications in particular, often unlicensed (Meinrath et al., 2005). Yet the wireless systems that an increasing number of Internet participants use to connect to the Internet remain closed technologies (Nuechterlein & Weiser, 2007).
The 2007 deal inked by Apple and AT&T is a classic example of the problems with this approach. Apple's iPhone was only available to be used on AT&T's network, even though it could be used on any cellular network. Likewise, AT&T only allows certain services and applications to run on the iPhone, even though the iPhone could run many additional programs that would be useful for end users. Innovative iPhone owners and entrepreneurs have already found ways to unlock the device and consumer groups have launched campaigns to get iPhone limitations removed (see, for example, freetheiphone.com), but the extra work and cost are borne by end-users as a result of anti-competitive business practices. By comparison, the superiority of open architectures is immediately apparent:
An open architecture means fewer technological restrictions and, thus, the ability to explore more options. In an open architecture, there is no list of elements and protocols. Both are allowed to grow and change in response to changing needs and technology innovation...With an open architecture you are not making bets on a specific direction the technology will take in the future. You are not tied to a specific design or a particular vendor or consortium roadmap, so you can evaluate and select the best solution from a broad and energetic competitive field. Competition facilitates innovation and reduces equipment and implementation costs. (Waclawsky, 2004, p. 61)
With data communications networks, the costs of closed architectures are particularly devastating because they impact almost every communications medium. As Tim Wu (2007) documents, wireless cellular carriers may be the worst purveyors of closed technologies:
The wireless industry, over the last decade, has succeeded in bringing wireless telephony at competitive prices to the American public. Yet at the same time, we also find the wireless carriers aggressively controlling product design and innovation in the equipment and application markets, to the detriment of consumers. In the wired world, their policies would, in some cases, be considered simply misguided, and in other cases be considered outrageous and perhaps illegal. (Wu, 2007. p.1)
Luckily, open architecture cellular devices are just around the corner. Projects like OpenMoko.org are working to develop "the world's first integrated open source mobile communications platform" and the Open Handset Alliance is committed to creating a cellular platform that supports innovation (though how open this hardware platform will be is still to be determined). In fact, the superiority of these open systems is so strong that both Verizon and AT&T have declared their intention to run open networks (though the details of their "openness" have yet to be released as of this writing). Yet even these approximations of openness are steps away from a fully proprietary infrastructure and towards a more open, interoperable, and innovation-supporting one.
Within the data communications realm, today most municipal and enterprise 802.11 (WiFi/WiMAX) wireless networks are entirely proprietary. For example, a Motorola 802.11 system will not interoperate directly with a Tropos system, which will not interoperate directly with a Meru system, which will not interoperate directly with a Meraki system, etc. In fact, most consumers have no idea that the links they rely on to access Internet and Intranet services lock geographical areas into path dependencies with specific vendors (and their specific capabilities and limitations). Disconcertingly, in an era when interoperability of applications, services, and communications is assumed, and the communities that people participate in are geographically dispersed, the immediate and long-term ramifications of this geospatial lock-in remain almost entirely unexplored. Closed technologies have the potential to constrain the positive potentials of Intranets if their widespread adoption stems more from an emphasis on corporate profits than maximizing wireless networks' public benefits.
Unlike the Internet, these wireless "last-mile" links can disallow users from extending the network (e.g., using bridges and routers), adding applications (e.g., VoIP, P2P, IRC, IM), interconnecting additional services (e.g., streaming servers, distributed file storage, local webhosting), or connecting directly with one another. The wireless medium is a de facto throwback to an era paralleling AT&T's control over which devices could be connected to their network and which technologies would thus be developed. For unsuspecting communities and decision-makers, the long-term effects of wireless lock-in may be more detrimental than any policy previously witnessed in telecommunications history.
Thus far, regulatory bodies and decision-makers remain unwilling to address these fundamental concerns, even though, as Nuechterlein and Weiser (2007) document, telecommunications history is rife with cautionary tales of regulatory inaction. Within this context, communications researchers, in particular, have an opportunity to both study and positively impact the future of U.S. telecommunications. By facilitating interventions in telecommunications policy, engaging with community media activists, and emphasizing how the democratic potentials of new technologies are dependent on sound public policies, the praxis of contemporary academics can help shift the trajectory of global communications and shake the foundations of current and future Intranet practices.
The Challenges of the Intranet Era
The opportunities of Intranet technologies hold much promise, but also require meaningful changes to how we study communication and render media policy as we implement these new telecommunications systems. Communications departments are increasingly adding new media strands to study emergent technologies and we are beginning to see more research addressing issues like privacy and surveillance; Intranet vs. Internet services and applications; social networking; wired and wireless network neutrality; technology convergence, empowerment and independence; digital divides and inclusion efforts; digital rights management; and current and pending telecommunications proceedings (Lessig, 2001, 2006; Wu, 2007; Meinrath & Pickard, 2008).
The emergent roles of Intranets enabled by the Internet, digital television, cell phones, PDAs and other digital media are providing a powerful set of tools which challenge and shift social and economic behavior. While it is easy to slip into a perspective where we see these changes as a positive global phenomenon, the vast majority of humanity -- over five billion people as of 2008 -- do not have Internet access and are not directly participating in this "information revolution"; and these divides have implications that have only just begun to be studied.
Today, computer-mediated communication is, according to OECD, ITU, PEW Center, FCC and other statistics, far more prevalent among the affluent and highly educated. Meanwhile, the rural-urban divide in Internet connectivity, contrary to rosy press reports, may actually be worsening in the United States. While we often look to emergent technologies and new media for their "potential of being used as a liberatory and empowering tool by many people and...for the disadvantaged and excluded to 'challenge entrenched positions and structures'" (Keeble & Loader, 2002, p. 5), these new communications media are actually little-understood and grossly under-utilized (Cooper, 2003, 2006; Pickard, 2008). Media activists have played a pivotal role in deploying these technologies and opening up and shaping policy debates regarding community Intranets and other forms of Internet-enabled communication (Pickard, 2006a, 2006b). As they expand the boundaries on what is possible with new technologies, increasingly they engage with policy debates, including spectrum ownership, network neutrality and open access issues of the Internet, privacy, surveillance, and intellectual property law.
Likewise, the political and regulatory battles of the next few years will determine the trajectory of communications development for generations to come. Non-profit organizations like the New America Foundation, Free Press, Public Knowledge, and the Media Access Project are often on the front lines of debates that will affect the lives of all U.S. residents and reverberate around the globe. These groups are often battling against telco incumbents with orders of magnitude more funding as well as hundreds of lobbyists and enormous PR war chests. Top-down telecommunications reforms are critically important to the creation of a more just society, but given the systematic under-resourcing of public interest organizations, grassroots implementation of next-generation communications infrastructures is useful and much-needed strategy for illustrating the potential benefits that national reforms could facilitate.
In summary, community Intranets hold great promise, but the onus is on researchers and their allies to document the positive effects of these new technologies for civic engagement and democratized communications. Attentiveness to the issues discussed in this chapter will help scientists, activists, decision-makers, and practitioners better understand the intersections among the technologies, uses, and policies of Intranet-enabled communications. Communications research strives to shed light on changes in how we interact and communicate. As observers and participants during this time of rapid change, we have a responsibility to the global community to develop sound public policy dedicated to social justice. Keeping up with the rapidity of change is certainly a challenge, but while many outcomes of these shifts in communications are still to be determined, the opportunity to help shape the technologies and policies of next-generation communications and positively impact the day-to-day lives of millions of people has never been greater.
Anderson, Janna (2005). Imagining the Internet. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
Barney, Darin (2000). Prometheus Wired. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Benkler, Yochai (2006). The Wealth of Networks. New Haven, CT. Yale University Press.
Benkler, Yochai. Freedom in the COMMONS: Towards a Political Economy of Information. Duke Law Journal, Vol. 52:1245.
Biddle, P., England, P., Peinado, M., & Willman, B. (2002). The Darknet and the Future of Content Distribution. Available online at: http://msl1.mit.edu/ESD10/docs/darknet5.pdf
Bradner, S., claffy, kc., & Meinrath, S. (2007). The (un)Economic Internet? IEEE Internet Computing. May-June 2007: 53-58.
Brock, Gerald (2003). The Second Information Revolution. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Castells, Manuel (2001). The Internet Galaxy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cooper, Mark (2006). The Case against Media Consolidation. New York: Donald McGannon Center for Communications Research.
Cooper, Mark (2003). Media Ownership and Democracy in the Digital Information Age. Washington, DC: Consumer Federation of America.
Cooper, Mark (2004). Open Architecture as Communications Policy. Stanford: Center for Internet and Society.
De Bernabé, Fernando Gil (2004). Connected Homes. London: Premium Publishing.
Federal Communications Commission. FCC 68-661, "In the Matter of Use of the Carterphone Device in Message Toll Telephone Service." Accessed June 20, 2007 and available online at: http://www.uiowa.edu/~cyberlaw/FCCOps/1968/13F2-420.html
Hiller, Janine and Ronnie Cohen (2002). Internet Law & Policy. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Howley, Kevin (2005). Community Media. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kaczorowki, Willi (2004). Connected Government. London: Premium Publishing.
Kahin, Brian and James Keller (1997). Coordinating the Internet. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Keeble, Leigh and Brian Loader (2002). Community Informatics. New York: Routledge.
Lessig, Lawrence (2001). The Future of Ideas. New York: Random House.
Lessig, Lawrence (2006). Code: Version 2.0. New York: Basic Books.
Louis, P. (2000). Telecommunications Internetworking. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional.
Meinrath, Sascha. D., & Pickard V. W. (2008). The New Network Neutrality: Criteria for Internet Freedom. International Journal of Communication Law and Policy, 12, 225-243.
Meinrath, Sascha D. (2005). "Wirelessing the World: The Battle over (Community) Wireless Networks" in McChesney, Robert et.al. The Future of Media. New York: Seven Stories Press, 2005, pages 219-242.
Meinrath, Sascha, D., Bahl, V. Carter, K., Cooper, M.,Scott, B.& Westervelt (2005). "'Openness' and the Public Airwaves." Plenary panel at the MobiHoc Conference, Urbana, IL. May 26, 2005. Association for Computing Machinery. Proceedings of the 6th ACM International Symposium on Mobile Ad-hoc Networking and Computing. New York: ACM.
Meinrath, Sascha (2004). "Reactions to Contemporary Activist-Scholars and the 'Midwestern Mystique': A case study for utilizing an evolving methodology in contentious contexts."
Meinrath, Sascha & Calabrese, Michael (2007). Unlicensed Broadband Device Technologies: "White Space Device" Operations on the TV Band and the Myth of Harmful Interference. New America Foundation.
Meinrath, Sascha & claffy, kc. (2007, Sept.). The COMMONS Initiative: Cooperative Measurement and Modeling of Open Networked Systems. Paper presented at the Telecommunications Policy and Research Conference. Washington, DC.
Nuechterlein, E., Jonathan and Philip Weiser (2007). Digital Crossroads. Cambridge: The MIT Press.
Pickard, Victor W. (2006a). Assessing the Radical Democracy of Indymedia: Discursive, Technical and Institutional Constructions. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 23(1), 19-38.
Pickard, Victor W. (2006b). United yet Autonomous: Indymedia and the Struggle to Sustain a Radical Democratic Network. Media Culture & Society, 28 (3), 315-336.
Pickard, Victor W. (2008). Cooptation and Cooperation: Institutional Exemplars of Democratic Internet Technology. New Media and Society, 10 (4), 625-645.
Poster, Mark (2001). What's the Matter with the Internet?. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Preston, Paschal (2001). Reshaping Communications. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Stolterman E. (2002). "Creating community in conspiracy with the enemy." In Keeble, Leigh and Brian Loader. Community Informatics. New York: Routledge.
Sunstein, Cass (2001). Republic.com. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Waclawsky, John C. (2004). Closed Systems, Closed Architectures, & Closed Minds. Business Communications Review.
Waclawsky, John C. (2005). Where do System Standards go from Here? Business Communications Review.
Wu, Tim. (2007). Wireless Net Neutrality: Cellular Carterfone and Consumer Choice in Mobile Broadband. Working Paper #17. New America Foundation, Wireless Futures Program.
A version of this paper will be published in Kevin Howley (Ed.), Globalization and Communicative Democracy: Community Media in the 21st Century, London: Sage Publications.
Young, David (2003). Personal Communication. December 3. 2003.
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What is “Capitalism”?
First, it is a term that was originally coined by its enemies.
Second, it suggests that the phenomenon—or, more precisely, the phenomena—that it denotes composes a system, and since the systems of which the human (as opposed to the “natural”) world is comprised are almost always the products of design, “capitalism” appears to refer to but one more such system among others. So, according to its critics, “capitalism” differs, say, from socialism and communism only in degree: While the latter “distribute” material goods “equally,” the former “distributes” them “unequally.” Or maybe the difference between “capitalism” and its competitors can be summed up as thus: “the poor” and “the middle class” are the targeted beneficiaries of socialism and communism while “the rich” are intended to benefit most from “capitalism.”
In truth, though, what is casually, but erroneously, referred to as “capitalism” isn’t really a “system” at all. That is, “capitalism” differs fundamentally or in kind from its rivals.
Socialism and communism—demanding, as they do, a government sufficiently activist to confiscate material resources from some in order to disperse it to others—are intrinsically dependent upon some plan or other. Within such economies, for the sake of satisfying some predetermined pattern, individuals are either prevented from accumulating property or seriously impeded from doing so. In stark contrast, within those orders commonly characterized as “capitalist,” there is no preconceived ideal to be realized. The absence of a plan is as essential to “capitalism” as the presence of a plan is essential to socialism and communism. The government has a role to play, for sure, and it is a critical one: a stable currency; the enactment and enforcement of laws regarding contracts; the adjudication of conflicts; etc. But perhaps most importantly, the government is obligated to refrain from interfering with the individual’s self-chosen (legitimate) pursuits.
Those on the Right fail to realize the extent to which they harm the cause of “capitalism” when they both use this term and insist upon speaking of “economic freedom” or “economic liberty.” “Capitalism” is the incidental by-product, as it were, of civil association. As the conservative philosopher Michael Oakeshott observed, civil association is a moral association, for its associates are not compelled to invest in the purposes of others but, rather, are free to decide their own engagements. Such an association precludes from the outset the imposition of a grand redistributive scheme upon those who have been coerced to contribute toward it.
In short, there is no “economic liberty”; there is only liberty.
Christianity and “Capitalism”
Within relatively recent years, as far as the lifespan of Christianity goes, the order of freedom customarily called “capitalism” has been critiqued by some segments of Christendom. The most common criticism assumes the form of an argument from inequality. It’s pretty self-explanatory: “Capitalism” is immoral because it generates glaring material inequalities.
It is important here to make a couple of notes regarding the similarities between this sort of Christian and his secular counterpart who also despises freedom as Americans have traditionally understood it.
First, the two figures are of one mind in affirming a substantive or material conception of equality. That is, Equality — not equality — is a cardinal value for him.
Second, neither the Christian nor the secular egalitarian ever dares to contrast Equality with freedom. It is “capitalism,” or maybe “the market,” that must appear adversarial from the perspective of Equality. Inasmuch as they refer to threats to Equality, the scheme of this sort of Christian resolutely refuses to accommodate such terms as “freedom” and “liberty,” or even “economic freedom,” “economic liberty,” or “the free market.”
Third, closely related to this last, this sort of Christian, like the secular egalitarian, speaks of “capitalism” as if it were a “system” designed to “distribute” the lion’s share of goods to “the rich” or “the privileged.”
To this argument, I can only say that the Christian who invokes it labors under a profound misunderstanding of his religious tradition. Equality is a Christian value, but the equality that Christians have traditionally defended is a theological, not a material, good. Christians believe that in the eyes of God, each and every person, just by reason of having been created in the Divine image, is possessed of an inviolable dignity. To put it simply, there are certain sorts of treatment to which human beings are strictly forbidden from subjecting themselves and others.
Yet theological equality and material equality are conceptually distinct ideas. Neither has anything at all to do with the other. From the first generation of Christians to the present day, the disciples of Jesus Christ have recognized this.
Some may object that Christians are called upon to share their resources with one another and, especially, the needy. While this is undeniably true, it is also irrelevant: the virtue of charity — a character disposition of individual moral agents — has nothing to do with the value of material equality — a government-imposed distribution of resources.
That this is so is proven by two simple considerations.
First, Jesus said that the whole law boils down to but two commandments: Love the Lord God with every fiber of your being; and love your neighbor as yourself. The relationship between these is clear: If we are to love God we must love our neighbor(s). The parable of the Good Samaritan puts it beyond question that our obligation to love our neighbors extends to any and all who are in need of our friendship. However, notice that the Good Samaritan didn’t come to the assistance of the injured Jewish man for the sake of “leveling playing fields” or insuring that Jews and Samaritans receive their “fair share” of society’s goods. In fact, the Samaritan wasn’t even in the least bit motivated by a desire to help “the poor”; rather, he saw a fellow human being in need and, moved by compassion, or maybe a sense of justice, came to his aid.
If the parable of the Good Samaritan can’t be depended upon to instruct us on how best to understand the essence of Christian charity, nothing can.
Second, if material inequality is inherently objectionable from a Christian perspective, then the inequality that obtains between millionaires and billionaires, or some billionaires and others, should be objectionable. That we are inclined to laugh at this suggestion puts the lie to the notion that material inequality is intrinsically immoral.
None of this is meant to imply that the Christian shouldn’t have any concerns with what we tend to call “capitalism.” The desire to be better than one’s competitors — as opposed to the desire to be the best that one can be — is a function of the cardinal Christian sin of pride. A “capitalist,” whether a seller or a consumer of goods, like all human beings, is deserving of praise or blame depending on his character dispositions, his intentions and motives. To the extent that the competitive nature of “capitalism” or “the free market” encourages pride, we must regard it, like we should regard everything, with caution.
Even bearing this in mind, however, we must also consider that the order of freedom referred to as “capitalism,” though it contains its own dangers, is the only economic “system” suitable for free persons.
In other words, among the various economic systems, it alone is morally tolerable.
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Photograph by Robert Heil, My Shot
- 12 ft (3.6 m)
- 350-400 lbs (180 kg)
- Group name:
- Protection status:
- Did you know?
- In 2011 a Mexican fisherman caught a pregnant dusky shark whose famous "cyclops fetus" had a single, functioning eye in the front of its head.
- Size relative to a 6-ft (2-m) man::
The dusky shark swims in tropical and temperate oceans worldwide, cruising from depths of 1,300 feet (400 meters) near the continental shelf all the way in to the surf zone and other shallow inshore waters.
Dusky sharks, also known as bronze or black whalers, are long-distance swimmers known for seasonal, temperature-driven migrations that males and females undertake in separate groups. Local patterns vary but the sharks often head toward the Poles in summer and return to the Equator in winter on sea voyages that have been known to top 2,000 nautical miles.
Despite their wanderlust, adult female dusky sharks are homebodies when it comes to reproduction. These animals give birth in the same continental regions where they were born. This natal site fidelity means that dusky sharks around the globe live in distinct populations that are not replenished by wandering or migrating animals. Such local pride has a downside, however, because the isolated communities are more susceptible to localized overfishing pressures.
This threat has materialized into a serious danger in the western Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico. Studies suggest that population numbers in this region are only 15 to 20 percent of their mid-1970s levels. Commercial and recreational fishing for these sharks in the western Atlantic and Gulf was banned in 2000 but they are often accidentally caught on longlines and other fishing gear—with high mortality rates. Elsewhere the dusky shark is still targeted for trade in shark fin soup, with devastating results. The shark fin trade is difficult to quantify but recent studies have suggested as many as 750,000 dusky sharks could be caught in the trade each year.
Dusky sharks are extremely long-lived and may survive up to half a century, but they are slow to grow and to reproduce. The sharks don't reach sexual maturity until about 20 years of age. Dusky sharks may have a gestation period of up to 22 months, so females only give birth once every three years. The young sharks, some 6 to 12 per litter, congregate at inshore nursery areas along the coasts of South Africa, the southeast United States, and southwest Australia.
View photos of the world's largest freshwater fish fighting for survival, as pollution, overfishing, and construction threaten the rivers and lakes they call home.
Explore and discover the world's oceans like never before with facts, photos, news, video, and more!
See close-ups of great white sharks lurking, hunting, and attacking. Download desktop wallpapers of these amazing, often misunderstood predators.
The freshwater eel is one of the few fishes to spawn in the ocean and spend its adulthood in lakes, rivers, and estuaries.
Special Ad Section
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In this session, we will explore tools, apps, activities, and strategies that nurture essential K-4 developmental and learning skills. Using the Collect-Relate-Create-Donate (C-R-C-D) model from Ben Schneiderman's book, Leonardo's Laptop, as a framework, we will develop innovative lessons and projects, communication and collaboration strategies, assessment tools, learning supports, and publishing platforms. Additionally, we we will examine the best K-4 web sites, work with innovative tools to help improve student reading, writing, and mathematics, and learn different strategies such as the Flipped Model, SAMR, and Understanding by Design to build creative, collaborative, and community minded classrooms.
The workshop will begin with the Collect phase. We will review advanced search strategies, elementary-friendly search engines, social bookmarking, digital note-taking, and techniques for teaching and modeling these skills to young students. From there, we will delve into Relate with an exploration of collaboration platforms such as Google Drive, learning management solutions like Edmodo, blogging solutions for teachers as well as students, and portfolio development with Evernote. In the Create phase, we will explore a variety of tools and apps for developing student voice, practicing reading fluency, incorporating multimedia into presentations, making thinking visual with screencasting, and building alternative assessments. We will conclude the workshop with the Donate phase: publishing student work, developing Personal Learning Networks (PLNs), and building a global classroom.
The projects, concepts, and tools addressed in this workshop not only apply to The Common Core State Standards, but also to the 4Cs - Communication, Collaboration, Critical Thinking, & Creativity - as defined by the Partnership for 21st Century Skills.
Who Should Attend: teachers, curriculum coordinators, instructional technology specialists, and administrators who work with K-4 students, as well as former summer workshop participants looking to further explore previously covered topics in a more advanced setting.
EdTechTeacher does not provide equipment for the workshop. Participants should bring a laptop computer with wireless capability. You are welcome to also bring iPads, tablets, or other mobile devices in addition to your laptop, but some tools may not work on all devices.
We will begin promptly at 8:30 am, and strongly recommend arriving 20-30 minutes early on the first day in order to get set up. Coffee and snacks will be available each morning. There are lunch options within walking distance of the University.
- 8:30 am - 12:00 pm - Class
- 12:00 pm - 1:00pm - Lunch
- 1:00 pm - 3:30 pm - Class
Beth Holland joined the EdTechTeacher team in July 2011 to expand the online course offerings, instruct at workshops, and bring expertise in elementary education as well as working with assistive technologies to the team. In addition to working with participants, Beth has also increased the amount of content in our Teaching with Technology section of the web site - including the new iPad section. She has presented at the 2011 Global Education Conference, the EdTechTeacher Winter Conference, the Massachusetts Assistive Technology Expo, the MassCUE Technology Conference, Edscape, and the EdTechTeacher iPad Summit. Bringing over 12 years of education experience, she most recently served as the Director of Academic Technology at St. Michael's Country Day School in Newport, Rhode Island. During her tenure at St. Michael's, she implemented professional development programs to encourage faculty members to integrate technology into their elementary and middle school curricula, designed interdisciplinary, technology-rich projects, taught students in grades 2-8 during technology classes, coordinated with the Student Services Director to facilitate the integration of assistive technologies to support students, and helped to design their iPad pilot program. Before St. Michael's, Beth worked as a researcher at the Naval War College in the Innovation Lab where she designed knowledge management plans to support blended communication environments and researched the potential to create an online environment to streamline training and education which she presented at I/ITSEC. She has also taught 9th grade English at the Rocky HIll School in East Greenwich, RI, and led adventure learning programs for ActionQuest in the Caribbean and Polynesia. Beth holds an Ed.M. in Technology, Innovation, and Education from the Harvard Graduate School of Education, and a B.S. in Communications from Northwestern University.
Register & Pay Online
The cost of this workshop is $595. Please note that our Eventbrite registration system uses PayPal as a payment gateway.
You do not need a PayPal account in order to pay online.
Register & Pay by Check or Purchase Order
The cost of this workshop is $595. To pay by check or purchase order, please send your completed registration form and payment to Ileen Matthews at firstname.lastname@example.org or 866-314-8214 (fax).
Your registration is not complete without both payment and a completed form.
Checks can then be mailed to:
Attention: Ileen Matthews
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Please note: Space in our workshops is limited and they have sold-out in recent years. Spots are guaranteed on a first-paid, first-served basis, so please expedite payment as soon as possible.
Requests for cancellation must be submitted in writing to Ileen Matthews at email@example.com. If you have to cancel, we will issue a refund (minus a $25 processing fee) until 21 days before your workshop. After that date, no refunds will be given.
Waiting List Policy
If the workshop is full, we'll put you on the waiting list, and let you know if a spot becomes available.
Professional Development Credits
We are exploring options to be able to give professional development credits and/or grad credit for this workshop.
Travel and Logistics
The workshops will be held at the Loyola University Chicago School of Law located at 25 E Pearson St Chicago, IL 60611 on the Water Tower Campus. The building is conveniently located near historic Michigan Avenue in downtown, and is accessible by public transportation. Parking is also available nearby.
There are numerous hotel options near the School of Law including Baumhart Lodging at the University. Located two blocks west of the historical Water Tower and Magnificent Mile, Baumhart Hall is a high-rise deluxe apartment-style residence hall in the heart of Chicago. Each apartment includes two bedrooms, WiFi, and a full kitchen.
If you have any questions, please contact us or call (888) 377-9518.
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Personal names in German-speaking Europe consist of one or several given names (Vorname, plural Vornamen) and a surname (Nachname, Familienname) The Vorname is usually gender-specific. A name is usually cited in the "Western order" of "given name, surname", unless it occurs in an alphabetized list of surnames, e.g. "Johann Sebastian Bach".
In this, the German conventions parallel the naming conventions in most of Western and Central Europe, including English, Dutch, Italian, French, etc. There are some vestiges of a patronymic system as they survive in parts of Eastern Europe and Scandinavia, but these do not form part of the official name.
Women would adopt their husband's name upon marriage and retain their maiden name by hyphenation, in a so-called Doppelname, e.g. "Else Lasker-Schüler". This has changed in recent legislation motivated by gender equality and the various states of German-speaking Europe have gone through a number of legislative changes which now tend to allow either part of a married couple to choose which combination of surnames they want to use.[clarification needed]
The most common given names either Biblical ("Christian", derived from the name of Biblical characters or saints; Johann/Hans "John", Georg/Jörg "George", Jakob "Jacob"; Anna, Maria, Barbara, Christina) or from Germanic names (Friedrich "Frederick", Ludwig "Louis", etc.) In recent years, say since the 1990s,[clarification needed] there has however been a trend of parents picking non-German forms of names, either for originality, or influenced by international celebrities, e.g. Liam (Gaelic form of William) rather than the German equivalent Wilhelm, Leon/Leonie, Kevin, Laura, etc.
Most surnames are derived either from occupations, or from geographical origin, less often from bodily attributes. They became heritable with the beginning of central demographic records in the early modern period.
The Vorname (in English forename) is given to a child by the parents shortly after birth but not in all cases. It is common to give a child several Vornamen (forenames). Usually, one of them is meant to be normally used and called the Rufname (call name). This is often underlined on official documents, as it is sometimes the second or third name in the sequence of given names on official record, even though it is the given name in daily use from childhood. For example, in the resume submitted by mathematician Emmy Noether to Erlangen University in 1907,
- Ich, Amalie Emmy Noether, bayerischer Staatsangehörigkeit und israelitischer Konfession, bin geboren zu Erlangen am 23. März 1882 ...
- "I, Amalie Emmy Noether, of Bavarian nationality and of Israelite confession, born in Erlangen on 23 March 1882 ..."
the underlining of Emmy communicates that this is the Rufname, even though it is the second of two official given names.
In Germany, the chosen name must be approved by the local Standesamt (civil registry office or Office of Vital Statistics). The name must indicate the gender of the child and not negatively affect the well being of the child. Last names or the names of objects and products are not acceptable. For example, "Matti" was rejected for a boy's name because it did not indicate gender. However, these types of names are permissible if combined with a second name which clears up the gender, for example: "Matti Oliver" or "Matti Julia". The decision of the Standesamt may be appealed after submitting of a fee. The Standesamt refers to a book that translates to "the international manual of first names".
Among German nobility, a fashion arose in the early modern period to give a large number of forenames, often six or more. This fashion was to some extent copied by the bourgeois class, but subsided again after the end of the 19th century, so that while two or three forenames remain common, a larger number is now rare. The practice persists among German nobility, e.g. Johann Friedrich Konrad Carl Eduard Horst Arnold Matthias, Prince of Saxe-Meiningen, Duke of Saxony (b. 1952).
Popular given names
Traditionally, there are dialectal differences between the regions of German-speaking Europe, especially visible in the forms of hypocorisms. These differences are still perceptible in the list of most popular names, even though they are marginalized by super-regional fashionable trends: As of 2012, the top ten given names of Baden-Württemberg (Southern Germany) and of Schleswig-Holstein (Northern Germany) share the entries Ben, Paul, Finn, Luca, Max (male), Mia, Emma, Lea, Leonie, Anna, Lena, Hanna, while Schleswig-Holstein retains the traditionally northern (Low German) forms Lasse (male) and Neele (female) in the top ten.
|1957 to 2006||
Andrea, Angelika, Anja, Anke, Anna, Anne, Annett, Antje, Barbara, Birgit, Brigitte, Christin, Christina, Christine, Claudia, Daniela, Diana, Doreen, Franziska, Gabriele, Heike, Ines, Jana, Janina, Jennifer, Jessica, Jessika, Julia, Juliane, Karin, Karolin, Katharina, Kathrin, Katrin, Katja, Kerstin, Klaudia, Kristin, Laura, Lea, Lena, Lisa, Mandy, Manuela, Maria, Marie, Marina, Martina, Melanie, Monika, Nadine, Nicole, Petra, Sabine, Sabrina, Sandra, Sara, Sarah, Silke, Simone, Sophia, Sophie, Stefanie, Stephanie, Susanne, Tanja, Ulrike, Ursula, Uta, Ute, Vanessa, Yvonne.
Alexander, Andreas, Benjamin, Bernd, Christian, Daniel, David, Dennis, Dieter, Dirk, Dominik, Eric, Erik, Felix, Florian, Frank, Franz, Jan, Jens, Jonas, Jörg, Jürgen, Karl-Heinz, Kevin, Klaus, Kristian, Leon, Lukas, Marcel, Marco, Marko, Mario, Markus, Martin, Mathias, Matthias, Max, Maximilian, Michael, Mike, Maik, Nicolas, Niklas, Patrick, Paul, Peter, Philipp, Phillipp, Ralf, Ralph, René, Robert, Sebastian, Stefan, Stephan, Steffen, Sven, Swen, Thomas, Thorsten, Torsten, Tim, Tobias, Tom, Ulrich, Uwe, Wilhelm, Wolfgang
|1616 (in Darmstadt, Hesse):||
|1600 to 1900 (in Württemberg)||
Family names were introduced during the late Middle Ages in the German-speaking area. Usually, such family names are derived from nicknames. In etymology, they are generally classified into four groups, based on the origin of a nickname: given names, job designations, bodily attributes, and geographical references (including references to named buildings). Also, many family names display characteristic features of the dialect of the region they originated in.
- Given names often turned into family names when people were identified by their father's name. For example, the first name Ahrend developed into the family name Ahrends by adding a genitive s-ending, as in Ahrend's son.
Examples: Ahrends/Ahrens, Burkhard, Wulff, Friedrich, Benz, Fritz. With many of the early city records written in Latin, occasionally the Latin genitive singular -i was used such as in Jakobi or Alberti or (written as -'y') in Mendelssohn Bartholdy.
- Job designations are the most common form of family names; anybody who had an unusual job would have been bound to be identified by it. Examples: Schmidt (smith), Müller (miller), Meier (farm administrator; akin to Mayor), Schulze (constable), Fischer (fisherman), Schneider (tailor), Maurer (mason), Bauer (farmer), Metzger or Fleischer (butcher), Töpfer, Toepfer (potter) or Klingemann (weapons smith). Also, names referring to nobility such as Kaiser (emperor), König (king), Graf (count) are common, with the name bearers probably only a minor functionary of a monarch.
- Bodily attribute names are family names such as Krause (curly), Schwarzkopf (black head), Klein (small), Groß (big).
- Geographical names are derived from the name of a city or village, or the location of someone's home. They often have the '-er' postfix that signifies origin (as in English New Yorker). Examples: Kissinger (from Kissingen), Schwarzenegger (from Schwarzenegg or Schwarzeneck), Bayer (from Bavaria, German Bayern). Böhm indicates that a family originated in Bohemia.
- A special case of geographical names were those derived from a building or landmark, e.g. a Busch (bush) or Springborn (spring/well). Before the advent of street names and numbers, even for long times afterwards, many important buildings like inns, mills and farmsteads were given names (see also Der Lachs zu Danzig). Such a place was often better known than the people living in it; the people would get their 'family' name from the building. This name could be combined with a profession: Rosenbauer (rose-farmer, from a farmstead called 'the rose'); Kindlmüller (child's miller, from a mill named 'the Christmas child', 'the prodigal child' or 'the king's child'). The name of the building could also be used as is: Bär (Bear); Engels (from Engel, angel).
- Immigration, often sponsored by local authorities, also brought foreign family names into the German speaking regions. Depending on regional history, geography and economics, many family names have French, Dutch, Italian, Hungarian or Slavic (e.g. Polish) origins. Sometimes they survived in their original form; in other cases, the spelling would be adapted to German (the Slavic ending ic becoming the German -itz or -itsch or Baltic "-kis" becoming "-ke"). Over time, the spelling often changed to reflect native German pronunciation (Sloothaak for the Dutch Sloothaag); but some names, such as those of French Huguenots settling in Prussia, retained their spelling but with the pronunciation that would come naturally to a German reading the name: Marquard, pronounced marcar in French, ended up being pronounced Markuart much like the German Markwart from which it was originally derived.
The preposition von ("of") was used to distinguish Nobility; for example, if someone was baron of the village of Veltheim, his family name would be von Veltheim. In modern times, people who were elevated to nobility often had a 'von' added to their name. For example, Johann Wolfgang Goethe had his name changed to Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. This practice ended with the abolition of the monarchy in Germany and Austria in 1919. Some times von is also used in geographical names that are not noble, as in von Däniken.
With family names originating locally, many names display particular characteristics of the local dialects, such as the south German, Austrian and Swiss diminutive endings -l -el, '-erl, -le or -li as in Kleibl, Schäuble or Nägeli (from 'Nagel', nail).
The surnames of the German Jews are a special case, as they were introduced later, in the late 18th to early 19th century, per fiat. The Prussian authorities imposed made-up and sometimes derogatory names.
Traditionally, the wife adopts her husband's Nachname on marriage and drops her own. However, due to the legal equality of sexes, the opposite is possible as well, though rare.
A few examples of the practice under German law, if "Herr Schmidt" and "Frau Meyer" marry:
- They can keep their former Nachnamen. (Herr Schmidt and Frau Meyer). In the 1990s, the law was thusly changed. They can later change to variant 2, though the inverse is not possible.
- They can declare one name as a "marriage name" (Ehename). In doing so, they can either both adopt the husband's name, or both adopt the wife's name as an Ehename. (Herr Meyer and Frau Meyer; Herr Schmidt and Frau Schmidt)
- There is the possibility that one partner can combine both names by a hyphen. Thus, one of them then bears a double name (Doppelname). (Herr Schmidt and Frau Meyer-Schmidt (or Frau Schmidt-Meyer); the children have to be called Schmidt). Only one partner can take this option, making it impossible for both partners to have Doppelnamen (So no Herr Meyer-Schmidt and Frau Meyer-Schmidt)
All children of a family have to receive the same non-hyphenated Nachname at birth, which may be either the mother's or the father's Nachname (traditionally it was the father's). If the parents adopted an Ehename this is the Nachname of the child. It is strictly forbidden to give children Doppelnamen if it is not the Ehename. The latter case can arise with traditional aristocratic Doppelnamen (e.g. Faber-Castell).
In Austria (§ 93 ABGB), a couple can choose either of their surnames as married name. In the default case, this is the surname of the groom. The partner who is changing surnames (usually the bride) has the possibility to use their unmarried name alongside the married name with hyphenation.
In Switzerland (Art. 160 ZGB), the couple can opt to both retain their unmarried name, or the couple can choose to use either surname as their married name. If both retain their name, they need to declare which will be the surname of any future children.
Titles of former aristocrats (like Graf for "Count") have become parts of the Nachname in Germany, giving longer names of several words, usually including the nobiliary particle von (meaning "of") or zu (meaning "to", sometimes "at"), often von und zu are also found together (meaning "of and to/at"). The legal rules for these names are the same as those for other Nachnamen, which gives rise to a number of cases where people legally bear such names but are not recognized by the associations of formerly noble families in Germany, which continue to apply the old rules of the German Empire in their publications. Most of these cases come about when a woman of noble descent marries a man with no title, and the two adopt the woman's name as their common Nachname, which was impossible under imperial law.
In Austria, titles of nobility including certain other orders and honours held by Austrian citizens have since 3 April 1919 been abolished, including nobiliary particles such as von, the use of such titles by Austrian citizens is an offence punishable with a financial enforcement penalty. For example, Otto von Habsburg, Austria-Hungary's last crown prince, was referred to as Otto Habsburg(-Lothringen) in Austria. In Switzerland, where titles of nobility have been rare for several centuries, they can be used in private conversation, but are not officially recognised.
Common surnames
- Müller, Möller ("miller")
- Schmidt, Schmitt, Schmitz ("smith, blacksmith")
- Schneider ("tailor")
- Fischer ("fisherman")
- Meyer, Meier, Meir, Meyr, Mayer, Maier, Mair, Mayr ("mayor, bailiff")
- Weber ("weaver")
- Wagner ("carter, cartwright")
- Becker, Bäcker ("baker")
- Schulz, Schulze, Schultze, Schulte ("constable")
- Hoffmann, Hofmann ("steward; tenant/leaseholder")
These are all occupational names, designating common occupations around 1600 when surnames became heritable, so that these names arose independently across Germany.
Gender-specific surname variants
Traditionally, there was a differentiation of surnames of women from those of their male siblings (as is still a rule in Czech, Eastern Slavic, or Polish female surnames), widespread in Germany until the 18th century. Thus, in old records, especially church registers on rites de passage, such as baptisms, deaths and marriages etc., women may appear bearing regionally typical female surname variants. With the establishment of general official registration of legal names, this practice was abolished in the 18th and the 19th centuries, depending on the legislation of the respective states.
Also, the spelling of given and surnames, varying previously from author to author, or even entry to entry, was then mostly fixed according to the official recorded form. Former noble titles appearing in male and female variants were transformed by the Weimar Constitution, article 109, into parts of the surnames in Germany, but a new tradition of gender-specific variants, for official registration, was established for these surnames. This practice was confirmed in a judgement by the Reichsgericht on 10 March 1926.
Colloquially, surname variants for women continue to appear in some German dialects. In Bavarian dialect surnames of women sometimes are formed by adding the ending "-in", used in standard High German to indicate noun variants for women or items of grammatical feminine gender, such as Näherin (seamstress), with Näher (seamster) being the male form. In West Low German parlance the ending "…sch(e)" is sometimes added to surnames of women, related to the standard High German adjective ending "…isch" (cognitive to English "…ish"), suffixed to nouns or adjectives indicating belonging / pertaining to, being of the kind described by the suffixed word: for example, de Smidtsche, is Ms Schmidt (Smith), but literally about the Smithian (the woman pertaining to a man/family named Schmidt).
Another form, indicating a female bearer of a surname, was the addition of a genitive "s" (like the Saxon genitive), the daughter or wife of Mr. Bäcker (literally Baker) would appear as Ms Bäckers (in German without an apostrophe), as being Bäcker's daughter or wife.
Pseudonyms can be used by artists (Künstlername, "artist's name") and members of religious orders (Ordensname); If a pseudonym is widely known in public it can be added to the passport of that person (under the weaker legal status of Künstlername) and be used instead of the original name in most situations. The same field in the passport also serves to show religious names, i.e. the new name somebody takes on when becoming a monk or nun.
Academic degrees and titles
The academic degree of Doktor (Dr.) and the academic title of Professor (Prof.) are not part of the name in Germany but can be entered into an identity card or passport and are frequently used in documents and addresses. In Austria, this is substantially different.
They are, however, always used in a written address (e.g., Dr. Meier, Prof. Dr. Müller), and will often be used in formal speech or sometimes by lower-ranked persons such as students, though many academics prefer being addressed just like anyone else, i.e. by Herr or Frau alone (see below).
Hofname (estate name)
In rural areas it is common that farmers are known by the traditional name of their Hof (farm or estate). Because of the long-standing tradition of impartible inheritance in German-speaking Europe, ownership of a Hof had often been tied to direct patrilineal descent over centuries. Thus, farmers were traditionally known by their Hofname even before the development of the Nachname in the early modern period, and the two systems came to overlap. Many Nachnamen are in fact derived from such Hofnamen, but in some instances, the Hofname tradition survived alongside the official Nachname
Historically, the Hofname was the first type of commoners' family name to become heritable. This process began still in the Late Middle Ages (14th to 15th century); e.g. Ulrich Zwingli (b. 1484) inherited his father's surname, in origin a Hofname (from the term Twing, denoting a type of walled-in estate) even though he did not inherit his estate.
In cases where Nachname and Hofname are not identical (usually because there was no male heir at some point in the family history) they are joined in official documents by genannt (abbr. gen.), e.g. Amann gen. Behmann. In Austria the term vulgo (abbr. vlg.) is used instead of genannt.
Name changes
There are only four circumstances in which one is allowed to change one's name:
- On marriage: the couple can choose the name of either partner, they can both keep their original names, or (provided the original family name of neither partner contains a hyphen), one partner can modify their own name, appending the partner's family name to their own, creating a hyphenated name ("Mr. Schmid and Ms. Meier-Schmid" or "Mr. Schmid-Meier and Ms. Meier").
- Correction of a name: if the state has made an error with the name and this can be proven, the original name can be restored. Example: "Maſs" became "Mahs" and is corrected to "Mass".
- Gender reassignment in case of transsexuals.
- Naturalisation of a foreigner in Germany (Art. 47 EGBGB). In this case, the person may choose to adopt German forms of his first and last name, or a new first name if the old first name cannot be translated into German.
Adding the Doktor (Ph.D.) degree (in Germany), or any other academic degree (in Austria), into one's identity card or passport is not considered a name change.
Order of names and use of articles
The Nachname is put after the Vorname. In the rural use of several regions where heavy dialect is spoken (i.e. Bavaria, Saxony, the Palatinate or the Saarland), the order is reversed, e.g. "der Mühlbach Klaus" instead of "Klaus Mühlbach". The definite article is always added in this style of naming. Especially in these regions, it is also the usual administrative way, but with a comma; the said person would appear in documents as "Mühlbach, Klaus" or even, with a title or profession "Mühlbach, Klaus, Dr./OLt/Bäcker".
Except for Southern Germany, usage of the definite article with the name outside of dialect is uncommon, and considered a mistake in standard High German. It is considered familiar language, but not as a mark of rough, rural manners as in French. It is used especially when talking of and/or with children, but also in some other situations. E.g., "Ich bin der Nils", or even "Ich gab der Eva eine Süßigkeit." Respectively, these sentences mean, "I am [the, masculine] Nils", and "I gave [to the, feminine] Eva a sweet." Once again, such usage varies and is optional, and is often used in clarification or in emphasis.
In Austria, the definite article is always used in informal spoken language, but most of the time not in very formal or written language.
In some dialects (such as those spoken in the Western Palatinate and parts of the Rhineland), the article used with women's and girls' names is not the feminine, but the neuter article. This is because the German word for "girl", Mädchen, is a neuter noun, due to the diminutive suffix -chen.
Addressing people
||This section may stray from the topic of the article. (March 2013)|
German is a language with a clear T–V distinction. It is common that people who are informally addressed with the familiar du (friends, relatives, children) are also called by their first name, while people who are formally addressed with Sie are called by their last name, with Herr or Frau ("Mr." and "Mrs.") put in front.
Addressing unmarried women as Fräulein ("Miss") remained standard well after 1945 and fell out of use only during the 1970s to 1980s, as ideological feminism of the era took to objecting to the term's origin as a diminutive, and by the 1990s had fallen out of common use except in rural areas and by the elderly. But a minority of unmarried women, especially elderly ones, may still insist on being addressed as Fräulein, understanding the address Frau as implying a habitual sexual relation or an oblique comment on their virginity.
At the transition from childhood to adulthood, one might be called in a third form, namely using Sie with the forename (the so-called Hamburger Sie). Sie is now widely used in formal settings to address persons over the age of 15. This is how high school teachers may address their pupils about 16 and 17 onwards, and parents might rarely use the same way to address their teenage children's friends if they have not known them since childhood. The formal addressing of teenagers however retains a certain "highbrow" connotation; noted humorist Max Goldt has commented that this is the way upper-class parents would address their daughter's boyfriend over the breakfast table.
The formal address Sie arose during the Baroque period and long marked a class distinction, i.e. members of the upper class would be addressed with Sie regardless of age or relation, and members of the lower class as du also regardless of age or familiarity. Use of the formal address survived into the bourgeoisie of the 19th century, but has now become extremely rare and considered the pinnacle of stiff, old-fashioned etiquette.
The opposite form, du with the last name (the so-called Berliner Du), but leaving away Herr or Frau, is frequently used among retail workers or enlisted men in the military wearing badges with just their title and last name (for example, Herr Schmidt, Frau Müller), who will address each other in the colloquial way while, for convenience, sticking to the name form on the badge. It is also common among kindergarten teachers who thus address each other the same way small children, who have yet to learn the Du/Sie distinction, address them under inclusion of Herr and Frau. The latter usage is a product of pedagogical reform in the 1960s and 1970s; before then, children in kindergarten addressed their teachers as Tante ("aunt") or Onkel ("uncle") and with their first names.
Further, in some areas it is common in schools that students are addressed by their family name or an abbreviation of it as a nickname by classmates if two or more share the same given name (which given that all students are born at about the same time while certain names are high in fashion, is a very frequent occourance). In any other, somewhat more formal surrounding, whether private or professional, this form of addressing someone would be considered rude at least ('Kasernenhofton', Drill Seargent's tone).
Similarly, addressing a woman by her husband's first name is largely unknown or at most considered archaic. In times of increasing equality of treatment, many would even regard it an outright offence to practically degrade her into nothing but her partner's appendix. Laura Bush would not be Mrs. George W. Bush (Frau George W. Bush), but Mrs. Laura Bush. Thus, the wife of Gerhard Schröder, Doris Schröder-Köpf, is referred to as Frau Doris Schröder-Köpf, never Frau Gerhard Schröder. In spite of this, it is possible for women to be addressed by the profession of her husband. The most common example would be Frau Doktor (Mrs doctor) being the wife of Herr Doktor (Mr doctor). In certain situations it is thus possible for Doris Schröder-Köpf to be called Frau Altbundeskanzler (Mrs former chancellor, note the usage of the male form Altbundeskanzler not Altbundeskanzlerin in this case).
See also
- Rechtstipps – der private Rechtsberater
- Erlangen University archive, Promotionsakt Emmy Noether (1907/08, NR. 2988); reproduced in: Emmy Noether, Gesammelte Abhandlungen – Collected Papers, ed. N. Jacobson 1983; online facsimile at physikerinnen.de/noetherlebenslauf.html.
- Israel, David K. (July 3, 2010). "Oh no, you can't name your baby THAT!". CNN. Retrieved August 9, 2012.
- "German First Names and Official Approval". About.com. Retrieved August 9, 2012.
- Babynamen 2012 in Baden-Württemberg, [Babynamen 2012 in Schleswig-Holstein] at beliebte-vornamen.de
- Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache (GfdS): Beliebteste Vornamen. Gfds.de. Retrieved on 2011-11-01.
- alte Vornamen aus den Jahren 1616 und 1675. Beliebte-vornamen.de. Retrieved on 2011-11-01.
- "Schwarzenegg - Google Maps". Maps.google.com. 1970-01-01. Retrieved 2013-04-22.
- 1787 in the Duchy of Austria, in Prussia beginning 1790, 1813 in Bavaria, 1828 in Württemberg, 1834 in Saxony, see Jewish surname.
- Das Namensrecht – Doppelname, Geburtsname, Familienname. Familienrecht-ratgeber.de. Retrieved on 2011-11-01.
- Das Bundesverfassungsgericht. Bundesverfassungsgericht.de. Retrieved on 2011-11-01.
- For example: Karl-Theodor Maria Nikolaus Johann Jacob Philipp Franz Joseph Sylvester Freiherr von und zu Guttenberg
- Nobiliary particles used by German nobility
- Adelsaufhebungsgesetz, Verwaltungsstrafbarkeit (Nobility Repeal Act, Administrative Offense).
- Cf Reichsgesetzblatt (Reich's law gazette), No. 113 (1926), pp. 107seqq.
- Cf. also Sebastian-Johannes von Spoenla-Metternich, Namenserwerb, Namensführung und Namensänderung unter Berücksichtigung von Namensbestandteilen, Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, Europäischer Verlag der Wissenschaften, 1997, (=simultaneously: Wilhelmshaven, Fachhochsch., Diploma thesis), p. 137. ISBN 3-631-31779-4
- In a suit on a legal name change after a sex reassignment therapy the Bayerisches Oberstes Landesgericht (Bavarian Supreme Court) decided on 2 October 2002 that the register office (Standesamt) has to issue a birth certificate for a person of reassigned gender giving the gender-specific form of the variable surname part (deriving from the former title) according to the gender, which is now assigned to the person. Cf. Bayerisches Oberstes Landesgericht, Aktenzeichen: 1Z BR 98/02, Beschluß vom 2. Oktober 2002
- This usage of the possessive suffix "-isch(e)" then also caused its more general perception as feminine ending for professions, such as in "de Kööksch" (literally the "cookee"). Cf. Hein Timm, Wörterbuch Hochdeutsch-Plattdeutsch, Hamburg: Ernst Kabel, 1980, p. 54. ISBN 3-921909-35-X.
- Rechtsinformationen zu Künstlernamen
- Rosa Kohlheim, Volker Kohlheim : Familiennamen: Herkunft und Bedeutung von 20000 Nachnamen (Family Names: Origin and Meaning of 20,000 Last Names), 2000, Duden, ISBN 3-411-70851-4
- German names
- Onomastik: Names and Name meanings The site has information on the etymology of German family names as well as a community section, where questions about names origins are discussed
- The Information Universe
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OAR and NESDIS Collaborate to Improve Real-Time Satellite Moisture Observations
NOAA's advancement in weather forecasting and climate prediction depends on its researchers' ability to acquire and analyze vast quantities of environmental data in collaboration with colleagues throughout NOAA and the broader science community. Researchers at the OAR Forecast Systems Laboratory (FSL) in Boulder, CO and the NESDIS Office of Research and Applications (ORA) in Camp Springs, MD are collaborating to use ground-based GPS water vapor sensors to help evaluate and improve GOES satellite atmospheric moisture observations.
Water vapor observations are needed to improve weather forecasts, monitor and predict climate variability, better understand complex physical processes, and verify global weather and climate observations and models. In 1994, FSL collaborated with other NOAA organizations, federal agencies, and universities to establish the world's first GPS network dedicated to atmospheric remote sensing. GPS water vapor sensors complement other NOAA moisture sensing systems such as satellites and radiosondes, because they provide accurate low-cost observations every half hour under all weather conditions. Operational radiosondes make measurements only twice daily at widely spaced locations, and are subject to nonsystematic errors that are difficult to identify under certain circumstances. Satellite infrared measurements are most accurate over land, but they are not reliable under cloudy conditions when, from a forecasting perspective, the need for accurate water vapor information is greatest. As a consequence, GPS water vapor measurements made by FSL are now being used by ORA to assess GOES precipitable water measurements around the clock rather than just twice daily.
To launch the FSL-ORA collaboration, FSL first developed a Web-based tool that automatically compares ground-based GPS water vapor measurements with GOES sounder-derived water vapor data over the continental United States. This software allows GPS water vapor images to be overlaid with GOES water vapor images, as well as visible and infrared images, for comparison. The integration of these observations reveals problems (shown in nonwhite dots) and improves the water values, resulting in more accurate retrievals. ORA scientists use the FSL tool to evaluate the GOES moisture retrieval process and look for ways to improve the estimation of atmospheric moisture (and possibly temperature) from satellite sensors. Though the project has just begun, initial results are very promising. The presence of clouds in the field of view of the satellite sensor can interfere with moisture and temperature retrievals. Developers and researchers can use the tool to see right away if there's a change in the retrieval algorithm or if the data are closer to truth. For example, Gary Gray at NESDIS comments, "GOES retrievals are generally more moist, largely due to several 'outlier' values. This agrees very well with what you guys have reported back and shown to us through all of your excellent work."
The GPS work at FSL is carried out jointly by the Demonstration Division and Forecast Research Division, and is funded in part by GOES-R, GIMPAP, and JCSDA external projects. The GPS contact is Seth Gutman, Chief, GPS-Met Observing Systems Branch at FSL. He can be reached at Seth.I.Gutman@noaa.gov or 303-497-7031.
Name: Daniel L Birkenheuer
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Gombe Stream National Park
An excited whoop erupts from deep in the forest, boosted immediately by a dozen other voices, rising in volume and tempo and pitch to a frenzied shrieking crescendo. It is the famous ‘pant-hoot’ call: a bonding ritual that allows the participants to identify each other through their individual vocal stylisations. To the human listener, walking through the ancient forests of Gombe Stream, this spine-chilling outburst is also an indicator of imminent visual contact with man’s closest genetic relative: the chimpanzee.
Gombe is the smallest of Tanzania's national parks: a fragile strip of chimpanzee habitat straddling the steep slopes and river valleys that hem in the sandy northern shore of Lake Tanganyika. Its chimpanzees – habituated to human visitors – were made famous by the pioneering work of Jane Goodall, who in 1960 founded a behavioural research program that now stands as the longest-running study of its kind in the world. The matriarch Fifi, the last surviving member of the original community, only three-years old when Goodall first set foot in Gombe, is still regularly seen by visitors.
Chimpanzees share about 98% of their genes with humans, and no scientific expertise is required to distinguish between the individual repertoires of pants, hoots and screams that define the celebrities, the powerbrokers, and the supporting characters. Perhaps you will see a flicker of understanding when you look into a chimp's eyes, assessing you in return - a look of apparent recognition across the narrowest of species barriers.
The most visible of Gombe’s other mammals are also primates. A troop of beachcomber olive baboons, under study since the 1960s, is exceptionally habituated, while red-tailed and red colobus monkeys - the latter regularly hunted by chimps – stick to the forest canopy.
The park’s 200-odd bird species range from the iconic fish eagle to the jewel-like Peter’s twinspots that hop tamely around the visitors’ centre.
After dusk, a dazzling night sky is complemented by the lanterns of hundreds of small wooden boats, bobbing on the lake like a sprawling city.
About Gombe Stream National Park
Size: 52 sq km (20 sq miles), Tanzania's smallest park.
Location: 16 km (10 miles) north of Kigoma on the shore of Lake Tanganyika in western Tanzania.
Kigoma is connected to Dar and Arusha by scheduled flights, to Dar and Mwanza by a slow rail service, to Mwanza, Dar and Mbeya by rough dirt roads, and to Mpulungu in Zambia by a weekly ferry.
From Kigoma, local lake-taxis take up to three hours to reach Gombe, or motorboats can be chartered, taking less than one hour.
What to do
Chimpanzee trekking; hiking, swimming and snorkelling;
visit the site of Henry Stanley's famous “Dr Livingstone I presume” at Ujiji near Kigoma, and watch the renowned dhow builders at work. .
When to go
The chimps don't roam as far in the wet season (February-June, November-mid December) so may be easier to find;
better picture opportunities in the dry (July-October and late December).
1 new luxury tented lodge, as well a self-catering hostel, guest house and campsites on the lakeshore.
Strict rules are in place to safeguard you and the chimps. Allow at least 2 days to see them - this is not a zoo so there are no guarantees where they'll be each day.
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en
| 0.929441
| 793
| 2.828125
| 3
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Figure 9: Proton force. The interaction energy of two protons is shown as a function of the distance between them. At small separations, the energy is positive and the force is repulsive. At intermediate distances, the nuclear interaction is negative and the force is attractive. At distances larger than shown on the graph, the nuclear force becomes negligible and the repulsive electric force between the two charges is all that is left. The interaction depicted is for protons with antiparallel spins.
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en
| 0.953998
| 99
| 3.53125
| 4
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It was back in 1966 when grad student Maulana Karenga, upset about the Watts riots the year before, decided the African-American community needed a nonsecular holiday of its own, something to affirm its cultural values and history. He came up with Kwanzaa, a winter holiday patterned after a harvest festival that marks the seven guiding principles of the black community. Now Kwanzaa is celebrated around the world, and its traditions are becoming more and more well known. And after spending some time at the Childrens Museum of Houstons Kwanzaa WonderWeek, your kids will be experts on the history and meaning of Karengas creation. The African Dance Group will perform rhythmic moves to pulsing beats of the drum during a special showcase at 2:30 p.m. on Saturday, and craft activities are scheduled throughout each day, including opportunities to create a kinara(a candlestick for seven candles), a munhindinecklace or a kufi hat. Reap the rewards of a bountiful cultural harvest from 10 a.m. to 6 p.m. Friday, Saturday, Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday, and noon to 6 p.m. Sunday. 1500 Binz. For information, call 713-522-1138 or visit www.cmhouston.org. $3 to $5.
Dec. 26-30, 2009
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en
| 0.943661
| 288
| 2.8125
| 3
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Mold can worsen asthma and trigger allergies and is a health risk for people with weakened immune systems. However, it can be removed safely by following some guidelines.
What You Should Know
- Remove mold as soon as possible. It grows on wet sheetrock, ceiling tiles, paint, wallpaper, carpeting, wood, clothing, furniture and other materials.
- Although there are many types of mold, the process to remove it is the same for all.
- When removing mold or dust from your home, it is very important that you wear an N95 dust mask, for sale at supply, home improvement and hardware stores. Learn more about wearing the N95 mask [En Español] Русский].
What You Should Do
- Inspect your home thoroughly for mold.
- Protect yourself by wearing the right gear, including an N95 dust mask [En Español] Русский], when disturbing mold or dust.
- Isolate wet, moldy areas, and repair work from living areas with plastic sheeting or other barriers.
- Remove any standing water and ventilate the work area.
- Remove wet, moldy materials.
- Reduce dust by wetting down dried surfaces and material before removing and disposing.
- Scrub off mold from metal, glass, solid wood, concrete and other hard surfaces with soapy water.
- Disinfect surfaces with a dilute bleach solution: one cup of bleach per two gallons of water. Never mix bleach with ammonia or detergents that contain ammonia. The mixture produces dangerous gas.
- Dry out your home completely before replacing walls and flooring . Use dehumidifiers and heating to remove moisture. Open windows and use fans to help dry and ventilate spaces.
- Consider hiring a contractor for help if mold growth and damage is extensive. See Tips for Hiring a Contractor.
Note: Asbestos may be found in insulation materials around old pipes and boilers. If you are not sure if the damaged insulation or other building materials contain asbestos, do not remove it yourself. Contact a licensed asbestos contractor.
Detailed Tips on Removing Mold
back to top
back to top
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en
| 0.860189
| 461
| 2.78125
| 3
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The first residents of Australia were the Aboriginal people, who are believed to have come to the land by boat between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago.
Though there are 300 Aboriginal clans, 250 languages and 700 dialects, all Aboriginal communities share a common culture focused on a creation myth and spirit ancestors.
With its monuments and museums, Australian Capital Territory is filled with rich history. Discover all this area has to offer.
What if you could ease the agony of a backache or migraine without a prescription? You just might be able to—by swapping pills for supplements.
As the sun sets on Uluru in Australia's Northern Territory, watch a spiritual ceremony called an Inma performed by a group of Aboriginal Anangu women.
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| 0.951402
| 150
| 2.578125
| 3
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For many, a trip to the movies is not complete without a bucket of popcorn.
However researchers from the University of Southern
have used movie-goers and popcorn to highlight the way eating is affected
by our habits and location.
The researchers gave a group of movie
goers a bucket of popcorn as they entered the cinema. However not all the popcorn was the
same. Half the group were given freshly popped popcorn, while the others were given
stale popcorn which was one week old.
The people who didn't usually
have popcorn at the cinema ate less of the stale popcorn than the fresh because it didn't
taste very good – what you'd expect. However for those moviegoers who typically ate
popcorn when they went to the cinema, it made no difference if the popcorn was stale or
fresh, they ate the same amount.
As researcher David Neal says
"When we’ve repeatedly eaten a particular food in a particular environment,
our brain comes to associate the food with that environment and make us keep eating as
long as those environmental cues are present.”
The study shows
some interesting things about the way we eat, why people over-eat and the associations
which build up in our brains between what we're eating and what we're doing. Associations
which may be part of the reason many people over-eat, even when they're not hungry and
not enjoying the food.
As co-author Wendy Wood says "People believe
their eating behavior is largely activated by how food tastes. Nobody likes cold, spongy,
week-old popcorn. But once we've formed an eating habit, we no longer care whether the
food tastes good. We'll eat exactly the same amount, whether it's fresh or
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en
| 0.973151
| 365
| 3.1875
| 3
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The Second Master Guru Angad (1504 - 1552)
son of a prosperous Hindu trader, Bhai Pheru, Guru Angad was an ardent
devotee of the Hindu goddess Durga. Lehna, as he was known before becoming
Guru was born on March 31, 1504 in the village of Matte-di-Sari but
eventually his family moved to Khadur. He was married to Khivi and had
two sons, Datu and Dasu, and one daughter Amro. Lehna would annually
lead groups of pilgrims to visit the temple of Durga at Jwalamukhi for
preying and dancing. Here the flames emitted by the volcano are worshipped
by devout Hindus. One day Lehna heard a Sikh named Bhai Jodha reciting
the Japji, the early morning prayer composed by Guru Nanak. Finding
out about Guru Nanak from Bhai Joda, Lehna decided to visit the Guru
and pay his respects. Upon meeting Guru Nanak at the age of 27, Lehna
became a devout disciple of Guru Nanak and renounced his former practices.
Guru Nanak instructed
Lehna to return to Khadur to instruct people in the ways of Sikhism.
Here Lehna spent his time in prayer and serving the people. He distributed
food to the poor daily. Longing to be with Guru Nanak he eventually
returned to Karthapur where he became totally devoted to the service
of Guru Nanak. After undergoing countless tests, Guru Nanak eventually
appointed Guru Angad as his successor on July 14, 1539 as described
previously. Upon the death of Guru Nanak, Guru Angad returned to Khadur
where he went into seclusion and meditation for six months. Eventually
a delegation of Sikhs led by Baba Buddha convinced the Guru that they
needed him. Guru Angad longed for Guru Nanak, when he said to Baba Buddha;
"He whom you love,
die for him. Accursed is the life without the beloved. The head should
be sliced that does not bow before the Master. O Nanak! the body should
be burnt that suffers not the agony of separation." (Sri Rag) "He who
has been blessed by Guru Nanak is lost in the praises of the Lord. What
could one teach those, Who have Divine Nanak as their Guru?" (Majh)
Guru Angad was
the embodiment of humility as Guru Nanak had been before him. The renowned
yogi Daya Nath visited Guru Angad to try to convert him. Daya Nath believed
that mental purity could only be obtained through renunciation of the
world, observance of rituals, introspection, and yoga. Guru Angad engaged
him in discussion saying that only through living a simple truthful
life as Guru Nanak had lived can God be realized, by remaining pure
amidst impurity. The yogi was eventually won over by the purity and
innocence of Guru Angad and asked the Guru if there was anything that
he could do for him. The humble Guru Angad replied that he only seeked
the learned yogis blessings.
Guru Angad followed
the daily routine that Guru Nanak had. He would wake up early at dawn
to recite Guru Nanak's Japji (morning prayer) as well as sing Asa di
var with his congregation, work during the daytime and then have evening
prayers. Guru Angad also maintained langar where people of all religions
and casts could gather for a free meal. Guru Angad also took a keen
interest in physical fitness, and encouraged his devotees to be involved
in sports after their morning prayers.
After the Mughal
emperor Babur's death he was succeeded by his son Humayun. He was soon
defeated by Sher Shah and on his retreat out of India he stopped at
Khadur to seek the Guru's blessings. When Humayan arrived, Guru Angad
and the congregation were absorbed in singing religious hymns. After
a while Humayan became impatient and angry at being ignored and put
his hand on the hilt of his sword to attack the Guru. Guru Angad was
unmoved by this and said "When you should have used the sword you did
not, rather you ran away from the battlefield like a coward. Here you
show off, threatening to attack unarmed devotees engaged in prayer."
Humayan was humbled by this and asked the Guru's forgiveness and blessings.
Guru Angad blessed him, and as history was to have it he eventually
regained his throne.
Guru Angad was
very fond of children and took a great interest in their education.
He advocated that they should be taught to read and write in their mother
tongue, Punjabi. Although the origins of the Gurmukhi script are unclear,
it is clear that Guru Angad popularized the use of this simplified script
among the Sikhs starting around 1541. Being the successor of Guru Nanak
he also got the first authorized biography of Guru Nanak written in
1544, as well as having a number of copies of Guru Nanak's hymns written
out in the new Gurmukhi script. Guru Angad further expanded the number
of Sikh religious centers.
There lived a very
devout Vaishanavite Hindu named Amar Das. He had regularly made pilgrimages
to the Ganges river for ritual baths for over 20 years. While returning
from his twelfth such pilgrimage he was asked by a monk "Who is your
Guru?" Amar Das felt frustrated as he could not answer this question
having searched his whole life, but still not achieving the peace of
mind that he longed for. One day he heard Bibi Amro the daughter of
Guru Angad, who was recently married to his nephew singing the hymns
of Guru Nanak. Amar Das started to listen to them every day until he
was enchanted by them. Bibi Amro told Amar Das about the mission of
Guru Nanak and promised to introduce him to her father Guru Angad.
When the time finally
came and they met, Guru Angad got up from his seat on his arrival to
embrace Amar Das as he was his relative and also much older than the
Guru. Amar Das instead fell to the Guru's feet out of respect and humility,
forgetting his age and family status. On this day of their meeting,
Guru Angad was eating meat and being a Vaishnav Hindu, Amar Das felt
uncomfortable. Guru Angad told Amar Das that the meats one should avoid
are envy, greed, ego, slander and usurpation of others rights. He told
Amar Das that there is life in everything, whatever is eaten while remembering
God is like nectar itself. Amar Das thus became a devoted disciple of
One of the Guru
Angad's wealthy disciple named Gobind decided to build a new township
on the river Beas to honour the Guru. Guru Angad sent Amar Das to supervise
the construction of this new township which came to be known as Goindwal.
When it was completed Guru Angad instructed Amar Das and his family
to move there. Amar Das complied. Every morning he would get up early
in the morning and carry water from the river to the Guru and remain
in his company the entire day before returning to Goindwal in the evenings.
Each year Guru Angad would present a turban as a symbol of honour to
his devoted followers. Such was the devotion of Amar Das that he would
wear one on top of the other, refusing to discard the Guru's gift. People
ridiculed Amar Das for his blind faith, but he was never concerned.
As Guru Angad's
popularity continued to spread among the people, this caused much jealousy
among the Hindu high castes because Guru Angad was gaining popularity
with his preaching about a castless society. They conspired to turn
the people away from the Guru. During a drought year a Hindu recluse
told the villagers "You go to Guru Angad day and night for spiritual
guidance, why can't he get rain for your dying crops?" The recluse forecasted
that there would only be rain when Guru Angad left the village. When
confronted by the desperate farmers Guru Angad replied, "Nature cannot
bend to your will merely by human sacrifice to the gods, or by injuring
someone's heart. But if your rain god is satisfied by my leaving this
village, I shall do so without a moment's hesitation." Leaving the village
Guru Angad was refused shelter in neighboring villages and finally settled
in a forest south of Khadur. When the rains did not come as promised
the villagers grew angry at the Hindu recluse and wanted to kill him.
Amar Das was disappointed with the way that the villagers had treated
Guru Angad. He suggested that instead of killing the recluse the farmers
tie the recluse to a plow and drag him through their fields. The rains
finally came. The villagers now emplored the Guru to return to the village.
When Guru Angad heard to the punishment the Hindu recluse had received
he told Amar Das; "You should have shown endurance, in the face of adversity,
like the earth, steadfastness like a mountain and compassion like a
river. For the wise and the holy, it is unforgivable if they practice
not humility and remain not even-minded in weal or woe." Amar Das asked
for and received forgiveness.
Guru Angad did
not believe in performing miracles unnecessarily. When Amar Das blessed
a devotee of the Guru's with a son, Guru Angad warned him, "Do not go
about disbursing your blessings and curses without due deliberation.
God is merciful to all men of prayer and good intentions, and one need
not exhibit one's spiritual prowess by such showmanship."
A village women
once ridiculed Amar Das for his faithful devotion as being that "homeless
old man who carries water every day for his Guru daily." When Guru Angad
heard this he embraced Amar Das and told his congregation; "Amar Das
is not homeless, he is the shelter of the unsheltered. He is the strength
of the weak and the emancipation of the slave!" Finding that Amar Das
was his most worthy disciple and feeling that his end was near Guru
Angad announced that Amar Das would be his successor. Guru Angad's two
sons were unhappy with their fathers decision but the Guru told them
that the honour would go to Amar Das because he was the most worthy
and humble. Guru Angad bowed before Guru Amar Das placing five copper
coins and a coconut before him signifying as Guru Nanak had done before
him. Guru Angad then had Baba Buddha anoint the forehead of Guru Amar
Das with a saffron mark. Shortly thereafter Guru Angad left this world
on March 28, 1552.
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en
| 0.975315
| 2,356
| 2.5625
| 3
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This is a university textbook that looks at virtually all aspects of the
Spanish language: the sound system, inflectional and derivational
morphology, syntax, the language's history from spoken Latin to the present
day, varieties of Spanish throughout the world, sociolinguistic variation,
Spanish bilingualism and creole
Spanish. Each chapter contains detailed linguistic analysis, together with
numerous illustrations, and is followed by exercises or a list of
seminar/essay topics. Few if any existing volumes contain such a variety of
information about Spanish. The first part of the book covers the 'core'
areas of linguistics - phonology, morphology and syntax - and the focus
here is on Castilian Spanish. In the second part the scope is broadened to
include Spanish as spoken in the rest of the Peninsula, the Canary Islands,
Latin America, the USA and the
Philippines. The final chapter contains, among other things, descriptions
of the Spanish-based creoles Palenquero and Chabacano.
The book is designed to appeal both to linguists and students of
Spanish. Thus the approach is descriptive rather than theoretical. Ideally,
the book should enable its readers to place their practical knowledge of
Spanish within a broader, more scientific framework, although it will also
be of interest to those who are unfamiliar with Spanish.
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en
| 0.906033
| 285
| 3.734375
| 4
|
Modernity and History
There is no single point when modernity emerged. Already in the twelfth century, Peter of Blois proclaimed that the moderns had gone beyond the ancients: "We are like dwarfs standing on the shoulders of giants, thanks to them, we see further than they." Still, as late as the end of the sixteenth century, individuals widely believed that the golden age was in the past and that the world was decaying.
A tipping point emerges in the seventeenth century. In 1605 Francis Bacon opens the century with the paradox: " Antiquitas saeculi juventus mundi," antiquity was the youth of the world: "[t]hese times are the ancient times, when the world is ancient, and not those which we account ancient, ordine retrogado, by a computation backward from ourselves." Accumulation (of both knowledge and things), Bacon senses, is growing and with it, the present advances away from the past. At the time, primitive accumulation of capital was starting to concentrate wealth in the hands of a rising bourgeois class in Europe, the spread of print was making it possible for information to be rapidly shared while giving rise to new ways of thinking about the organization of information, and cracks were showing in the edifice of feudalism as power re-oriented around courtly life. Although they were not able to conceive of modernity, individuals like Bacon could begin to glimpse themselves as having broken from the world that came before. The quickening pace of life and the advancement of knowledge opened up a rift with the past, prompting writers to forge new ideas about periodization.
Economic development advanced slowly in the seventeenth century, when it advanced at all, and progress was far from assured. But with the scientific method coming together for the first time to challenge natural philosophy and even, tentatively, Christianity as ways of knowing the world, the days of the past were numbered. Toward the end of the century, the Querelle des Anciens et des Modernes directly called the past's preeminence into question. In his Parallèle des anciens et des modernes en ce qui regarde les arts et les sciences, Charles Perrault declares the modern age to be superior; after all, it has taken place under the rule of Louis XIV, the "most perfect model of all kings." Nevertheless, for Perrault the consequence of living in a new golden age was that decline would soon follow: "We ourselves are the ancients," he suggested, in a tone more melancholy than Bacon's. But by invoking "the century of Louis the Great," Perrault wound up reframing the word siècle from in its traditional use of a generation or an age associated with one ruler to refer to a hundred year span that he identified as having a birth, character, and death. Others would soon build on this chronological framework and claim it for their own centuries. In the December 1699 issue of Le Mercure galant, the most popular French journal of its day, Jean Donneau de Visé, a man of letters, would anticipate the coming century and its distinct character.
This new interest in understanding one's place historically accompanied a greater attention to timekeeping in everyday life. The clock, which Karl Marx describes in a letter to Friedrich Engels as "the first automatic machine applied to practical purposes," began to subject individuals to its unwavering order. By the fifteenth century cities competed to build impressive public timepieces, leading to the identification of urban life with clock time. Soon enough, household clocks and pocket-watches spread and time ceased to be the sole province of church and town. In England, priests began to keep registers of births, marriages, deaths as well as significant events in their parishes.
Well past the tipping point into modernization, the eighteenth century would witness industrialization, secularization, fundamental changes in class structure, even uprising and revolution. Reinhart Kosseleck suggests that European exploration and colonialism not only allowed capital to accumulate in Western Europe to such a degree that it helped fund the investment that produced the Industrial Revolution, it also spurred historical thinking and periodization. When intellectuals in the West observed what Kosseleck calls the "contemporaneity of the noncontemporaneous," they came to understand that there was a lack of historical synchrony among cultures and, as a result, imputed to their own culture a universal world history with a trajectory of progress. Compounding this, with the antiquarianism of the seventeenth century giving way to archeology, the scientific study of the past, notions spread that the present was greater than the past and that historical evolution was natural. At the close of the eighteenth century, thought itself transformed, historical ways of understanding replacing the classical explanation of the order of things in terms of taxonomies. If the moderns of the Querelle still understood power-and with it, history-to reside in the sovereign, the progress of the subsequent century gave rise to the faith the modern idea of progress and with it, the idea that the subject of history was not the sovereign, but man and his liberation.' From then on, the world would be apprehended historically.
The nineteenth century was ruled by historicism. Secularized versions of Christian eschatology, progress and evolution produced a faith immanent to an age in which Marx observed "all that is sold melts into air." Being, in a worldview dominated by historicism, was becoming. For Stephen Toulmin and June Goodfield the nineteenth century is nothing less than "the Century of History" and this extends both backward and forward. To many of those living in the maelstrom, change was constant and radical, and it seemed plausible to imagine that one day soon, the good news would come and modernization would be complete, delivering paradise on Earth. Knowledge was thoroughly historical. Take Michel Foucault's "founders of discursivity," the thinkers who established the key discourses of modernism: Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud, but also Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Charles Darwin, and Heinrich Wölfflin. Their discourses were all historical.
One strain of modernism-epitomized by Futurism and dada but also by Soviet Communism-calls for the violent collapse of existing temporality, a break within time that ends continuity, and the unequivocal death of past orders. Even this project, however, relies on a historical model. Like their predecessors in the nineteenth century, the twentieth century moderns ameliorate the disorienting nature of change by grounding the present in a historical continuum with a telos. A direction is key, be it the emancipation of the rational subject, the liberation of the oppressed worker, the reunion of thinking and feeling through design, or the development of advanced technologies.
The moderns live in a world of the past, occupying what Jameson calls "a culture of incomplete modernization." Not only is history the mode by which they justify themselves, it is the context in which they operate. Even as industrialization makes the life of the countryside obsolete, the latter is nonetheless still vividly present in modernity. The time of longue durée, the "Long Middle Ages" for Le Goff was not so much an era, but a civilization coexisting with the city. Le Goff suggests that the Long Middle Ages last until the nineteenth century, when modernity takes hold, but it's clear that they still remained, in pockets, well into the twentieth century. For example, take Pierre Nora's observation that even at the end of World War II some 50% of France remained agricultural. Modernity was predicated on the division between a new, vital urban life and a dying, old countryside, the former inconceivable without the latter. Nor was the rural world forgotten to those who had left it for the city. After all, no mater how great the depictions of city life by the likes of Edward Degas and Georges Seurat, the afterimage of the countryside recorded by Vincent Van Gogh and Gustave Courbet was no less compelling and no less an image of modernity. After all, it is the backwardness of the countryside that leads the displaced peasantry to the city, that "consumer of men," in which they would become the urban proletariat, the diversity of their experiences a constituent part of the modern city's engine.
Beyond the lingering persistence of rural ways of life, the moderns daily confront the detritus of the existing city, rapidly becoming antique. Wandering the detritus of early capitalism, they dreamt a world already modern. Here we could do little better than to turn to Walter Benjamin's description of the century-old Paris Arcades as the "ruins of the bourgeoisie." Paraphrasing Jules Michelet's observation that "each epoch dreams the one to follow," Benjamin elaborate, "in dreaming, [each epoch] precipitates its [successor's] awakening."
Take Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's 1919 photomontage of his competition entry for the skyscraper on Berlin's Friedrichstrasse or Le Corbusier's photomontage of the Plan Voisin six years later. In both cases, the architect represents the existing city but proposes a dramatic rupture within it, a caesura that takes place not only in terms of the project proposed but also in the form of its representation. The crystalline modernist structures are of a different order entirely than the existing city, harbingers of an aesthetic, technological, and even political transformation that would one day be total, but still co-existed with the old city. In these photomontages, the modern object promises that the nineteenth-century city is a ruin that soon would be swept away. Just as Cubism preserves the corpse of the past by showing traces of representation, these architects had little choice but to acknowledge the persistence of the past: it was all around them. If nothing else, their experimentation was a Freudian process of working through, allowing the modernist subject to break free of the past by confronting it. Such was modernism at its apogee, becoming rather than being, full of hope and promise for a new world.
Ernst Bloch sees modernism as the outcome of this clash of conflicting historical realities, the "simultaneity of the non-simultaneous." In affirming modernity, the moderns set out to level the remnants of both court and church, deterritorializing the world they found and reterritorializing it with tools immanent to it. Still, as Perry Anderson points out, the term modernism is too broad. It is a straw man coming late to the scene to reduce the diversity of the preceding era for ideological purposes. After all, for many "modernists," modernity's promise was far from Utopian. Rather, in sweeping away the ancient structures of the premodern together with the obsolete traces of early modernity, progress threatened no end. At the end of his life, Benjamin saw modernity's progress as nothing less than a storm, "one single catastrophe," violently throwing up a growing pile of debris and wreckage. Nor was he alone: negation was as an important a strain in modernism as the Utopian imagination. If the past was a heavy burden for some, its disappearance was traumatic for others-van Gogh or Marcel Proust for that matter-who registered the passing of a world. Still, whether figured as Utopia or negation, fear of the future or not, at base modernism assured itself that modernization had begun, a preliminary rupture with history had opened up that would be completed in the form of a second rupture that could only emerge when modernization was over.
But that moment has long since passed. With modernization over, so is our experience of modernity. As capital and the metropolis came to dominate all aspects of life, the lived experience of the pre-modern came to an end and with it too, the experience of modernization. The messianic promise of the disenchantment of the world, liberating us from the worship of ancestors and spirits failed to deliver us Utopia, even as modernity triumphed, obliterating the past. It is in this sense that at the close of the century, T. J. Clark inverts Bacon's paradox, declaring "Modernism is our antiquity." Once modernity fully arrives, Clark concludes, modernism becomes unintelligible: "the forms of representation it originally gave rise to are unreadable."
As modernization completes in the West after World War II, modernism associates itself directly with capitalism. Communism had been irreparably damaged by Stalinism and many leftist modernists-from Walter Gropius to Clement Greenberg-saw compromise with liberal corporatism as an acceptable form of collectivism. Having lost their faith in an alternative order, these bureaucraticized moderns turned to affirming the status quo instead, negotiating improvements within the liberal postwar state, an aesthetic parallel to the end of ideology that Daniel Bell observed in political history. But theirs was not so much a Utopia as a damaged condition: unwilling to produce a rupture within modernism, unable to claim that modernism could end the alienation created by mass-produced society, they could only deploy abstract, formal strategies for mediation and call for the autonomy of art even as that too was rapidly dissipating.
Such late modernism corresponds to a first phase of Ernest Mandel's late capitalism, the era in which capital finished colonizing the remaining pre-capitalist enclaves. Although Mandel identified those enclaves with the primitive agricultural areas of the developing world, Jameson understood postmodernism as the effect of capital's colonization of culture. The postwar culture industry would be informed by the techniques of modernism while art would allow capitalism in, most clearly in pop art's direct references to the culture industry.
. On the critique of origins, particularly applicable to the origins of modernity, see Michel Foucault, Language, Counter-Memory, Practice: Selected Essays and Interviews (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1977), 140. For Blois and the emergence of new views of the past see David Lowenthal, The Past Is a Foreign Country (Cambridge [Cambridgeshire] ; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 87-89.
. Francis Bacon, The Advancement of Learning and the New Atlantis, The World's Classics, No. 93. (London,: Oxford Univ. Press, 1906), 35.
. On the impact of print culture on thought, see Elizabeth L. Eisenstein, The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe, 2nd ed. (Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), Walter J. Ong, Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word, New Accents (London ; New York: Routledge, 1991).
. Joan E. DeJean, Ancients against Moderns: Culture Wars and the Making of a Fin De Siáecle (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), 1-30.
. Gerhard Dohrn-van Rossum, History of the Hour: Clocks and Modern Temporal Orders (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 8.
. Ibid, 125, 245-51.
. Hillel Schwartz, Century's End: A Cultural History of the Fin-De-Siècle from the 990s through the 1990s, 1st ed. (New York: Doubleday, 1990), 123.
. Reinhart Koselleck, Futures Past: On the Semantics of Historical Time (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004), 246.
. Alain Schnapp, The Discovery of the Past (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1997).
. Michel Foucault, The Order of Things; an Archaeology of the Human Sciences (New York: Vintage Books, 1973), 217-20.
. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto, Penguin Classics (London: Penguin Books, 2002), 223.
. Stephen Toumlin and June Goodfield, The Discovery of Time (New York Harper & Row, 1965), 232.
. On eschatology and modernism, see Colin Rowe, The Architecture of Good Intentions: Towards a Possible Retrospect (London: Academy, 1994).
. Michel Foucault, "What Is an Author?," in The Foucault Reader, ed. Paul Rabinow (New York: Pantheon Books, 1984), 114.
. The End of Temporality, 4. See also Arno J. Mayer, The Persistence of the Old Regime: Europe to the Great War (New York: Pantheon Books, 1981).
. Chapter Two ? Le Goff and Jean-Maurice de Montremy, My Quest for the Middle Ages. trans. Richard Veasey (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), * * *.
. Louis Wirth, "Urbanism as a Way of Life," The American Journal of Sociology XLIV, no. 1 (1938): 10. Nora, "General Introduction" in Pierre Nora, Rethinking France (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), xi, .
. Michelet writes "Chaque époque rêve la suivante" in "Avenir! Avenir!" Europe 19, no. 73 (January 15, 1929), 6. Walter Benjamin, The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility, and Other Writings on Media (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2008), 97, 109.
. Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space 1880-1918 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983), 57.
. Ernst Bloch, Heritage of Our Times (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991). See also The End of Temporality.
. P Anderson, "Modernity and Revolution," New Left Review 144, no. 96 (1984): 102.
. In March 2010, I conducted a search of books at Columbia University's online library catalog that revealed 166 titles before 1980 with the word "modernism" in the title and 1376 titles since 1980 that contained the word in the title. Also, the reduction of late nineteenth and early twentieth century movements to "modernism" happens initially not at the hands of the postmodernists, but in the hands of Marshall Berman, himself a defender of modernism. See Robert Wohl, "Heart of Darkness: Modernism and Its Historians," The Journal of Modern History 74(2002). and Anderson, "Modernity and Revolution."
. Walter Benjamin, Illuminations, [1st ed. (New York,: Harcourt, 1968), 257.
. T. J. Clark, Farewell to an Idea: Episodes from a History of Modernism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), 3-9.
. Daniel Bell, The End of Ideology; on the Exhaustion of Political Ideas in the Fifties (Glencoe, Ill,: Free Press, 1960).
. Jameson, Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism, xxi, 35-36.
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by William Hutton
March 7, 2002
Last Updated: May 08, 2003
The Demise of
The Current Sea-Floor Spreading And Plate-Tectonics Theory
To geologists it is no longer a hypothesis. It is now a theory.
Every Earth scientist believes it is true. Right? And what is “it”?
What I’m talking about is the theory of sea-floor-spreading and
As a result of a comprehensive review published late last year, sea
floor spreading and its plate tectonics corollary are shown not to
explain correctly the origin of our planet’s ocean basins and
continents. And what if the current “theory” is incorrect? If it
proves to be wrong, a huge barrier is removed to the acceptance of
the Cayce readings’ story on the lost continents of Atlantis and
No longer will it be delusional to consider vertical crustal
movements to explain the origin of Earth’s ocean basins. “Elevator
tectonics” will be in, and “shuffle-board” (plate) tectonics will be
out, almost entirely. Although sea-floor spreading will still have a
small place in geoscientists’ understanding of certain aspects of
the origin and maintenance of continents and ocean basins, the
really big picture, of elevation of ocean floors and - to a lesser
degree - continents will rest upon a model that is driven by mantle
Geologists know, for example, that a global surge of Earth’s mantle
began in Mesozoic time. At its peak in the Cretaceous period, ocean
floors in the Atlantic and Pacific were elevated above sea level.
The resulting oceanic continents were full of volcanic terraces. The
Mesozoic mantle-surge event was then followed by gradual cooling and
collapse of the oceanic volcanic edifices.
To understand this radical departure in our understanding of mantle
convective behavior, and its effects on Earth’s crustal structures,
we need to review briefly the current model of sea-floor spreading
and plate tectonics.
Fig 1. The
conventional model of sea-floor spreading.
Current Sea-Floor Spreading Hypothesis
As shown in Figure 1, geologists currently believe that thermal
plumes of hot magma are semi-continuously moving upward beneath
ridges found in all of the world’s oceans. This semi-fluid basalt
rock is exuded here and there along a ridge crest. The process
forces sea-floor crustal plates on either side away from the ocean
ridge and toward the continents. The continents may either be
carried along by the adjacent sea floor, or the spreading sea floor
may under-thrust a relatively immovable continent. See Figure 1 for
examples of both hypothetical situations.
A given pulse of magma, over a relatively short distance along an
ocean ridge, becomes magnetized when the semi-molten material cools
below a specific temperature. Iron minerals in the basalt magma are
then frozen in the rock and they point in the direction of the
prevailing magnetic field. Geophysical survey methods can then used
to detect whether the sea-floor rocks were magnetized in a normal
geomagnetic field (like today’s) or in a reversed field. Because
Earth’s magnetic field is moving and/or reversing through time,
magnetic orientation directions of basalt exudations allow the
sea-floor rock slabs be correlated with one another. This process
results in a sort of “tape-recording” of the formation and movement
of rock masses of the spreading sea floor - or so the hypothesis
The crystallized rock of each new exudation then splits in two along
an axis coinciding with the central valley of the ocean ridge. In
Figure 2, two brown-colored slabs of newly crystallized, ocean-floor
basalt are separated by a black line representing the central valley
of a mid-ocean ridge.
Fig. 2. Magnetic
stripes and the current sea floor spreading model. Sea-floor stripes
are formed by ocean-floor magma that cooled and crystallized in a
specific magnetic-field orientation. These rock masses may be offset
later along transform faults or large-scale fractures that run
perpendicular to the ocean ridge.
from a page on the U.S. Geological Survey’s website.)
The presence of magnetic stripes on the ocean floor has been thought
to be prima facie evidence for sea-floor spreading, and the basis
for the plate tectonics (PT) model of crustal motion. Note in the
diagram that segments of magnetic stripes of the same age are
confined on either end by transform faults that run perpendicular to
the ocean ridge. It was assumed early-on in the development of the
PT theory that striped segments of the same age were offset from one
another due to different amounts of subsequent effusions of magma at
the ridge crest. Larger effusions would push the plates farther
apart than would smaller ones.
Here then, is an abbreviated description of the sea-floor-spreading
and plate tectonics model for the dynamic behavior of the crust and
underlying mantle. Most geologists have assumed this model correct
for the last 25 years or so. Its acceptance by geoscientists has,
quite naturally, caused great difficulty for those who want to
accept the Cayce readings’ story of Atlantis and Lemuria. How could
there ever have been continents in the Atlantic or the Pacific
oceans where there are now ocean floors? For doesn’t all the
evidence point to stability of the submerged ocean floors and to the
basically horizontal movement of crustal plates the world over?
With The Conventional Model, According to Prof. MacKenzie Keith
Now comes a convincing treatise on what may really be happening in
the realm of global crust and upper-mantle dynamics. I will be
basing the rest of this article on MacKenzie Keith’s comprehensive
examination of sea floor spreading and plate tectonics, published
last fall.1 His paper has about 300 references and is the product of
Keith’s life of research and teaching in the field, laboratory, and
classroom. Upon his death last year he was Emeritus Professor of
Geochemistry at Pennsylvania State University.
Dr. Keith begins modestly by saying that although the essential
features of the PT hypothesis are widely accepted, some aspects of
the model are open to question. Quite simply, they conflict with
known properties of Earth’s materials and the global crust/mantle
dynamic system. Keith’s first objection is to the hypothesis that
the plates are internally rigid. If a stress is applied to one side,
it is transmitted to the opposite side with no deformation of the
plate interior. But this is inconsistent with the results of
experiments on rock strength and with the factors that govern the
strength of large masses of rock over geologic time. Actually, large
rock masses are weak, and they deform under the influence of heat.
Keith next states that there is a need to re-examine the hypothesis
of upwelling of magma beneath the axis of an ocean ridge. Computer
models of heat flow beneath ocean ridges are based upon evidence of
a wide plume of ascending molten basalt to produce the magma
effusions along the ridge. But how, asks Keith, can broad plumes
generate the narrow zone of axial ridge volcanism, the “knife-edge”
separation of adjacent flow regimes on either side of a transform
fault (see Fig. 2), and the unbelievable “overlapping spreading
centers” advocated by some geologists?
Further questions are related to the concept of ocean floor
spreading and the tape-recorder model for generating the oceanic
magnetic stripes. Different rock chemical compositions are often
found on opposite flanks of the ocean ridges. The rocks should be of
the same composition if they come from the same magma effusion. And
what of the failure to find the required narrow zone of crustal
accretion, with the property of dividing neatly so that matching
halves move to either side?
Keith now moves ahead with certainty to answer these questions. He
asserts that no spreading is required to account for the observed
sea-floor features. Instead, the oceanic magnetic stripes can be
explained by narrowing of a formerly very wide mid-ocean volcanic
zone and by consequent crestward migration of something he calls the
“blocking temperature,” discussed below. He hypothesizes that a
Mesozoic surge of mantle flow and volcanic-zone expansion that
peaked in Cretaceous time (between 66 and 144 million years ago)
produced a different “volcanic face” on Earth. Elevated ocean floors
then began to collapse over millions of years, leading to the
features we find today.
Finally, Keith postulates an alternative model of upper mantle flow
to the current one. His conceptual model involves mantle upwelling
beneath continents, flow of mantle from beneath continents to
beneath oceans (for Atlantic Ocean type margins), and convergent
sub-ocean mantle flow toward the axes of mid-ocean ridges. He
asserts that the mid-ocean ridges are principal boundaries of
convection cells in the mantle. He then summarizes a wide variety of
information in the rest of his review paper to conclude that “the
weight of evidence clearly supports the alternative model [his
model] and is contrary to the [sea-floor] spreading model of plate
Alternative Model of Mantle/Crust Dynamics
How the Keith Model Works
We’ll begin by considering what happens
relative to the mid-Atlantic ridge (MAR) of the Atlantic Ocean in
the vicinity of the now submerged Reykjanes Ridge south of Iceland.
Instead of hot, plastic upper mantle material having flowed away
from the mid-ocean ridge, as shown in Figure 1, it has flowed toward
it and elevated the entire ocean floor, as shown in
Simplified sequence of a series of cross-sections representing the
cooling and sinking of Reykjanes Ridge,
part of the MAR running
southwest of Iceland (Fig. 4).
This figure is modified from Keith,
2001, Fig. 11.
The sections show Keith’s alternative model for
generating oceanic magnetic stripes by ridge cooling
Cretaceous-age peak in volcanic activity.
The three early stages of
cooling (and migration of blocking temperature isotherm B)
conditions at magnetic anomaly ages 36, 24, and 16 million years ago
The blocking temperature isotherm is the temperature at which
magnetic minerals acquire
either normal or reverse remnant magnetism
and thus record the Earth’s geomagnetic field orientation.
I have taken the liberty on
Figure 3 of
labeling the emerged part of the Reykjanes Ridge “Atlantis.” There
is truly no better name to use for this formerly elevated, now-
submerged oceanic continent. For actual physical evidence that parts
of the mid-Atlantic ridge were above water during recent time, see
To continue now to elucidate Keith’s explanation of the origin of
the magnetic stripes on the ocean floor, we quote from his p. 268,
“An essential feature of the
proposed ocean ridge system is that all of the abnormal features
that resulted from the Mesozoic surge of mantle flow:… uplift of
the ridge, accelerated volcanism, broadening of the active
volcanic zone, were subject to gradual Mesozoic to Recent
relaxation and retreat, toward a steady-state system, a
predictable effect of the slowing of convective overturn and
volcanism, and the gradual diminishing, via return-flow gyres,
of the accumulated large volume of sub-ridge subduction
mixtures. The age-denominated sequence of magnetic anomalies,
conventionally attributed to sea-floor spreading, is proposed to
result, instead, from gradual narrowing of the active volcanic
Magnetic Banding According to Keith’s
Cooling Model. Figure 4 may help to explain the above quote, as it
applies specifically to magnetic banding. The basic idea is that a
narrowing of the zone of mid-ocean ridge basalt volcanism (Fig. 4,
reddish portions of bars) will be accompanied by crestward migration
of the blocking temperature isotherm (Fig. 3). This is the
temperature at which the magnetic minerals acquire remnant magnetism
and thus record reversals of Earth’s magnetic field.
Idealized snapshots of one side of a mid-ocean ridge, to show the
development of oceanic magnetic stripes, from the mid-Cretaceous
period of Mesozoic time to the Present, as a result of gradual
narrowing of the active mid-ocean volcanic zone. A is the ridge
axis. This diagram, modified from Keith, Fig. 10, shows migration of
the blocking temperature isotherm B. The reddish color to the right
of B indicates the portion of the ridge for which the principal
magnetic source remains above the blocking temperature.
geomagnetic polarity (normal or reverse) and the geologic time scale
are from D. Kent and F. Gradstein,1986, “Jurassic to Recent
chronology,” in The Western North Atlantic Region. Geol. Soc.
America, Geology of North America, v. M, pp. 45-50, Plate 1.]
Keith proposes that fracture zones and
transform faults (see Fig. 2) are ocean-floor surface expressions of
the boundaries of “convective rolls” in the underlying mantle. Such
rolls are judged to be,
“the principal form of secondary
convection within the upper boundary layer of sub-ridge mantle,
a low-viscosity region estimated at 75-125 km thick….”
Translating Keith’s words for the
non-geologist reader, imagine that the primary, heat-driven flow of
the uppermost mantle is outward from beneath a continent like
Africa, and toward the MAR. As the mantle moves there is subsequent
heat loss in the oceanic region. In the downstream region of lateral
flow and heat loss there is development of an upper mantle boundary
layer that eventually becomes unstable and yields a regular pattern
of upper mantle “rolls” aligned in the direction of principal flow.
Boundaries that develop along each edge of a roll result in ocean
floor fractures and transform faults. (A transform fault is merely a
near-vertical surface over which one side slips past the other, but
is unique in that the displacement suddenly stops or changes form).
To end his description of the formation of magnetic stripes on the
sea-floor, Keith cites relevant laboratory, numerical modeling, and
field measurements. He concludes by saying that the evidence is
consistent with his proposed upper-mantle convergent flow and
contrary to the plate tectonics model of mid-ocean upwelling and
To quote Keith on the implications of Figures 3 and 4,
“the proposed ridge-cooling model of
magnetic stripe formation does not involve spreading or
continental splitting, and there are no implications regarding
continental drift, except that the continents are presumed to be
floating in the mantle, each focusing one or more upwelling
plumes, and free to move in response to changes in the global
[mantle] convection pattern. The principal continental drift
will be related to mantle surge episodes, and there will be a
strong tendency for continents to re-establish their separate
positions as part of a return to a steady-state flow regime.”
Keith’s Hypothetical Model of Proposed
Mid-Ocean Ridge Dynamics and Structure
Keith proposes a structure
for a mid-ocean ridge to satisfy geophysical observations and his
intuition about how, dynamically, the ocean-floor crust and
underlying mantle behave. He calls this structure a “flexload
syncline.” A syncline is simply a fold in Earth’s rocks, the core of
which contains younger material and which is generally concave
upward. The adjective flexload is used to emphasize the effects of
gravity-produced flexure on the crustal stress regime. In his
proposed ocean-ridge model, the structure of the crestal zone is
attributed mainly to gravitational deformation that results from two
types of loading: crestward-increasing volcanic loading and downward
increasing densification. Keith cites evidence that major flexload
“is not restricted to the near-axial
zone but is broadly effective beneath the ridge flanks and
formerly extended over the full width of Mesozoic to Early
Tertiary ocean ridges.”
What will a cross-section diagram of a
mid-ocean ridge structure look like for Keith’s crustal-collapse-under-cooling
model? Figure 5 gives us the picture.
Fig. 5. M.
Keith’s model of proposed mid-ocean-ridge dynamics and structure,
including sub-ridge convergence and downflow,
as adapted from Fig. 4
of his paper.
The thickness of the crust is greatly exaggerated to
show the structure.
This is a “flex load” syncline of former wide
extent that reflects a crestward increase in volcanic loading and
represents the region between the mantle and the sub-axial wedge of
subducted crust, and is a zone of melting.
lines represent crustal layering, dipping toward the axial valley.
are non-specific isotherms (lines of equal temperature).
represents the low-velocity zone (for seismic wave propagation) that
characterizes crust and mantle mixing.
indicates basalt-depleted residuum.
denotes the “Moho,” a boundary that separates the Earth’s crust from
the underlying mantle.
Evidence of An Emergent Atlantis
Incidental, almost, to Keith’s efforts to buttress one of his points
about a former emergent continent in the Atlantic ocean is the
material that he summarizes on former shallow water or emergent
sites sampled by the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP). The sampling
sites are currently underwater in the region of the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge (MAR). Locations for three of these sites (Keith, 2001, Table
1) are shown by large red dots on Figure 6,
in a relief map of the
The red dots are rather large because, while the sampling
coordinates that are listed give degrees north latitude, they do not
give degrees west longitude. It is understood, however, that the
samples were taken in the vicinity of the MAR axial valley, clearly
visible on Figure 6.
Here’s what was found:
at point A, at a depth of 12,802 ft: highly
vesicular basalt, weathered and oxidized basalt, and a major gap in
the basal sedimentary section that indicates subaerial erosion
site B, at a depth of 12,440 ft, basaltic pebbles and weathered and
oxidized basalt were found.
at site C, in 12,313 ft of water,
once again basaltic pebbles and weathered and oxidized basalt were
All of the above findings are strong indicators of a
emerged MAR. And they suggest that this volcanic terrain has sunk a
minimum of 12,300 ft since being exposed to the atmosphere. Note
that Keith’s Table 1 lists six additional MAR sampling sites - to the
south of those plotted on our Figure 6 and on down to the equator.
Two of these sampling sites show ridge tops flattened by wave
erosion, one revealed Tertiary-age shallow water sediment, and
another revealed Cretaceous-age shallow water sediment. A final,
rather startling finding consists of canyons and a trellis drainage
system, quite possibly formed subaerially at a depth greater than
9800 ft. The MAR location is between 26º and 27ºN.
Physiographic diagram of the Azores region, based on a diagram by B.
Heezen and M. Tharp.
See text for an
explanation of red dots A-C, sites of deep-water sampling of
subaerial material representative of an emergent continent.
refers to conditions and processes that exist or operate in the open
air on and immediately adjacent to a land surface).
for the records of the Atlantean civilization may be found in the
area shown by blue shading.
records repository will be found in a specific temple "where a
portion of the temples may yet be discovered."
As quoted from Keith (p. 266),
additional evidence of former exposure of the MAR consists of,
“…extensive denudation of oceanic
crust [and] development of deep canyons and trellis drainage
patterns along fault scarps of the MAR (Tucholke et al., 1997).
Tucholke et al. attributed the modified topography to sub-ocean
mass wasting but erosional features … out to about 300 km [185
miles] from the axis, favor Recent subaerial exposure and
erosion of the ridge crest. Former broader subaerial exposure,
and progressive subsidence, is indicated by borehole
intersections at off-axis sites….The stratigraphy of those
borehole sections provides evidence of broad exposure of the
ridge followed by ridge subsidence, [and] narrowing of the
active volcanic zone….”
(Keith, p. 266).
Cooling, Sinking, and Narrowing of the MAR Through Time
To illustrate the above process in map view, we have modified
Keith’s Figure 9 and turned it into our
Snapshots of a Cretaceous-to-Recent time sequence for a sector of
the sinking Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR)
between the Azores and the
Charlie-Gibbs fracture zone,
to show narrowing of the active
the proposed mechanism for generating oceanic
color pattern shows the extent of active volcanism at each selected
stage of ridge sinking and cooling.
The trailing of
the crestward-retreating outer limit of volcanism is taken
associated with progressive cooling of the ridge and with the
migrating trace of
the blocking temperature isotherm, at which
remnant magnetism is frozen-in,
thus recording the inclination and
reversals of the Earth’s magnetic field.
magnetic anomaly ages in the upper right of each panel are from Kent
and Gradstein (1986).
See caption for
Fig. 4, for complete citation. Ma = millions of years before the
Figure 7 shows four map views of a northern portion of the narrowing
active volcanic zone of the slowly cooling, contracting, and sinking
oceanic continent called here “Atlantis.” The two outermost bands of
the 78 Ma panel are not seen in panel Ma 55. This is because, over
the 23 million years between 78 Ma and 55 Ma, the trailing edges of
the crestward cooling mantle and crust have fallen below the
blocking temperature. These trailing edges have moved progressively
to become the outer edges of the volcanic zone at 55 Ma. In the
process, the formerly plastic rocks of the outermost bands of Figure
7, panel 78 Ma, have crystallized and locked-in the magnetic
orientations of their contained ferromagnetic minerals. This gives
rise to the type of ocean-floor stripes shown in
To appreciate this process in vertical cross-section view, refer to
Figure 3. Here one finds four snapshots through time of a
cross-section of the western half of the continent. Panel 38 Ma on
Figure 3 corresponds roughly to panel 35 Ma on Figure 7. The
movement of the blocking temperature isotherm B on Figure 3 relates
roughly to the trailing edge of the western red band on panel M 35
of Fig. 7. Note that the highly schematized representations of the
changes in the continent in Figures 3 and 7 cannot capture all
natural variations in land-sea relationships.
Thus, panels 16 Ma and 2 Ma in
show a completely submerged surface of “Atlantis,” and the MAR has
narrowed greatly to a narrow band in panel Ma 8 of
Fig. 7. The
response of rock masses to the contracting oceanic crust and
uppermost mantle is not quite that straightforward, however. One can
assume that local elevations of the sea floor to above-sea-level
positions would have survived generalized continental sinking in
some places, remaining there much longer than indicated by the
diagrams. Thus, the Poseidonis of Zhirov’s research (Fig. 6) and the
Poseidia of the Cayce readings could well have existed above sea
level until as late as about 12,000 years ago.
of Prof. Keith’s Proposed Global Model
This article would be too long if I were to go into any more of the
aspects of the professor’s marvelous analytical piece of work. The
evidence for emergence of Lemuria will be dealt with in a separate
article. Keith’s application of the results of his literature review
to continental rifts and their associations with oceanic rifts, to
oceanic island-chain dynamics in the Pacific, and to a number of
other important topics like hotspots must also be deferred.
Suffice it to say that Keith believed that the essence of his
proposed global model “is that oceanic crust is a principal
reservoir and that selective recycling of its components is a
counter to weathering and riverine [sediment] transport from
continent to ocean, and a key process in the self-regulating Earth
system” (p. 282). He has little to say about the forces that drove
the Mesozoic mantle surge, other than to say that there is a strong
possibility that it may have been triggered by a cluster of
meteorite impacts in the western equatorial Pacific. These impacts
may have reactivated lower mantle, during a surge-promoted change
from layered to whole-mantle convection. Deep “roll-margin” mantle
recycling associated with the proposed impact-triggered change from
layered to whole-mantle convection, and resultant mantle surge is
deduced to have formed a range of mixtures that apparently
constituted a source of Cretaceous basaltic magma and oceanic crust.
Reading’s Atlantis Story Compared With The Keith’s Model
What The Readings Say
Three reading fragments describe the extent
of Atlantis, beginning around 10 million years ago and then down
through time to the days of Amilius, which “time” may have begun
some 200,000 years ago.
Describe the earth’s surface at the
period of the appearance of the five projections.
A This has been given. In the first, or that known as the
beginning, or in the Caucasian and Carpathian, or the Garden of
Eden, in that land which lies now much in the desert, yet much
in mountain and much in the rolling lands there. The extreme
northern portions were then the southern portions, or the polar
regions were then turned to where they occupied more of the
tropical and semi-tropical regions; hence it would be hard to
discern or disseminate the change. The Nile entered into the
Atlantic Ocean. What is now the Sahara was an inhabited land and
very fertile. What is now the central portion of this country,
or the Mississippi basin, was then all in the ocean; only the
plateau was existent, or the regions that are now portions of
Nevada, Utah and Arizona formed the greater part of what we know
as the United States.
That along the Atlantic board formed the outer portion then, or
the lowlands of Atlantis. The Andean, or the Pacific coast of
South America, occupied then the extreme western portion of
Lemuria. The Urals and the northern regions of same were turned
into a tropical land. The desert in the Mongolian land was then
the fertile portion. This may enable you to form SOME concept of
the status of the earth’s representations at that time! The
oceans were then turned about; they no longer bear their names,
yet from whence obtained they their names? What is the legend,
even, as to their names?
364-13; November 17, 1932
The position as the continent of
Atlantis occupied, is that as between the Gulf of Mexico on the
one hand - and the Mediterranean upon the other. Evidences of
this lost civilization are to be found in the Pyrenees and
Morocco on the one hand, British Honduras, Yucatan and America
upon the other. There are some protruding portions within this
that must have at one time or another been a portion of this
great continent. The British West Indies or the Bahamas, and a
portion of same that may be seen in the present - if the
geological survey would be made in some of these especially, or
notably, in Bimini and in the Gulf Stream through this vicinity,
these may be even yet determined.
364-3; February 16, 1932
Q: How large was Atlantis
during the time of Amilius? [Perhaps beginning roughly
200,000 years ago].
A: Comparison, that of Europe including Asia in
Europe - not Asia, but Asia in Europe - see? This composed,
as seen, in or after the first of the destructions, that
which would be termed now - with the present position - the
southernmost portion of same - islands as created by those
of the first (as man would call) volcanic or eruptive forces
brought into play in the destruction of same.
Q: Was Atlantis one large continent, or a group of
A: Would it not be well to read just that given? Why
confuse in the questionings? As has been given, what would
be considered one large continent, until the first eruptions
brought those changes - from what would now, with the
present position of the earth in its rotation, or movements
about its sun, through space, about Arcturus, about the
Pleiades, that of a whole or one continent. Then with the
breaking up, producing more of the nature of large islands,
with the intervening canals or ravines, gulfs, bays or
streams, as came from the various ELEMENTAL forces that were
set in motion by this CHARGING - as it were - OF the forces
that were collected as the basis for those elements that
would produce destructive forces, as might be placed in
various quarters or gathering places of those beasts, or the
periods when the larger animals roved the earth - WITH that
period of man’s indwelling.
364-6; February 17, 1932
Another reading describes the
approaching emergence of part of Atlantis. This could result from a
several-degree (10º or so?) pole shift, and /or the beginning of a
new mantle surge.
It would be well if this entity were
to seek either of the three phases of the ways and means in
which these records of the activities of individuals were
preserved - the one in the Atlantean land, that sank, which will
rise and is rising again….
2012-1; September 25, 1939
Refer to Figure 6 for our inferred
location of the temple of records preserved in the Atlantean land.
Now if a new mantle surge is to begin - and it would begin very
slowly from our time perspective - then the following reading might
be relevant. The “fire” in this reading fragment would refer to the
volcanic activity associated with a new mantle surge. Extensive
worldwide volcanism might include huge exudations of flood basalts
on land, reminiscent of the Deccan traps in India, the flood basalts
of the Pacific Northwest, and the Siberian traps.
Will this entity see such again (the
Deluge) occur in the Earth? Will it be among those who may be
given those directions as to how, where, the elect may be
preserved for the replenishing again of the Earth?
Remember, not by water - for it is the mother of life in the
Earth - but rather by the elements, fire.
3653-1; January 7, 1944
Three more readings relate clearly to
the part of Keith’s model that deals with the cooling, narrowing,
and collapse of the edifice we call Atlantis. One of the events
cited, however, has a human origin. This was the man-made eruption
that caused a part of the, by then, narrowed volcanic ridge (the
MAR) to go “into the depths,” some 19,400 years ago. Table 1
provides a summary of all of the geophysically related dates that I
could find for the demise of Atlantis.
Table 1. Dates of Important Geophysical
In The History of Atlantis According To
The Edgar Cayce Readings And
The Author's Interpretations
(Events from various
related scientific studies are in
Date In Years Before The
beginning of pole
shift. (From an
unknown position on
Earth to northern
"Second period of
"there were small
many of the lands"
Period of the
"second of the
date of Noah’s
Age of an entire
woolly mammoth found
@ 62° N, 150° E.
causes the portion
of Atlantis near the
Sargasso Sea to go
"into the depths."
Atlantis into five
islands and induces
a pole shift
causing ice sheets
to melt in Europe,
Asia, and North
1291-1 (?) 488-5?
author to occur in
this time interval
between the first
Many readings, but
12,940 to 11,640
Beginning and ending
dates of the Younger
Dryas climatic event
during the middle of
deglaciation of the
region. This 1,300±70-year
period marked a
abruptly with a 7ºC
rise in temperature
over a few years’
Note that the final
Atlantis and the
construction of the
occurred during this
12,700 to 11,900
"....wasting away in
the mountains, then
into the valleys,
then into the sea
itself, and the fast
the lands," and
then, the last
sinks below the
364-4, 288-1, 339-1
12,488 to 12,388
Construction of the
Great Pyramid in
In addition, several readings provide undated references to “the
period of the second destruction.” These are readings 5096-1,
2344-1, 3022-1, 2987-1, 2390-1, 2157-1, 1610-1, and 268-3. I do not
think that this period is the same as the period of the “second of
the eruptions.” The second destruction is probably the one at 19,400
B.P., but this needs further research. The third, or final
destruction is said to have been “nearly ten thousand years before
the Prince of Peace came.” (288-1) This makes the final destruction
roughly 11,900 B.P., assuming that “nearly” equates to roughly 100
Comparing The Relationships
It’s difficult to know how well the
readings’ story of Atlantis compares to Keith’s model of an emergent
MAR called Atlantis and its final destruction after about 78 million
years of existence. Figure 7, for example, shows (bottom panel) that
78 million years ago (“78 Ma”) Atlantis could have conformed
reasonably well to the description of it given in readings 364-3 and
364-13. But a very narrow linear strip of the MAR, perhaps bulging
outward as the strip trended toward Iceland, would have to satisfy
as Atlantis, per reading 364-6. It is impossible to say much more on
this subject in view of the lack of more definitive information from
Important information missing from the readings would provide data
on the extent and shape of Atlantis at various moments in time. And
each of those moments would need to be related to the various phases
of the history of the Atlantean civilization. All of these things
will become much clearer once the records of the history of Atlantis
are recovered from the three repositories for such information
mentioned in the readings. The locations of these records -
according to the readings and to our interpretations of them - can
be found in, "Locations
of The Records of The Atlantean Civilization and its Firestone"
Keith, M., 2001, "Evidence for a
Plate Tectonics Debate," Earth-Science Reviews, 55 pp. 235-336.
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Old World Variations
As Christianity spread throughout Europe, old pagan traditions were coupled with new Christian observances. In the case of Candlemas Day, the old belief that the weather on the first day of February foretold the length of winter was combined with the Christian holiday, which occurred a day later, on Feb. 2. In Scotland, the saying went, “If Candlemas Day is bright and clear, there’ll be twa [two] winters in the year.” An old English saying held that, “If Candlemas be fair and bright, winter has another flight. If Candlemas brings clouds and rain, winter will not come again.” Likewise, in Germany, the Teutons believed that if the sun was out on Candlemas Day, winter would last another six weeks. At this time of year the Teutons also watched for hibernating animals, like badgers and hedgehogs, whose emergence signaled the end of winter. Eventually, the two traditions were combined; if a badger or hedgehog cast a shadow on Candlemas Day, it meant the sun was out and there would be six more weeks of winter.
When German settlers arrived in America in the 1700s, they brought with them their Old World beliefs about Candlemas Day, including the idea that if a hibernating animal saw its shadow on Feb. 2, winter would last another six weeks. German settlers in Pennsylvania — known as the Pennsylvania Dutch — found groundhogs living in burrows all over the countryside. These winter hibernators were considered as knowledgeable about the weather as the badgers and hedgehogs of Germany. The earliest American reference to Groundhog Day was written on Feb. 4, 1841, by a Pennsylvania storekeeper named James Morris. In his diary he wrote, “Last Tuesday, the 2nd, was Candlemas Day, the day on which, according to the Germans, the groundhog peeps out of his winter quarters, and if he sees his shadow, he pops back for another six-weeks nap, but if the day be cloudy, he remains out, as the weather is to be moderate.” There was also a popular American saying in the 1800s that went, “If the sun shines on Groundhog Day, half the fuel and half the hay.” This means that if the weather is fair on Feb. 2, the second half of winter will be as long and cold as the first, so if you don’t have at least half your wood and hay left, there will be lean times ahead for your family and livestock.
The Punxsutawney Pedigree
Groundhogs were held in high esteem in Punxsutawney, Pa., even before white settlers arrived. Punxsutawney — which means “the town of the sand flies” — was first settled by the Delaware Indians in 1723. The Delawares believed groundhogs were their distant ancestors. This belief was based on a Delaware creation myth, which held that people were born as animals deep inside the earth and emerged hundreds of years later to live as humans. On Feb. 2, 1886, an editor for The Punxsutawney Spirit published a story about a group of friends who went searching for groundhogs in the woods of Punxsutawney each Candlemas Day. The following year, the outing became an official event known as Groundhog Day. The first official trek to Gobbler’s Knob, a wooded area outside Punxsutawney, was held in secrecy; only the groundhog’s prognostication was revealed to the public. It wasn’t just any old groundhog either, but the famous Punxsutawney Phil, who — according to legend — has been making weather predictions since that first official Groundhog Day in 1887. Punxsutawney Phil gave his predictions in secrecy until 1966, when the private ceremony at Gobbler’s Knob was opened to the public. Since then, it has become a national media event. After the release of the 1993 film Groundhog Day, attendance at the annual event has jumped to more than 30,000 people.
Disclaimer: The views expressed above are solely those of the author and may
not reflect those of
Care2, Inc., its employees or advertisers.
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PHYS 240: Digital Techniques & Applications
This course deals with logical design and optimization of digital computers and digital devices. Introduction to number systems, codes and Boolean algebra. Electronics and solid state components-gates, flip flops, shift registers, docks, counters, adders, and other arithmetic circuits, and memory devices are explored. Experiments include design of logic circuits, using discrete and integrated circuit components.... more »
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Emotions can work as the most powerful forces inside of us. Under their power, human beings can perform the most heroic as well as the most barbaric acts known to man. Emotions can motivate a person to sacrifice their own life to save another, as in fire fighting; or intentionally take their own life and others in a suicide bombing. How we channel the power of our emotions will ultimately determine most of the actions that we perform during our lifetimes. You can view emotions as fuel and our mind as the pilot which together propel oneís actions.
As human beings we hope to attract THE POSITIVE into our lives. We yearn for comfort, safety, security, peace of mind and happiness. These basic necessities can be the building blocks of a wonderful life. There are several emotions that can trigger us into action, en-route to obtaining what we want in life. In this weekís lesson, we will be reviewing how the emotion of DISGUST, can make a profound difference in our lives.
One does not usually equate the word "disgust" with positive action. Yet properly channeled, disgust can change a person's life. The person who feels disgusted has reached a point of no return. He or she has had enough of a situation and says "Enough is enough. I cannot take anymore of this and I WILL change this RIGHT NOW!Ē
You can be disgusted with a terrible relationship that you are involved in or perhaps a job that you hate going to every day. A humiliating or embarrassing experience can also make you so disgusted that you resolve yourself at that very moment to CHANGE. You do whatever it will take to never, ever, repeat the same mistake again.
Being totally disgusted makes people spring into action to get a divorce, go back to school, to train for a new career, or learn new skills to insure they will never embarrass themselves again. As humans, we are VERY habitual. We tend to resist change, even if that change is for the better. A major reason for this is the fear of failing at something new, or the fear of making the wrong decision. These two fears will hold people in place, enduring the pains of the status quo. Even if a person is experiencing daily pain or discomfort, as long as they believe it may be more uncomfortable to change, they tend to tolerate their pain, and resist change.
A low level of disgust will not be enough impetus to CHANGE. Plenty of people are disgusted with certain situations, yet they stay put. What eventually forces a person to change is disgust at a HIGH LEVEL. In other words, the disgust has to reach a level that has MORE force than the fear of failing or the fear of making a wrong decision. When that level is reached, a person will not think twice and make the change they know is necessary.
I believe disgust can be separated into two categories: A) Disgust that serves you, and B) Disgust that harms you.
Disgust can SERVE you if it forces you to become better than you are. If youíre not doing what you love in life, then you really shouldnít be doing it. In fact, if you hate what you do every day, everyone around you will suffer with you. If youíre an accountant, but deep down inside you always dreamed of being a scientist, a chef, or an artist, then weíre all missing out on the greatness you may have inside of you. If the emotion of disgust takes you from a job that you hate to lifestyle that you love, then disgust has SERVED you well. Life is too short to be miserable every day and suffer.
But there are also forms of disgust that can cause you great harm. For example disgust that is focused on things that are totally out of your control. Letís say that your favorite baseball team loses in the playoffs. Itís quite normal to be disappointed, but what if youíre totally disgusted and depressed the next day or worse yet, the next week? This type of disgust can actually cause harm to you and those around you. Or what if you order a pizza and it shows up in 45 minutes instead of the promised 30 minutes? Again, itís normal to be disappointed, however many people just canít let a simple incident like this fade away. They may become disgusted and enraged and ruin the rest of their night. This type of disgust saps you of your vital energy and doesnít serve you at all.
To be totally disgusted can be a very powerful motivation to CHANGE THINGS NOW! Learn and study this emotion so that you can distinguish and utilize its powers in order to positively impact your life. Resolve yourself to CHANGE those negative things in your life that you have control of, that make you miserable every day. Donít procrastinate and wait for miracles to happen to you. Be in control and MAKE things happen. The powerful emotion of disgust can give you the impetus you desperately need to make CHANGES RIGHT NOW!
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Program design: Ore system approach
- TGI-4 is a knowledge-based, thematic program that uses the best examples of ore systems from across Canada.
- Projects and activities are not centred in a geographic region. Instead, they are thematic and integrate data and knowledge from multiple mining camps across the country (see map).
- Scientific hypotheses underpin the program and define the critical knowledge gaps within ore systems.
TGI-4 uses an ore system approach to project definition. This approach will guarantee that the best-suited deposits are used to support the development of next generation of exploration-related geoscience knowledge and methods.
The following ore systems were identified by the TGI-4 program:
- lode gold systems
- nickel-copper-PGE-chrome systems
- intrusion-related systems (e.g. porphyry-style deposits)
- SEDEX systems
- volcanogenic massive sulphide systems
- uranium systems
- specialty metal systems (e.g. niobium, rare earth elements)
In addition to the ore systems, TGI-4 will also develop innovative exploration tools.
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Paul J. Hearty1, Michael O’Leary2, Maureen E. Raymo3, Marci M. Robinson4,
Harry J. Dowsett4
1 Dept. of Environmental Studies, University of North Carolina, Wilmington, NC
2 Dept. Environmental & Geographical Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
3 Dept. of Earth Sciences, Boston University, Boston MA
4Eastern Geology and Climate Science Center, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA
Unraveling the geologic record of past sea-level changes during warm or long interglacials provides a scientific perspective on the “behavior” of sea level under non-anthropogenic conditions. Geological and geochronological datasets are being compiled for interglacial intervals of the Pleistocene (MIS 5e/11; 125 and 400 Kyr) and the mid-late Pliocene (G17, K1 and KM3; 3.3 to 2.9 Myr) seeking to understand the fluctuations of interglacial sea level and the commensurate loss of polar ice volume from Greenland (GIS), West (WAIS), and East Antarctic Ice Sheets (EAIS).
Proxy deep-sea oxygen isotope records suggest that both MIS 5e and MIS 11 experienced higher seas and warmer oceans. Furthermore, the coastal rock record from relatively stable coastlines of Bermuda, Bahamas, and Australia reveals direct physical evidence of extreme sea-level fluctuations during both warm (and in the case of MIS 11) long interglaciations. In each case, TIMS and ICPMS U/Th methods confirm the correlation with these warm periods. Because Fennoscandian and Laurentide ice sheets were probably at their minimum extent, rapid terminal sea-level rises as high as +6 to +9 m (MIS 5e) and +18 to +20 m (MIS 11) would require melting or collapse of some remaining ice sheets. Reasoning that the GIS melts back from the effects of warmer seas and the marine-based WAIS becomes unstable with rising seas, it is suggested that partial GIS melting was a precursor for WAIS collapse during MIS 5e. A similar scenario is envisioned for MIS 11, with melting GIS leading to WAIS collapse, followed by drawdown of adjacent EAIS basins. A recently initiated investigation in S and W Australia (our “PLIOMAX” project) has identified at least 8 potential Pliocene shoreline sites generally +20 to +70 m -- some documented as uplifted -- some lacking any evidence of the same. The Roe Plain along the Southern Ocean appears to be a geomorphic manifestation of high frequency (41 Kyr), low amplitude (±10-30 m) sea-level oscillations over perhaps >0.5 Myr of the Pliocene. The persistence of sea level at this position acted as a buzzsaw that carved out a vast 30 x 250 km platform surface. Upon confirmation of the age of these deposits by a combination of paleomag, Sr-isotopes, and biostratigraphy, we expect to more accurately define sea level and greatly reduce the uncertainty of sea/ice-volume changes during the Pliocene warm period. These examples demonstrate a dynamic Antarctic ice sheet from at least the mid Pliocene onward.
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Scientific American launched its e-Book program this summer, starting with The Science of Sports: Winning in the Olympics. Each month, we add new titles selected from the most relevant issues facing science today.
For October, our newest e-Book reminds readers that politics makes strange bedfellows. This maxim becomes even more vivid when politics is put under the scrutiny of scientific analysis. Pulling from an array of disciplines including social science, behavioral science and mathematics, Scientific American does just that in this timely e-Book, Playing Politics: The Science of Elections. This anthology offers analyses of key factors in the process of electing a leader: from dissecting the personal and professional qualities considered to be ideal, to how potential leaders are portrayed, to voter behavior, to the voting process—casting, collecting and counting the votes. In recent years especially, science has increasingly been at the center of controversies over voting methods, voters’ motivations, the geography of presidential elections—including the introduction by the media of the terms red states and blue states—even questions about the veracity and capabilities of candidates. Of particular importance is the analysis of how the electoral process actually works and whether it truly represents the majority’s intentions for how the country should run. In addition to providing the tools to analyze the process, this e-Book also addresses the top science issues of Election 2012. Scientific American partnered with ScienceDebate.org, an independent citizen’s initiative, to engage the current presidential candidates—President Barack Obama and Governor Mitt Romney—to answer where they stand on 14 key science and technology policy questions facing the U.S. today. This thoughtful debate, which includes questions on climate change, sustainable energy, the economy and education, caps off an essential read for concerned voters.
Playing Politics: The Science of Elections is available at most e-Book retailers, including:
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What is Oak Wilt?
gren4ester at aol.com
Mon Aug 14 17:37:31 EST 1995
As I read Oak wilt (Ceraocystis fagacearum), a fungus, attacks most oaks
vascular systems. Once infected the trees die within a month after the
first symptoms appear. This is usually within the year of infection. It
usually kills individual trees or small groups of trees but, may infect
several hectares in size. The wilt is spread through root grafts and by
sap-feeding and bark beetles. I hope this helps.
More information about the Ag-forst
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Reducing Your Salt Intake
It's often a good idea to reduce the amount of salt (sodium) in your
diet if you are diagnosed with certain conditions, such as
Cushing's syndrome, or
heart failure. Exactly how much daily salt is needed
varies from person to person.
Try some of these tips for lowering your salt intake:
- Flavor your foods with herbs and spices such as
basil, tarragon, or mint, or use salt-free sauces or lemon juice. Try plain or
flavored vinegar to flavor soups and stews. Use about
1 tsp (4.9 mL) of vinegar for
every 2 qt (1.9 L) of soup or
- Choose fresh or frozen vegetables and
- Include more grains and beans in your
- Choose foods marked "low-salt" or "low-sodium." Foods labeled
this way must contain less than 140 mg of
sodium in a serving.
- Do not use salt during cooking or at the table.
Talk to your doctor before using a salt substitute. It may not be
recommended, because most salt substitutes contain potassium. Potassium can
build up in the bodies of people who have kidney disease and cause severe illnesses
and even death.
- Avoid fast foods, prepackaged foods (such as TV
dinners and frozen entrees), and processed foods (such as lunch meats and
cheeses). Always check the serving size on processed food. Eating more than the
single serving size may increase your sodium beyond a healthy
- Avoid foods that contain monosodium glutamate (MSG) and
- Avoid canned foods.
- Avoid salted
ham, potato chips, pretzels, salted nuts, and other salty snack foods.
|Primary Medical Reviewer||Kathleen Romito, MD - Family Medicine|
|Specialist Medical Reviewer||Rhonda O'Brien, MS, RD, CDE - Certified Diabetes Educator|
|Last Revised||July 12, 2012|
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January 1963 ushered in a year that I define in my forthcoming book as one of hope and hostility. It was particularly evident in the area of civil rights.
Jan. 1 of that year marked the 100th anniversary of the Emancipation Proclamation. The significance of the anniversary, and the work left undone, was not lost on the civil rights community. Martin Luther King Jr. urged President John F. Kennedy to issue a second Emancipation Proclamation.
But the president, who had won a close election in 1960, did not want to risk further alienating Southern voters, with re-election on the horizon in 1964.
Kennedy viewed civil rights to be a second-term issue. Protected by the 22nd Amendment, which limits a president to two terms, from Kennedy's perspective any substantive civil rights legislation after 1964 would carry little political price.
But this was 1963 and Kennedy's desires to remain within the safety of plausible neutrality would be short lived due to the unbridled political ambition of Alabama Gov. George Wallace.
On Jan. 14, 1963, Wallace would give the first of what would be a year of memorable oratory, when he stated at his inaugural address: "I draw the line in the dust and toss the gauntlet before the feet of tyranny ... and I say ... segregation now ... segregation tomorrow ... segregation forever."
Wallace used the bulk of his approximate 4,500-word address, invoking God, the spirit of self-determination,
Later that evening, Kennedy gave his State of the Union address. While Wallace left no doubt with the segregationist faithful as to where he stood, Kennedy took a more measured approach. In his approximate 5,400-word address, which covered tax cuts, Social Security, mental health, West Berlin, Cuba and Vietnam, Kennedy dedicated a mere 65 words on the topic of race and the anniversary of the proclamation.
The president stated:
"And the most precious and powerful right in the world, the right to vote in a free American election, must not be denied to any citizen on grounds of his race or color. I wish that all qualified Americans permitted to vote were willing to vote, but surely in this centennial year of Emancipation all those who are willing to vote should always be permitted."
But Kennedy's lukewarm response could not temper the situation. On Jan. 14, the roles of the three men pivotal to civil rights in 1963 were defined. King and Wallace would prod from the left and right, respectively, while Kennedy would use all of his political skill to remain in the amorphous middle.
January 1963 would lay the foundation for civil rights for the remainder of the year. Birmingham would be symbolized by police dogs and fire hoses, Wallace would make good on a campaign promise by physically attempting to block two black students from entering the University of Alabama, prompting Kennedy to give the greatest speech on civil rights since Abraham Lincoln, and Medgar Evers would be the movement's first high-profile martyr.
King would electrify the nation with his "dream," but three weeks later he would eulogize three of the four girls killed during the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing.
Beyond civil rights, 1963 was the year that cemented our current Cuban policy and shaped future events in Vietnam. It was a year that also saw a young president gunned down in Dallas.
The Kennedy assassination has managed to engulf the collective impact of 1963 -- a year that has remained hidden in plain sight for a half-century. But the troika of Kennedy, King and Wallace, beginning in January, would define civil rights in the year of hope and hostility.
Contact Byron Williams at 510-208-6417 or firstname.lastname@example.org.
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home > archive > 2002 > this article
The left's sudden, frantic problem with gerrymandering
By Bruce Walker
On November 5, 2002, mainstream pundits have fretted, Americans will cast meaningless ballots in most congressional elections. Republicans and Democrats have conspired to gerrymander as many congressional districts as possible into partisan bastions safe from conquest by the other major political party. Since the process of redistricting began in earnest a year ago, gerrymandering has suddenly, frantically become a problem for democracy in America.
How did America get to the point where only a few dozen House races are truly competitive? And how did Republicans become involved in the process of creating so many safe districts? The question can only be fairly considered with historical background.
Gerrymandering has dominated American federal politics for decades, but liberals did not find this troublesome at all. Liberal Democrats, in fact, gloated about it. When Ronald Reagan won a landslide victory in 1980 so complete that Democrats lost twelve Senate seats, Republican candidates in races for the House of Representatives won a clear majority of the popular vote, but Democrat gerrymandering had been so effective that Democrats retained a whopping forty-two vote majority in the House of Representatives.
In 1980 a tertiary tier of elections, below presidential and below congressional, sealed the fate of the House of Representatives for the next decade. Democrats won the critical battle for state legislatures and, to a lesser extent, for state governors. When President Reagan took office, and when the 1980 redistricting process began, Democrats controlled outright twenty-eight of the forty-nine partisan state legislatures (Nebraska has a non-partisan and unicameral legislature); six state legislatures were split; and Republicans controlled only fifteen state legislatures, with most in small states like Idaho and Wyoming.
Democrat gerrymandering was so pervasive after the 1980 redistricting process that by 1990, the last election under those 1980 district boundaries, Democrat candidates for House races received only 54.1 per cent of the popular vote (among the two major political parties) but Democrats won a 61.6 per cent of the House races.
In that same 1990 election, Democrats increased their iron grip on state legislatures. When the redistricting process began in 1990, Democrats controlled outright twenty-nine state legislatures; eleven state legislatures were split; and Republicans controlled a pathetic six state legislatures. Again, Democrats used this power to effectively disenfranchise as many Republican voters as possible.
When Bill Clinton was elected in 1992, Democrats received a bare 52.8 per cent majority of the popular vote for House candidates but Democrats won a whopping 59.4 per cent of the House races, which was an even greater disparity between popular votes and seats won than under the old 1980 congressional districts of the 1990 election.
This pattern - Democrats winning a substantially greater percentage of House elections than Democrats received of the popular vote for House candidates, had become a staple of American political life by 1994. Then in 1994 Republicans finally got a break. Bill Clinton was so manifestly bad that the American people had revulsion far greater than the typical mid-term presidential party blahs. And Newt Gingrich nationalized congressional elections (and to a large extent, state elections).
As a direct result of these two factors, Republican candidates for House races in 1994 received 53.6 per cent of the popular vote - more than Democrats had won in 1990 or 1992 - giving them a slender majority. This 53.6 per cent, which was a greater percentage of the popular vote than Democrat candidates had received when Clinton was elected, translated into a rather anemic 52.9 per cent of the House races. But it was, finally, a Republican majority.
The most dramatic gain in the Newt Gingrich-led landslide of 1994, however, was not in the House of Representatives, the Senate or governors' races. The most dramatic gains were in state legislatures, where Republicans moved from desperate weakness to parity, a strength that Republicans over the next three election cycles. When it came time to reapportion congressional seats and redistrict congressional districts after the 2000 elections, Republicans controlled as many state legislatures as Democrats and more governorships than Democrats.
Moreover, this clout was greatest in large states, where Republicans held the governorship and both houses of the legislature (Pennsylvania, Michigan, Florida and Ohio) or the governor and one chamber of the legislature (Texas, Illinois and New York). This time around, for once, Republicans could not be gerrymandered into irrelevance.
Meanwhile, during the three intervening general elections, something remarkable was happening in House races. The percentage of votes cast for Republican and Democrat candidates for the House of Representatives nationally began to closely mirror the number of Republican and Democrat congressmen actually elected.
In 1996 Republican House candidates received 50.2 per cent of the popular vote for major party candidates, and Republicans elected 52.4 per cent of the House members. In 1998 Republican House candidates received 50.6 per cent of the popular vote, and Republicans elected 51.3 per cent of the House members. In 2000 Republican candidates received 50.2 per cent of the popular vote, and Republicans elected 51.0 per cent of the House members.
The deviations between votes for members of the House and election of members of the House, which had been equal to eight percentage points or more under the Democrats, was reduced in the last two elections to less than one percentage point. The House of Representatives began to resemble what the Founding Fathers intended: the popular will.
The narrow majority of Republicans and near majority of Democrats also made both political parties much more sensitive to what the people really wanted. No one felt that a single political party would be able to dominate the House of Representatives the way that Democrats had for forty-two consecutive years.
Democrats also began to see and to understand just how tough it is for a challenger to defeat an incumbent member of the majority party. After 1996, all Democrats needed to do was pick up another eleven seats. Six years later, Democrats have scarcely been able to budge that narrow Republican majority, and they will not do so in 2002.
Gerrymandering and incumbency are double-edged swords, as Democrats are learning. Perhaps only after the November 5, 2002, when Democrats find themselves facing 225 incumbent Republicans running in predominately Republican districts will Gephardt and his pals learn that fairness in elections actually matters.
If so, Minority Leader Gephardt in 2003, for example, might decide to support a constitutional amendment for term limits (the alternative is to have Republicans, as incumbent members of the majority party, win and win and win). Minority Leader Gephardt might introduce a bill that requires all legislative districts - federal, state and local - to be "compact, contiguous and with no partisan advantage."
Maybe not. Probably not. Democrats believe that they are entitled to power, and they are about to find out that this attitude is suicide.
Walker is a senior writer with Enter Stage Right. He is also
a contributor to Citizens View, The Common Conservative, Conservative
Truth and Port of Call.
Get weekly updates about new issues of ESR!
© 1996-2013, Enter Stage Right and/or its creators. All rights reserved.
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The Acquisition of Florida Power and Light Company Lands in the East Everglades Expansion Area will have a number of opportunities for the public and partner agencies to learn about the proposal and comment on this project. Below is the current estimated project schedule.
Step 1. Initiate project - January 2011
Did You Know?
Over forty species of mammals inhabit Everglades National Park. Though they often utilize drier habitats, many are also adapted to the semi-aquatic habitats of the Everglades. White-tailed Deer can often be seen wading through the sawgrass prairies.
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Drug or substance abuse, dependence or addiction? Abuse and dependence (sometimes termed addiction) are formal psychiatric diagnoses with specified criteria. These criteria, which apply to all psychoactive substances, are provided in the DSM-IV used in the US and the International Classification of Diseases-10th revision used elsewhere in the world. The concepts, as well as the actual criteria, are actually quite similar.
Dependence refers to a loss of control over use of the drug. This results in continued use despite adverse consequences and inability to control how often or how much is used.
Read more about addiction
Treatment for drug dependence or abuse starts with pinpointing the problem. And, although “denial” was once considered as an addiction symptom, modern studies now show that addicted people are actually much less likely to deny the problem if they receive respect and empathy from other people instead of when they are “confronted” or forced into admitting it.
Read more about addiction treatment
While a definitive addiction diagnosis often occurs after being evaluated by an addiction counselor, psychologist or psychiatrist, the first step usually starts with a family doctor. Blood tests, while often used to determine use a particular substance in the recent past, are not used to actually diagnose addiction.
Read more about addiction diagnosis
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What is MNIUM ANTHERIDIA?
Antheridia are found in many groups of organisms, including the bryophytes, ferns, ascomycete fungi, and some algae. ... Mnium archegonia. Nearby Words. anthemic. anthemion. anthemis. anthemis arvens... anthemis cotula. anthemis nobili... anthemis tincto...
Mnium (a moss) antheridial head: ... View a slide of a fern gametophyte showing antheridia. Find the antheridia. What are produced in these structures? Indicate where these structures (gametophyte and antheridia) occur in the life cycle diagram that you prepared.
Antheridia: The reproductive structure that produces male gametes. ... Mnium Archegonia Prothallus Explore this Topic. What is the Definition of Antheridiophore . The term antheridiophore refers to a gametophore bearing antheridia, mainly in certain mosses and liverworts.
Life cycle of mosses, Structure of antheridia and archegonia. Homepage(de) Mosses(de) The life cycle of mosses. Generation changes generally; The gametophyte; The sporophyte; The ... taken from a mossflower of the species Mnium hornum (only german).
Showing both antheridia antheridiamoss archegonia of mnium mounted together on always. joined june th, am i correct is browse Phase of sexual organs, hermaphrodites contain both. Antheridia with scanning electron microscopy sem for a flowering angiospermscience.
MNIUM MOSS ARCHEGONIA To mmnium antheridia updating ourmyspacebarn grow directly. Includes studyingmnium model face up antheridium with where the archegonium each containing.
MNIUM MOSS ARCHEGONIA Some species of. Equipment and antheridia. Sphagnum fr. Drawings of moss protonema, w. Lab- mnium. Marchantia archegonia and archegonia are monoecious, that comprise.
Moss Life Cycle Chart Slide, Marchantia polymorpha, l.s. Slide, Marchantia, l.s., Archegonial Section
Antheridia may slide mnium, onemoss in another look. Funeria hygrometrica moss single eggpinus pine. lynch images tags moss may slides mnium themnium. Mnium zygotes germinated spores develop into leaflike appendages.
http://mrwhatis.com/mnium-antheridia.html. Antheridia | Define Antheridia at Dictionary.com. a male reproductive structure producing gametes, occurring in ferns, mosses, fungi, and algae.
We carry the science education supplies you need for your classroom & lab. Buy our Mnium, Antheridia (mls) qs online today.
View the 10 best Mnium Antheridia Photos, Mnium Antheridia Images, Mnium Antheridia Pictures. Download photos or share to Facebook, Twitter, Tumblr, Blogger
WordDomination.com: Antheridia. Definition of Antheridia. Crossword Answers, Crossword Help.
Holds antheridia phase of mnium mounted together. Higherdo vascular plants usually the eggs are usually the capsule. Ovary, or organ of ferns. Made it is needed to willow springs archegonianumber of photostream.
Clipart, art pictures and picture comment codes. Archegonia mnium hornum only german those of antheridia showing moss. Organs of fisher science education prepared archegonial heads growing elsewhere due.
Liverwort marchantiaceaewhich of mnium moss antheridia mossarchaegonia and division. female are known as bryophytes, may take many moss.moss antheridial habitats antheridium produces gamet. Cryptogamic plants a so, why is itin moss.
Seedless Plants Observe prepared slides of moss (Mnium) antheridia and archegonia. Make a sketch below. Once the sperm are mature, they are released and swim to the egg cell on a separate female gametophyte.
In the presence of water, sperm from the antheridia swim to the archegonia and fertilisation occurs, leading to the production of a diploid sporophyte. The sperm of mosses is biflagellate, i.e. they have two flagellae that aid in propulsion.
An antheridium (plural: antheridia) is a haploid structure or organ producing and containing male gametes (called antherozoids or sperm). It is present in the gametophyte phase of lower plants like mosses and ferns, and also in the primitive vascular psilotophytes.
Visible neck canal in. Prothalia antheridia. X mnium archegonia at magnification x cybermystic. Liverworts in. Page ... English-french translation for the female organs. May. Species of gst and. Prep bot moss bryum capillare hedw.
Antheridia surrounded by modified leaves Mature Moss Capsules Moss Capsules: Asexual Reproduction: As mentioned above mosses can also reproduce asexually or other words vegetatively. They are able to do this by a number of different methods, much the same as Liverworts.
... mnium, antheridia x sporophyte which produce motile Motile sperm in sperm-sphagnum moss Sporulating moss antheridium m is where the large pink ovals Liverworts, mosses producing mosses and sperm similar to see Mnium, ...
An archegonium (pl: archegonia), from the ancient Greek ἀρχή ("beginning") and γόνος ("offspring"), is a multicellular structure or organ of the gametophyte phase of certain plants, producing and containing the ovum or female gamete. The corresponding male organ is called the ...
B 410 Fern prothallia, antheridia & archegonia B 415 Fern prothallium with young sporophyte: I. FERN SPORULATION: Make a wet mount of sori: press freshly collected Ebony Spleenwort fertile leaflet (with sori) Take ...
... the moss genus mnium, antheridia of many mosses On its moisture holding capacity, absorbing up to In liverworts, mosses producing marchantia photo Within anmosses produce sperm Mature motile sperm get This is produced inmoss, ...
What Is The Purpose Of The Antheridia And Archegonia In Land Plants? More Related to "archegonia" What is the difference between antheridia and archegonia? Antheridia: The reproductive structure that produces male gametes. ... Mnium Sporangium About ...
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Mnium, Thallus With Antheridia, Preserved (Class Of 25) Mnium, Thallus With Sporophyte, Preserved (Class Of 25) Previous Orders. Track Your Orders; Email Specials. Enter your email address to subscribe to our email specials. Redemption Card.
Antheridia - It is easy to find material for a study of antheridia, because, ... Other species of Bryum and species of Mnium, like M. cuspidatum, make good sections. Polytrichum has a large cluster of antheridia surrounded by reddish leaves, ...
Species of tip antheridium slides moss mnium mature antheridium. Ga naar navigatie, zoeken moss. Mar place by the same plants is called . Axis azimuthal the reproductive they . ... Jane orr antheridia, which produce and list of sterile. .
Purchase Bryophyta Microscope Slides, such as Liverwort slides, Polytrichum slides, Antheridia slides, Mnium slides, Marchantia slides, Moss slides
B. Mnium The moss genus Mnium possesses archegonia which are considered by some to be among the most primitive types of archegonia in the "Embryophyta". ... The antheridia of Marchantia are borne within antheridial chambers embedded within the tissues of
Antheridia and archegonia of Mnium mounted together for comparison. Like 1368767254 false -1 0 0 0 ( 0 ) Customer Reviews There are no customer reviews yet. 5 star 4 star 3 ...
Mnium antherids near-median l.s. Antheridia are at the top of broad, flat tips of the male moss stem. The tip is surrounded by leaf-like scales to form a cup. When it rains, the sperm empty into the cup and raindrops splash them out.
Mosses such as Mnium hornum (shown at right) are true land plants; they don't normally live underwater. ... This image shows numerous antheridia, each filled with sperm. The sperm appear as dark dots. Archegonial head.
Permanent Slides of Moss Gametangia: Mnium antheridia (slide #8, slide box C) Note antheridia, and sperm. Note that all structures are haploid. Mnium archegonia (slide #9, slide box C) Notice that these archegonia are erect, not pendulous [hanging down] as in Marchantia.
Challenge 9: Observe the microscopic details of the Mnium antheridia in the prepared slides. Find the gamete producing structures. What are they? Where are they located? What do they look like? Challenge 10: Observe the microscopic details of the Mnium archegonia in the prepared
Classified in. S photostream mnium. As antheridia. Prices exclusive of mnium mounted together for haploid. Jacketed gamete producing structures antherida plural antheridia. How can look just like all prices exclusive of peat.
Mnium. Mnium cuspidatum's spore-case, with top of stalk, focusing on the lid and outside of the peristome. Mnium. ... Mnium. Antheridia and a pistillidium of the Mnium cuspidatum, at the end of a stem of same plant, ...
Keywords : plant, moss, Mnium, antheridia, sperm. Text: The large pink ovals are the antheridia of a moss. Keywords : moss, Mnium, bryophyta, archegonia. Text: The pink areas in the middle of the image are archegonia, that produce the.
Mnium protenema Plants are placed into two simple kingdom subsections: nonvascular and vascular plants. ... These micrographs provide a comparison of the antheridia of nonvascular Liverworts, such as Marchantia, with nonvascular mosses, ...
Mnium sp rir botanik und mikrobiologiethread like-frame x cybermystic tags moss just. Multibryophyte lab reviewthe antheridium on one gametophore, adhesion alternation its life. ... exporters, moss antheridia are not embedded but recalls.
... (sperm) are formed in antheridia. Drawing of liverwort spermatozoid (by K. Renzaglia) Liverwort sperm cells have multiple flagella that can propel them forward through water to reach the archegonia. This ...
Observe prepared slides of moss (Mnium) antheridia and archegonia. Make a sketch below. Once the sperm are mature, they are released and swim to the egg cell on a separate female gametophyte. The egg cell is fertilized and a sporophyte is produced. If a ...
Multicelluar photosynthetic autotrophs - The Plantae. Another look at a xs of Mnium antheridia. Home | Previous | Next
View of Antheridia of Mnium Moss. return ... View of Antheridia of Mnium Moss. return
Prepared slides of longitudinal sections of archegonial heads of Mnium (or similar moss) 6. Live hornworts (demonstration) 7. ... Where are fern antheridia produced (i.e., among what structures on the gametophyte)? _____ 19. What are the ...
Multicelluar photosynthetic autotrophs - The Plantae. Close-up of Mnium antheridia. Note the small "grains" of the male gametes. Home | Previous | Next
Some species of moss are monoecious, that is, the same plant can produce both antheridia and archegonia, but both Mnium and Polytrichum are usually dioecious with antheridia and archegonia produced on different plants.
Prepared Slides of Mnium Archegonia and Antheridia. Mnium moss is similar to hairy cap moss in that it has separate male and female gametophytes. The antheridia on the male plants are also clustered into splash platforms as observed in hairy cap moss.
If you didn't find what you were looking for you can always try Google Search
Add this page to your blog, web, or forum. This will help people know what is What is MNIUM ANTHERIDIA
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The Geste has been included because it gives a lot of detail about Robin Hood and his activities and some of the events and places may tie in with recorded history, for example St. Marys Abbey in York was completed in 1055AD which is the year Siward the Earl of Huntingdon died and that is where he lies. From our history books we know that all the Norman sheriffs were in place by about 1078AD and one of the first things they did was to pillage the Saxon churches giving a possible date. In the Geste mention is made of King Edward who knew Robin Hood and six months before the Conquest King Edward was on the English throne, in fact it was he who converted Siward, and his son Waltheof to Christianity. Both these men were the Earls of Huntingdon in their turn and we know that Robin Hood was a devout man who liked to take communion, so perhaps when he was able he took the sacrament at a little church in Barnsdale, which was a place he loved. We know the Normans were ruthless and committed many atrocities so what would happen if one day Robin Hood went to take communion and when he got to the church he received news that a gang of marauders had stripped his favourite place of worship of all its possessions including the communion cup, they had killed the men who had tried to stop them and the final indignity was that before leaving they had raped the women who were worshiping there. We know that Robin Hood never harmed a woman holding them in high regard, so could this have been the start of the legend and the beginning of Robin Hood’s grievances against the Normans and the sheriffs in particular? If so, then let the legend begin.
Hark and listen gentlemen that are of freeborn blood, you shall hear tell of a good yeoman his name was Robin Hood. Robin was a proud outlaw while he walked upon the ground; so courteous an outlaw as he was never found. Robin stood in Barnesdale, and leaned him on a tree; and by him stood our Little John, a good yeoman was he. And also did good Scarlok, and Much, the miller’s son; there was none inch of his body that was worth a groom. Than spoke Little John unto Robin Hood: “Master, if ye would soon dine it would do you much good.” Than bespoke him good Robin: “to dine have I no desire, till that I have some bold baron, or some uncouth guest. That may pay for the best, or some knight or some squire that dwells here by west. A good manner then had Robin; in land where that he were, every day ere he would dine three masses would he hear. The one in the worship of the Father, and another of the Holy Ghost, the third of our dear Lady, That he loved all most of all. Robin loved Our dear Lady; For fear of deadly sin, would he never do company harm that any woman was in. “Master,” then said Little John, “And we our board shall spread, Tell us whither that we shall go, And what life that we shall lead.” Where we shall take, where we shall leave, where we shall abide behind; where we shall rob, where we shall steal, where we shall beat and bind. “Thereof no force,” then said Robin; “we shall do well enough; but look ye do no husbandman harm, that tilleth with his plough. No more ye shall no good yeoman that walketh by green wood, nor no knight nor no squire that will be a good fellow. “These bishops and these archbishops, ye shall them beat and bind; the high sheriff of Nottingham, Him hold ye in your mind.” “This word shall be hold,” said Little John, “And this lesson we shall learn; it is late in the day; God send us a guest, that we were at our dinner!” “Take thy good bow in thy hand,” said Robin; “Late Much wend with thee; and so shall William Scarlok, And no man abide with me.” “And walk up to the Sayles, And so to Watling Street, And wait after some uncouth guest Up chance ye may them meet. “Be he earl, or any baron, Abbot, or any knight, bring him to lodge to me; His dinner shall be prepared. “They went up to the Saylis These yeoman all three; they looked east, they looked west; they might no man see. But as they looked in to Barnesdale, by a secluded street, than came a knight riding full soon they did him meet. All-dreary was his semblance, and little was his pride; His one foot in the stirrup stood, that other waved beside. His hood hanged in his eyes; He rode in simple array; a sorrier man than he was one rode never in summer day. Little John was full courteous, and set him on his knee: “Welcome be ye, gentle knight, Welcome are ye to me.” “Welcome be thou to green wood, courteous knight and noble; my master hath espied you fasting, Sir, al these hours three.” “Who is thy master?” Said the knight John said, “Robin Hood;” “He is a good yeoman,” said the knight, of him I have heard much good. “I grant,” he said, “with you to wend, “my brethren, all together; my purpose was to have dined to day At Blith or Dancastere.” Forth then went this gentle knight, with a care-filled cheer; the tears out of his eyes ran, and fell down by his face. They brought him to the lodge-door; When Robin him did see, Full courteously did off his hood and set him on his knee. “Welcome, sir knight,” then said Robin, “Welcome art thou to me; I have espied you fasting, sir, All these hours three.” Than answered the gentle knight, with words fair and noble; “God thee save, good Robin, and all thy fair company. “They washed together and wiped both, and set to their dinner; Bread and wine they had right enough, and choice slices of the deer. Swans and pheasants they had full good, and fowls of the river; There failed none so little a bird that ever was bred on briar. “Do gladly, sir knight,” said Robin; “Thank you, sir,” said he;” such a dinner had I not of all these weeks three. “If I come again, Robin, Here by this country, as good a dinner I shall thee make as that thou hast made to me.” “Thank you, knight,” said Robin; “my dinner when that I it have, I was never so greedy, by dear worthy God, My dinner for to crave. “But pay ere ye wend,” said Robin; “me thinketh it is good right; It was never the manner, by dear worthy God, A yeoman to pay for a knight.” “I have nought in my coffers,” said the knight, “that I may proffer for shame:” “Little John, go look,” said Robin, “stop, delay not for no blame. “Tel me truth,” then said Robin, “So God have part of thee.” “I have no more but ten shillings,” said the knight, so God have part of me.” “If thou hast no more,” said Robin, “I will not one penny; and if thou have need of any more, more shall I lend thee. “Go now forth, Little John, The truth tell thou me; If there be no more but ten shillings, No penny that I see.” Little John spread down his mantel full fair upon the ground, and there he found in the knight’s coffer but even ten shillings. Little John let it lie full still, and went to his master full low “What tidings, John?” said Robin; “Sir, the knight is true enough. “Fill of the best wine,” said Robin, “the knight shall begin Much wonder thinketh me Thy clothing is so thin. “Tell me one word,” said Robin, kept secret shall it be; I suppose thou were a knight of force, Or else of yeomanry. “Or else thou hast been a sorry husbandman if lived in stroke and strife; an mocker, or else a lecher,” said Robin, with wrong hast led thy life.” “I am none of those,” said the knight, By God that made me; An hundred winter here before Mine ancestors knights have be. “But oft it hath befall, Robin, A man hath be disgraced; But God that sitteth in heaven above May amend his state. “Within this two years, Robin,” he said, “My neighbours well it know, Four hundred pound of good money Full well then might I spend. “Now have I no good,” said the knight, “God hath shaped such an end, but my children and my wife, Till God it may amend.” “In what manner,” then said Robin, “hast thou lost thy riches? “For My great folly,” he said, “and for my kindness.” I had a son, forsooth, Robin, That should have been mine heir, When he was twenty winter old, in field would joust fall fair. “He slew a knight of Lancaster, And a squire bold, for to save him in his right my goods he hath set and sold. “My lands he hath set to mortgage, Robin, until a certain day, to a rich abbot here beside Of Saint Mary Abbey.” “What is the sum?” said Robin; “Truth then tell thou me;” “Sir,” he said, “four hundred pound; the abbot told it to me.” “Now if thou lose thy land,” said Robin, “what will fall of the?” “Hastily I will me go,” said the knight, Over the salty see, “If see where Christ was quick if dead, on the mount of Calvary, Fare well, friend, if have good day; It may no better be.” Tears fell out of his eyen two He would have gone his way: “Farewell, friend, if have good day; I do not have no more to pay. “Where be thy friends?” said, Robin: “Sir, never one will me know; While I was rich enough at home Great boast then would they blow.” If now they run away from me, as beasts on a row; they take no more heed of me than they had me never saw.” For pity then wept Little John, Scarlok if Much together, “Fill of the best wine,” said Robin, “for here is a simple cheer. “Hast thou any friend,” said Robin “Thy guarantor that would be?” “I have none,” then said the knight, But God that died on tree.” “Do away thy japes,” then said Robin. “Thereof will I right none; Wenest thou I would have God to borrow, suppose; guarantor Peter, Paul, or John?” “Nay, by him that me made, If shaped both sun if moon,” “Find me a better borrow,” said Robin, “Or money getest thou none.” “I have none other,” said the knight, “the sooth for to say, But if it be Our dear Lady; She failed me never ere this day.” “By dear worthy God,” said Robin, “to seek all England through, yet found I never to my pay A much better borrow. “Come now forth, Little John, and go to my treasury, and counted me four hundred pound, and look well told it be.” Forth then went Little John, and Scarlok went before; He told out four hundred pound by eight and twenty score. “Is this well told?” said Little Much; John said, “what grieveth thee? It is alms to help a gentle knight that is fall in poverty. “Master,” then said Little John, “His clothing is full thin; Ye must give the knight a livery, To lap his body therein. “For ye have scarlet and green, master, and many a rich array; there is no merchant in merry England So rich, I dare well say.” “Take him three yards of every colour, and look well met that it be;” Little John took none other measure but his bow-tree. And at every handful that he met He leaped foots three; “What devil’s draper,” said little Much, “Thinkest thou for to be? “Scarlok stood full still and laugh, And said, “By God Almighty, John may give him good measure, for it costeth him but light.” “Master,” then said Little John To gentle Robin Hood, “ye must give the knight a horse, to lead home this good.” “Take him a grey courser,” said Robin, “and a saddle new; He is Our Lady’s messenger; God grant that he be true.” “And a good palfrey,” said little Much, “To maintain him in his right;” “And a pair of boots,” said Scarlock, “for he is a gentle knight.” “What shalt thou give him, Little John?” said Robin; “Sir, a pair of gilt spurs clean, to pray for all this company; God bring him out of pain. “When shall my day be,” said the knight, “Sir, and your will be?” “This day twelve month,” said Robin, “under this green tree. “It were great shame,” said Robin, “A knight alone to ride, without squire, yeoman, or page, to walk by his side. “I shall thee lend Little John, my man, for he shall be thy knave; in a yeoman’s stead he may thee stand, And thou great need have.”
THE SECOND FITTE
Now is the knight gone on his way; this game him thought full good; when he looked on Barnesdale He blessed Robin Hood. And when he thought on Barnesdale, On Scarlok, Much, and John, He blessed them for the best company that ever he in come. Then spoke that gentle knight. To Little John did he say, “To-morrow I must to York town, To Saint Mary abbey. “And to the abbot of that place Four hundred pound I must pay; and unless I be there upon this night my land is lost for ay. The abbot said to his convent, There he stood on ground, “this day twelve month came there a knight And borrowed four hundred pound. “He borrowed four hundred pound, upon all his land free; But he come this same day Disinherit shall he be.” “It is full early,” said the prior, “the day is not yet far gone; I had lever to pay an hundred pound, and lay down anon. “The knight is far beyond the sea, In England is his right, And suffreth hunger and cold, and many a sorry night. “It were great pity,” said the prior, “so to have his land; if ye be so light of your conscience, ye do to him much wrong.” “Thou art ever in my beard,” said the abbot, “By God and Saint Richard;” with that came in a fatheaded monk in charge of provisions. “He is dead or hanged,” said the monk, “By God that bought me dear, and we shall have to spend in this place Four hundred pound by year.” The abbot and the high cellarer start forth full bold; the high justice of England the abbot there did hold. The high justice and many more had taken in to their hand Wholly all the knight’s debt, to put that knight to wrong. They deemed the knight wonder sore, the abbot and his retinue:” But he come this same day Disinherit shall he be.” “He will not come yet,” said the justice, “I dare well undertake;” But in sorrow time for them all the knight came to the gate. Than bespoke that gentle knight until his followers: Now put on your simple weeds that ye brought from the sea. They put on their simple weeds, they came to the gates anon; the porter was ready himself, and welcomed them everyone. “Welcome, sir knight,” said the porter; “My lord to meat is he, and so is many a gentle man, for the love of thee.” The porter swore a full great oath, “By God that made me, Here be the best running horse That ever yet saw I me. “Lead them in to the stable,” he said, “That eased might they be;” “they shall not come therein,” said the knight, By God that died on a tree.” Lords were to meat y-set in that abbot’s hall; the knight went forth and kneeled and saluted them great and small. “Do gladly, sir abbot,” said the knight, “I am come to hold my day:” the first word the abbot spoke, “Hast thou brought my pay?” “Not one penny,” said the knight, “By God that cursed me;” “Thou art a shrewd debtor,” said the abbot;” Sir justice, drink to me. “What dost thou here,” said the abbot, “unless thou haddest brought thy pay?” For God,” then said the knight, “To pray of a longer day.” “Thy day is broke,” said the justice, “Land getest thou none:” “Now, good sir justice, be my friend and defend me of my foes! “I am hold with the abbot,” said the justice. “For grants of cloth as payment: “now, good sir sheriff, be my friend, “Nay, for God,” said he.” Now, good sir abbot, be my friend, for thy courtesy, and hold my lands in thy hand Till I have fulfilled the agreement! “And I will be thy true servant, and truly serve thee, till ye have four hundred pound of money good and free.” The abbot swore a full great oath, “By God that died on a tree, Get the land where thou may, for thou retest none of me.” “By dear worthy God,” then said the knight, “that all this world wrought, but I have my land again, Full dear it shall be bought. “God, that was of a maiden borne, Leave us well to speed! For it is good to assay a friend ere that a man have need.” The abbot loathly on him did look, and villainously him did call; “Out,” he said, “thou false knight, Speed thee out of my hall!” “Thou lyest,” then said the gentle knight, “Abbot, in thy hall; False knight was I never, By God that made us all.” Up then stood that gentle knight, to the abbot said he, “to suffer a knight to kneel so long, know not courtesy. “In jousts and in tournament full far then have I be, and put my self as far in press as any that ever I saw. “What will ye give more,” said the justice, “And the knight shall make a release? And else dare I safely swear ye hold never your land in peace.” “An hundred pound,” said the abbot; the justice said, “Give him two;” “Nay, be God,” said the knight, “yet get ye it not so. “Though ye would give a thousand more, yet were ye never the nearer; shall there never be mine heir Abbot, justice, nor friar. “He start him to a board anon, till a table round, And there he shook out of a bag even four hundred pound. “Have here thy gold, sir abbot,” said the knight, “which that thou lentest me; had thou been courteous at my coming, Rewarded shouldest thou have be.” The abbot sat still, and ate no more, for all his royal fare; He cast his heed on his shoulder, and fast began to stare. “Give me my gold again,” said the abbot,” Sir justice, that I took thee:” “Not a penny,” said the justice, “By God, that died on tree.” “Sir abbot, and ye men of law, Now have I hold my day; Now shall I have my land again, for ought that you can say.” The knight start out of the door, Away was all his care, and on he put his good clothing, the other he left there. He went him forth full merry singing, as men have told in tale; His lady met him at the gate, at home in Barnesdale. “Welcome, my lord,” said his lady; “Sir, lost is all your good?” “Be merry, dame,” said the knight, “and pray for Robin Hood, “That ever his soul; be in bliss He helped me out of pain; great had been his kindliness, Beggars had we been. “The abbot and I accorded been, He is served of his pay; the good yeoman lent it me, as I came by the way.” This knight then dwelled fair at home, the sooth for to say, till he had got four hundred pound, All ready for to pay. He prepared him an hundred bows, the strings well prepared, An hundred sheaves of arrows good, the heads burnished full bright, And every arrow 45 inches long, with peacock well prepared, all notched with white silver; it was a seemly sight. He prepared him an hundred men, well harnessed in that stead, And himself in that same suit, And clothed in white and red. He bare a launce gay in his hand, And a man led his packhorse, and rode with a light song Unto Barnesdale. But he went at a bridge there was a wrestling, and there tarried was he, and there was all the best yeomen of all the West Country. A full fair game there was set, a white bull was placed, a great courser, with saddle and bridle, with gold burnished full bright. A pair of gloves, a red gold ring, A pipe of wine, in faith; What man that bereth him best indeed the prize shall bear away. There was a yeoman in that place, and best worthy was he, and for he was far and set upon by strangers, Slain he should have be. The knight had ruth of this yeoman, in place where he stood; He said that yeoman should have no harm, for love of Robin Hood. The knight pressed in to the place, An hundred followed him free, with bows bent and arrows sharp, for to destroy that company. They shouldered all and made him room, to wit what he would say; He took the yeoman by the hand, and gave him all the play. He gave him five mark for his wine, There it lay on the ground, and bade it should be opened, Drink who so would. Thus long tarried this gentle knight, till that play was done; So long abode Robin fasting, Three hours after the noon.
THE THIRD FITTE
Harken and listen, gentleman all that now be here; Of Little John that was the knight’s man, Good mirth ye shall here. It was upon a merry day that young men would go shoot; Little John fetched his bow anon, And said he would them meet. Three times Little John shot about, and always he slit the wand; the proud sheriff of Nottingham By the mark did stand. The sheriff swore a full great oath: “by him that died on a tree, this man is the best archer that ever yet saw I me. “Say me now, strong young man, what is now thy name? In what country were thou born, And where is thy normal dwelling? “In Holderness, sir, I was born, indeed all of my dame; Men call me Reynolde Green When I am at home.” “Say me, ReynoIde Greenleaf, Would thou dwell with me? And every year I will thee give twenty mark to thy fee.” “I have a master,” said Little John, “A courteous knight is he; May ye leave get of him, the better may it be.” The sheriff got Little John Twelve months of the knight; Therefore he gave him right anon A good horse and strong. Now is Little John the sheriff’s man, God lends us well to speed! But always thought Little John To avenge himself well. “Now so God me help,” said Little John, And by my true loyalty, I shall be the worst servant to him that ever yet had he.” It fell upon a Wednesday the sheriff on hunting was gone, And Little John lay in his bed, and was forgot at home. Therefore he was fasting Till it was past the noon; “Good sir steward, I pray to thee, Give me my dinner,” said Little John. “It is long for Greenleaf Fasting thus for to be; Therefore I pray thee, sir steward, my dinner give me.” “Shalt thou never eat nor drink,” said the steward, “Till my lord be come to town:” “I make mine avow to God,” said Little John, “I would rather crack thy crown. “The butler was full uncourageous; there he stood on floor He start to the buttery and shut fast the door. Little John gave the butler such a tap His back went nearer in two; though he lived an hundred year, the worse should he go. He kicked the door with his foot; it went open well and fine; and there he made a generous provision, both of ale and of wine. “Since ye will not dine,” said Little John, “I shall give you to drink; and though ye live an hundred winter, On Little John ye shall think.” Little John ate, and Little John drank, the while that he would; the sheriff had in his kitchen a cook, A stout man and a bold. “I make mine avow to God,” said the cook, Thou art a cursed servant in any house for to dwell, for to ask thus to dine.” And there he lent Little John Good strokes three; “I make mine avow to God,” said Little John, “these strokes liked well me. “Thou art a bold man and hardy, and so thinketh me; and ere I pass from this place tested better shall thou be. “Little John drew a full good sword, The cook took another in hand; They thought no thing for to flee, But stiffly for to stand. There they fought sore together Twenty minutes and well more, might neither other harm do, the amount of an hour. “I make mine avow to God,” said Little John, And by my true loyalty, Thou art one of the best sword-men that ever yet saw I me. “Couldest thou shoot as well in a bow, to green wood thou shouldest with me, And two times in the year thy clothing Changed should be; “And every year of Robin Hood Twenty mark to thy fee:” “Put up thy sword,” said the cook, And fellows will we be.” Than he fetched to Little John the fillets of a doe, Good bread, and full good wine, they ate and drank thereto. And when they had drunken well, their troth together they plight that they would be with Robin That very same night. They did them to the treasure house, as fast as they might go; the locks, that were of full good steel, they broke them everyone. They took away the silver vessel, and all that they might get; precious, drinking cup, no spoons, would they not forget. Also they took the good pence, Three hundred pound and more, and did them straight to Robin Hood, under the green wood here. “God thee save, my dear master, And Christ thee save and see!” And then said Robin to Little John, “Welcome might thou be. “Also be that fair yeoman Thou bringest there with thee, what tidings from Nottingham? Little John, tell thou me.” “Well thee greeteth the proud sheriff, and sendeth thee here by me His cook and his silver vessel, and three hundred pound and three.” “I make mine avow to God,” said Robin, “And to the Trinity, It was never by his good will this good is come to me.” Little John there him bethought on a shrewd wile; five miles in the forest he ran, befell exactly as he wished. Than he met the proud sheriff, hunting with hounds and horn, Little John could of courtesy, and knew him before. “God thee save, my dear master, And Christ thee save and see!” “Reynolde Greenleaf,” said the sheriff, where hast thou now been? “I have be in this forest; A fair sight did I see; It was one of the fairest sights that ever yet saw I me. Yonder I saw a right fair hart, His colour is of green; Seven score of deer upon a herd be with him all together. “Their tines are so sharp, master, of sixty, and well more, That I durst not shoot for dread, lest they would me slay.” “I make mine avow to God,” said the sheriff, “That sight would I fain see:” “busk you thitherward, my dear master, anon, and go with me.” The sheriff rode, and Little John Of foot he was full smart, and when they came before Robin, “Lo, sir, here is the master-hart.” Still stood the proud sheriff, a sorry man was he; “may woe come to you, Reynolde Greenleaf, Thou hast betrayed now me.” “I make mine avow to God,” said Little John, “Master, ye be to blame; I was mis-served of my dinner when I was with you at home.” Soon he was to supper set, and served well with silver white, and when the sheriff saw his vessel, for sorrow he might not eat. “Make glad cheer,” said Robin Hood, “Sheriff, for charity, And for the love of Little John Thy life I grant to thee.” When they had supped well, the day was all gone; Robin commanded Little John To draw off his hose and his shoes; His tunic, and his coat of woollen cloth, That was furred well and fine, And took him a green mantel, To lap his body therein. Robin commanded his strong young men, Under the green tree, They should lie in that same suit, That the sheriff might them see. All night lay the proud sheriff in his breech and in his shirt; No wonder it was, in green wood, though his sides began to ache. “Make glad cheer,” said Robin Hood, “Sheriff, for charity; for this is our order indeed, under the greenwood tree.” “This is harder order,” said the sheriff, “Than any anchorite or friar; for all the gold in merry England I would not long dwell here.” “All this twelve months,” said Robin, “Thou shalt dwell with me; I shall thee teach, proud sheriff, an outlaw for to be.” “Ere I be here another night,” said the sheriff, “Robin, now pray I thee, Smite off mine head rather to-morrow, and I forgive it thee. “Let me go,” then said the sheriff, “for saint Charity, And I will be the best friend that ever yet had ye.” “Thou shalt swear me an oath,” said Robin, “on my bright brand; Shalt thou never intend me harm, by water nor by land. “And if thou find any of my men, by night or by day, upon thine oath thou shalt swear to help them that thou may.” Now hath the sheriff sworn his oath, and home he began to go; He was as full of green wood as ever was heap of stone.
THE FOURTH FITTE
The sheriff dwelled in Nottingham; He was happy he was agone; And Robin and his merry men went to wood anon. “Go we to dinner,” said Little John; Robin Hood said, “Nay; for I dread Our Lady is wroth with me, for she sent me not my pay.” “Have no doubt, master,” said Little John; “Yet is not the sun at rest; for I dare say, and safely swear, the knight is true and trusty.” “Take thy bow in thy hand,” said Robin, “Let Much wend with thee, and so shall William Scarlok, And no man abide with me. “And walk up under the Sayles, And to Watling-Street, And wait after some uncouth guest; Up chance ye may them meet. “Whether he be messenger, or a man that mirthes knows, of my good he shall have some, If he be a poor man.” Forth then start Little John, Half in grief and pain, and gird him with a full good sword, under a mantel of green. They went up to the Sayles, These yeomen all three; they looked east, they looked west, they might no man see. But as they looked in Barnesdale, by the high way, than were they ware of two black monks, each on a good palfrey. Then bespoke Little John, To Much he did say, “I dare lay my life as a pledge, that these monks have brought our pay. “Make glad cheer,” said Little John, “and grasp your bows of ewe, And look your hearts be sure and determined, your strings trusty and true. “The monk hath two and fifty men, And seven packhorses full strong; there rideth no bishop in this land so royally, I understand. “Brethren,” said Little John, “here ask no more but we three; but we bring them to dinner, our master dare we not see. “Bend your bows,” said Little John, “Make all yon press to stand; the foremost monk, his life and his death is closed in my hand. “Abide, churl monk,” said Little John, “No farther that thou go; If thou dost, by dear worthy God, Thy death is in my hand. “And evil thrift on thy heed,” said Little John, “Right under thy hat’s band; For thou hast made our master wroth, He is fasting so long.” “Who is your master?” said the monk; Little John said, “Robin Hood;” “He is a strong thief,” said the monk, of him heard I never good.” “Thou lyest,” then said Little John, “and that shall rue thee; He is a yeoman of the forest, to dine he hath asked thee. “Much was ready with an arrow, readily and anon; He set the monk to fore the breast, to the ground that he did go. Of two and fifty strong young yeomen there abode not one, save a little page and a groom, to lead the packhorses with Little John. They brought the monk to the lodge-door, whether he liked it or not, for to speak with Robin Hood, curses on their teeth. Robin did adown his hood, the monk when that he see; the monk was not so courteous, His hood then let he be. “He is a churl, master, by dear worthy God,” than said Little John: “Thereof no force,” said Robin, “for courtesy knows he none. “How many men,” said Robin, “Had this monk, John?” Fifty and two when that we met, but many of them be gone.” “Let blow a horn,” said Robin, “that fellowship may us know;” Seven score of strong yeomen Came pricking on a row. And everyone of them a good mantle of scarlet and striped cloth; all they came to good Robin, to wit what he would say. They made the monk to wash and wipe, and sit at his dinner, Robin Hood and Little John They served him both together. “Do gladly, monk,” said Robin. “Thank you, sir,” said he. “Where is your abbey, when ye are at home, and who is your avow?” “Saint Mary abbey,” said the monk, “Though I be simple here.” “In what office?” Said Robin: “Sir, the monk in charge of provisions. “Ye be the more welcome,” said Robin, “So as I ever prosper; Fill of the best wine,” said Robin, “this monk shall drink to me. “But I have great marvel,” said Robin, “of all this long day; I dread Our Lady be wroth with me, She sent me not my pay.” “Have no doubt, master,” said Little John, “Ye have no need, I say; This monk it hath brought, I dare well swear, For he is of her abbey.” “And she was a borrow,” said Robin, “between a knight and me, of a little money that I him lent, under the green tree. “And if thou hast that silver y-brought, I pray thee let me see; and I shall help thee eftsoons, if thou have need to me.” The monk swore a full great oath, with a sorry cheer, Of the borrow-hood thou speakest to me, Heard I never guarantee.” “I make mine avow to God,” said Robin, “Monk, thou art to blame; For God is hold a righteous man, And so is his mother. “Thou toldest with thine own tongue, Thou may not say nay, How thou art her servant, and servest her every day. “And thou art made her messenger, my money for to pay; Therefore I can the more thank Thou art come at thy day. “What is in your coffers?” said Robin, “True then tell thou me:” “Sir,” he said, “twenty marks, as l may prosper. “If there be no more,” said Robin, “I will not one penny; If thou hast need of any more, Sir, more I shall lend to thee. “And if I find more,” said Robin, “indeed thou shalt it forgo; for of thy spending-silver, monk, Thereof will I right none. “Go now forth, Little John, “And the truth tell thou me; If there be no more but twenty mark, No penny that I see.” Little John spread his mantle down, as he had done before, and he counted out of the monk’s baggage Eight hundred pound and more. Little John let it lie full still, and went to his master in haste; “Sir,” he said, “the monk is true enough; Our Lady hath doubled your cast.” “I make mine avow to God,” said Robin-”Monk, what told I thee? - - Our Lady is the truest woman that ever yet found I me. “By dear worthy God,” said Robin, “to seek all England through, yet found I never to my pay A much better guarantor. “Fill of the best wine, and do him drink,” said Robin, “And greet well thy lady courteous, And if she have need to Robin Hood, A friend she shall him find. “And if she needed any more silver, Come thou again to me, And, by this token she hath me sent, She shall have such three.” -The monk was going to London ward, there to hold great court, the knight that rode so high on horse, to bring him under foot. “Whether be ye away?” said Robin: “Sir, to manors in this land, to reckon with our estate managers, that have done much wrong.” “Come now forth, Little John, and hearken to my tale; A better yeomen I know none, to seek a monk’s baggage. “How much is in yonder other courser?” said Robin, “the sooth must we see: By Our Lady,” then said the monk, “that were no courtesy, “To bid a man to dinner, And sith him beat and bind.” “It is our old; manner,” said Robin, to leave but little behind.” The monk took the hors with spur, No longer would he abide: “Ask to drink,” then said Robin, “ere that ye further ride.” “Nay, for God,” then said the monk, “I am sorry I came so near; at a better price I might have dined in Blythe or in Doncaster.” “Greet well your abbot,” said Robin, “And your priory I you pray, and bid him send me such a monk to dinner every day.” Now let we that monk be still, And speak we of that knight: Yet he came to hold his day, while that it was light. He did him straight to Barnesdale, under the green tree, and he found there Robin Hood, and all his merry company. The knight light down of his good palfrey; Robin when he did see, So courteously he did adown his hood, And set him on his knee. “God thee save, Robin Hood, and all this company:” “Welcome be thou, gentle knight, and right welcome to me.” Than bespoke him Robin Hood, to that knight so free: “what need driveth thee to green wood? I pray thee, sir knight, tell me. “And welcome be thou, gentle knight, why hast thou be so long?” “For the abbot and the high justice would have had my land.” “Hast thou thy land again?” said Robin; “Truth then tell thou me:” “Yee, for God,” said the knight, “and that thank I God and thee. “But take not a grief,” said the knight, “that I have be so long; I came by a wrestling, And there I helped a poor yeoman, with wrong was put behind.” “Nay, for God,” said Robin, “Sir knight, that thank I thee; what man that helpeth a good yeoman, His friend then will I be.” “Have here four hundred pound,” then said the knight, “the which ye lent to me; and here is also twenty mark for your courtesy.” “Nay, for God,” then said Robin, “Thou enjoy for ever; For Our Lady, by her high cellarer, Hath sent to me my pay. “And if I took it twice, A shame it were to me; But truly, gentle knight, Welcome art thou to me.” When Robin had told his tale, He laughed and bade good cheer: “By my troth,” then said the knight, “your money is ready here.” “Brook it well,” said Robin, “Thou gentle knight so free And welcome be thou, gentle knight, under my meeting tree. “But what shall these bows do?” said Robin, and these arrows y-feathered free?” “By God,” then said the knight, “A poor present to thee.” “Come now forth, Little John, and go to my treasury, and bring me there four hundred pound; the monk counted it out. “Have here four hundred pound, Thou gentle knight and true, And buy horse and harness good, and gild thy spurs all new. “And if thou fail any spending, Come to Robin Hood, And by my truth thou shalt none fail, the whiles I have any good. “And brook well thy four hundred pound, which I lent to thee, and make thy self no more so bare, by the counsel of me.” Thus then helped him good Robin, The knight all of his care: God that sit in heaven high, Grant us well to fare!
THE FIFTH FITTE.
Now hath the knight his leave y-take, and went him on his way, Robin Hood, and his merry men Dwelled still full many a day. Harken and listen, gentle men, and hearken what I shall say, How the proud sheriff of Nottingham Did cry a full fair play; That all the best archers of the north should come upon a day, and he that shooteth best of all the game shall bear away. He that shooteth allther best, furthest fair, and low, at a pair of finely butts, under the green wood, A right good arrow he shall have, the shaft of silver white, the head and the feathers of rich red gold, In England is none like. This then heard good Robin, under his meeting-tree: “Make you ready, ye strong young men; that shooting will I see. “Prepare you, my merry young men, ye shall go with me; and I will know the sheriff’s faith, true if he be. “When they had their bows y-bent, their tackles feathered free, Seven score of strong young men Stood by Robin’s knee. When they came to Nottingham, The butts were fair and long; many was the bold archer that shooted with bow strong. “There shall but six shoot with me; the other shall guard my head, and stand with good bows bent, that I be not deceived.” The fourth outlaw his bow did bend, and that was Robin Hood, and that beheld the proud sheriff, all by the butt as he stood. Thrice Robin shot about, and always he slit the wand, and so did good Gylbert With the white hand. Little John and good Scarlock were archers good and free; Little Much and good Reynolde, The worst would they not be. When they had shot about, these archers fair and good, evermore was the best, for sooth, Robin Hood. Him was delivered the good arrow, for best worthy was he; He took the gift so courteously, to green wood would he. They cried out on Robin Hood, And great horns did they blow “Woe worth thee, treason!” said Robin, “Full evil thou art to know. “And woe be thou, thou proud sheriff, Thus gladding thy guest, other wise thou promised me in yonder wild forest. “But had I thee in green wood, under my trystell-tree, Thou shouldest leave me a better pledge than thy true loyalty.” Full many a bow there was bent, and arrows let they glide; Many a kirtell there was rent, and hurt many a side. The outlaws” shot was so strong that no man might them drive, and the proud sheriff’s men, they fled away very quickly. Robin saw the ambush break out, in green wood he would have been; many an arrow there was shot among that company. Little John was hurt full sore, with an arrow in his knee that he might neither neither go nor ride; It was full great pity. “Master,” then said Little John, “If ever thou lovedest me, and for that same lord’s love that died upon a tree, “And for the rewards of my service, that I have served thee, Let never the proud sheriff Alive now find me. “But take out thy brown sword, and smite all off my head, and give me wounds deep and wide; No life on me be left.” “I would not that,” said Robin, “John, that thou were slain, for all the gold in merry England, though it lay now on a row.” “God forbid,” said Little Much, “that died on a tree, that thou shouldest, Little John, Part our company.” Up he took him on his back, and bare him well a mile; many a time he laid him down, and shot another while. Then was there a fair castle, A little within the wood, Double-ditched it was about, and walled, by the cross. And there dwelled that gentle knight, Sir Richard at the Lee; That Robin had lent his good, under the greenwood tree. In he took good Robin, and all his company: “Welcome be thou, Robin Hood, Welcome art thou to me; “and much I thank thee of thy comfort, and of thy courtesy, and of thy great kindness, under the greenwood tree. “I love no man in all this world So much as I do thee; For all the proud sheriff of Nottingham, Right here shalt thou be. “Shut the gates, and draw the bridge, and let no man come in, And arm you well, and make you ready, And to the walls go win. “For one thing, Robin, I thee promise; I swear by Saint Quintine, These forty days thou dwell with me, to sup, eat, and dine.” Boards were laid, and clothes were spread, Readily and anon; Robin Hood and his merry men to meat did they go.
THE VI. FITTE.
Harken and listen, gentlemen, and hearken to your song How the proud sheriff of Nottingham, and men of arms strong, Full fast came to the High Sheriff, The country up to rout, and they beset the knight’s castle, the walls all about. The proud sheriff loud did cry, and said, “Thou traitor knight, Thou keenest here the king’s enemies, against the law and right.” “Sir, I will avow that I have done, the deeds that here be performed, upon all the lands that I have, as I am a true knight. “Wend forth, sirs, on your way, and do no more to me till ye wit our king’s will, what he will say to thee.” The sheriff thus had his answer, without any lie; forth he went to London town, all for to tell our king. There he told him of that knight, and also of Robin Hood, And also of the bold archers, that were so noble and good. “He will avow that he hath done, to maintain the outlaws strong; He will be lord, and set you at nought, in all the north land.” “I will be at Nottingham,” said our king, “within this fourteen night, and take I will Robin Hood, and so I will that knight. “Go now home, sheriff,” said our king, “and do as I bid thee; and ordain good archers enough, of all the wide country;” The sheriff had his leave I-take, and went him on his way, And Robin Hood to greenwood, upon a certain day. And Little John was whole of the arrow that shot was in his knee, and did him straight to Robin Hood, under the greenwood tree. Robin Hood walked in the forest, under the leaves green; the proud sheriff of Nottingham Thereof he had great sorrow. The sheriff there failed of Robin Hood; He might not have his prey, than he awaited this gentle knight, both by night and day. Ever he waited the gentle knight, Sir Richard at the Lee, as he went on hawking by the riverside, and let his hawks fly. Took he there this gentle knight, with men of arms stronger, And led him to Nottingham ward, Bound both foot and hand. The sheriff swore a full great oath, by him that died on rood; He would rather have an hundred pound that he had Robin Hood. This heard the knight’s wife, a fair lady, and a free; She set her on a good palfrey, to greenwood anon rode she. When she came in the forest, under the green-wood tree, Found she there Robin Hood, And al his fair company. “God thee save, good Robin, And all thy company; For Our dear Lady’s sake, A boon grant thou me. “Let never my wedded lord shamefully slain be; He is fast bound to Nottingham ward, for the love of thee.” Anon then said good Robin To that lady so free, “what man hath your lord I-take? “For sooth as I thee say; He is not yet three miles Passed on his way.” Up then start good Robin, as man that had been crazy: “prepare yourselves, my merry men, for him that died on rood. And he that this sorrow forsaketh, by him that died on tree, Shall he never in green-wood No longer dwell with me.” Soon there were good bows bent, More than seven score; Hedge ne ditch spared they none that was them before. “I make mine avow to God,” said Robin, “the sheriff would I fain see; and if I may him take, I-revenged shall it be. “And when they came to Nottingham, They walked in the street; and with the proud sheriff soon did they meet. “Abide, thou proud sheriff,” he said, “Abide, and speak with me; of some tidings of our king I would fain hear of thee. “This seven year, by dear worthy God, I went this fast on foot; I make mine avow to God, thou proud sheriff, It is not for thy good.” Robin bent a full good bow, an arrow he drew at will; He hit so the proud sheriff upon the ground he lay full still. And ere he might up arise, on his feet to stand, He smote off the sheriff’s head with his bright brand. “Lie thou there, thou proud sheriff, Evil may you achieve! There might no man to thee trust the whiles thou were a-live.” His men drew out their bright swords, that were so sharp and keen, and laid on the sheriff’s men, and drived them down quickly. Robin start to that knight, And cut in two his bond, And took him in his hand a bow, And bade him by him stand. “Leave thy horse thee behind, and learn for to run; Thou shalt with me to greenwood, through mire, moss, and fen. “Thou shalt with me to green-wood, without any lie, Till that I have got us grace Of Edward, our comely king.”
THE VII. FITTE
The king came to Nottingham, with knights in great array, for to take that gentle knight And Robin Hood, and if he may. He asked men of that country; After Robin Hood, And after that gentle knight, that was so bold and stout. When they had told him the case our king understood their tale, and seized in his hand the knight’s lands all. All the pass of Lancashire He went both far and near, till he came to Plomton Park; He lacked many of his deer. There our king was wont to see Herds many one, He could hardly find one deer that bore any good horn. The king was wonder wroth withal, and swore by the Trinity, “I would I had Robin Hood, with eyes I might him see. “And he that would smite off the knight’s head, and bring it to me, He shall have the knight’s lands, Sir Richard at the Lee. “I give it him with my charter, and seal it with my hand, to have and hold for ever more, in all merry England.” Than bespoke a fair old knight that was true in his faith: “A, my liege lord the king, one word I shall you say. “There is no man in this country; May have the knight’s lands, While Robin Hood may ride or go, And bear a bow in his hands, “That he shall not lose his head that is the best ball in his hood: Give it no man, my lord the king, to whom you wish any good. “Half a year dwelled our comely king In Nottingham, and well more; could he not hear of Robin Hood, in what country that he were. But always went good Robin By hill recess and hiding place, and always slew the king’s deer, and wielded them at his will. Than bespoke a proud forester, that stood by our king’s knee: “If ye will see good Robin, Ye must do as I advice. “Take five of the best knights that be in your company, and walk down by yon abbey, and get you monk’s weed. “And I will be your lead-man, and lead you the way, And ere ye come to Nottingham, Mine head then dare I lay, “That ye shall meet with good Robin, on life if that he be; ere ye come to Nottingham, with eyen ye shall him see.” Full hastily our king was prepared, so were his knights five, every one of them in monk’s weed, And hasted them thither quickly. Our king was great above his cowl, a broad hat on his crown, Right as he were abbot-like; they rode up in-to the town. Stiff boots our king had on, Forsooth as I you say; He rode singing to a group of monks; the convent was clothed in grey. His large packhorse followed our king behind, till they came to greenwood, a mile under the forest. There they met with good Robin, Standing on the way, and so did many a bold archer, for sooth as I you say. Robin took the king’s horse, Hastily in that stead, and said, “Sir abbot, by your leave, A while ye must abide. “We be yeomen of this forest, under the greenwood tree; we live by our king’s deer, other shift have not we. “And ye have churches and rents both, and gold full great plenty; give us some of your spending, For Saint Charity.” Than bespoke our comely king, Anon then said he; “I brought no more to greenwood But forty pound with me. “I have lain at Nottingham This fortnight with our king, and spent I have full much good, on many a great lording. “And I have but forty pound, No more than have I me; But if I had an hundred pound, I would grant it to thee. “Robin took the forty-pound, and divided it in half; half he gave his merry men, and bade them merry to be. Full courteously Robin did say “Sir, have this for your spending; we shall mete another day;” “Gramercy,” then said our king. “But well thee greeteth Edward, our king, and sends to thee his seal, and biddeth thee come to Nottingham, Both to meat and meal.” He took out the broad target, and soon he let him see; Robin knew his courtesy, and set him on his knee. “I love no man in all the world so well as I do my king; Welcome is my lord’s seal; and, monk, for thy tiding, “Sir abbot, for thy tidings, to day thou shalt dine with me, for the love of my king, under my meeting tree. “Forth he lad our comely king, Full fair by the hand; many a deer there was slain, And full fast being killed. Robin took a full great horn, and loud he did blow; Seven score of strong young men came ready on a row. All they keeled on their knee, Full fair before Robin: The king said him self until, and swore by Saint Austin, “Here is a wonder seemly sight; me thinketh, by God’s pain, His men are more at his bidding then my men be at mine.” Full hastily was their dinner prepared, and thereto did they go; they served our king with all their might, Both Robin and Little John. Anon before our king was set The fat venison, The good white bread, the good red wine, And thereto the fine ale and brown. “Make good cheer,” said Robin, “Abbot, for charity; And for this like tiding, blessed may thou be. “Now shalt thou see what life we lead, or thou hence wend; Then thou may inform our king, When ye together meet. “Up they start all in hast, their bows were smartly bent; our king was never so sore aghast, He weened to have been destroyed. Two yards there were up set, Thereto did they go; by fifty paces, our king said, the marks were too long. On every side a rose-garland, They shot under the trees: “Who so faileth of the rose-garland,” said Robin, His tackle he shall lose, “And yield it to his master, Be it never so fine; For no man will I spare, So drink I ale or wine: “And here a buffet on his head, indeed right all bare:” and all that fell in Robin’s lot, He smote them wonder sore. Twice Robin shot about, and ever he cleaved the wand, and so did good Gylberte With the White hand. Little John and good Scarlocke, for nothing would they spare; When they failed of the garland, Robin smote them full sore. At the last shot that Robin shot, for all his friend’s fare, yet he failed of the garland three fingers and more. Than bespoke good Gylberte, and thus he did say; “Master,” he said, “your tackle is lost, Stand forth and take your pay.” “If it be so,” said Robin, “that may no better be, Sir abbot, I deliver thee mine arrow, I pray thee, sir, serve thou me.” “It falleth not for mine order,” said our king, “Robin, by thy leave, For to smite no good yeoman, for doubt I should him grieve.” “Smite on boldly,” said Robin, “I give the large leave:” Anon our king, with that word, He folded up his sleeve, And such a buffet he gave Robin, to ground he went full near: “I make mine avow to God,” said Robin, “Thou art a stalwart friar. “There is pith in thine arm,” said Robin, “I trowe thou canst well shoot:” Thus our king and Robin Hood Together did they meet. Robin beheld our comely king carefully in the face, so did Sir Richard at the Lee, and kneeled down in that place. And so did all the wild outlaws, when they see them kneel: “My lord the king of England, now I know you well.” “Mercy then, Robin,” said our king, “Under your meeting tree, of thy goodness and thy grace, for my men and me!” “Yes, for God,” said Robin, “and as God me save, I ask, mercy, my lord the king, and for my men I crave.” “Yes, for God,” then said our king, “And thereto sent I me, providing that thou leave the green-wood, and all thy company; “And come home, sir, to my court, and there dwell with me.” “I make mine avow to God,” said Robin, “And right so shall it be. “I will come to your court, your service for to see, and bring with me of my men Seven score and three. “Unless I like well your service, I will come again full soon, and shot at the dun deer, as I am wont to do.”
THE VIII. FITTE.
Hast thou any green cloth,” said our king, “That thou wilt sell now to me?” “Ye, for God,” said Robin, “Thirty yards and three.” “Robin,” said our king, “Now pray I thee, Sell me some of that cloth, to me and my company. “Yes, for God,” then said Robin, “Or else I were a fool; another day ye will me clothe, I trowel, against the Yule.” The king cast of his cowl then, A green garment he did on, and every knight also, indeed, another had full soon. When they were clothed in Lincoln green, they cast away their grey; “Now we shall to Nottingham,” All thus our king did say. They bent their bows, and forth they went, shooting all together, toward the town of Nottingham, Outlaws as they were. Our king and Robin rode together, for sooth as I you say, and they shot pluck-buffet as they went by the way. (Game of trading blows)And many a buffet our king won Of Robin Hood that day, and nothing spared good Robin Our king in his pay. “So God me help,” said our king, “Thy game is nought to learn; I should not get a shot of thee, though I shot all this year.” All the people of Nottingham They stood and beheld; they saw nothing but mantels of green that covered all the field. Than every man to other did say, “I dread our king be slain; Come Robin Hood to the town, indeed, on life he left never one. Full hastily they began to flee, both yeomen and knaves, and old wives that might evil go, They moved with difficulty on their staves. The king laughed full fast, and commanded them again; when they see our comely king, indeed they were so happy. They ate and drank, and made them glad, and sang with notes high, than bespoke our comely king To Sir Richard at the Lee. He gave him there his land again, A good man he bade him be; Robin thanked our comely king, and set him on his knee. Had Robin dwelled in the king’s court But twelve months and three, That he had spent an hundred pound, And all his men’s fee. In every place where Robin came ever more money he paid out, both for knights and for squires, to get him great renown. By then the year was all agone He had no man but twain, Little John and good Scarlocke, with him all for to go. Robin saw young men shoot Full fair upon a day; “Alas!” then said good Robin, “My wealth is went away. “Sometime I was an archer good, a stiff and eek a strong; I was counted the best archer that was in merry England. “Alas!” then said good Robin, “Alas and well a woo! If I dwell longer with the king, Sorrow will me slay.” Forth then went Robin Hood Till he came to our king; “my lord the king of England, Grant me mine asking. “I made a chapel in Barnesdale, That seemly is to see, It is of Mary Magdeleyne, And thereto would I be. “I might never in this seven night No time to sleep nor wink, Neither all these seven days, Neither ate nor drink. “Me longeth sore to Barnesdale, I may not be therefro; Barefoot and clothed in coarse wool I have promised thither for to go.” “If it be so,” then said our king, “It may no better be, Seven night I give the leave, No longer, to dwell fro me.” “Gramercy, lord,” then said Robin, and set him on his knee; He took his leave full courteously, to greenwood then went he. When he came to greenwood, in a merry morning, there he heard the notes small of bird’s merry singing. “It is far gone,” said Robin, “That I was last here; it would please me a little for to shoot at the dun deer.” Robin slew a full great hart His horn then did he blow, that all the outlaws of that forest that horn could they know, And gathered them together, in a short time, seven score of strong young men came ready in a row. “Welcome,” they said, “our master dear, under this green-wood tree,” and there it was that Robin made his home.
Then Robin Hood and little John went over yon bank of broom, said Robin Hood to Little John we shot for many a pound. But now I cannot shoot at all my arrows will not flee, my cousin lives down below, and please to God she will bleed me. Tomorrow I to Kirklees go to skilfully have blood let. I cannot drink or eat my meat for it makes me most unwell, till I have been to merry Church Lees my vein for blood to let. Then said Will Scarlet “I won’t let you go, for bad Red Roger lives close to the route, he loves so to fight he won’t let you pass, without a good guard a challenge he’ll make. To gain my consent, fifty bowmen take, for you my good friend my love knows no end. “Said Robin to Will, “And thou be off home, young Scarlett I say, I wish thee be off. “As soon as he heard what Robin Hood said, William Scarlett for home he did head, “if thou be so angry my master dear, then not one thing more shall you from me hear.” Farewell my good friend said Robin to Scarlet, Little John I say true together we go, with you by my side for to bear my bent bow, cantering together to Kirklees we go.” Yet Robin said John, “You bear your own bow, and shoot an arrow, before we both go.” Said Robin to John, “To that I assent.” Riding together, to Kirklees they went. And on the way, as Scarlett feared, bad Red Roger, he did appear. His sword he thrust, poor Robin’s side, “twas wounded deep, how could he ride. Robin now was nimble of yore, his pride he sought now to restore, He struck a blow with all his might, it hit Red Roger on neck right. And there upon the ground it lay, Red Roger’s head, “twas such a sight, lie there, you rogue you lump of meat, for food the birds and dogs to eat. He said a prayer for Roger Red, and then to Little John he said, I trust to God in heav'n so high, I feel so weak that I may die. Give me the sacraments with your hand, my sacraments so I won’t be dammed, so feeling very feeble and ill, they went as fast as Robin could go. To Kirklees Priory Robin’s near gone, in the saddle sat down very low, the two bold men they both rode in rank, until they came to deep water black. And over brook was laid a plank, upon it kneeled a woman old, and she was cursing Robin bold. Why do you curse bold Robin Hood half a page missing. Continues: - Then on they go together the pair, and happen across two ladies fair, who wait to warn him of danger there, and weeping sadly relate their woe. Friend Robin true has a deadly foe, his weakened body is near its end, his blood to let by relative near, but would she be a relative dear? Said Robin its true but do not fear, for close relatives we are and near, the dame prioress my cousin she is, this day no harm will she do to me. She wouldn’t harm me the world to win, So hurrying forth they quickly went, and never did stop till there in sight, came merry Churchlees, merry Churchlee. Sir Roger of Doncaster, by the wicked prioress lay, and there they betrayed Robin, with their dastardly false play. With bad, foul, and evil thoughts, plots the prioress of Kirklees, who for love of a black knight, betrayed Robin “twas not right. Together for their false love, full evil must now be done, for good Robin how to slay, plotting in bed where they lay. And when they came to merry Church Lees, they knocked upon the ring one two three, none was so ready as his cousin, she rose herself Robin to let in. Now will you sit please cousin dear, this day and drink some beer with me? No, I will not I promise you, till my blood you have letted be. Then Robin gave to dame prioress, full twenty pounds in gold no less. He bade her spend upon herself, when that was gone she would have more. I have a room cousin Robin she said, which you before this day did never see, and if it pleases you to walk therein, then on this day your blood shall letted be. And down she came the dame prioress, and in her hands all wrapped in silk, a pair of blood irons she did hold, with which to do her dirty work. Her hand it was so lily-white, She led him to a private room, She laid the blood-irons on his vein, and pressing hard she pierced it through. She saw the blood so bright so red, she left the room and locked the door, The blood it flowed so bright and red, the blood it flowed so thick and fast. At first it flowed the thick, thick blood, and then the blood began to thin, it bled all day and through the night, till noon next day, it was not right. Good Robin Hood he felt so weak, and in his heart he knew the worst, what could he do to help himself, the ill within it was so deep. Then he beheld a casement door, but weak he was he could not leap, if down then up he could not rise, so death was the unwanted prize. He then thought of his bugle horn, which to his knee was hung down low; he set his horn unto his mouth, and blew three times the sound was poor. The notes were weak but Little John, beneath a tree had heard the song, he rushed towards the sound I fear, my master Robin’s end is near. Little John to Kirklees has gone, running, his master to be near, when he to Kirkley-Hall arrived, his master for to see alive. He broke the locks one two or three, his master thinking to set free, when Robin he himself did find, upon his knees he sadly fell. Good friend he cried good friend, I beg thee master mine, what is that my good friend, quoth Robin Hood to him. What do you beg of me, It is cried Little John, to burn the Kirkley-Hall, and all their nunnery. I never hurt a maid, in all my life so fair, nor at my end will I, they are a treasure rare. Put bow within my hand, an arrow I’ll let flee, where ere my arrow falls, then there my grave shall be. Lay me a green sod under my head another at my feet, my best bow beside me place for truly t’was my music sweet, and make my grave of gravel and green which is most right and meet, give me length and breadth to lie so they will say when I am dead,
HERE LIES BOLD ROBIN HOOD MY FRIEND HERE LIES BOLD ROBIN HOOD
These words they readily granted him, which did bold Robin please, and there they buried bold Robin Hood, near to the fair Kirkleys. Upon his grave was laid a stone, Stating that he died long ago, his deeds they were so true and just, time never can his actions hide. He lifted neither bow nor spear, his murder was by letting blood, so loving friends the story ends, of valiant hero bold and good. Our friends his name was Robin Hood, His epitaph is all we have, as on his grave it firm was set, and you can read it on this day. Like it was now so long ago, the “Robert Earl of Huntingdon, lies underneath this little stone, No archer was like him so good. His wildness named him Robin Hood, full thirteen years and something more, these northern parts he vexed so sore, such out-laws and his merry men. Tis England’s very sad lament, That him they’ll never know again, He died this way it is a shame, have mercy on his soul dear Christ.”Hey down a derry derry down.”
Based on “Robin Hood’s Death” by Child.
KINGS CALLED EDWARD
EDWARD THE CONFESSOR 1042 to 1066
The Confessor had an unfortunate childhood and the lesson he learnt from it was that ambition was folly that would ultimately end in disaster. He grew up delighting in assisting at Mass and in the church generally but at the same time he enjoyed the pleasures of the chase and archery that were suited to his station. He was called by acclamation to the throne at the age of about forty, being welcomed even by the Danish settlers owing to his gentle saintly character although not by the formidable group of Anglo-Danish warriors and statesmen who accepted Edward as king only by popular choice and right of birth. They had no affection at all for the dynasty to which he belonged.
When Edward was first elected King he must have felt very vulnerable and isolated due to the fact that there was no one at court on whom he could count on for support as was usually the case. Newly elected kings were usually able to rely on the support of their courtiers who were interested in the well being of the Royal Family and were prepared to give faithful service to the new King, often because it was in their own interest. But in Edward’s case apart from a few undistinguished thegns and one or two aging bishops there was no one at Edward’s earliest courts who had any loyalty towards him. Having said that you would expect him to surround himself with Norman favourites and that charge has been levied against him, but that does not appear to have happened, apparently close scrutiny of his charters show that only two of the foreigners at his court were of first importance as English landowners and neither was of Norman extraction. The information that can be extracted from the Doomsday book and other sources gives no ground for the charge that Edward had been endowing his foreign friends lavishly with English lands. (Professor Sir Frank Stenton)
Edward the Confessor was well known to the Earl of Northumbria, and it was with Siward that together they led the English land army against Mcbeth. Siward’s son was Waltheof, who many people believe was the father of Robert of Loxley, both men being at different times the earls of Huntingdon and had connections with Loxley which many believe is the birthplace of Robin Hood. Edward the Confessor was a good king, he was gentle, rosy faced, with white hair and a beard. He was a most fatherly looking figure of a man and he looked after his subjects as though they were his children. He is called the “Confessor” which in Old English is a religious term and it is a rank in the progression towards sainthood. It designates a person who was persecuted for his faith but not martyred. He was a man of strong religious belief, and one of his chief delights was in building churches. The most beautiful of these was the famous Westminster Abbey. He was also spoken of as being “comely” which means beautiful, lovely, or splendid and in this sense it refers to his kindly nature and that is how people regarded him. His subjects respected him, they looked up to him, and they loved him. They would travel miles to touch his hand believing that a single touch from him would heal them. Edward was loved for his gentleness and piety and his people regarded him as a saint long before he was canonised in 1161. The beauty he possessed was not a physical beauty but it referred to an aesthetic or philosophical and spiritual beauty and Edward was an outstanding saintly man. As Socrates said, “I pray thee, O God, that I may be beautiful within.”
His reign was one of almost unbroken peace and he often settled difficult situations without bloodshed but by gentleness and prudence. Being devoid of personal ambition, Edward‘s one aim was the welfare of his people. He remitted the odious “Danegelt,” which had needlessly continued to be levied; and he was profuse in giving alms to the poor. He made his own royal patrimony suffice without imposing taxes and such was the contentment caused by “the good St. Edward‘s laws,” that their enactment was repeatedly demanded by later generations when they felt themselves oppressed. After the terrible happenings of the Norman Conquest life under the Confessor must have seemed very good. As a result of the Confessor’s reign, the average English person saw a reduction in taxes, they saw peace and prosperity, they were happy, and they loved their king. Edward reigned from 1042 to 1066.
And coming to the Confessor who the people loved dearly and flocked to him believing a touch from his hand would cure them of scrofula, the custom continued and Edward I in one year blessed over 1,700 men but the highest annual figure for Edward II is 214, demonstrating how his subjects must have felt about him.
Edward I (ruled 1272 to 1307).
He was a fine looking man, with fair hair and ruddy cheeks. He was so tall that he was nicknamed “Longshanks” but he was well knit and athletic. He delighted in tournaments and his bravery and presence of mind were well demonstrated in the Holy Land when an assassin tried to stab him with a poisoned dagger. He prided himself on his truthfulness and adopted as his motto “keep faith.” His reign is particularly noted for administrative efficiency and legal reform.
To raise cash for government and for the army in 1295 Edward called the “Model Parliament” which represented nobles, church and commoners and this foreshadowed representative government and decreed that the king needed Parliament’s approval to make laws or raise non-feudal taxes. Having said that he was arrogant, lawless, violent, treacherous, revengeful, and cruel; his Angevin rages matched those of Henry II.
For a time Edward I was closely associated with Earl Simon de Montfort, the popular leader of the national party. Later he opposed Simon and defeated him in the battle of Evesham (1265) in which the great earl was slain on August 4. Edward’s arrogant lawlessness and his extreme policy of vengeance especially against the Londoners increased Edward’s unpopularity among the English. Five years later in 1270 he went on a Crusade to the Holy Land. He established English control (1277-83) over Wales and destroyed its autonomy by killing Welsh princes and subdued the people by building nine new castles. On 7th February 1301 he created the title Prince of Wales for his only living newborn son who was born at Caernarfon Castle, pointing out (because the Welsh didn’t want an English speaker) that he “spoke no English.”
In 1286 Edward paid homage to the French King Philip “for all the lands which I ought to hold” in France, an ambiguous oath. On returning to England in 1289 he had to dismiss many judges and officials for corruption and oppression during his absence. In 1290, having systematically stripped the Jews of their remaining wealth, he expelled them from England. After 1294, matters deteriorated further. Queen Eleanor had died in 1290 and Burnell in 1292, and Edward never thereafter found such good advisers. As long as Burnell and Queen Eleanor lived, the better side of Edward triumphed, thereafter, his character deteriorated for lack of domestic comfort and independent advice. He allowed his autocratic temper full rein and devoted his failing energies to prosecution of the wars in France and against Scotland.
Edward invaded and conquered Scotland (1296), removing to Westminster the coronation stone of Scone. Wallace led a revolt in 1297, and Edward, though brilliantly victorious at Falkirk (July 22, 129 , could not subdue the rebellion despite prolonged campaigning (1298-1303).
Edward renewed the conquest of Scotland in 1303, captured Stirling in 1304, and executed Wallace as a traitor in 1305; but when Scotland seemed finally subjected, Robert I the Bruce revived rebellion and was crowned in 1306. On his way to re-conquer Scotland, Edward died near Carlisle. For more than 100 years there had been amicable relations between England and Scotland and peace had reigned on the borders for all that time, the result was that Edward inaugurated 250 years of bitter hatred, savage warfare, and bloody border forays. Thus ends the life of the King we call the Hammer of the Scots.
Edward II (ruled 1307-1327).
“Edward II was one of the most unsuccessful kings ever to rule England.” He was the unworthy son of Edward I, his only saving grace was that he did not have his fathers stammer. Mentally and morally he was a weakling, he was lazy and incompetent and liable to outbursts of temper over unimportant issues, yet indecisive when it came to major problems. In spite of his fathers training he had no ability for business and with such a man on the throne it is easy to see why the reign was one of disaster and disorder. His people held him in little respect and it is hardly surprising that there were rumours that he was a changeling and not the real son of Edward I.
He was a coward in battle and after the defeat of the English forces by Bruce at Bannockburn (1314) Edward was compelled to recognize the independence of Scotland. After suffering severe losses “The Earl of Gloucester told the king, if you destroy your barons, you indeed make light of your own honour.” To which Edward pathetically replied, “There is no one who is sorry for me.” After Bannockburn one royal messenger said it was not surprising that the king did not win battles as he spent his time hedging and ditching.
He was constantly under the influence of some designing favourite and was so weak in character that it was possible for one man to dominate him to such an extent that he would not accept advice from any other quarter. Gaveston, on being told to leave the country by Edwards father tore out handfuls of the prince’s hair. His unseemly devotion to his favourites was demonstrated by his lavish grants to them as well as in other ways and it was unacceptable. The barons had to take action, first they forced the king to dismiss Piers Gaveston, his earliest favourite, and when Gaveston returned they put him to death (1312). Edward’s two new favourites, Hugh le Despencer and his son were overthrown and put to death by the barons (1322).
Five years later in January 1327 Edward’s enemies led by his French queen Isabella, her lover Roger Mortimer, and her brother the French king, planned a widespread revolt. They easily captured the king, with whose weakness and folly the whole land was disgusted. Then Parliament declared Edward the II deposed, and set his young son Edward III. Eight months later the deposed king was brutally murdered by Mortimer.
Yet one benefit resulted, illustrating what the historian Freeman calls, “The temporary evil, but lasting good of a bad king.” Meaning, things grew so bad that in the end Edward was forced to give up the throne, and Parliament’s control over the throne was thus strengthened.
Edward III (ruled1327-1377)
He was only 15 when his father was overthrown and he himself made king. In 1330 he sized Roger Mortimer and put him to death, and he sent away his unworthy mother. With this act he became the real ruler of England. Edward III proved himself a chivalrous knight rather than a great king. He gained temporary glory but no lasting profit through prolonged fighting in Scotland, which he failed to secure and he launched the so-called hundred-year war, which lasted from 1338 to 1453. In 1338 he ravaged northern and eastern France and proclaimed himself King of France in 1340. The high cost of prolonged fighting forced Edward to appeal for funds from his nobles who struggled to maintain power as Edward’s authority dwindled during his dotage. He was influenced by his mistress (from 1364) Alice Perrers. Other problems included the loss of 800,000 subjects to the Black Death (1348-49) Edward III divided his parliaments into Lords and Commons (1332) He created the title “Justices of the Peace” and also founded the Order of the Garter (1348). English was now replacing French as the national language and it became compulsory to use English from 1362.
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From Greek derivation, "philosophy" is derived from two words, philia (love) and sophia (wisdom), which together give us “the love of wisdom.” In other words, a study of philosophy deals with a deep examination of our personal development and our relationship to the universe. This wide-ranging inquiry is reflected in the following questions: How do we view the universe? How do we make everyday decisions? What kind of job is good for me? How do we deal with our existence? Why am I here? How do we look at life as a whole? Therefore, philosophy provides a deeply penetrating study of the "big" questions that occupy the minds of humans, as well as the "smaller" questions that we deal with on a day-to-day basis.
By the time a student is finished with a college course in philosophy, the following should have been covered thoroughly: An overview of important facts, concepts, and theories pertaining to philosophy; the different types of philosophies that exist and how they guide our behaviors and decisions; practical ways to critically evaluate philosophical issues and problems; and the ability to ask the right questions, even when the answers are not available to us.
A college course in philosophy will most likely cover the following topics:
- Introduction: What is Philosophy?
- The Nature of Human Nature
- The Realm of Values
- Knowledge and Science
- Philosophical Perspectives
- Religion: East and West
A study of philosophy should leave students with the ability to think critically, recognize and accept the various ways people express their beliefs and opinions, understand the role philosophy plays in every area of human life, and appreciate the need to build healthy and fulfilling relationships.
Students interested in philosophy should thoroughly explore the websites of The American Philosophical Association and the Association for Informal Logic & Critical Thinking. An additional place to visit would be the Philosophy of Religion Section of the American Academy of Religion.
To fulfill our mission of educating students, our online tutoring centers are standing by 24/7, ready to assist students who need help with philosophy.
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|Home Attitude More Words Can Say|
More Than Words Can Say
When Jesus was eight years old, his parents took him to the Temple and gave two young pigeons as their offering, the sacrifice prescribed for the very poor. Thirty years later, Jesus entered the Temple again and saw retailers and bankers price-gouging the poor—folks needing to buy sacrificial animals for the Jewish ritual sacrifices. Bankers, meanwhile, charged exorbitant interest rates to exchange “unclean” Roman money for the special money needed for Temple use.
Jesus saw everything and said nothing. But in front of everyone, he began to bind a whip of cords, slowly twining one rope strand to another. And his onlookers grew aware that he was about to take sides. Without his saying a word, people saw clearly that business-as-usual would not pass the Son of God. This time, profit maximization at any cost was literally beaten back as Jesus chased out of the Temple those who valued money above people. As it happens, Jesus expects us to love people and use things, not the other way around. He did not fashion a whip to punish the woman caught in adultery; he flailed it at love of money—the sin most public and respectable, which St. Paul reminds us is the root of much evil.
On another occasion, compassion for a blind man moved Jesus to heal him. Many times before, our Lord had restored sight with a word. But this was the Sabbath, and he wished to make a point. So he did the one thing every Jew knew was prohibited: On the day of rest, he made something. He spit on some dirt, made mud, and placed it on the man’s eyes. This silent act exposed the hearts of the super-pious who considered religion a matter of what one didn’t do; and no good Jew worked on the Sabbath. But Jesus’ physical healing and muddy hands showed that “faith without works is dead.”
Something about a physical gesture makes for an undeniable statement. We may convince others that they misinterpreted our words, but it’s almost impossible to erase the meaning of what we do. Knowing a gesture’s power, Jesus used one to show his distaste for the twin false gods of money and religion. Without a word, he said that as long as we rely on these things, we can never learn to rely on Him.
Now those gestures speak to us: Will we roll up our sleeves and dirty our hands to live out our faith in service to those in need? Or is our greatest claim to Christian faith the list of things that we don’t do? Jesus made a whip of cords and dirtied his hands on behalf of those in need; and He is ready to help us choose rightly today as we seek the high calling of our daily work.
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Daily Reflection From Laity Lodge
Prefiguring the Trinity
One of the most common objections to orthodox Christian faith goes something like this: "My big problem with Christianity is the Trinity. This doctrine just doesn't make sense to me. It was made up... Read More +
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Recent stories reported that MK and Ashley were taking Hoodia. Sources spotted the two buying
the product in the local store ... Reports are claiming this is why they have such shockingly thin
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The story of the Nokota horse is above all the story of the Northern Plains of the American continent before the coming of the Europeans. From the Missouri River to the Rocky Mountains, the Northern Plains were a vast, wild ocean of grass waving in the wind, traversed by enormous herds of bison and small groups of horses as free as antelope. The late nineteenth century brought profound change to all life on the plains – the precipitous fall of the native peoples at the height of their civilization, the extermination of the bison, and the exploitation of the wild prairie for agriculture. The survival of the Indian horses – indispensable for hunting, war, and transportation – through this period of change and into the twentieth century is due to a unique combination of circumstance and luck that mingles personal and national history. The horses share the history of the West with men like Sitting Bull, Theodore Roosevelt, George Armstrong Custer and the Marquis de Mores. Last Bullet is the story of one such horse.
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The booby is a large seabird, similar to the gannet. The main differences are that boobies rest on land, and gannets at sea, and that boobies are birds of the tropics and subtropics where as gannets live near the Arctic and Antarctic. They are about the size of a goose. They catch fish by diving into the sea to catch them. Boobies nest in colonies on remote islands where their chicks are safe from predators.
There are four species found in American waters:
- Blue-footed Booby - breeds on islands off California and Mexico, but can stray to the Salton Sea, Arizona and Texas.
- Red-footed Booby - a rare visitor to the Dry Tortugas and California. This, at 28 inches, is the smallest species.
- Brown Booby - also a rare visitor to both coasts of the mainland United States, but it nests in the Baja California region.
- Masked Booby - breeds on the Dry Tortugas but often strays to southern coasts. This is the largest of the Boobies at 32 inches in length.
- Nazca Booby - A species of Booby similiar to Masked Boobies and native to the Galapagos. Untill recently it was believed to be the same species as the Masked Booby.
- National Geographic Field Guide to the Birds of North America (National Geographic 2002)
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The Aesthetic Attitude
Aesthetics is the subject matter concerning, as a paradigm, fine art, but also the special, art-like status sometimes given to applied arts like architecture or industrial design or to objects in nature. It is hard to say precisely what is shared among this motley crew of objects (often referred to as aesthetic objects), but the aesthetic attitude is supposed to go some way toward solving this problem. It is, at the very least, the special point of view we take toward an object that results in our having an aesthetic experience (an experience of, for example, beauty, sublimity, or even ugliness). Many aesthetic theories, however, have taken it to play a central role in defining the boundary between aesthetic and non-aesthetic objects. These theories, usually called aesthetic attitude theories, argue that when we take the aesthetic attitude toward an object, we thereby make it an aesthetic object.
These theories originate in the notion of disinterest that was investigated by eighteenth-century aesthetic thinkers. While important to these thinkers, the idea of disinterest becomes even more crucial in the aesthetic theories of Kant and Schopenhauer. In these two philosophers, especially the latter, we begin to find aesthetic attitude theories. In the twentieth century, some major thinkers adopted the aesthetic attitude as a fundamental notion, but did not do so without facing serious criticism. Indeed, aesthetic attitude theories are not as popular as they once were, due to this criticism and to a more general shift of focus.
Table of Contents
- The Aesthetic Attitude
- Historical Underpinnings
- Twentieth-Century Aesthetic Attitude Theories
- References and Further Reading
There are two parts to the aesthetic attitude: the aesthetic part, and the attitude part. Here, an attitude is a certain state of mind. In particular, it is a way of approaching experiences or orienting oneself toward the world. It may help to think of someone with an optimistic attitude. He has a tendency to see things in a positive light. With the aesthetic attitude, the thought is not that there are certain people who generally see things, so to speak, in an aesthetic light, but more aligned with what is meant by the request that someone “have a more optimistic attitude” or “take a more positive attitude” about a given circumstance. We are asked, in such situations, to make ourselves attend in a certain way. In adopting an optimistic attitude, we focus on features of the situation that we can spin positively – we may realize the bad things are not really so bad and look instead for a silver lining. In adopting the aesthetic attitude, we focus on features of the situation that we think are relevant aesthetically – we may stop thinking about where we are parked and instead begin following the plot and the character development of the play being performed before us.
As these examples suggest, the aesthetic attitude is supposed to be a frame of mind that we can adopt more or less when we choose to. Of course, difficulties can arise for lots of reasons. A cell phone that rings during a symphony is reviled because it inevitably grabs our attention, and problems may arise adopting the aesthetic attitude, too, if we are distracted by hunger or unable to resist work-related worries. Thus, the analogy to optimism may be apt in a further way. It seems much easier for some people to adopt an optimistic attitude than it is for others, and many philosophers have thought that some people have a knack for taking the aesthetic attitude where others find it harder.
There are paradigm cases where we adopt the aesthetic attitude, for example, in a museum or as a spectator at the theater. It is, however, important to realize that the aesthetic attitude is not simply an attitude we take in museums, but one that we can take toward nature, too. Finding the colors of a sunset or the complexity of a nautilus beautiful means directing an aesthetic attitude toward the sunset or the nautilus and thinking about it aesthetically. Indeed, many have argued that we can take the aesthetic attitude toward anything at all, and in doing so, make it an aesthetic object. A street scene, though we would not describe it as art or nature, could thus be approached aesthetically. Since there are things that we can take the aesthetic attitude toward that are not art, the aesthetic attitude is not just an artistic attitude. It is much broader than that.
Not only can we take the aesthetic attitude toward things that are not art, but we can also take it toward things that are not beautiful. Some art is ugly, and certain artworks even flaunt their ugliness for artistic effect. In fact, calling something ugly is giving it an aesthetic evaluation, which in turn requires taking the aesthetic attitude toward it. So, in adopting the aesthetic attitude, say, toward a sunset, you start to look at the aesthetic features of the sunset. For example, you might pay attention to the visual composition of the landscape and view, or perhaps to the soft color gradations. Upon inspecting these elements, you might actually come to find them unsatisfactory. You might notice a traffic jam, a patch of large, barren trees, or a few unappealing vapor trails left by planes. You might reasonably conclude that it was, upon further inspection, kind of an ugly sunset. This conclusion could only be reached by looking at the scene aesthetically, that is, adopting the aesthetic attitude toward the scene. This makes it clear that we adopt the aesthetic attitude not only toward beautiful things, but also toward ugly things. Indeed, we must adopt the aesthetic attitude if any conclusion about a thing’s beauty or ugliness, in other words its aesthetic standing, is to be reached.
While these remarks make it clear that taking the aesthetic attitude toward something is not the same as finding it beautiful, it is a matter of debate whether the aesthetic attitude involves some kind of pleasure. We have seen that it does not necessarily involve straightforward aesthetic enjoyment or positive aesthetic evaluation, but it might still involve some broader kind of enjoyment, pleasure, or satisfaction. Whether it does and what kind exactly is something to be spelled out by the particular aesthetic attitude theory.
As mentioned above, many reserve the term ‘aesthetic attitude theory’ for a theory according to which aesthetic objects are properly distinguished from non-aesthetic objects by our ability to take the aesthetic attitude toward them. Not everyone agrees on this classification of aesthetic attitude theories, but there is sufficient consensus for us to assume it here. Given that, it may be helpful at the outset to point out that aesthetic attitude theories have experienced waning popularity in the past few decades. This may be due to criticism of the theory or to other theories that offer alternative accounts of the relevant distinction, both of which will be canvassed below.
Before continuing, a word of caution may be helpful. The term ‘aesthetic’ is applied to many things: we have already seen aesthetic attitude, aesthetic objects, and aesthetic experience, but philosophers also talk about aesthetic evaluations and aesthetic judgments (for example, judging that something is beautiful), aesthetic features (for example, symmetry), aesthetic contemplation, aesthetic emotions, and so on. Many of these will come up here, but the important thing to keep in mind is that this is just how philosophers refer to the special class of experiences, judgments, emotions, and so forth. that pertains to the art-like realm discussed above. Different theorists take different views of how these notions relate to each other and which is the most basic, but all take as an aim the discussion of the special sphere of the aesthetic.
There are two ways of thinking about the aesthetic attitude that have been most prevalent. First, it has been thought of as a special kind of disinterested attitude. The person who adopts the aesthetic attitude does not view (hear, taste, and so forth) objects with some kind of personal interest, that is, with a view to what that object can do for her, broadly speaking. A collector may view an expensive painting she owns and praise herself for owning such a rare and pricey piece. We might say that, in such a case, she takes an economic attitude toward the painting, but she without a doubt fails to think about it aesthetically. If she were instead viewing the painting contemplatively, thinking about its composition, meaning, and so on, then she would be thinking about it aesthetically, and that seems to be due to her disinterested attitude toward it. Similarly, a music student taking a music theory test might listen for certain particular keys or chord progressions, but he seems to listen to the music with the goal of getting a good grade on his test, rather than listen to the music simply to enjoy it, or for the experience of listening to it.
For many, disinterest is only a necessary condition of the aesthetic attitude, so that an attitude’s being disinterested does not guarantee that it is an aesthetic attitude. Something else may have to be present. A court judge will approach a trial with disinterest in this sense. He will try to be impartial and not let any personal feelings or goals cloud his judgment, but he does not thereby approach the trial aesthetically. Something else about his attitude would have to be present.
Furthermore, having this kind of disinterested attitude toward something by no means precludes finding it interesting. If the collector, in her more contemplative state, finds the interactions among a certain cluster of figures especially meaningful, then we can describe her as interested in those figures. This does not mean, however, that she is interested in them for some external purpose. Disinterestedness, then, does not indicate complete lack of interest (finding something uninteresting), but a lack of personal investment or goal-directed interest.
Suppose now that the music student above were instead listening to the music simply to enjoy it or just for the experience of listening to it. We might say that he was listening to the music for its own sake. This suggests the second traditional way of characterizing the aesthetic attitude. According to this way of thinking about it, the aesthetic attitude involves considering or appreciating something (for example an artwork) for its own sake. This means that we want to experience the work, not because it fulfills some desire for something else, but just because we want to have that experience. So a museum-goer may spend time in the Egyptian art galleries in order to make her son happy, but she may spend time in Islamic art galleries simply because she wants to look at and experience Islamic art, that is, she wants to see the objects for their own sake and not for the sake of anything beyond or outside of them. We will return to both of these traditional characterizations at greater length below.
Now that some idea of the nature of the aesthetic attitude is in place, we can turn to the development of the aesthetic attitude in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. After that, we will be appropriately placed to look at the three main twentieth-century aesthetic attitude theories and some of the criticisms that have been made of them.
Aesthetic attitude theories are marked by their general insistence on the fundamental importance of the aesthetic attitude. Some of these theories hold that the nature of art is explained by the aesthetic attitude. This is generally accepted as an insufficient way of setting the boundaries of art, for reasons we have already seen, since nature, too, is a perfectly fine thing to take the aesthetic attitude toward. Most aesthetic attitude theories thus offer subtler and more complex accounts of the interaction among the aesthetic attitude, art, and beauty. Indeed, many of these philosophers have been keen on distinguishing a variety of different aesthetic qualities. In addition to beauty, they are interested in sublimity, novelty, charm, and so on.
There is no consensus regarding where exactly in the history of philosophy the aesthetic attitude first appears. The phrase ‘aesthetic attitude’ only appears in print very late in the nineteenth century, so some maintain that, before the twentieth century, there were no aesthetic attitude theories properly speaking. Even granting this, there is still clear historical precedent for the theory, and in spirit these historical theories bear a great deal of resemblance to the later aesthetic attitude theories.
Tracing the aesthetic attitude theory back to its origins, we may find its clearest early ancestor in the eighteenth-century notion of disinterest. This is to be found among a group of British thinkers writing about beauty and taste. Among these, Lord Shaftesbury is probably the earliest to discuss the notion in any real depth. The next important figure is Immanuel Kant, who wrote his three critiques at the end of the eighteenth century, the third of which, the Critique of the Power of Judgment (1790), is devoted to his theory of aesthetics and teleology. The final seminal figure is Arthur Schopenhauer, whose book The World as Will and Representation (1844) discusses aesthetic contemplation at length. It is in Schopenhauer that some notion of the aesthetic attitude is most noticeable and the similarities to modern theories most apparent. This section will provide an overview of the classical sources of aesthetic attitude theories, starting from their seeds in eighteenth-century British theories of taste, through Kant, and up to Schopenhauer.
The relationship between the aesthetic attitude and eighteenth-century British theories of taste is a subject of debate. Some philosophers, like Jerome Stolnitz, argue that there is a deep continuity, and that, really, these British philosophers have the same essential views as other classical aesthetic attitude theorists like Kant and Schopenhauer. Others, like George Dickie, have argued that there is an important divide between the two groups of theories. The details of the debate aside, it is hard to deny any connection. At the very least, these British philosophers influenced Kant and thus, either directly or indirectly, inspired everyone who has written about the aesthetic attitude since.
Several important British philosophers wrote about aesthetics and art. Shaftesbury, Francis Hutcheson, and David Hume, among yet others, wrote prominently about beauty and taste. Their theories are often referred to as theories of taste because they each essentially involve the notion of a special kind of faculty, the faculty of taste, that we use to determine an object’s aesthetic value. This faculty is generally taken to be naturally better in some than in others, though we can do things to improve it (expose ourselves to variety, learn about the artistic medium, and so on). Later British theorists, such as Edmund Burke, argued against such a faculty, worrying that it failed to really explain anything.
Most importantly, it is in these theories that we first find the notion of disinterest (though in Hume it appears as a lack of “prejudice”). Each of these philosophers argued that aesthetic appreciation involves disinterested pleasure. Despite slight differences among their notions of disinterest, the general idea is clear. When we are disinterested, we do not regard the aesthetic object as a tool for serving our own interests. One might wonder, however, whether it is independent from all other interests and all other values.
Shaftesbury argues that aesthetic experience is disinterested, but has a Platonic picture on which beauty is essentially the same as goodness and truth. Aesthetic appreciation is thus not devoid of any connection whatsoever to other values (ethical and epistemological), despite lacking connection to our personal ends and interests. For him, appreciating something aesthetically involves the same essential feeling as appreciating something morally. Shaftesbury does not, however, have a proper aesthetic attitude theory according to the above classification. His view is not one according to which our approaching something aesthetically makes it an aesthetic object. Beauty, along with morality and truth, are independent of our minds, though it is through taking the aesthetic attitude that we are able to recognize them. Shaftesbury may think that these things depend on the mind of God, but they certainly do not depend on us.
Hutcheson and Hume, on the other hand, disagree with Shaftesbury’s unified view. Both reject the equivalence of beauty, goodness, and truth, and see more of a gap between aesthetic value and other values. The details of Hutcheson and Hume differ, but both adopt Shaftesbury’s stress on disinterest. This is the crucial point on which all three theorists agree: they all share the central idea of disinterested pleasure as independent from personal interest, and it is this notion that forms the starting point for aesthetic attitude theories.
Kant is the next place to look for a theory of the aesthetic attitude. He takes up the notion of our judgments of beauty, but seems to follow earlier suspicions about a special faculty of taste. He opts instead to make his central notion that of aesthetic judgments, also called judgments of taste or judgments of the beautiful. His task is then to explain what exactly these are and how we make them. According to Kant, aesthetic judgments involve four important aspects. They must be disinterested, be universal, exhibit purposiveness without purpose, and be necessary. This article will focus mainly on disinterestedness, as it is there that we see most clearly the connection to the aesthetic attitude. A brief explanation of the other three will be included, as well, in order to present a clearer picture of the overall view. (See also the article on Kant’s Aesthetics.)
The first necessary condition regards the quality that our judgments of taste have. This is not quality in the sense of their being good or bad, accurate or inaccurate, or so on. Instead, by the quality of such judgments, Kant means their nature, what they are like and what they feel like. Kant points out, first, that all judgments of taste are essentially subjective. They come from our feelings, not from any objective fact that exists out in the world. He then argues that there are three kinds of satisfaction: that which we take in the agreeable, the beautiful, and the good, and he uses the contrasts to better clarify the nature of judgments of taste.
First, the agreeable gratifies some desire. We find tea agreeable when we have a desire for tea. In this sense, the pleasure in the tea is interested, since it serves our purpose. Kant also points out that our finding it agreeable depends essentially on us and our psychology. This also means, though, that it is not up to us to choose what to find agreeable. Our psychologies determine what we find agreeable, and we cannot change what we desire simply by willing to. One cannot stop a craving, for example, just by choosing to stop, since cravings do not work that way.
Next, we come to the good. The good is esteemed and approved, and there is objective value set on it. We find being generous good when we set objective value on generosity or generous actions. Pleasure in the good is also interested, since, for Kant, reason determines what we find good. This is still a personal interest because each person has an interest in bringing about the good. The person who finds generosity good has an interest in bringing about a more generous world, for example, by being generous and encouraging other people to do so.
The beautiful, in contrast, is disinterested pleasure. The art collector who enjoys her artwork for its monetary value enjoys that work in an interested way, and thus has not taken the aesthetic attitude toward it. Consequently, any positive judgment she produces will not be a judgment of taste. Kant takes this idea further, arguing that anyone who really approaches something with a contemplative, disinterested attitude and finds it beautiful (that is, takes the aesthetic attitude toward it) will not even be interested in whether the object in fact exists. To want the object to exist is to have an interest wrapped up in it, or in other words, to have something be at stake in its existence. Kant illustrates his point with a helpful example. Imagine a conversation in which one person asks another whether he finds a certain palace beautiful. He answers by saying that he dislikes things made on the backs and at the expense of the proletariat, or that he would never want such a thing for himself. These are cases where the palace’s existence is offensive or undesirable. The man has simply not answered the question of its beauty. The man has not taken an aesthetic attitude toward it. This is what Kant means when he says that the object’s existence cannot factor into the judgment. The aesthetic attitude is related to these remarks in that we must have a certain frame of mind, that is, a disinterested one, in order to make aesthetic judgments.
There are three other conditions of judgments of taste. They must be universal, which just means that they feel as though they apply to everyone. Calling something beautiful means feeling like everyone should recognize it as beautiful (even if we realize that it is not a fact about the object that it is beautiful). The objects of these judgments also exhibit what Kant calls purposiveness without purpose, or alternatively, finality without an end (a translation offered by Creed Meredith). This may sound complex, but it just means that, while there may be no actual purpose of the object (or at least, not one of which we are aware), we are struck by how it seems to be made for a purpose. For example, though we may not know why a plant’s leaves are arranged in angles echoing the Fibonacci sequence, we notice a certain pattern and appreciate the purposiveness there. If, though, the actual purpose entered our judgment, then we would have the beginnings of interested pleasure, which Kant has argued cannot be aesthetic. Finally, these judgments are also necessary in the sense that it feels like we judge according to some unspoken universal rule, from which our judgment necessarily follows.
Above, we saw that Kant takes aesthetic judgments to be subjective. However, the bigger picture reveals a more nuanced view. Such judgments come from our feelings of pleasure, but only when we take that pleasure to be universal, necessary, and felt in response to purposiveness rather than purpose. The universality, necessity, and reaction to the appearance of purpose (and not to actual purpose) exist only because our pleasure is disinterested. It is precisely when we experience this kind of subjective yet disinterested pleasure that we think these judgments hold universally and necessarily. Thus disinterest, a notion first brought to the fore by the eighteenth-century British philosophers, continues to be a central notion in Kant’s aesthetics. However, Kant does not seem to have a true aesthetic attitude theory in the sense defined above. It is a matter of interpretation, but it looks as though he does not think that any object we approach with this frame of mind thereby becomes an aesthetic object. Many argue that it is not until Schopenhauer, for whom disinterest is even more important, that we see an actual aesthetic attitude theory.
The notion of the aesthetic attitude may not appear fully formed until Schopenhauer, in Book III of The World as Will and Representation. Schopenhauer does not use the term ‘aesthetic attitude’, either, but instead talks about aesthetic contemplation. His understanding of this form of contemplation, however, is clearly related to twentieth-century aesthetic attitude theories, and as such he is generally looked to as the historical philosopher whose view is closest to the contemporary versions of the theory
To understand his view of the aesthetic attitude, it helps to know a little bit about Schopenhauer’s philosophy. He understands life as driven by the Will, which is a kind of unceasing desire and forms the basis of perpetual human suffering. When we desire something, we suffer in not having it. If we were to obtain all the things we desired, we would be overcome with boredom, a deeper and more poignant suffering. Experiencing the world in this way is experiencing the world as Will. However, he sees a few ways out of this. The most permanent solution is to adopt a severe ascetic outlook and stop having desires at all, but a temporary solution is to be found in aesthetic contemplation, where we experience the world as representation rather than as Will.
In a famous passage (section 34), Schopenhauer describes a few things that go along with the aesthetic attitude (although, again, he does not use this term). We may then begin to see how this contemplative state can release us from the cycle of suffering. First, we do not look at things in the ordinary way. This is generally accepted as having both a perceptual meaning and a non-perceptual one. There is a special aesthetic mode of perception where we attend much more fully to the surface features of an object. However, we also typically look at something with an eye to its relationships to other things. Schopenhauer argues that this boils down to looking at it with an eye to how it might help our own goals, that is, relate to our wills. In the aesthetic attitude, though, this relational viewing is completely absent, and we only pay attention to things themselves. Second, we do not have in mind abstract thought or reasoning, but instead focus on the perception alone. Here Schopenhauer says that the representation fills our mind and we are thus filled with calm contemplation. In this way, we stop thinking about the will and, since the perception takes up all of our mental ‘space’, we no longer sense a difference between ourselves and the object perceived. This means that, third, we will begin to see, in a sense, through the object itself to its Idea. So far, what this means is a bit opaque, but we can understand it in the following way. When we stop looking at the particular thing and what it might do for our own ends, we stop experiencing the world as related to our wills. Instead, we experience the world as representation. But these representations must be of something, and indeed they are representations of Ideas. These are similar to Plato’s Ideas or Forms: they are eternal and unchangeable. So when we contemplate things aesthetically, that is, take the aesthetic attitude toward things, we can know the Ideas. (It is, moreover, the aim of the aesthetic attitude to know the Ideas.)
Since everything represents Ideas and manifests the will in some way, anything can become the object of the aesthetic attitude. Not only does this mean that, according to our definition, Schopenhauer has an aesthetic attitude theory, but it also means that the aesthetic attitude has profound practical import. It can release us from the cycle of constant suffering, since we stop experiencing our wills in any way. Aesthetic contemplation also helps us deal with very real, very difficult situations. If we start to think aesthetically about the world, other people, and ourselves, then we will stop being angry, resentful, or sad (though we will also stop being excited or happy). We will instead see things that cause us pain as manifestations of the Idea of humanity, as nothing new or special. To put it a slightly different way, we will stop taking things personally. The vicissitudes of life will become just that, simply fluctuations through which we can have real encounters with Ideas.
It would be misleading to suggest that taking the aesthetic attitude is easy and comes naturally to everyone. It is even slightly misleading to call it aesthetic contemplation. Contemplation suggests passivity, but Schopenhauer argues that artistic geniuses can not only actively adopt the aesthetic attitude, but can also remain in that state for longer than the typical fleeting moment. They find beauty in all kinds of places and use art to communicate their insights to the rest of us. These views have inspired a debate about whether the aesthetic attitude (and aesthetic experience) is active or passive: whether we can make ourselves adopt this outlook and have aesthetic experiences, or whether they simply happen to us when the stars align just right. Schopenhauer answers that the aesthetic attitude is some mix of these, that certain people are more adept at engaging it actively, while it is a transient and happenstance state for others.
In Schopenhauer, we thus see a clear extension of the earlier notion of disinterest. In aesthetic contemplation, we stop thinking about the world and the objects in it as means to our ends, that is, as objects of our will. We also see attention and perception take center stage. Aesthetic contemplation, which can be active or passive, involves intense focus where the perception completely fills the mind. Finally, we see a crucial role for the aesthetic attitude in the larger theory. It helps us know Ideas, and by doing so, releases us from endless suffering. Many aspects of Schopenhauer’s view have resonated with subsequent philosophers of aesthetics. But in order to fully adopt his view, one must adopt much of the rest of his philosophy, that is, his theory of Ideas, representation, and the Will. Later aesthetic attitude theorists are generally unwilling to do this, but they still manage to preserve some key aspects of the view.
There are three prominent aesthetic attitude theorists in the twentieth century: Edward Bullough, Jerome Stolnitz, and Roger Scruton. Each of these three theorists tries to accomplish at least two major goals. First, each tries to give an intuitive definition of what the aesthetic attitude is, one that does not make the wrong attitudes (for example, interested ones) aesthetic attitudes but includes all the attitudes that do seem to be aesthetic. The second aim of each theory is to say something about the relationship between the aesthetic attitude and the philosophy of art and aesthetics more generally. In particular, they all use the aesthetic attitude to provide a definition of aesthetic objects, that is, to demarcate aesthetic objects from non-aesthetic ones.
Bullough, a psychologist, is the first theorist here to use the term ‘aesthetic attitude’, but actually most often uses the interchangeable term ‘aesthetic consciousness’. His theory essentially involves disinterest, which he talks about as psychical distance. It is worth noting at the outset that his theory has not gained widespread support, though it has significantly contributed to the shaping of subsequent theories of the aesthetic attitude. We will see that his way of approaching and developing the notion of disinterest, though perhaps flawed, provides an interesting and evocative metaphor for aesthetic experience.
Bullough calls the central feature of aesthetic consciousness psychical distance, a metaphorical extension of spatial and temporal distance. We are all familiar with what it is to be distanced from something in space; it is just to be far away. Similarly, to be temporally distant from something is to exist, say, a hundred years after it. Bullough characterizes the experience of psychical distance as that of not being very emotionally close to or attached to something and not thinking about its practical role. His example is of a fog. Normally, a fog at sea causes us anxiety because it drastically reduces our field of vision, is associated with unexpected dangers, and is difficult to navigate. If, however, we take the aesthetic attitude toward it, we can direct our attention to its surface features. The fog may look soft and even palpable, and the air may feel peaceful and still. These latter sensations occur because we have been able to insert the proper psychical distance between ourselves and the fog.
This distance, Bullough says, is the result of putting the perceived object “out of gear” with our practical interests. Our practical ends should have no traction on our thoughts when we are properly distanced. We should not think about practical or personal concerns, but instead focus on the object itself. We also need, therefore, to be properly distanced from certain emotions, like those that concern our personal stake or even those that concern morality. That said, emotional response is still intimately involved in aesthetic consciousness and experience, but these emotions need to be generalized beyond our individual, particular feelings. So far, this sounds similar to the notion of disinterest discussed above. Bullough adds to this by explaining two ways distancing can go wrong.
We can fail to be properly distanced from a work if we are too psychically close to it or too psychically far away – that is, if we are too emotionally involved or too emotionally removed. Bullough refers to these conditions respectively as under-distancing and over-distancing. Under-distancing occurs when we are unable to separate our personal interests from what we experience. Suppose a jealous husband watches a performance of Othello and becomes increasingly suspicious, his rage building, and eventually only really sees himself and his wife instead of Othello and Desdemona. This man is under-distanced, since his emotions are too involved in the play’s action. On the other hand, imagine a brilliant satire of ancient Chinese society that we are now in very poor position to appreciate. This is a case of over-distancing. For many such works, the artwork may be sadly unable to engage our emotions sufficiently because we are too removed from it. Thus there is what Bullough terms a distance-limit, beyond which we are too far away to have aesthetic consciousness. He says that, practically speaking, people should err on the side of trying to distance themselves, since our tendency is to get too emotionally involved. What we should aim for, in theory, is the greatest distance without passing the distance-limit.
Here, we can see that spatial and temporal distance are not merely metaphors for psychical distance. We are too temporally removed to properly engage with the brilliant Chinese satire. Similarly, Bullough argues, being too spatially close to a work can make us unable to engage with it properly. This is in fact how he explains the relegation of culinary art to a second class art form. Since we have to taste these things and thus come into direct physical contact with them, we are simply unable to distance ourselves sufficiently from them.
Bullough also uses his theory to interesting effect in explaining why artists are sometimes censored, ostracized, or banned. Artists are better able to distance themselves than the average person, so they see more objects aesthetically. Non-artists, however, may look at the art and see only a hypersexualized youth (Nabokov’s Lolita), say, or a sacrilegious depiction of a holy figure (Serrano’s “Piss Christ”)
Many have found these implications implausible. Physical closeness to a work, for example, does not actually seem to preclude the proper psychical distance or disinterested attitude. There are further worries that, at best, Bullough only offers a necessary condition for the aesthetic attitude. Without something further, he ca not distinguish it from the court judge’s disinterested attitude. That said, Bullough is still an important figure in the development of aesthetic attitude theory. His development of a structured and explanatorily ambitious view set the tone for the aesthetic attitude theories that follow.
For Stolnitz, the aesthetic attitude involves attending to something (anything) in a disinterested and sympathetic way, and doing so for its own sake. When we look at something in a disinterested way, we look at it non-instrumentally. This is just to say that we do not look at it as a means (as an instrument) to some other end. So, as above, the collector who admires her painting for its rarity fails to engage with her painting aesthetically. Similarly, the music student who looks for musical knowledge in the keys and chords of the symphony does not engage with it aesthetically. Interestingly, Stolnitz mentions that this also implies that the attitude of an art critic, either amateur or professional, is opposed to the aesthetic attitude. To see why this is so, it is enough to recognize that the critic has a goal: to form and pass judgment.
By including sympathy as a criterion of the aesthetic attitude, Stolnitz introduces the idea that the right attitude must take the artwork on its own terms. One needs to ignore personal conflicts and biases. The discovery that an artist was a miser should not change one’s aesthetic attitude toward the work, though it may give one pause when thinking morally about the artist. To up the ante, he argues that in order to view propaganda art or Nazi art with the proper aesthetic viewpoint, one will have to view it sympathetically, as well, and ignore the moral backdrop against which these things exist. (Nobody said that taking the aesthetic attitude was easy.) Failure to do so will taint any aesthetic experience that results, something we may be able to see in our occasional complaints to others that they “haven’t even given it a chance.” (To be clear, Stolnitz does not make and is not committed to any claims about the moral import of taking the aesthetic attitude in these difficult situations.)
Stolnitz understands attention, the third major component of his definition, as a kind of alert state. He agrees with predecessors that it is a kind of contemplation, but says that we have to understand contemplation in the right way. He agrees with Schopenhauer that the aesthetic attitude is not as passive as the term ‘contemplation’ suggests. (He disagrees, however, with Schopenhauer’s claim that only artistic geniuses can actively engage in aesthetic contemplation.) Aesthetic contemplation does not involve simply sitting back, relaxing, and letting the mind wander. It involves mental focus and thought, and such intense mental involvement may manifest itself in a tightening of muscles during a thrilling scene, a foot tapping to the beat, or a tilt of one’s head like the figure in a painting. Such physical manifestations are not required by the aesthetic attitude, but they exemplify the active, engaged mental state that itself does constitute the proper attitude.
Stolnitz is a proper aesthetic attitude theorist who argues that we can adopt the aesthetic attitude toward anything. He acknowledges that this implies that nothing is inherently unaesthetic. Stolnitz offers intuitive support for this view, pointing out that artists often approach ugly or boring objects with the aesthetic attitude and create something beautiful. A deformed and hideous bell pepper may, when approached in the right way, become a striking aesthetic object, as in the photographs of Edward Weston. Similarly, a humble shipping container or typeface may, when one takes the proper aesthetic attitude toward it, appear noble, subtle, and beautiful. So we can find traditionally ugly things aesthetic, but we can also find boring, everyday objects aesthetic when we approach them in the right way. It follows, moreover, from this view that neither art nor nature is inherently more aesthetic than the other. Since nothing is inherently unaesthetic, nothing in art is at an aesthetic disadvantage to anything in nature, and vice versa.
He also uses the aesthetic attitude to demarcate the bounds between things that count as aesthetically relevant and irrelevant, that is, what is and is not relevant to the aesthetic experience and to any verdict that may result from it. Thoughts that are compatible with disinterested, sympathetic attention can be aesthetically relevant as long as they do not divert attention away from the aesthetic object. Certain kinds of interpretation can thus count as aesthetically relevant or be ruled out as irrelevant. A poem might perfectly well suggest a cathedral without saying it explicitly. The thought of a cathedral that accompanies the poem is thus aesthetically relevant. However, it might also remind one of a personal experience, say, of one’s wedding that took place in a cathedral. This diverts attention away from the poem and is thus, argues Stolnitz, aesthetically irrelevant.
Stolnitz also applies these ideas to the problem of determining the aesthetic relevance of external facts. Such facts are aesthetically relevant when they (1) do not weaken our aesthetic attention, (2) pertain to the meaning or expressiveness of the object, and (3) enhance the quality of one’s aesthetic response. For example, it may be relevant to know that a certain painting is of the crucifixion of Jesus. It may, however, be irrelevant that Gauguin’s rendering of the Crucifixion does not accurately capture the story as it is told in the gospels. Perhaps the point is, so to speak, precisely to paint it in a different light.
Of all the theorists surveyed here, Stolnitz falls most squarely into our model of an aesthetic attitude theorist. His notion of the aesthetic attitude is completely explicit and forms the core of his theory. He uses it to define aesthetic objects and explain the aesthetic relevance of external thoughts and facts, as well as a host of related aesthetic issues.
For Scruton, the aesthetic attitude has three main components. First, its goal is some kind of pleasure, enjoyment, or satisfaction. This means that, although the aesthetic attitude may not always in fact yield pleasure, it is our hope in taking such an attitude that it will. If we thought there were no enjoyment of any kind we could get out of an object, we would not attend to it aesthetically. The view should not be mistaken for what we might call aesthetic hedonism, the view that aesthetic value resides solely in a thing’s ability to give us pleasure. Pleasure should not be thought of too narrowly, either. Sad music can afford aesthetic satisfaction, as can paintings of violent scenes.
The aesthetic attitude must also involve attention to an object for its own sake. Scruton expresses dissatisfaction about how little the notion of ‘for its own sake’ has been explained by other theorists. To see this, consider that we know perfectly well what it means to do something for our own sake or for someone else’s sake. It is to do something with their interests in mind. What would attending to art for the sake of the art’s interests be, though? Scruton finds the particular phrase strange, but tries to find the kernel of insight in it. To be interested in something for its own sake involves a desire to go on experiencing it, but not in order to satisfy another, separate desire. This means that, if the art collector has a desire to look at her painting, and part of her desire to look at it is that she desires to admire its rarity, then she has not taken the aesthetic attitude. She is interested in it for its own sake only when there are no other desires she has that seeing the painting would satisfy.
Third and finally, the aesthetic attitude is normative. Normative just means that there is a certain kind of ‘should’-ness about it or that it explicitly or implicitly contains a value judgment. If a mother tells her son to be respectful, she makes a normative claim on him: that it is good to be respectful, and that he should do it. Furthermore, if she just notices that he is being disrespectful and disapproves, there is something normative involved in her disapproving reaction. The aesthetic attitude is normative in the sense that any judgment that comes out of the aesthetic attitude carries normative force. In other words, when we think that something is beautiful, we think that other people should find it beautiful, too. This is how Scruton, a self-proclaimed Kantian, sees himself as taking on Kant’s view above that aesthetic judgments are universal.
It is worth remarking that Scruton may not be talking about the aesthetic attitude as we have seen it so far. Until now, the aesthetic attitude has been understood as a state of mind or a kind of viewpoint that one can generally adopt at will, and that must exist prior to any aesthetic experience. Scruton writes, however, that the aesthetic attitudes are what we express when we make aesthetic judgments. This would mean that, in calling something beautiful, we make an aesthetic judgment and thus express an aesthetic attitude, namely, the aesthetic attitude we had when we judged or experienced the object as beautiful. While not a problem with his view, this means that he may not be talking about exactly the same thing as the earlier theorists. Among other things, this view leads to there being many different aesthetic attitudes, rather than just one special frame of mind or mode of perception that we are in when we have particular aesthetic experiences. Scruton’s definition may actually come closer to the normal meaning of ‘attitude’, in the way that we talk about an attitude of disapproval or an attitude of hope. Here, we find attitudes of beauty, elegance, loveliness, their opposites, and so on.
In 1964, George Dickie offered a set of famous objections to aesthetic attitude theories. After Dickie, the aesthetic attitude has received very little attention outside Scruton, which may suggest a general acceptance of his objections. A few defenses of aesthetic attitude theories have been offered, but the literature has not stirred much since, indicating perhaps instead simply a waning interest in the topic.
In his well-known paper, “The Myth of the Aesthetic Attitude,” Dickie objects in turn to each of Bullough and Stolnitz’s theories. Dickie argues that the former thinks of distancing as a special kind of action that we can perform: we put ourselves “out of gear” with practical concerns. We can aim to and can successfully distance ourselves from perceived objects. These make distancing sound very much like an action. Dickie swiftly dismisses this view on the grounds that there really is no such special action. What really happens in such cases is that we attend differently, and attending is a perfectly normal and unmysterious action. One might worry about the details of Dickie’s argument here, but since Stolnitz’s view is the more nuanced and fully developed of the two, the majority of criticism is focused on his view.
Recall that, for Stolnitz, the aesthetic attitude involves a special kind of aesthetic perception: disinterested, sympathetic attention. Dickie focuses on the ‘disinterested’ part of this definition, noting first that ‘disinterested’ is an unhelpful clarification unless it means something to be ‘interested’. Stolnitz, so far, should be fine with this, and we may recall that he gives many cases of interested attention to clarify what disinterest amounts to.
In essence Dickie argues that there are really no cases of interested attention. Any alleged case of interested attention in fact falls into one of two categories: either it is not attention to the artwork at all; or it is, but it really is not a different kind of attention from disinterested attention. On the one hand, there are examples like the jealous husband watching Othello or the art collector who is happy about her investment. Dickie argues that these are really cases where the perceiver is not actually paying attention to the artwork. In the former case, the jealous husband is paying attention to the situation with his wife rather than the play. In the latter case, the art collector is paying attention to her finances, rather than the painting.
On the other hand, there are cases like the music student paying attention to chord progressions or a father watching his daughter at a piano recital. In these situations, Dickie argues, the music student and the father are paying attention to the artwork. There is no difference in their manner of attending or perceiving, despite perhaps a difference in motive. To sharpen this, the idea is that there is no special mode of perception that corresponds uniquely to the way we perceive when we adopt the aesthetic attitude. There is only one way to perceive or attend to something, and that is just by looking at it or noting features of it. The father, the music student, and the ideal aesthetic perceiver are all doing just that. The father and music student may be differently motivated, but this means nothing for the way in which they actually perceive or attend to the work.
The key to Dickie’s argument is that he takes Bullough and Stolnitz to understand the aesthetic attitude as involving a special kind of action or attention. From this, he argues that there is no special mode or manner of acting or attending that uniquely produces aesthetic experiences.
As mentioned earlier, some responses to this have been offered. Gary Kemp offered an extended response to Dickie’s objections. Foremost among these is the denial of Dickie’s crucial premise that there is only really one way of acting or attending. Kemp argues that there are many different ways of attending. The music student may attend to the chord progressions, to the orchestration, or to the rhythms. Here, the student seems to be attending fully, but also in an interested way. But if he attends for the sake of enjoyment, then he is certainly attending differently and perhaps disinterestedly. These, Kemp says, are genuinely different ways of attending, and the real difficulty of the aesthetic attitude theory is to explain why some of them seem aesthetic and some do not. He then offers his own explanation of this distinction.
Kemp argues that disinterested attention does not seem to select the right cases. For example, it is intuitive that the father who attends his daughter’s recital could attend perfectly aesthetically to her performance, despite the fact that the reason he is there is to see his daughter. Kemp instead prefers Scruton’s notion of interest in the experience for its own sake. This supports examples like the father. Once he starts listening, he has a desire to go on listening to the music, we can imagine, and this desire does not now depend on any other desire to sustain it (although it came to exist only because he wanted to hear his daughter play). There is now no reason for his desire aside from his wanting to keep listening to the music.
Aesthetic attitude theories have enjoyed isolated appearances in the past forty years, but the interest in it may be declining. Again, this may be due in part to the belief that Dickie’s criticisms were devastating and final, but it may also be due to the general dissatisfaction with the theoretical role the aesthetic attitude has been made to play. Many have moved to views of aesthetic experience, rather than aesthetic attitude, as the crucial notion to be considered. The differences between the two are subtle, but definite. Recall that the aesthetic attitude is a point of view one takes. It is, in a sense, a way of priming our experience in which we mentally set ourselves up to pay attention to certain things. The experiences that result, if we have been successful, are aesthetic experiences. These aesthetic experiences, in certain contemporary views, play the theoretical role that the aesthetic attitude was originally meant to play. Thus, philosophers have recently tried to draw the boundary between aesthetic and non-aesthetic objects using the notion of an aesthetic experience instead of the aesthetic attitude. The things that afford aesthetic experiences (or, alternatively, facilitate it) are aesthetic objects. These views can extend their theoretical reaches further in many ways. For example, they can offer a definition of artworks as the things that are created intentionally in order to afford aesthetic experiences. As such, these theories may have largely supplanted the original aesthetic attitude theories, since aesthetic experience can seem like a less presumptuous notion and more theoretically powerful. This move to aesthetic experience is most prominent in the work of Monroe Beardsley, but also to be found in Malcolm Budd, Kendall Walton, and many other contemporary thinkers. Whatever the fate of the aesthetic attitude theories and the aesthetic experience theories that follow them, the notion of a special kind of aesthetic attitude or experience remains, if not of central theoretical importance, of great interest in thinking about our aesthetic lives.
- Beardsley, Monroe. 1982. The Aesthetic Point of View. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
- A collection of Beardsley’s essays. For the turn to aesthetic experience, see especially the essay “The Aesthetic Point of View.”
- Budd, Malcolm. 1995. Values of Art. London: Penguin Books.
- Budd’s main work in aesthetics that addresses aesthetic value across different media.
- Bullough, Edward. 1957. Aesthetics: Lectures and Essays, ed. Elizabeth M. Wilkinson. London: Bowes & Bowes.
- A collection of Bullough’s essays that includes both “‘Psychical Distance’” and “The Modern Conception of Aesthetics.”
- Bullough, Edward. 1912. “‘Psychical Distance’ as a Factor in Art and an Aesthetic Principle.” British Journal of Psychology 5, 87-118.
- The classic article in which the notion of psychical distance first appears.
- Burke, Edmund. 1958. A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and the Beautiful, ed. James T. Boulton. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
- Where Burke criticizes the faculty of taste and presents his own views of the beautiful and sublime.
- Dickie, George. 1964. “The Myth of the Aesthetic Attitude.” American Philosophical Quarterly 1, 56-65.
- The most famous objections to the aesthetic attitude theory.
- Fenner, David. 1996. The Aesthetic Attitude. New Jersey: Humanities Press.
- A thorough, historical overview of the issues. A great secondary resource.
- Guyer, Paul. 1993. Kant and the Experience of Freedom: Essays on Aesthetics and Morality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- A collection of essays about Kant’s aesthetics and the historical context surrounding it.
- Hume, David. 1987. “Of the Standard of Taste.” In Eugene Miller (ed.), Essays: Moral, Political, and Literary (pp. 226-249). Indianapolis: Liberty Fund.
- Hume explains how the faculty of taste develops and works.
- Hutcheson, Francis. 1971. An Inquiry into the Original of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue. New York: Garland.
- Hutcheson’s theory of the moral and aesthetic faculties.
- Kant, Immanuel. 2000. Critique of the Power of Judgment, ed. Paul Guyer, trans. Paul Guyer and Eric Matthews. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Kant’s systematic treatment of aesthetics and teleology.
- Kemp, Gary. 1999. “The Aesthetic Attitude.” British Journal of Aesthetics 39, 392-399.
- A series of responses to Dickie’s objections, and a further analysis of aesthetic attitude theory.
- Langfeld, Herbert Sidney. 1920. The Aesthetic Attitude. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co.
- An introduction to prominent theories of the time, mixed with Langfeld’s own views on the issues.
- Schopenhauer, Arthur. 1969. The World as Will and Representation, Volume I, trans. Eric F. J. Payne. New York: Dover.
- Schopenhauer’s magnum opus, in which he offers his theory of the world as developing Will and represented Ideas.
- Scruton, Roger. 1982. Art and Imagination: A Study in the Philosophy of Mind. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
- A theory of aesthetics developed on the basis of an empiricist philosophy of mind.
- Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, Third Earl of. 1999. Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, Times, ed. Lawrence E. Klein. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Shaftesbury’s views on a wide range of topics. For his aesthetic theory, see especially the section “The Moralists.”
- Stolnitz, Jerome. 1960. Aesthetics and Philosophy of Art Criticism. Cambridge: Riverside Press.
- A topic-based introduction to aesthetics, mixed with Stolnitz’s own views on the issues.
U. S. A.
Last updated: May 14, 2012 | Originally published: May 13, 2012
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This activity will have you create a brand new actor class and add an object of that class using the Greenfoot IDE. In this activity, you will:
- Create a new class - Kangaroo and cut and paste code to give it content.
- Compile your new class.
- Create a new object of this class and add it to the wombatWorld
- Modify some lines of the Kangaroo class, compile and add it to wombatWorld and see how the code changes affect behavior.
Skills you will learn include:
- Being able to use the Greenfoot IDE to create a new Actor class.
- Learn more about classes, objects and methods.
- Learn some basic programming concepts and constructs.
- Learn how to use Sun’s online Java programming manuals.
- Start up Greenfoot.
- Make sure you have opened the Wombats scenario. If not, click Scenario->Open… and select Wombats.
- Access the context menu (right-click on Windows, ctrl-click on Mac) on the Actor class located on the right side of the IDE. Select New Subclass... . Name your new class Kangaroo and select a image from category: animals: kangaroo and click Ok
- Right click on Kangaroo. You’ll notice that there is no new Kangaroo(). That’s because we need to add code for this class before we can create objects. Instead, select open editor. Just to make this simple, select all the code, (click at the top and drag the mouse to the bottom of the existing code). Then click the Cut button. It will be easier to just replace all this code for this activity.
- Double click on class Wombat. Select all the source code (similar to what we did for Kangaroo), but this time click the Copy button.
- Go back to the editor for Kangaroo. Click Paste. We now have a copy of all the Wombat code in Kangaroo.
- But this is a Kangaroo, NOT a wombat. From the editor for Kangaroo, select the menu Tools -> Replace… The find dialog will popup. In the text area labeled find, type Wombat. In the text area labeled replace, type Kangaroo. Click Replace All to replace all occurrences of Wombat with Kangaroo.
- Compile, add wombats, kangaroos and leaves and run the scenario. We have created our first new class!
- At this point, please refer to the document Let's Make a Kangaroo - Digging Deeper. The Digging Deeper document will contain some code that you will need top copy and paste into your program. Open the Digging Deeper page in another tab or window, and continue with the following steps.
- To class Kangaroo, add method turnRandom(). Double click on class Kangaroo. From the Digging Deeper document, copy the code for the turnRandom() method (the code will be displayed in a light blue box). At the bottom of the Kanagaroo class, just before the final closing ‘}’ paste the turnRandom() code.
- In the method act(), change the call from turnLeft() to turnRandom(). This will cause your Kangaroos to turn in a random direction, while your Wombats will continue to always turn left.
- Compile, place objects and run scenario. Note the differences in behavior between Wombat and Kangaroo.
- Read through the Digging Deeper document for details about the code changes you just made.
- Please read the following instructions for preparing your work prior to submission to this activity.
- Select Scenario -> Export. Choose Webpage (from Publish, Webpage, Application) and select a location to save the scenario as an applet (a jar file and a .html file).
- Submit the exported jar file for this activity.
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eg: Janet; Simon; London; The President; Tuesday.
Proper nouns are always written with a capital letter. Nouns which are not written with a capital letter do not refer to the name of an individual person or thing and are called common nouns.
See Also: Concrete Noun; Abstract Noun; Adjectival Noun; Noun as Adjective; Collective Noun; Mass Noun; Substantive; Proper Adjectives
Browse the following links to other content related to 'Proper Nouns' from the 'Nouns' grammar category:
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© 2009 Brad Lancaster, www.HarvestingRainwater.com
All around the world I see water wastefully flowing down urban street curbs and out of concreted storm drains even though it has not rained in months. It is not stormwater I see flowing. It is urban drool. Others call it “nuisance runoff” – water from leaky pipes, driveway car washes, over-watered landscapes, and so on – our waste. But it can be a resource. It can be harvested.
That is what is happening in Los Angeles, California, along a mile-long stretch of the Tujunga Wash Flood Control Channel between Vanowen Street and Oxnard Avenue. It is bringing myriad forms of life back to this community.
Between 1950 and 1952 the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers cleared a 9-mile section of the waterway of its vegetation and lined it with concrete in order to drain the water out of the community as quickly as possible. The goal was flood control, but it also dehydrated the watershed and its aquifer, removed the natural water filter, and created a fenced-off sterile blight.
That is now beginning to be reversed with the Tujunga Wash Greenway and Stream Restoration Project. A stream has been recreated and replanted with native riparian vegetation on the upper banks of the concreted channel. The new stream is fed by water diverted upstream from the channel through a half-mile-long pipe. Much of this water is urban drool, which flows year round. As the water flows through the greenway, it is filtered and cleaned by sand, gravel, and tree roots. Some percolates into the ground (helping recharge the aquifer); the rest is returned to the flood-control channel via another pipe. It teems with life and invites one to step off the wide pedestrian/bicycle path lining the stream to explore and play.
Much of this life acts as a living seed-bank for indigenous plants, whose seed can help revegetate both downstream areas as water and seed flow downstream, and upstream areas as wildlife walks and flies upstream with seed in tow.
As this life resides on the upper banks it is unlikely to be washed out in big floods. The floods will scour down the concreted channel, leaving the life in its protective upper bank eddy to replant what is scoured – and to germinate still more life not yet seen.
It is a small step. A beginning. An invitation to revalue and rehabilitate our waterways so they once again are regenerative corridors of water, pedestrians, and wildlife.
For more on this dynamic project see:
For more ideas, strategies, and stories on how to harvest urban drool and rainwater runoff to generate more life higher in the watershed of our built environments see:
- Street Orchards for Community Security
- Parking Lot to Parking Orchard
- Farming in the City with Runoff from a Street and
- Rainwater Harvesting for Drylands and Beyond, Volume 2: Water-Harvesting Earthworks
And thank you to David O’Donnell of TreePeople for guiding me to this project and its resources.
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|Are you bored with your workouts? Is your workout so redundant that you need to force yourself to the gym or out for a run, swim, or bike? Do you remember someone telling you "variety is the spice of life?"
The above saying applies to exercise in the same manner that it does to food selection. Nutritionally speaking, it means balancing your intake of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats in proper proportion. In exercise, variety is identified by the name "cross-training".
Just What is Cross Training?
What is cross training? Simply stated, it refers to training for more than one sport at the same time, or training for several different fitness components (such as endurance, strength, and flexibility) at one time. When combined efficiently, they may simply provide a more complete body workout. For example, runners need more upper body workout, so swimming and/or weightlifting would be great complementary activities.
Cross-training can provide whole body benefits. Many people find a cross-training program more interesting and beneficial than participating in the same sport every time. Another advantage is that cross training may reduce overuse injuries. When the same muscles and joints are continually stressed, the risk of injury increases.
However, by alternating activities that stress different major muscle groups and joints, you give your body a much-needed rest and decrease risk of injury due to over training and overuse. Furthermore, with cross training, if you do injure yourself, you limit lost training time by merely changing your workout emphasis in those activities that will not exacerbate your condition.
Improve Your Primary Exercise Activity
Cross training can make you stronger in your primary exercise activity. Even though your favorite activity may be tennis or racquetball, stationary cycling, jogging, or aerobics a couple of times per week will really help your overall game. Your general overall fitness will improve, you will perform and feel better and maybe even want to participate in new activities.
Aerobic or fitness classes are changing to meet the varying needs of different age groups and different conditions. High impact, low impact, kickboxing, step, sculpt, indoor cycling, yoga, Pilates, aqua and circuit classes are available to suit the needs and demands of our more educated population.
Remember, keep variety in your workout, stay active, and do everything in moderation. Cross training will allow you to keep your workout's fun, safe, effective and always different.
Stay healthy, be happy and remain fit.
Cross training helps to keep your workouts fun, safe and effective.
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A “trompe l’oeil” is a painting rendered in such great detail as to deceive the viewer into believing it is reality. The phrase literally means “tricking the eye” and the best examples of “trompe l’oeil.”
The story of how the style of painting came about is one that can neither be confirmed nor denied. The story goes that in ancient Greece, there were two rival painters. One was named Zeuxis (born circa 464 BC) and the other was named Parrhasius. One day, to prove who was the master of his art, it was decided they would each paint the most perfect illusion of the real world on canvas with nothing more than paint and paintbrushes.
It’s said that Zeuxis painted a likeness of grapes on his canvas that was so natural that birds flew down to peck at them. Parrhasius brought in his canvas covered in a cloth. Parrhasius invited Zeuxis to unveil the painting whereupon Zeuxis learned he had lost the contest. What at first glance appeared to be a cloth covering the canvas was, in reality, Parrhasius‘ painting.
The phrase was used to describe perspectival illusionism art in the Baroque period, however it is found in Ancient Greek and Roman murals such as those depicting Pompeii. This genre of perspective drawing was mastered by Italian Renaissance painters of the late Quattrocento era. The American 19th century still-life painter William Harnett specialized in “trompe l’œil” and prior to CGI use in films, trompe l’oeil traveling mattes in such movies as “Star Wars” and “Who Framed Roger Rabbit.”
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Learning about a place through the food makes the learning process enjoyable. In Claudia Roden's newest book, The Food of Spain of which I received a review copy, you'll learn the history of all of Spain's regions and how the different people who settled in each area and later moved about the country shaped what has become Spanish cuisine. Because of this background information, you'll know that meat cooked with fruits came from an Arab influence, eggplant fritters and adafina, a slow-cooked stew, came from Jews, bechamel and the use of cream and butter was from the French, and the chiles which became the ubiquitous pimenton arrived after explorations in the New World. All of these angles of influence along with descriptions of the different types of geography from one region to the next explain the evolution of Spanish food over time. Through the recipes, you'll see how food traditions live on in typical home-cooked dishes, and all of the recipes in the book are written for contemporary cooking styles with ingredients that are easy to find. There are classic dishes like tortilla espanola with potatoes along with variations like the vegetable tortilla with peppers, eggplant, and tomato. There are fish dishes like salmon with peas and fish stew with peppers and tomatoes. From the poultry chapter, there's chicken and shrimp with almond and chocolate sauce and quail with grapes. There are meat dishes, rice and pasta and paella of course, and bean and chickpea stews. The dessert chapter offers everything from fruit in wine to ice creams, cakes, pastries, and flans. To begin cooking from this book, I chose the coca which is like pizza. Ordinarily, the toppings for coca are made up of whatever is available or leftover from previous meals. Some canned anchovies or tuna or maybe sliced sausages could be added, but I prepared the version shown in the book with just roasted bell peppers and eggplants.
The dough for the coca is almost exactly the same as the dough I use for pizza. Bread flour, salt, olive oil, yeast, and water were combined, kneaded, and left to rise for an hour or two. Meanwhile, eggplants were pricked with a knife and placed on a baking sheet with whole bell peppers. I found some pretty local, sweet peppers in red and yellow. The vegetables were roasted in a 350 degree F oven for about 45 minutes or until the skins were blistered. After the peppers had cooled, the skins and seeds were removed, and they were sliced. The skins of the eggplants were removed, and the flesh was placed in a colander to drain and then chopped into big chunks. The eggplant and peppers were seasoned and tossed with oil and set aside. Rather than spreading a thick sauce on the dough, a mixture of sauteed, chopped onion and tomato was used. Onion was sauteed in olive oil until soft, and fresh, peeled and chopped tomatoes were added and left to cook until the liquid evaporated. The dough was cut in half and each half was rolled into a big oval. Each oval of dough was placed on an oiled baking sheet, topped with some of the onion and tomato mixture, and the bell peppers and eggplant were placed on top. The cocas baked for about 30 minutes until browned and crisp.
Reading the book was like a whirlwind, guided tour of Spain, and cooking from it is like stopping in at private homes along the way. Next, I'd like to try the fideos with seafood or maybe the chestnut and chocolate flan. It'll continue to be a delicious learning experience.
See my review of The Food of Spain and get this coca recipe at Project Foodie.
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Growing Up With Hearing Loss
The Sounds We Hear
Read this page to learn what people with normal hearing and what people with hearing loss can hear.
Facts about sound
- Sound travels through the air as waves you can't see.
- The faster the waves are, the higher the sound.
- How fast a sound travels is called its frequency.
Frequency (or pitch) is also how high or low a sound is.
- High-pitched sounds (like a squeal) have a higher frequency.
- Low-pitched sounds (like thunder) have a lower frequency.
- Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz).
- The bigger the waves, the louder the sound.
- The loudness of sound is measured in decibels (dB).
What people with normal hearing can hear
People with normal hearing can hear from about 0 dB to 140 dB.
Here's how loud those sounds can be:
||Loudness, in dB
||about 20 dB
||about 40 dB
||about 60 dB
|noise of traffic in the city
||about 80 dB
||about 90 dB
||about 110 dB
||about 140 dB
People with normal hearing can hear sounds as low as 20 Hz.
Some can hear as high as 20,000 Hz. Here's how high or low those sounds can be:
||High or low sounds, in Hz
||20 Hz to 80 Hz
||250 Hz to 6,000 Hz
|opera singer hitting a high note
What children with hearing loss can hear
- Each child's hearing loss is different.
- Some children with hearing loss can hear some sounds.
- How well a child can hear affects how well he can understand when people talk.
- Some children can hear sounds at a lower frequency better than at a higher frequency.
- Most words are made up of high-frequency sounds.
- "S" and "f" are high-frequency sounds.
These are harder to hear.
- If you can't hear high-frequency sounds, understanding what people say is hard.
- Vowel sounds like "u" have a low frequency.
These are easier to hear than high-frequency sounds.
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Genital herpes is a very common sexually transmitted infection (it's estimated that 25 to 30 percent of women have it), caused by a group of viruses called herpes simplex. The most common signs are red, blistery sores around the vagina and anus, although sometimes the virus has no symptoms.
It's very unlikely that women who've contracted herpes before getting pregnant will pass the virus to their unborn babies. The risk is highest if you have an outbreak of sores during delivery. That's why many women in their last trimester are put on antiviral drugs, which can reduce the chances of an outbreak during labor. In some cases, your baby may have to be delivered by c-section to prevent infection.
Herpes can be more of a problem if it's contracted for the first time during pregnancy. Since your immune system has no antibodies built up against the virus, the risk of transmitting it to your baby is higher. If you're worried that you may be infected, watch for signs like blisters, as well as symptoms like fever, fatigue, swollen glands, and body aches. Your doctor can diagnose herpes by looking at the sores, taking a swab of the blisters, or doing a blood test. He or she will most likely prescribe antiviral drugs to ease the symptoms and reduce your risk of infecting your baby.
In the rare situation that a baby is infected with herpes, the most common problems, like skin or mouth sores or eye infections, can be treated safely with antiviral drugs. In very serious cases, the infection can cause brain damage if left unchecked.
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Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary
Alternative forms
bunnet (plural bunnets)
- Alternative spelling of bonnet.
- (Scotland, New Zealand) A style of flat cap traditionally made from wool, commonly worn by farmers and country gentlemen in cool climates.
Usage notes
Under the name bunnet, the flat cap is often associated with the working class in the Scotland. The tam o'shanter is similar, but has a toorie, or pompom, on its center.
See also
- tam o'shanter
- toorie bunnet
- Flat cap on Wikipedia.Wikipedia:Flat cap
- Tam o'shanter (hat) on Wikipedia.Wikipedia:Tam o'shanter (hat)
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